\r\n\tDigital images can be easily distorted by noise during the acquisition, processing, and transmission. Noise level is an important parameter to consider in image processing algorithms, including denoising, compression, feature extraction, motion estimation, optical flow, segmentation, super-resolution, and image quality assessment. Their performance depends on the accuracy of the noise level estimate.
\r\n\r\n\tImage denoising is an important stage to improve the accuracy of many image processing techniques, such as image segmentation and recognition. Image segmentation is another important stage in computer vision applications. Many methodologies utilize both stages in a unique algorithm to solve the problem of the segmentation of noisy images to provide better classification and recognition compared to algorithms that independently use these two stages.
\r\n\tThe goal of this book will be to collect original research chapters that develop or apply new theories and/or hardware or software to process the acquired noisy images to solve the problem of Segmentation of noisy images in the field of medical imaging, remote sensing, engineering, and other research applications.
Lower third nasal defects present a special challenge to reconstructive surgeons.. The unique character of the lower third of the nose, with its interwoven concavities, convexities, and varying skin thicknesses, exacerbates the difficult reconstruction of this region.
\n\t\t\tSpecific flap algorithms are available for reconstruction of full-subunit alar or full-subunit tip defects (Hill, 1987). The lower third nasal defects or defects larger than 1.5 cm in diameter can be reliably reconstructed and repaired with nasolabial or forehead flaps using either a subunit or defect-only reconstruction (Barton, 1981). These techniques require multiple stages and allow for the replacement of cartilage and lining if missing.
\n\t\t\tParadoxically, acceptable results are more difficult to achieve with smaller defects, most notably those smaller than 1 cm. Local flaps applied for these defects often result in violation of aesthetic subunits, worsening of the defect by alar notching, and frequent or unpredictable pincushioning. Likewise, the misapplication of skin grafts to large or deep lower third defects often yields a depressed patchwork with unsuitable results.
\n\t\t\tIn many cases of lower third nasal reconstruction, particularly those arising from excision of neoplasms by means of Mohs’ micrographic surgery, the defects are shallow and measure less than 1 cm in diameter. These defects rarely encompass greater than 50 percent of aesthetic subunits and are best treated as defect-only reconstructions (Dimitropolous et al., 2005). Such defects can be successfully and reliably treated with well-applied full-thickness skin grafting from the preauricular or more preferential forehead donor site.
\n\t\t\tThe evolution of the demonstrated skin grafting techniques started with the recognition of the frustrating paradox in reconstructing small defects of the lower third. Larger defects could be easily and reliably reconstructed with the well-established algorithms (i.e., nasolabial or forehead flap reconstruction). The use of bilobed flaps from the upper third of the nose to recreate defects on the lower third commonly disappoints for two reasons. The inherent design flaw of the bilobed flap violates a second or third aesthetic unit and often completely distorts the alar groove. In addition, the final result is inherently unpredictable because of its tendency to pincushion. There is a common reluctance to advance skin from the nasal sidewall to reconstruct lower third defects, as this destroys the alar groove, an aesthetic subunit that is very difficult to reconstruct.
\n\t\tThe boundaries defining the lower third of the nose include the alar rims inferiorly, the nasolabial grooves laterally, and the alar groove, which forms the junction with the upper two-thirds of the nose (Collins & Farber, 1984; Leibovitch et al., 2006). Any distortion of the alar rim or obliteration of the nasolabial groove is exceedingly noticeable to the naked eye and difficult, if not impossible, to correct secondarily. The lower third of the nose is classically composed of six subunits: bilateral ala and soft triangles, the central tip, and columella (Baker & Swanson, 1995) (Fig. 1). Importantly, the ala and tip are biconvex structures, and maintaining and restoring the contour of these structures is essential to aesthetic nasal reconstruction. The unique nature of the lower third skin, which is often thick and richly populated with sebaceous glands, complicates reconstructions, often rendering the skin stiff and difficult to rotate and form into local flaps.
\n\t\tIllustration of the nasal subunits of the lower third, including the dorsum, tip, and paired soft triangles and alar lobules. The columella is not shown.
Average defect size among patients eligible for this type of grafting procedure ranges from 5 to 17 mm. Patients typically undergo one dermabrasion treatment after their procedure, with two or more dermabrasion treatments being prescribed or preferred less frequently. The aesthetic standard of a normal appearance with endpoints of good contour and color match, rather than simply a healed wound, should be used (Figs. 2 through 7). Based on postoperative photographs, some patients may present with minor contour or color defects, although a few may have more pronounced color/contour changes (Figs. 8 and 9). Active smokers are several times more likely to experience graft failure (Fig. 10).
\n\t\t\tA 64-year-old man presented with an 8-mm nasal defect following Mohs’ excision of a basal cell carcinoma (
A 43-year-old woman presented with a 7-mm alar defect, abutting but not crossing the alar rim. The appearance of the patient 1 week after skin grafting from a forehead donor site is shown on top. The graft appears dusky despite good take. The patient 3 months postoperatively and after two dermabrasion treatments is shown below.
A 57-year-old man with thin nasal skin underwent Mohs’ excision of a basal cell carcinoma on his nasal tip (
A 54-year-old man had a 7-mm alar defect after excision of a basal cell carcinoma (
A 1-cm superficial alar defect was reconstructed with a full-thickness skin graft from a forehead donor site in this 37-year-old woman (
The 5-mm alar rim defect was reconstructed with a full-thickness skin graft using preauricular skin (
A patient with a hypopigmented scar after full-thickness skin grafting from preauricular skin to the nasal tip with postoperative dermabrasion.
This patient received a full-thickness skin graft from a preauricular donor site to his ala with postoperative dermabrasion. He has a persistent contour defect at this site.
An example of a failed alar graft from forehead skin in a smoker. This was successfully regrafted after the wound was débrided.
Procedures are performed under local anesthesia with or without intravenous sedation in an operating room setting. A 1:1 mixture of 0.25% Marcaine (Hospira, Inc., Lake Forest, Ill.) with 1% lidocaine with epinephrine (mixed 1:1000 in 30 cc of lidocaine) is used for local anesthesia, vasoconstriction, and postoperative analgesia. This mixture is injected subdermally at the site of the defect and the graft donor site. Each defect repair begins with reverticalization of the wound edges and sharp débridement of any fibrinous tissue or debris in the base of the defect. This initial step is critical for normalizing any contour abnormalities in the defect and is performed under loupe magnification with a straight, double-edged beaver blade. Further excisions are performed if required to place the borders within aesthetic subunits; however, there is not a strict adherence to aesthetic subunit reconstruction since this procedure is considered to be a defect-only reconstruction.
\n\t\t\tAfter reverticalization of the wound edges and normalization of the contour, a foil pattern template is used. This template should be treated as a three-dimensional construct, accounting for the relative concavity or convexity of the tissue surrounding the defect. A full-thickness skin graft from the preauricular or the preferred forehead donor site is harvested based on the foil template. The donor sites should be closed in a multilayer fashion with buried interrupted and continuous suture. The donor sites are frequently placed at the junction of the hair-bearing and non–hair-bearing scalp following the relaxed skin tension lines. Great care must be taken to ensure that the grafts harvested are matched to the identical size of the donor site. This is accomplished by using the foil pattern template and sharply scoring the harvested graft within the ellipse of the donor site to accurately reflect the size before harvesting the graft. This eliminates the distortion caused by blurry ink lines while harvesting the graft. Therefore, scoring the template before harvest represents a critical step in accurately designing the graft to be the exact size of the defect. The graft should be handled atraumatically and with great care throughout its harvest and inset.
\n\t\t\tDue to unsatisfactory inflammatory response from 4-0 or 5-0 chromic gut suture, the preferred suture material is 5-0 fast-absorbing gut. The grafts are precisely sewn into place with continuous opposing 4-0 or 5-0 plain gut sutures that run in a continuous fashion in opposite directions around the graft and are tied at the opposite side. This precisely insets the graft, providing a stable inset with no bunching or distortion, and is very time saving (Fig. 11).
\n\t\t\tAn example of the fast-absorbing running suture at the graft margin, and four-corner bolster sutures.
Fabrication of the skin graft bolster completes the procedure. In the majority of cases, a double-armed 3-0 or 4-0 Prolene suture (Ethicon, Inc., Somerville, N.J.) is placed at the center through the underlying tissue and then through the center of the graft. Both arms of the suture are placed in a similar fashion and then left untied and sewn directly into the bolster (Fig. 12). Bolsters are fashioned from dry surgical preparation sponges that have been gas sterilized preoperatively and coated with antibiotic ointment away from the operative field. The surgical preparation sponge material provides adequate rebound and support. The through-and-through 3-0 Prolene sutures are placed in juxtaposition through the bolster and tied in place (Fig. 13). This technique obliterates central dead space and optimizes graft adherence. The remainder of the bolster is then secured with 5-0 silk bolster sutures placed through the graft and native skin edge, then tied at four to eight points around the graft, depending on graft size. The closed donor-site incision and the edges and exterior of the bolster should also be coated with antibiotic ointment. Donor sites are dressed with Xeroform gauze (Sherwood Medical, St. Louis, Mo.), and a set of written wound care instructions is given to the patient. The patient may begin showering on the second postoperative day with the provision that they cover the graft bolsters with a vigorous coating of antibiotic ointment before showering.
\n\t\t\tThe through-and-through monofilament suture used to provide additional stability and compression to the skin graft bolster. Both needles on the double-ended suture are then passed through the center of the piece of surgical sponge and tied down.
Illustration of the bolster technique used by the author. Through-and-through 3-0 Prolene sutures are placed in juxtaposition through the bolster and tied in place. This technique obliterates central dead space and optimizes graft adherence.
It is not unusual for the most superficial portion of the graft to initially undergo a period of partial slough given the thickness of the forehead skin. Treatment for this is continued application of antibiotic ointment and patient reassurance. Patients should be seen at weekly intervals until full graft survival is ensured. At this point, daily application of antibiotic ointment may be discontinued and the opportunity to begin topical scar cream therapy with Mederma (Merz Pharmaceuticals, Greensboro, N.C.), Scar Zone (CCA Industries, East Rutherford, N.J.), or more recently, Transdermis scar therapy (NFI Consumer Products, Fayetteville, N.C.) is offered to patients. No clinical science supports the use of one scar cream over another; however, it has been our experience that the patients strongly prefer applying a scar care product. The Transdermis scar therapy subjectively results in a fairly rapid reduction in the inflammatory response. The opportunity to apply silicone sheeting to both the skin graft and donor-site areas could also be offered to patients.
\n\t\t\tThat the postoperative recommendations for scar therapy are based not on science but on an evolving clinical practice with lessons learned from failures in scar therapy from the beginning of practice. Patients should be offered dermabrasion beginning at 6 weeks after grafting. Based on the behavior and appearance of the scar, up to three postoperative dermabrasion treatments may be offered at 6-week intervals. The dermabrasion can be carried out in the office setting with a topical tetracaine cream as an anesthetic and a rotary dermabrader using the diamond cylinder wheel. The endpoint of the dermabrasion is deep punctate bleeding. The goals of the dermabrasion procedure are to both improve the graft color and to blur or diminish the patch effect of the graft on the surrounding nasal skin by essentially improving the appearance of the surrounding scar. The procedure is confined to the graft and immediate surrounding skin. Although dermabrading entire subunits has been advocated to provide an even contour over the subunit, we have found this practice largely unnecessary for smaller defects (Adams & Ramsey, 2005). Entire subunit dermabrasion is not frequently offered except for larger defects that encompass a majority of the subunit (Kuijpers et al., 2006). An illustration of the effects of dermabrasion is provided in sequential photographs in Figure 6.
\n\t\tSkin grafting of defects of the lower third of the nose has historically, and often correctly, been considered to yield an inferior aesthetic result. The inappropriate placement of large, poorly color-matched supraclavicular or postauricular skin grafts to replace the thick, often convex defects of the lower third can yield results that are poor and frequently impossible to correct. Achieving a well contoured, aesthetically pleasing result begins with meticulous preoperative analysis of the nasal defect. Criteria for selecting lower third nasal defects that can be acceptably treated with full-thickness grafts include defect location, size smaller than 1 cm, and a partial-thickness defect with underlying dermis, subcutaneous tissue, or perichondrium.
\n\t\t\tThe patchwork appearance caused by color mismatch and contour defects is the basic concern with using a full-thickness skin graft. Adhering to the concept of subunit reconstruction alleviates concerns for a resultant patchwork appearance, regardless of the reconstructive method. A defect-only approach is preferred to nasal reconstruction when using full-thickness skin grafts. Acceptable results are typically achieved using full-thickness skin grafts to reconstruct lower third defects smaller than 1 cm in diameter, without the need to excise an entire subunit. The decision to limit described reconstructions to less than 1 cm is not based on the inability to reconstruct larger defects; however, defects larger than 1 cm, in our experience, are reconstructed more successfully with entire subunit reconstructions using more standard reconstruction techniques (local or adjacent flap techniques). Contrasting defect-only versus subunit nasal reconstruction is beyond the scope of this discussion; however, these concepts are an important component of defect analysis and must always be considered. Again, a principle-based reconstruction, beginning with careful and meticulous defect analysis and selection, will yield an acceptable result regardless of the reconstructive method (Rohrich et al., 2004).
\n\t\t\tAdhering to the concept of replacing like with like, the individual characteristics of skin graft donor sites must be considered. After analyzing the defect and creating a like-sized template, the appropriate donor site must be selected based on texture, thickness, color, and tendency toward hyperpigmentation or hypopigmentation. Much of our current knowledge of donor-site characteristics comes from the dermatology literature (Dimitropolous et al., 2005). Preauricular and, more preferably, forehead skin are the favored candidates for lower third nasal reconstruction. Forehead sites offer thicker skin, with a relatively sebaceous, oily texture, and they suffer the same degree of daily sun exposure and actinic damage as the lower third of the nose. Other donor sites available to the reconstructive surgeon include the nasolabial fold, postauricular skin, and supraclavicular skin. Postauricular donor sites suffer very little, if any, daily sun exposure and have much thinner skin than the nasal lobule. Therefore, postauricular donor sites are prone to pigmentation changes and do not provide a good contour match for reconstructing the lower third of the nose. Likewise, the skin of the supraclavicular region contains very few sebaceous elements and is often hyperpigmented before harvest. The preauricular and forehead donor site grafts should be harvested without including terminal hairs and designed along relaxed skin tension lines, allowing for primary closure. Good results can be achieved without distorting the anterior hairline or sideburn.
\n\t\t\tHubbard wrote a provocative article describing 33 patients who had lower third defects reconstructed with nasolabial fat and/or partially defatted skin grafts harvested from the nasolabial fold (Hubbard, 2004). The illustrated results demonstrated perfectly acceptable reconstructions, and this work serves as a useful description of a different technique using the nasolabial donor site. Although a departure from commonly preferred techniques, Hubbard’s results are a testament to the concept that a skin graft can survive without being completely defatted. While the results Hubbard attained are aesthetically acceptable and associated with very few graft losses, most authors argue that leaving this fat impedes the processes of imbibition and inosculation necessary for graft survival, thereby risking high rates of graft loss. Establishing neovascularization requires contact between the graft dermis and the recipient bed. Therefore, we regard careful defatting of the graft and use of a bolster indispensable technical components to ensure survival or “take” of the full-thickness graft.
\n\t\t\tIf a defect is of sufficient depth to require a graft that includes subcutaneous fat, using a full-thickness skin graft for such a defect represents a break from principle-based reconstruction. Likewise, when considering defects along or near the alar rim, one must carefully account for the potential for alar notching. Given appropriate defect analysis, reconstructing a superficial alar defect with a full-thickness skin graft may yield an acceptable result without resultant notching. Skin grafting for defects that abut the alar rim must be used with great caution. Preferentially, skin grafts on the posterior aspect of the ala or defects in male patients with very thick sebaceous skin could be grafted more safely without the risk of alar retraction secondary to the inherent stability of anatomical position on the ala (Rohrich et al., 2004). Deeper defects that extend into the subcutaneous tissue or to the perichondrium of the lateral crura demand a local flap or nasolabial flap with a nonanatomical alar contour graft.
\n\t\t\tBoth the dermatologic and plastic surgery literature frequently debate whether to harvest a graft of identical size to the defect or to correct for anticipated contraction and harvest a larger graft. The technique described earlier in this discussion involves creation of a template of equal size to the defect. As previously mentioned, this template is designed in three dimensions, taking concavity or convexity into consideration. Full-thickness skin grafts primarily contract 10 to 15 percent after excision; however, insetting the graft under appropriate tension readily resolves this problem. Harvesting a larger graft to account for primary contraction presents a number of issues. First, the donor site must be larger, and in keeping with an elliptical design, increasing the diameter of the donor site necessitates an extension of its axial length. The larger donor graft, which represents an estimation of size to account for contraction, often requires trimming before inset and leads to an inexact size and shape that no longer resembles the template or the defect. Harvesting a larger graft does not improve these results but instead, presents the confounding morbidity of a larger donor site.
\n\t\t\tGraft loss is always a concern, and although results are improved by careful defatting and bolster placement with through-and-through buttress sutures, other factors such as a history of smoking come into play. It is impossible to develop and maintain a comprehensive reconstructive practice without operating on smokers; however, these patients must understand that they are at significantly higher risk of graft loss or flap necrosis, and may ultimately be left with an unacceptable result. The effect of nicotine is well documented as a potent vasoconstrictor that reduces blood flow, leading to a hypoxic cascade that impairs healing and increases platelet aggregation and adhesion. In the multicenter study of recipient-site complications of full-thickness skin grafts, authors of the Australian Mohs Database showed that “although the number of smokers was small, they had a mean graft survival of 2% on the second visit compared with 75.9% in the nonsmoking group” (Leibovitch et al., 2006). If the patients are seen preoperatively, substantial benefit has been shown in people who are able to abstain from smoking for at least 4 weeks before reconstruction.
\n\t\t\tPatients are typically well informed and understand the possibility of graft loss, as well as being highly attuned to changes in graft appearance, often presenting in the early postoperative period with concerns over a pale or overly dark graft. Indeed, full-thickness skin grafts are less predictable than nasolabial or local flaps. The healing period involves color and texture changes that can raise alarm before arriving at the final, aesthetically acceptable result. The graft is initially ischemic, appearing white and pale. As it evolves through the stages of revascularization, it will become edematous and then darken, resulting in a cyanotic or hyperemic appearance. These color changes vary from patient to patient, graft sites, and sizes in an unpredictable manner, but over weeks to months, the living graft will approximate a normal color. In some cases, especially with a thick graft, the epidermis will darken and slough. This tissue will reepithelialize, given the presence of dermal appendages, but both the patient and physician will have a justified concern that the graft has failed. Patients should be counseled to anticipate these changes in color and texture.
\n\t\t\tIn keeping with the principles asserted by Rohrich et al., good contour is the aesthetic endpoint to all nasal reconstructions (Rohrich et al., 2004). To achieve this, the authors describe “complementary ablative procedures” to enhance final results. These procedures include dermabrasion, thinning of flaps, breaking up trapdoor scar lines, and steroid injections at sites of pincushioning. Primary dermabrasion is not typically performed for full-thickness skin grafts because of the risk of trauma to the delicate graft and because of the unpredictable course of healing that the graft will follow. Dermabrasion of skin grafts is instead performed at approximately 6 weeks postoperatively. Depending on the size of the graft, dermabrasion can be limited to the graft margins or can include an entire subunit(s).
\n\t\tThe following principles make skin grafting of lower third subunits a viable reconstruction option.
\n\t\t\tRigorous defect selection to include only superficial and size-limited defects. Defects larger than 1 cm will be better treated with alternative reconstructions. Defects that involve cartilage or deeper are by definition complex nasal defects that will require onlay cartilage grafting for satisfactory reconstruction. Skin grafting is not offered for these defects.
Caution in skin grafting defects abutting the alar rim.
Meticulous graft donor-site selection using the thicker and better color-matched forehead skin in the majority of cases.
Meticulous size matching of the graft, using a foil pattern template, and development of a bolster material from a surgical sponge that provides ideal compression and handling qualities used in conjunction with a through-and-through central Prolene suture to minimize graft dead space.
Liberal use of postoperative dermabrasion to optimize the final color match.
Provided that these constraints are followed, skin grafting of the lower third of the nose is an appropriate part of the reconstructive algorithm.
\n\t\tWhile sustainability may be a relatively modern concept, attempts to understand the proper relationship between humanity and nature date back at least to ancient Rome and Greece. Unlike the modern world where science, religion, and philosophy tend to be discrete subjects with their own, distinct views on ecology, in the ancient Mediterranean these subjects were understood and studied together. As a result, ancient Greco-Roman thinking on sustainability and ecology was informed by a unique intersection of religion and science. For ancient Greek thinkers like Plato and Aristotle, for example, understandings of the natural world were part and parcel of a broader, philosophical exploration of both the nature of humanity and the nature of divinity. To understand whether nature was divine, for example, had important ramifications for understanding not only how nature operated scientifically but also how we should interact with other plant and animal species. For ancient Greco-Roman thinkers, the ethics of sustainability were inseparable from their metaphysics.
Ancient views on the metaphysical relationship between sustainability, ecology, religion, and science were not uniform, however. Key differences can be found not only in general metaphysical perspectives but specific views on ecology, such as around the notion of extinction. Some of our earliest thinkers such as Aristotle believed that extinction was impossible because creation was divinely ordained and largely outside the purview of human activity. But other thinkers, particularly from the school of philosophy Stoicism, diverged from Aristotle in understanding extinction as a terrible, irreversible event. In both cases, metaphysics similarly underpins views on sustainability, but different views on sustainability arise as a result of different metaphysical assumptions and understandings.
The same is true in modern thinking, from the Renaissance onward. In many ways, influential thinkers on modern ecology such as Alexander von Humboldt and Charles Darwin replicate the same debates around sustainability and ecology we find in ancient thought. Like the debates in Greco-Roman thought, key differences in metaphysical understandings of nature explain differing views on ecological topics such as extinction and humanity’s ethical obligation regarding sustainability. By exploring and comparing a variety of historical periods’ views on the intersection of sustainability, ecology, religion, and science, we can identify how our own metaphysical understandings and assumptions today can lead to a more ecologically sustainable future.
In many ancient Greek and Roman traditions, it was believed that the natural world was created to provide for humankind. Humanity, as a higher-order lifeform, had natural dominion over all other organisms (e.g. plants and animals) and was thus fully warranted to utilize its authority for personal gain. As early as Homer’s
Ancient philosophical and scientific views reflected this same attitude regarding the hierarchical relationship of humanity to nature, starting with Plato (5th century BCE). Plato’s tripartite view of the self – reason, spirit, and appetite – held that while humanity shared its appetitive characteristics with other organisms such as animals, humanity was distinguished by its unique possession of reason which allowed the soul to ascend to a higher contemplative state [4]. Aristotle (4th century BCE) followed his teacher in emplacing humanity at the top of the creaturely hierarchy, and progressed even further by discussing in greater detail the relationship between humanity and nature. Underpinned by Plato’s ontological foundations, Aristotle’s view of the hierarchical relationship of humanity and/over nature became dominant and largely persisted in the western world – with exceptions, discussed below – until the European Renaissance.
Aristotle follows Plato by asserting that humanity is superior to nature on the basis of our rational character, which is not shared by other animals, much less plants or natural objects [5, 6, 7]. Aristotle understands this hierarchy teleologically, where everything in nature exists for a function – a notion that underpins many of his other scientific views too. This results in the conclusion that nature, and all of its many constituent parts lacking rationality, are subservient to rational humanity [8]. Aristotle famously and explicitly articulated this view in the
This view, of what is ultimately a divine and providential understanding of nature undergirded by an anthropocentric metaphysics, is widely present in both Peripatetic and Middle/Late Stoic thought (3rd century BCE – 3rd century CE). We will see many parallels in our treatment of Stoicism below.
Aristotle was aware of the fact that ecological exploitation could result in the decline of a wild species’ population, but also held the belief that the creation of life happens spontaneously and continuously, in a manner irrespective of human conduct [10]. In
Aristotle extends his naturalistic theories to metaphysics, as “the explanation of animal generation also has metaphysical importance for him … the generation of an entity must be explicable within that system.” [15] For Aristotle, all generation – spontaneous and not – depended not only on localized conditions (which might conceivably be influenced by humans) but more fundamentally on the metaphysical conditions of the cosmos more broadly, namely “the activity of the heavenly bodies upon the
Theophrastus (4th-3rd century BCE), successor to Aristotle, articulated this view well: he claimed that the silphium plant came into existence as a result of “spontaneous generation” after a black rain of a “heavy, pitchy” nature blanketed the region of Cyrenaica (present-day northeastern Libya) in the 7th century BCE [16]. Here, Theophrastus mirrors the broadly providential view of nature that Aristotle held: the loss of any one plant or animal species was only temporary and humanity’s influence on the environment marginal. After all, any species whose population had been diminished by human activity could spontaneously reappear at any moment. Extinction in the modern, permanent sense of the word was simply impossible according to Aristotle’s (dominant and highly influential) scientific and metaphysical views.
One figure stands apart from this Aristotelian strand of thought: Pliny the Elder. Pliny (23–74 CE) was a highly distinguished member of ancient Roman society. Over his life he held important military positions and was closely connected with the political elite, for example a direct friendship with Vespasian [17]. He was also prolific in his literary output, which included not only historical works but also extensive work in the natural sciences [18]. Most notable in the latter was his
Pliny’s work contains many prior influences from Aristotle and subsequent philosophical traditions [19]. In fact, his
Pliny also follows Aristotle in the importance granted to the spontaneously generative power of wind and rain. He variously describes reports of matter falling from the sky, ranging from the mundane (stones; tiles) to the alarming (milk; blood). While the former might be explained away by the wind taking up material objects, the latter is not explained but merely highlighted as a given (1.2.38, 57) [14]. Pliny even notes the generation of plants in this manner, reiterating Theophrastus’ account of silphium’s appearance as an example (3.16.61) [14]. He concludes broadly that “All these productions owe their origin to rain, and by rain is silphium produced”, right in line with Aristotle (4.22.48) [14]. However, in nearly every such instance, Pliny provides details such as the location and date, perhaps to suggest that he himself is skeptical and that the reader should go confirm the occurrence of these events for themselves.
Importantly, Pliny expands this conclusion with a claim that notably departs from the prevailing ecological theory of his predecessors: “As already observed, the silphium of Cyrenae no longer exists.” (4.22.48) [14] Indeed, it is in
This conclusion begs a series of questions around ancient ecology and religion. If Pliny believed that the natural world providentially furnished things for humanity, what would it mean that one could no longer exist? How could the extinction of a species be permanent if that same species were the product of natural forces such as wind and rain? If humanity has little power over these divine and natural forces, how could we even force something to go extinct if we tried?
We argue that the key to answering these questions can be found in Pliny’s metaphysics, in particular at the intersection of religion and ecology. This intersection reflects a particular brand of Stoic thinking that highlights a fundamental tension in Stoic thought around the role of humanity and its relationship to a divinely understood nature.
Pliny’s metaphysics take influence from both Aristotelian and prior Stoic views (among others) that there is a power beyond humanity over which we have little control. Pliny clearly conceives of nature in the classic Stoic sense as divine, not in a deistic sense of an agential and person-like god, but rather in a broader and more abstract sense of the divine. He asserts that the “world, and whatever that be which we otherwise call the heavens … we must conceive to be a deity, to be eternal, without bounds, neither created, nor subject, at any time, to destruction.” (1.2.1) [14] As such, he asserts that “it is ridiculous to suppose that the great head of all things, whatever it be, pays any regard to human affairs.” (1.2.5) [14] It is clear that nature, in the sense of ecology, is understood as itself a divine force: “the power of nature is clearly proved and is shown to be what we call god.” (1.2.5) [14] In this paradigm, nature cares little for humans because we are merely small creatures living within the grand operations of the cosmos; therefore nothing we do can truly influence nature. Such a line of thought largely underpins Aristotelian and some Stoic views, leading to the notion that it is not possible for human actions to cause the extinction of a species.
Pliny, however, comes to a different conclusion. Although he clearly understands nature as a divinity, he does not view nature as an agential and a person-like god. Nature, therefore, cannot operate according to whims, desires, and intentions; in other words, not like the gods classically understood in Greek mythology. Rather, the divinity of nature operates according to universal principles, such as those of science:
Nature, as with god, cannot bring somebody back to life or change the past or any number of other things. Nature is limited by nature’s own inherent operations.
This point helps explain Pliny’s earlier comments around humanity’s inability to create, destroy or otherwise alter the natural world. When Pliny states that humanity cannot affect nature (which is framed as a god), he is asserting that humanity cannot change the fundamental workings (e.g. natural operations; universal laws) of the universe. These not only include the known processes of the natural world (e.g. gravity, geology, reproduction, chemical and biological change, etc.) but also the unfounded natural processes which Pliny believed to have existed (e.g. spontaneous generation of organisms and material objects). In stating this, Pliny is
Pliny’s differentiation (causes/operations vs. effects/manifestations) is crucial, as it allows him to take a wider view on the deleterious effects of human actions on the natural world. In poetic language strikingly similar to modern ecological writing, Pliny takes a dark view of humanity’s ecological behaviors:
Nature is readily anthropomorphized, in a prototypical blend of religion and ecology, as Pliny notes that the natural ecological balance theorized by prior thinkers was about meeting natural needs. By contrast, humanity’s avarice for “luxuries” beyond “mere support” leads to nature being “continually tortured”, being penetrated for mineral extraction, and having her entrails torn out sheerly for the sake of human decoration.
Along similar lines, Pliny affords nature some broad agency, using the extractive relationship of humanity and nature to explain why the “Earth should have produced anything noxious”. Humanity, it seems, has upset the divine and natural order, with resulting consequences. In another strong echo of modern ecological writing, Pliny then continues to say that all of this exploitation of the natural world would result in disastrous consequences for humanity, “inasmuch as all this wealth ends in crimes, slaughter, and war” (1.2.63) [14]. By upsetting the divine and natural order, in the end we are only hurting ourselves. And nature – well, she will exist long after we are gone: “while we drench her with our blood, we cover her with our unburied bones; and being covered with these … her anger being thus appeased.” (1.2.63) [14] Nature is both divinely anthropomorphized and understood as unified with the human condition; in doing the Earth wrong we do ourselves wrong as we are part of nature; and ultimately this is all understood not only in a clear scientific context of cause and effect between the natural and human worlds but also in the urgent terms of a sincerely held religious view of our place in the cosmos.
Pliny’s views are strikingly written, novel with regard to the recognition of extinction, and distinct in their ability to link together religion and ecology in a way that finds parallels in the modern world. Indeed, we will treat the latter parallels explicitly in our next section. But in the context of ancient Greco-Roman views around religion and ecology, Pliny’s views highlight an interesting tension in the predominant religion-ecology nexus of the day, as found in ancient Stoicism.
Philosophically, Pliny is probably aligned closer to Stoicism than any other philosophy. We must caution that he was not a systematic and whole-hearted Stoic through and through [22]. But particularly his natural philosophy, that intersection between ecology and religion, was clearly and most strongly informed by Stoicism [23]. Sometimes specific aspects of his thought can even be traced with confidence to certain Stoic thinkers [24]. More broadly, he was not only familiar with foundational ideas from Stoicism and key texts and thinkers such as Zeno (4th-3rd century BCE, founder of Stoicism) [23], but also a variety of other philosophers from whom he freely drew [25]. So while we focus here on Pliny’s Stoicism in light of other Stoic thought, it is important to remember that Pliny’s use of ancient philosophy was not confined to Stoicism alone.
In Stoicism, however, there were notable differences of thought, with debate around subjects such as cosmology, ethics, and human nature. Despite core, shared ideas across different thinkers, Stoicism was no monolithic system of thought and it contains both disagreements between thinkers and changes over time and. We argue that one of these internal Stoic debates which has not yet been fully recognized or explored is the relationship of humanity to nature. In the language of our conclusions above regarding Pliny, Stoic thinkers varied in how they understood the relationship of religion and ecology.
We identify two general poles in Stoicism around the relationship of religion and ecology. One pole, which we have already explored above, generally follows the Platonic and Aristotelian view: Humanity was created as a higher order being in a hierarchically ordered universe, and it is therefore natural and in some sense good for humanity to make use of and even dominate the natural environment.
Stoic thought roughly contemporaneous to Pliny, in the first and second centuries CE, is full of these ideas, ranging from Epictetus to Seneca the Younger to Marcus Aurelius. Perhaps most famously, Marcus (2nd century CE, a century after Pliny) wrote in his
More proximately to Pliny, meanwhile, we find similar ideas expressed by Epictetus and Seneca. Epictetus, in his
Such a view aligns easily not only with Marcus and some of Pliny’s comments but also the ecological-hierarchy view of Aristotle. Nature has some things ready made for others and humans are rightly in charge over cattle; hierarchy and the ruling of one organism over the other is natural and even good.
This notion of some organisms being naturally created for service to others finds clear parallel in Stoic views of the body. This is best espoused by Seneca the Younger (1st century CE), who writes:
The body makes for a ready parallel to nature, the micro in the macro, as individual elements of the body are created for and function in service to the whole. One would readily cut off a finger to save an entire organism, and as such there are clearly aspects of the body which are subservient to the whole and therefore relatively expendable.
Extending this view to a macro, cosmic scale, this metaphysical and religious view of our place in the universe underpins Stoic ethics, in particular the view that suffering and death are ultimately inconsequential. A single human life is to the universe as, perhaps, a fingernail is to an individual human. Just as the universe might see fit in its grand operations to destroy us individually or as a species, so too we should think nothing of cutting off and discarding a fingernail. In both cases these operations are natural and, in that Stoic sense, good. By the same logic, some organisms higher in the grand hierarchy of nature can and even should make use of others.
There is a second pole of Stoic thought, however, that speaks to how humanity should not simply exploit and extract and dominate, but rather exercise our reason to live in harmony. This view is also, in fact, derived partly from Platonic and Aristotelian views privileging the rational mind of humanity. Yet instead of seeing humans at the top of a hierarchy and justifying domination, our place at the top of the created hierarchy results from reason, which – when properly exercised according to Stoic principles – results not in violence but in harmony. Thus, Epictetus can write the following too:
While the first part of this passage seems to reflect the more extractive, dominating view seen in our first pole of Stoic thought, here the conclusion is notably different. It is indeed “shameful” for humans to do what animals do, presumably fight, suffer, and struggle over narrow and instinctual concerns. Instead, humanity’s rational nature calls us to a higher purpose as our “nature ends in contemplation and understanding”, an echo of Platonic influence. Conforming to nature does not simply involve participating in a violent, exploitative hierarchy of being, but rather this “life conformable with nature” is one that is aware of, and attentive to, one’s effects on others. ‘Conforming’ denotes adaptation and accommodation, not bending others to one’s own will, whim, or preference.
We see this second, accommodating pole of Stoic ecological thinking voiced severally by Seneca. Seneca writes that the proper operation of nature has to do with the notion of sufficiency:
The proper functioning of nature manifests an ecology in a state of equilibrium. Of course, some things naturally make use of other things (the creature in the egg and the liquid within), which well matches the first pole of Stoic thought, but this ‘making use’ reflects
Indeed, Seneca understands the world in terms of a balanced reciprocity according to natural need and consequent use:
Nature operates in a balance and the natural operation of its parts maintain that balance. If humans take a natural amount – such as for their natural “nourishment” per the earlier quote above – then the Earth will reciprocally take and in turn provide this nourishment. However, moving beyond what is natural – to take more than what is necessary for mere nourishment – will upset this balance:
Nature provides if its constituent parts behave accordingly. If the parts do not behave according to their nature (e.g., nourishment alone) then what follows is inevitably “destruction”. Crucially, this destruction will occur via violence amid the world itself (“such a change cannot occur without the world being shaken”). Deviations from nature will invite consequences that will convulse the world and punish humanity as a result, for indeed we are a part of nature. To continue our body analogy from earlier, if a finger ceases to operate properly by harming the body, it will be subject to inevitable destruction. This destruction will harm the greater whole (body = nature) but will certainly punish the offending part (= organism/species).
This line of metaphysical thinking aligning religion and ecology readily reflects widely held Stoic understandings of ethics. In Stoicism, one should behave according to one’s general nature as a species (which Stoics call ‘a good’) and even according to one’s individual desires (which Stoics label a ‘preferred indifferent’, being neither good nor bad). A human can therefore be justified in using violence to defend their life because of an organism’s basic biological rights and nature directed toward survival, but not justified in using violence simply to get what one desires.
Indeed, Stoic ethics generally do not espouse violence but rather acquiescence; not domination but rather peaceful differences; and not extraction for excess but rather making do with the bare minimum. This is not only a metaphysical view about the ideal ‘Stoic sage’ and our relationship to the cosmos but also has clear applications to our micro-cosmos too, namely our ecological environment. Just as Stoics argued we should generally accept our lot in life and seek no more than demanded by nature for sufficiency, by extension so too should we use nature and other organisms where necessary but never to a point of excess. One must eat, but never feast; one must kill to survive, but never for sport; one might need to extract resources to build a house to survive the winter, but this does not mean one is justified in extracting resources for ornamentation.
Furthermore, deviating beyond what is necessary for mere “nourishment”, to again use Seneca’s term, is ultimately a recipe for destruction. Firstly, it results in the forfeit of one’s individual virtue and thereby doing oneself violence – Stoics label as ‘bad’ anything that undermines virtue. But secondly, it also harms the wider environment (nature/god itself) which in the Stoic metaphysical and religious view is ultimately aligned with the self, just as the finger is identified with the body but should never be privileged before it. Any wider damaging of nature/god disturbs natural order, and this disturbance is not only bad for nature/god (a metaphysical and religious ill) but will also ultimately result in partial or complete self-destruction. For this line of Stoic thinking, ecology
The ancient extinction of silphium seems to reflect the second pole of Stoic thought that we have detailed here. The harvesting and use of silphium was natural and normal, and in that sense good, as part of our biological existence on this Earth. But over-harvesting beyond what was necessary for nourishment showed improper judgment, both about ourselves and the natural world. Because we
From an ecological point of view, certainly the first consequence – that we sacrifice our own virtue when we take more than is necessary – has continued to bear out time and again over the course of human history. A philosophical orientation toward nature of unfettered use and extraction beyond the survivalist minimum has resulted in cultural attitudes of extraction, imperialism, and a host of hierarchical and bigoted views ranging from neo-colonialism to outright racism. A capitalist ideology of profit maximization for personal gain will doubtless incentivize productivity and capital production, but at the cost of disincentivizing a virtuous relationship, not only with nature but with each other too.
The second ecological consequence is even more obvious: an attitude of not living in ecological balance and self-sufficiency has resulted in an unprecedented rate of species extinction, both plant and animal [29, 30]. The so-called ‘Anthropocene Epoch’ has been so devastating to other biological life on Earth that this era of human dominance has been rightly faulted for “the sixth mass extinction” [31]. Pliny’s Stoicism, which recognized that humans can destructively influence nature to the point of making a plant go extinct, was simply the beginning. To this we can add the many ways that, as Stoics predicted, the Earth has responded with violence to both itself (“the world being shaken”) and humanity (“destruction”): anthropogenic climate change and hazardous pollution are the two most ready examples that come to mind, to say nothing of the warlike destruction our species visits upon itself with historical regularity.
Modern ecological thinking has attempted to redress our relationship with the natural world in a manner strikingly similar to ancient Stoicism, by re-thinking nature and our place in it in metaphysical and religious terms. In ancient Stoicism, Seneca described a view of nature that emplaces humanity within the framework of religious humility, as he is baffled by humanity’s narrow-mindedness around our place within nature while being simultaneously in awe of nature and its grand operations. These two operate side by side:
Seneca continues, framing the issue truly as a matter of good and evil, extending the religious view of ecology in the previous quote:
Humans have moved far beyond nourishment and, in Stoic terms, have acted non-virtuously, extracting not out of necessity but out of greed. This is all fundamentally baffling, for our desires and wants and wars are miniscule in a metaphysical view that blends nature with god:
Such views are striking, not only in their poetry but in their similarity to modern ecological writings, especially those with a more religious, spiritual, or new-age bent. The origins of modern environmentalism and ecology can be rightly traced to the work of Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859), the famous naturalist, explorer, and polymath whose influence in the world of nature science was so colossal and unparalleled it is difficult to overstate [32].
Among Humboldt’s many scientific contributions, one of his most lasting was the view of nature as a unified whole governed by inter-relationships, personified in his magnum opus
In a fascinating parallel to the two poles of ecological thinking we found in ancient Stoicism, we see a similar dynamic playing out in the work of Humboldt and Darwin around their views of nature. Scientifically, Humboldt and Darwin are rightly understood as part of a single intellectual lineage, for they both understood nature as acting upon and within itself, and as both highlighting the importance of understanding nature holistically in terms of the inter-relationship of all its parts, ranging from climate to population dynamics to the dynamism of natural change.
But there is a core difference between the two in terms of how they understood nature’s holism [33]. Humboldt took the much broader view, that nature can and should be understood holistically, that ecology in the large was to be understood as a single organism functioning in harmonious equilibrium. By contrast, Darwin focused on the notion of competition (so-called ‘survival of the fittest’), that nature was teeming with violence and the struggle for resources. In the words of Stephen Jay Gould, there are (at least) three fundamental “aspects of the new Darwinian world. All confute central aspects of Humboldt’s vision” [33]. First, Darwin believed that “Nature is a scene of competition and struggle, not higher harmony” as Humboldt believed [33]. Second, also contra Humboldt, Darwin argued that “Evolutionary lineages have no intrinsic direction toward higher states or greater unification. Natural selection is only a process of local adaptation” [33]. And third, Darwin concluded that “Evolutionary changes are not propelled by an internal and harmonious force”, which departed strikingly from Humboldt’s own conclusions [33].
Darwin understood nature locally and brutally, with a series of random, weighted events propelling survival and speciation outcomes. Humboldt saw nature broadly and beautifully, with a sort of divine order and harmonious outcome of balance. Of course, both are true biologically, as it is simply a matter of scale: at the micro level of individual organisms and species you see savage and unrelenting violence and competition; at the macro level of an entire ecosystem, however, one sees harmony, balance, and beauty. It merely depends on one’s own metaphysical view of where to locate the truth of nature.
Humboldt was himself not religious. Indeed, he does not mention God once in his magnum opus
Humboldt’s more spiritual perspective on nature therefore lent itself to later ecological thinking along these lines. He was particularly influential, for instance, on the scientific (and sometimes even religious) views of later ecologists in the West. This includes both more historically proximate writers such as Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862, a founder of modern naturalism) and Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882, leader of transcendentalism), but also later preservationists such as John Muir (1838–1914, the key driver for the founding of the National Parks System in the United States, which in turn became a model for the global West) and Rachel Carson, whose 1962 book
Humboldt’s view also gave rise to analogical thinking in the humanistic and political sphere. He thought, for example, that because all of nature was unified and beautiful in its diversity, that such principles extended to human culture as well. He was therefore a strong proponent of cultural and racial equality, arguing loudly and across his entire life against slavery and in favor of equal rights to those oppressed by the European colonial empires [32]. For Humboldt, colonialism and theories of racial hierarchy were environmentally destructive too [32], showing the fundamental linkages between all of nature, not just plants and animals but humanity and human systems of politics too.
By contrast, Darwin’s view – of competition, violence, and hierarchy – well parallels the first pole of Stoic ecological thinking, that such principles are natural and normal in nature. The founders of modern naturalism and ecology, in other words, continued to struggle with the same tension we see in Stoicism. And while Humboldt made no mention of God in
In the words of a modern interpreter of Darwin, “Darwin invokes the “Creator,” but leaves him out of the work of life and death … The Creator may impress his laws on matter, but the laws of matter are all that are revealed by the phenomena Darwin investigates.” (xxv) [35] Like Humboldt, Darwin’s thought includes the “absence of divine intention” (xxv) [35], but while Humboldt is comfortable excluding deism entirely, Darwin is still willing to engage with the notion of a Creator. Humboldt’s religious views seemed to abstract away entirely from a creator god in terms of his ecological metaphysics; Darwin seemed to allow for a creator god but, in a manner strikingly similar to our second pole of Stoic thought, Darwin believed that divinity could be found in the metaphysical and scientific principles of nature while things like extinction were due to “secondary causes” such as human influence.
Darwin’s thought, meanwhile, gave rise to a very different kind of humanistic and political thinking from Humboldt’s. While Darwin himself was no racist or bigot and indeed was explicitly anti-slavery [36, 37], the notion of ‘Social Darwinism’ was later derived from his thought [38]. This idea – that hierarchy is natural and normal and thus such principles should also apply to human society – was used for decades in an attempt to justify slavery, racial hierarchy, and colonialism. Just as with Humboldt, we see that one’s metaphysical views of nature are extended into the world of politics and culture too. One might well favor Darwin’s biological perspective, and indeed there is a reason that we remember his name more than Humboldt’s when it comes to his theories of nature and its operations, but Humboldt’s more spiritualist view of metaphysical unity certainly leads to a more sustainable, holistic, and equitable view of human diversity.
We can now return to the idea that began our paper, extinction, and the role of scientific and religious thinking in its understanding. Our modern understanding of extinction stems from the work of Georges Cuvier (1769–1832), a contemporary of Humboldt whose scientific ideas cohere in some ways with the shared Humboldtian and Darwinian ecological frameworks. In Cuvier’s
Cuvier took the opposite view, arguing in favor of extinction and firmly opposing the idea of species adaptation:
Here, Cuvier proposed a revolutionary idea for his time: animal remains found in the fossil record offered clear evidence for species extinction. Yet in the same stubborn breath, he perhaps made the biggest blunder of his academic career by dismissing Lamarck’s idea that species could adapt to changing environments. In hindsight, we know that neither Lamarck nor Cuvier were entirely correct, but each of them had made an important contribution to the broader understanding of life on Earth.
Cuvier believed that all species were perfectly adapted to their environments and as a result, any significant change of those environments could threaten their very existence. This idea aligns closely with the Humboldtian view of nature’s harmonious balance of interrelated species, each of which occupies a unique ecological niche to the benefit of the larger whole. However, Cuvier did not always see nature as beautiful, but rather as a brutal system plagued by shocking changes, intense competition, and occasional catastrophes. This view – which parallels Seneca’s previous assertion that disturbing the balance of nature would result in its destruction – influenced Darwin’s own ideas about competition, ecological change, and extinction. Extinction, according to Darwin, only occurs when a species is unable to adapt to their changing environment.
Cuvier’s outright dismissal of species adaptation was in effect an intellectual roadblock, preventing him from capturing the whole picture of natural selection. In doing so, he also left open the major question of how species are created, lending credence to the ancient ideas of spontaneous generation and godly creation. Indeed, Cuvier’s own stance was widely used by creationists and those seeing divine design in nature [43], a position that has persisted in small and non-scientific areas of thinking today.
In this chapter, we have surveyed key strands of thought in the western tradition, both ancient and modern, around the relationship between religion, science, ecology, and sustainability. In the ancient Mediterranean, the most influential explorations of this relationship include Aristotle and the later Stoic tradition. Our earliest views in ancient Greece saw nature as providential, divine, and therefore not allowing for human-caused extinction such as those of plants or animals. Later Stoic views, in particularly Pliny the Elder, noted the extinction of the famous and valuable plant silphium.
This extinction event illuminates a key difference between ancient Stoic thinkers. While Stoicism generally holds to a metaphysical view of nature as divine, Stoics themselves differentiated on the extent to which humans can and should exploit nature and its resources. We identified two poles of thinking in ancient thought: one pole that followed Aristotle in arguing that nature’s divine providence results in hierarchical exploitation being natural and therefore to some extent good; and another pole that departed from Aristotle, especially as articulated by Pliny, in arguing that nature’s divine providence results in hierarchical exploitation being unnatural and therefore to some extent bad. This difference results, we think, from the core metaphysical orientations of these two poles, regarding the nature of religion and ecology. The former pole sees sustainability outside the province of humanity, while the latter pole sees sustainability as a crucial element of one’s proper religious and philosophical orientation to the universe.
In the later west, we see this same metaphysical intersection, encompassing all of science and philosophy and religion around the subject of ecology, in the pioneering work of Alexander von Humboldt and Charles Darwin. Although aligned in a great many ways, Humboldt and Darwin departed in crucial ways around the nature of ecology. Humboldt’s metaphysical views of the cosmos see unity and harmony as fundamental principles, and therefore that human’s extractive behaviors are abnormal and morally wrong, going against the very principles of the universe. It is for this reason that Humboldt’s thought had an outsize effect on later syntheses of ecology, philosophy, religion, and sustainability, ranging from transcendentalism to modern eco-spiritualists. Such lines of thought in Humboldt and subsequent thinkers in his lineage well parallel the second pole of Stoic thinking, as found in Pliny but also in others such as Seneca and Epictetus, that views humanity as potentially destructive of nature’s natural and divine harmony. In this view, extinction is unnatural and fundamentally bad; humanity’s influence has resulted in a host of deleterious extinctions.
Darwin, by contrast, viewed competition and struggle as fundamental principles of nature. While Darwin did not pursue the humanistic social and political implications of his thought as Humboldt did, this metaphysical stance was appropriated by later thinkers who believed that the hierarchy and violence found in natural were natural and therefore good, using this stance to justify deplorable political, economic, and social systems. In this way,
An attention to both ancient and modern thought helps us today to illuminate the relationship between science, philosophy, and religion around the subjects of sustainability and ecology. Influential voices in history have essentially argued in favor of the hierarchical exploitation of nature and non-sustainable ecological practices. However, other important voices have identified sustainability as a crucial dimension of our ideal religious and metaphysical stance. The issue of species extinction in particular highlights how thinkers, both ancient and modern, explore the relationship between sustainability, ecology, religion, and philosophy. A goal of ecological sustainability is not only metaphysically possible within the history of western scientific and religious thinking, but also justified by thinkers ranging from Pliny the Elder to Alexander von Humboldt and beyond.
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Due to its advantages of abundant resources, less in cost, great workability and high physical properties, fly ash leads to achieving high mechanical properties. Fly ash is considered as one of the largest generated industrial solid wastes or so-called industrial by-products, around the world particularly in China, India, and USA. The characteristics of fly ash allow it to be a geotechnical material to produce geopolymer cement or concrete as an alternative of ordinary Portland cement. Many efforts are made in this direction to formulate a suitable mix design of fly ash-based geopolymer by focusing on fly ash as the main prime material. The physical properties, chemical compositions, and chemical activation of fly ash are analyzed and evaluated in this review paper. 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In contrast, energy conservation is viewed as an influential national for achieving a building’s net zero energy status. This chapter aims to show the value of the synergy between energy conservation and solar energy transfer to NZEBs at the global and regional levels. To achieve these goals, both energy demand building and the potential supply of solar energy in buildings have been forecasted in various regions, climatic conditions, and types of buildings. Building energy consumption was evaluated based on a bottom-up energy model developed by 3CSEP and data inputs from the Bottom-Up Energy Analysis System (BUENAS) model under two scenarios of differing degrees of energy efficiency intention. The study results indicate that the acquisition of sustainable energy consumption is critical for solar-powered net zero energy buildings in various building styles and environments. 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In a broader perspective, we also investigate how housing has become ‘difficult’ in Europe and the poorest segments of the population run the risk of having their right to housing dramatically denied. Analysing housing in terms of its procedural dimension, we focus on two Italian case studies that evoke a new way of inhabiting the city, cases in which high standards characterised social housing and yet remain accessible to all. The Sharing hotel residence in Turin and Zoia social housing in Milan combine housing with other socially innovative measures in a framework of sustainability and avant-garde construction. These are significant examples that speak to issues such as temporariness, flexibility and the coordination of measures. These two cases both pursued objectives having to do with social, planning, architectural and environmental quality, albeit each in their own way. There are by now numerous examples of social housing in Europe and these have recently attracted growing interest in Italy as well; in this country, however, such projects represent valid instances of experimentation but are not at all widespread.",book:{id:"7650",slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design"},signatures:"Rossana Galdini and Silvia Lucciarini",authors:[{id:"281246",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvia",middleName:null,surname:"Lucciarini",slug:"silvia-lucciarini",fullName:"Silvia Lucciarini"},{id:"282958",title:"Prof.",name:"Rossana",middleName:null,surname:"Galdini",slug:"rossana-galdini",fullName:"Rossana Galdini"}]},{id:"67084",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86278",title:"Comprehensive Strategy for Sustainable Housing Design",slug:"comprehensive-strategy-for-sustainable-housing-design",totalDownloads:1362,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Sustainable housing needs to be designed to maximize occupants’ well-being and minimize the environmental load. The pursuit of combining these two different aspects toward sustainability is a goal-oriented task. The science of control can be applied to all goal-oriented tasks. Therefore, applying control science, we have been progressing in research on sustainable housing design. Our previous study has produced the control system for promoting sustainable housing design in which sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist are incorporated. Based on these accomplished results, this study has comprehensively visualized the process of producing and revising the sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist. Following this visualized process, also this study has concretely shown the production and revision processes of the sustainable design guidelines. The study results suggest that the comprehensive visualization can make these processes more manageable and help system designers to produce and revise the guidelines more efficiently. Furthermore, these results have led to indicating how to adjust the guidelines to different countries or regions as well as changing situations over time.",book:{id:"7650",slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design"},signatures:"Kazutoshi Fujihira",authors:[{id:"69662",title:"BSc.",name:"Kazutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Fujihira",slug:"kazutoshi-fujihira",fullName:"Kazutoshi Fujihira"}]},{id:"57401",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71325",title:"Basic Schemes: Preparations for Applying Control Science to Sustainable Design",slug:"basic-schemes-preparations-for-applying-control-science-to-sustainable-design",totalDownloads:1223,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"It is the ultimate goal for humankind to deal with various problems and achieve sustainability. Control science can be applied to all goal-oriented tasks and has already produced remarkable results. Accordingly, applying control science to the task of achieving sustainability is a rational and reliable approach. In order to apply control science to sustainability issues, our first study has shown the “basic control system for sustainability” as well as the “model of sustainability.” After that, in order to identify system components of practical control systems for promoting sustainable design, we have devised “two-step preparatory work for sustainable design.” The two steps of this preparatory work are “determining the relationships between the standard human activities and sustainability” and “sustainability checkup on human activities as an object.”",book:{id:"5692",slug:"sustainable-home-design-by-applying-control-science",title:"Sustainable Home Design by Applying Control Science",fullTitle:"Sustainable Home Design by Applying Control Science"},signatures:"Kazutoshi Fujihira",authors:[{id:"69662",title:"BSc.",name:"Kazutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Fujihira",slug:"kazutoshi-fujihira",fullName:"Kazutoshi Fujihira"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"71982",title:"Net-Zero Energy Buildings: Principles and Applications",slug:"net-zero-energy-buildings-principles-and-applications",totalDownloads:2226,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Global warming and climate change are rising issues during the last couple of decades. With residential and commercial buildings being the largest energy consumers, sources are being depleted at a much faster pace in the recent decades. Recent statistics shows that 14% of humans are active participant to protect the environment with an additional 48% sympathetic but not active. In this chapter, net-zero energy buildings design tools and applications are presented that can help designers in the commercial and residential sectors design their buildings to be net-zero energy buildings. Case studies with benefits and challenges will be presented to illustrate the different designs to achieve a net-zero energy building (NZEB).",book:{id:"9916",slug:"zero-energy-buildings-new-approaches-and-technologies",title:"Zero-Energy Buildings",fullTitle:"Zero-Energy Buildings - New Approaches and Technologies"},signatures:"Maher Shehadi",authors:null},{id:"57400",title:"Case Study: Detached House Designed by Following the Control System",slug:"case-study-detached-house-designed-by-following-the-control-system",totalDownloads:1548,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The previous chapter has demonstrated the control system for promoting sustainable housing design in which the sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist are incorporated. Following this control system, we have actually designed and constructed a detached house. To be concrete, the homeowner and the architects of the housing manufacture have designed the home’s parts, or elements, so that as much as possible the elements’ variables meet their desired values. The sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist have been readily accepted because the material and spatial elements are equivalent to real parts of the home. After the home started to be used, we have obtained external evaluations of the home’s sustainability performance. For example, CASBEE for Detached Houses, a comprehensive assessment system, has readily ranked the house in the highest “S.” An energy-saving performance assessment has shown that this home has reduced energy consumption by over 70%, as compared with the average home. On the other hand, the reactions of the occupants and visitors have indicated the comfort, healthiness and safety of this house. Furthermore, this home has received a sustainable housing award, especially due to its extremely high sustainability and energy-saving performance.",book:{id:"5692",slug:"sustainable-home-design-by-applying-control-science",title:"Sustainable Home Design by Applying Control Science",fullTitle:"Sustainable Home Design by Applying Control Science"},signatures:"Kazutoshi Fujihira",authors:[{id:"69662",title:"BSc.",name:"Kazutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Fujihira",slug:"kazutoshi-fujihira",fullName:"Kazutoshi Fujihira"}]},{id:"67084",title:"Comprehensive Strategy for Sustainable Housing Design",slug:"comprehensive-strategy-for-sustainable-housing-design",totalDownloads:1362,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Sustainable housing needs to be designed to maximize occupants’ well-being and minimize the environmental load. The pursuit of combining these two different aspects toward sustainability is a goal-oriented task. The science of control can be applied to all goal-oriented tasks. Therefore, applying control science, we have been progressing in research on sustainable housing design. Our previous study has produced the control system for promoting sustainable housing design in which sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist are incorporated. Based on these accomplished results, this study has comprehensively visualized the process of producing and revising the sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist. Following this visualized process, also this study has concretely shown the production and revision processes of the sustainable design guidelines. The study results suggest that the comprehensive visualization can make these processes more manageable and help system designers to produce and revise the guidelines more efficiently. Furthermore, these results have led to indicating how to adjust the guidelines to different countries or regions as well as changing situations over time.",book:{id:"7650",slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design"},signatures:"Kazutoshi Fujihira",authors:[{id:"69662",title:"BSc.",name:"Kazutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Fujihira",slug:"kazutoshi-fujihira",fullName:"Kazutoshi Fujihira"}]},{id:"65804",title:"Effects of Street Geometry on Airflow Regimes for Natural Ventilation in Three Different Street Configurations in Enugu City",slug:"effects-of-street-geometry-on-airflow-regimes-for-natural-ventilation-in-three-different-street-conf",totalDownloads:1401,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Efficient natural ventilation is dependent on the micro climate conditions of an urban environment. This is affected by ambient wind flow, radiation and air temperatures. The airflow within the urban street can be cultivated into two regions. The first is a recirculation region, which forms in the near wake of each building. The Second is a ventilated region downstream of the recirculation region, formed when the street is sufficiently wide. The development of the flow into these two regions depends on geometry. This chapter looks at the impacts of street geometry on these regions of airflow cultivation in three different street configurations in high density residential settlements in Enugu city. It utilized schematic analysis of airflow regimes to identify the behaviors of flow in these street configurations relative to the height and width ratios of the street canyon. This schematic analysis can be utilized in preliminary design studies by city and building designers for justifying street dimensions and configurations in tropical regions where natural ventilation is paramount.",book:{id:"7650",slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design"},signatures:"Jideofor Anselm Akubue",authors:[{id:"139659",title:"Dr.",name:"Akubue",middleName:"Jideofor",surname:"Anselm",slug:"akubue-anselm",fullName:"Akubue Anselm"}]},{id:"66000",title:"Fundamentals of Natural Ventilation Design within Dwellings",slug:"fundamentals-of-natural-ventilation-design-within-dwellings",totalDownloads:962,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Along with acoustical and lighting comfort, indoor air quality (IAQ) and thermal comfort upon households are essential to maintain a proper indoor environment, therefore ensuring a welfare toward the occupants. Nevertheless, sometimes, these features are neglected by building designers and constructers, causing problems such as the so-called sick building syndrome (SBS) and thermal discomfort, among others. Although there are short-term solutions such as purifiers, extractors, fans, and air conditioning, eventually these methods become not sustainable activities that consume energy and emit polluting gases such as chlorofluorocarbons. One alternative to this is natural ventilation, understood as the airflow throughout a building caused by changes of pressures naturally produced. In this chapter, the role of the early-stage building design as well as the correct occupant behavior is presented as essential to develop a naturally ventilated dwelling, which is an excellent alternative to achieve proper levels of indoor environment in a sustainable manner.",book:{id:"7650",slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design"},signatures:"Ivan Oropeza-Perez",authors:[{id:"282172",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Oropeza-Perez",slug:"ivan-oropeza-perez",fullName:"Ivan Oropeza-Perez"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"852",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. 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His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. 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Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. 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He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. 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He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356823",title:"MSc.",name:"Seonghee",middleName:null,surname:"Min",slug:"seonghee-min",fullName:"Seonghee Min",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu University",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"353307",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoosoo",middleName:null,surname:"Oh",slug:"yoosoo-oh",fullName:"Yoosoo Oh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Yoosoo Oh received his Bachelor's degree in the Department of Electronics and Engineering from Kyungpook National University in 2002. He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"346530",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"ibrahim-kaya",fullName:"Ibrahim Kaya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"1",type:"subseries",title:"Oral Health",keywords:"Oral health, Dental care, Diagnosis, Diagnostic imaging, Early diagnosis, Oral cancer, Conservative treatment, Epidemiology, Comprehensive dental care, Complementary therapies, Holistic health",scope:"\r\n This topic aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the latest trends in Oral Health based on recent scientific evidence. Subjects will include an overview of oral diseases and infections, systemic diseases affecting the oral cavity, prevention, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, as well as current clinical recommendations for the management of oral, dental, and periodontal diseases.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/1.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11397,editor:{id:"173955",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Marinho",slug:"sandra-marinho",fullName:"Sandra Marinho",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGYMQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-06-01T13:22:41.png",biography:"Dr. Sandra A. Marinho is an Associate Professor and Brazilian researcher at the State University of Paraíba (Universidade Estadual da Paraíba- UEPB), Campus VIII, located in Araruna, state of Paraíba since 2011. She holds a degree in Dentistry from the Federal University of Alfenas (UNIFAL), while her specialization and professional improvement in Stomatology took place at Hospital Heliopolis (São Paulo, SP). Her qualifications are: a specialist in Dental Imaging and Radiology, Master in Dentistry (Periodontics) from the University of São Paulo (FORP-USP, Ribeirão Preto, SP), and Doctor (Ph.D.) in Dentistry (Stomatology Clinic) from Hospital São Lucas of the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (HSL-PUCRS, Porto Alegre, RS). She held a postdoctoral internship at the Federal University from Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM, Diamantina, MG). She is currently a member of the Brazilian Society for Dental Research (SBPqO) and the Brazilian Society of Stomatology and Pathology (SOBEP). Dr. Marinho's experience in Dentistry mainly covers the following subjects: oral diagnosis, oral radiology; oral medicine; lesions and oral infections; oral pathology, laser therapy and epidemiological studies.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"State University of Paraíba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",issn:"2631-6218"},editorialBoard:[{id:"267724",title:"Dr.",name:"Febronia",middleName:null,surname:"Kahabuka",slug:"febronia-kahabuka",fullName:"Febronia Kahabuka",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZpJQAW/Profile_Picture_2022-06-27T12:00:42.JPG",institutionString:null,institution:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"82135",title:"Carotenoids in Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105210",signatures:"Lovina I. Udoh, Josephine U. Agogbua, Eberechi R. 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