\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6349",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Gasification for Low-grade Feedstock",title:"Gasification for Low-grade Feedstock",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Most coveted energy forms nowadays are gas in nature and electricity due to their environmental cleanness and convenience. Recently, gasification market trend is starting to switch to low-grade feedstock such as biomass, wastes, and low-rank coal that are still not properly utilized. In this sense, the most promising area of development in gasification field lies in low-grade feedstock that should be converted to more user-friendly gas or electricity form in utilization. This book tried to shed light on the works on gasification from many parts of the world and thus can feel the technology status and the areas of interest regarding gasification for low-grade feedstock.",isbn:"978-1-78923-289-9",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-288-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-421-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69788",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"gasification-for-low-grade-feedstock",numberOfPages:288,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"480f5fb4bb3c9b3af32c926e04d78233",bookSignature:"Yongseung Yun",publishedDate:"July 11th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6349.jpg",numberOfDownloads:20705,numberOfWosCitations:53,numberOfCrossrefCitations:59,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:116,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:228,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 22nd 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 12th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 8th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 7th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 5th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"144925",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongseung",middleName:null,surname:"Yun",slug:"yongseung-yun",fullName:"Yongseung Yun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/144925/images/system/144925.jpg",biography:"Dr. Yongseung Yun majored in Chemical Engineering and received his Ph.D. degree at the University of Utah, USA, in 1990. He obtained his M.A. from KAIST, Korea, in 1981 and his B.A. from the Yonsei University, Korea, in 1979. He currently works as vice president at the Institute for Advanced Engineering in Korea.\nHe has been working on gasification technology development since 1994, starting from coal gasification to municipal solid wastes gasification, and petroleum coke gasification. He currently heads the 25 ton/day gasification project in Korea to produce blue hydrogen. He has worked as the president of KAWET from 2013 to 2019 and has been the vice president of the Korea DME Association since 2008. Dr. Yun has also served as the editor for the Korean Industrial Chemistry News of KSIEC from 2009 to 2016.",institutionString:"Institute for Advanced Engineering",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"Institute for Advanced Engineering",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Korea, South"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"763",title:"Bioresource Engineering",slug:"bioresource-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"59423",title:"Biomass Gasification: An Overview of Technological Barriers and Socio-Environmental Impact",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74191",slug:"biomass-gasification-an-overview-of-technological-barriers-and-socio-environmental-impact",totalDownloads:2099,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:21,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Biomass gasification has been regarded as a promising technology to utilize bioenergy sustainably. However, further exploitation of biomass gasification still needs to overcome a significant number of technological and logistic challenges. In this chapter, the current development status of biomass gasification, especially for the activities in China, has been presented. The biomass characters and the challenges associated with biomass collection and transportation are covered and it is believed that biomass gasification coupled with distributed power generation will be more competitive in some small communities with large amount of local biomass materials. The technical part of biomass gasification is detailed by introducing different types of gasifiers as well as investigating the minimization methods of tar, which have become more and more important. In fact, applying biomass gasification also needs to deal with other socio-environmental barriers, such as health concerns, environmental issues and public fears. However, an objective financial return can actually accelerate the commercialization of biomass gasification for power and heat generation, and in the meantime, it will also contribute to other technical breakthroughs.",signatures:"Xiang Luo, Tao Wu, Kaiqi Shi, Mingxuan Song and Yusen Rao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59423",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59423",authors:[{id:"212173",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiang",surname:"Luo",slug:"xiang-luo",fullName:"Xiang Luo"},{id:"212174",title:"Dr.",name:"Tao",surname:"Wu",slug:"tao-wu",fullName:"Tao Wu"},{id:"223969",title:"Dr.",name:"Kaiqi",surname:"Shi",slug:"kaiqi-shi",fullName:"Kaiqi Shi"},{id:"223971",title:"Mr.",name:"Mingxuan",surname:"Song",slug:"mingxuan-song",fullName:"Mingxuan Song"}],corrections:null},{id:"58547",title:"Current Developments in Thermochemical Conversion of Biomass to Fuels and Chemicals",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71464",slug:"current-developments-in-thermochemical-conversion-of-biomass-to-fuels-and-chemicals",totalDownloads:1569,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:16,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Biomass is one of the largest concentrated carbon source available for producing renewable energy. Thermochemical conversion of biomass has been used for centuries in various settings. Biomass typically has a higher oxygen and volatile matter content than other solid carbon feedstocks, resulting in increased reactivity during conversion by thermochemical pathways. Moisture content of the biomass feedstock exerts significant influence on the conversion process and is an important criteria used to classify various thermochemical conversion technologies. This chapter discusses the current status and future outlook of thermochemical biomass conversion processes.",signatures:"Chan Seung Park, Partho Sarothi Roy and Su Hyun Kim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58547",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58547",authors:[{id:"212282",title:"Dr.",name:"Chan Seung",surname:"Park",slug:"chan-seung-park",fullName:"Chan Seung Park"},{id:"216616",title:"MSc.",name:"Partho",surname:"Roy",slug:"partho-roy",fullName:"Partho Roy"},{id:"254562",title:"Dr.",name:"Suhyun",surname:"Kim",slug:"suhyun-kim",fullName:"Suhyun Kim"}],corrections:null},{id:"60811",title:"Development of Torrefaction Technology for Solid Fuel Using Renewable Biomass",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76100",slug:"development-of-torrefaction-technology-for-solid-fuel-using-renewable-biomass",totalDownloads:1125,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Fossil fuel sources such as coal, crude oil and natural gas would eventually get exhausted and their price continuously fluctuates. During the past four decades, many researches have tried to find alternate fuel resources to satisfy the worldwide increasing energy demand as well as to minimize dependence on fossil fuels. Among many possible alternate fuel sources, agriculture biomass residues exhibit most promising possibility due to their inherent characteristics in storing solar energy and amenability in subsequent conversion into convenient solid, liquid and gaseous fuels. Torrefaction is a thermal method for the conversion of biomass operating in temperature range of 200–300°C under atmospheric conditions in the absence of oxygen. Agricultural crop residues that are abundant in the Philippines such as coconut leaves, cogongrass and rice husk were utilized to produce solid fuel by torrefaction for use as alternative source of energy. The key torrefaction products were collected and analyzed. Combustion characteristics of both torrefied and untorrefied biomass were investigated. Torrefaction of the biomass significantly improved the heating value, proximate compositions also improved and were comparable to coal and combustion characteristics were superior making it more suitable for fuel applications. The design of the torrefaction process was researched and developed.",signatures:"Lola Domnina B. Pestaño and Wilfredo I. José",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60811",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60811",authors:[{id:"218531",title:"Prof.",name:"Lola Domnina",surname:"Pestaño",slug:"lola-domnina-pestano",fullName:"Lola Domnina Pestaño"},{id:"220132",title:"Prof.",name:"Wilfredo",surname:"Jose",slug:"wilfredo-jose",fullName:"Wilfredo Jose"}],corrections:null},{id:"59199",title:"Thermodynamic and Kinetic Study of Lignocellulosic Waste Gasification",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73288",slug:"thermodynamic-and-kinetic-study-of-lignocellulosic-waste-gasification",totalDownloads:1087,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, the kinetic behavior during the steam gasification of sawdust, plum, and olive pits was investigated by thermogravimetric analysis where the weight loss is measured with the temperature variation at different heating rates (5, 10, and 15 K/min). The weight loss and their derivative curves show that the gasification takes place in three visible stages. The kinetic study was carried out using Coats-Redfern methods. The Ginstling-Brounstein model showed better fit. The obtained activation energy values vary between 70 and 100 kJ/mol for the pyrolysis stage for all studied agro-industrial wastes. On the other hand, a thermodynamic model was proposed to predict the five waste gasification processes, considering the char and tar production. The proposed model allows it to perform a parametric study, analyzing the process variables’ effect on the exergetic efficiency. The higher temperatures favor the endothermic reactions as the H2 and CO formation reactions. Therefore, in the product, moles of H2 and CO increase and consequently the exergy efficiency of the process. Increasing the equivalence ratio value, H2, CO, and CH4 contents decrease; thus the calorific value of the produced gas and the exergetic efficiency decrease. In addition, the CO2 and H2O presences in the syngas composition diminish its calorific value and the exergetic efficiency. Considering the influence of supply steam/biomass ratio, the exergetic efficiency decreases with the growth of this parameter.",signatures:"Rosa Ana Rodriguez, Germán Mazza, Marcelo Echegaray, Anabel\nFernandez and Daniela Zalazar García",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59199",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59199",authors:[{id:"218982",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosa",surname:"Rodriguez",slug:"rosa-rodriguez",fullName:"Rosa Rodriguez"}],corrections:null},{id:"61426",title:"Experimental Observation on Downdraft Gasification for Different Biomass Feedstocks",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77119",slug:"experimental-observation-on-downdraft-gasification-for-different-biomass-feedstocks",totalDownloads:1100,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"With the need for developing a more sustainable world, there is a desire to shift from fossil fuels to biofuels, produced using the concept of biorefineries. Within the last few decades, thermochemical conversion technologies have gained a great deal of attention for producing advanced biofuels. In this context, this chapter elaborates different aspects of biomass gasification technology, as a representative of thermochemical pathways, and suggested potential solutions to enhance the efficacy of the process. To fulfill this goal, different types of biomass feedstock are employed to examine the potential of each in bioenergy production through gasification process. The chapter is consisting of a series of dependent studies to investigate the path for advancements in the gasification process. The first study investigates the parametric effect of experimental conditions during gasification of individual biomass feedstocks to select the best biomass feedstock for next study. It is also demonstrated that how the variation in the syngas composition interacts with H2/CO ratio. The other study investigates the potential of composite feedstocks based on the results from the first study. The last study investigates the potential failure scenarios and the likelihood of their occurrence are explored.",signatures:"Edris Madadian",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61426",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61426",authors:[{id:"186003",title:"Mr.",name:"Edris",surname:"Madadian",slug:"edris-madadian",fullName:"Edris Madadian"}],corrections:null},{id:"59526",title:"Recent Trends in Gasification Based Waste-to-Energy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74487",slug:"recent-trends-in-gasification-based-waste-to-energy",totalDownloads:2286,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:13,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Addressing the contemporary waste management is seeing a shift towards energy production while managing waste sustainably. Consequently, waste treatment through gasification is slowly taking over the waste incineration with multiple benefits, including simultaneous waste management and energy production while reducing landfill volumes and displacing conventional fossil fuels. Only in the UK, there are around 14 commercial plants built to operate on gasification technology. These include fixed bed and fluidized bed gasification reactors. Ultra-clean tar free gasification of waste is now the best available technique and has experienced a significant shift from two-stage gasification and combustion towards a one-stage system for gasification and syngas cleaning. Nowadays in gasification sector, more companies are developing commercial plants with tar cracking and syngas cleaning. Moreover, gasification can be a practical scheme when applying ultra-clean syngas for a gas turbine with heat recovery by steam cycle for district heating and cooling (DHC) systems. This chapter aims to examine the recent trends in gasification-based waste-to-energy technologies. Furthermore, types of gasification technologies, their challenges and future perspectives in various applications are highlighted in detail.",signatures:"Muhammad Saghir, Mohammad Rehan and Abdul-Sattar Nizami",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59526",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59526",authors:[{id:"218814",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdul-Sattar",surname:"Nizami",slug:"abdul-sattar-nizami",fullName:"Abdul-Sattar Nizami"},{id:"237067",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",surname:"Rehan",slug:"mohammad-rehan",fullName:"Mohammad Rehan"},{id:"237073",title:"Mr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Saghir",slug:"muhammad-saghir",fullName:"Muhammad Saghir"}],corrections:null},{id:"59269",title:"Gasification of Municipal Solid Waste",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73685",slug:"gasification-of-municipal-solid-waste",totalDownloads:3723,totalCrossrefCites:20,totalDimensionsCites:33,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Gasification of municipal solid waste (MSW) is an attractive alternative fuel production process for the treatment of solid waste as it has several potential benefits over traditional combustion of MSW. Syngas produced from the gasification of MSW can be utilized as a gas fuel being combusted in a conventional burner or in a gas engine to utilize the heat or produce electricity. Also, it can be used as a building block for producing valuable products such as chemicals and other forms of fuel energy. This book chapter covers the properties of MSW, gasification mechanism, chemistry, operating conditions, gasification technologies, processes, recovery system, and most importantly by reviewing the environmental impacts of MSW gasification. As one of recent advanced technologies, a case study of pilot-scale MSW gasification is introduced, which could be one of the most efficient pathways to utilize the technology to produce electricity with a newly developed gasification process by reducing tar and pollutant emission.",signatures:"Yong-Chil Seo, Md Tanvir Alam and Won-Seok Yang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59269",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59269",authors:[{id:"213854",title:"Prof.",name:"Yong-Chil",surname:"Seo",slug:"yong-chil-seo",fullName:"Yong-Chil Seo"},{id:"213857",title:"Mr.",name:"Md Tanvir",surname:"Alam",slug:"md-tanvir-alam",fullName:"Md Tanvir Alam"},{id:"222321",title:"Dr.",name:"Won-Seok",surname:"Yang",slug:"won-seok-yang",fullName:"Won-Seok Yang"}],corrections:null},{id:"60428",title:"Analysis on High Temperature Gasification for Conversion of RDF into Bio-Methanol",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74218",slug:"analysis-on-high-temperature-gasification-for-conversion-of-rdf-into-bio-methanol",totalDownloads:1369,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Municipal solid waste (MSW) is one of the residue materials considered as a potential source for biofuel production in the EU Renewable Energy Directive (RED), which establishes that a minimum of 10% biofuels for transport shall be used in every Member State by 2020, thus promoting advanced biofuel from waste. A high-temperature gasification technology transforms MSW into a syngas rich in hydrogen and carbon monoxide and free of tar, char and harmful compounds like dioxins appearing as a promising root for methanol production. The overall process including MSW high-temperature gasification, syngas purification and conditioning up to methanol synthesis has been modeled with Aspen Plus analyzing the influence of waste composition and operating conditions on syngas composition and methanol yield. The evaluation of CAPEX and OPEX has been carried out to obtain a cost of production (COP) estimation. The greenhouse gas (GHG) emission has also been estimated and compared with the conventional waste incineration process and methanol production. The technology assessment shows interesting results technically and economically, when compared with waste to energy processes: over 50% of incoming carbon is fixed into methanol molecule, and due to the negative cost paid for RDF disposal, the bio-methanol COP provides a reasonable industrial margin.",signatures:"Annarita Salladini, Emanuela Agostini, Alessia Borgogna, Luca\nSpadacini, Maria Cristina Annesini and Gaetano Iaquaniello",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60428",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60428",authors:[{id:"39749",title:"Dr.",name:"Annarita",surname:"Salladini",slug:"annarita-salladini",fullName:"Annarita Salladini"},{id:"213919",title:"Dr.",name:"Gaetano",surname:"Iaquaniello",slug:"gaetano-iaquaniello",fullName:"Gaetano Iaquaniello"},{id:"213920",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Cristina",surname:"Annesini",slug:"maria-cristina-annesini",fullName:"Maria Cristina Annesini"},{id:"213921",title:"MSc.",name:"Alessia",surname:"Borgogna",slug:"alessia-borgogna",fullName:"Alessia Borgogna"},{id:"213923",title:"MSc.",name:"Emanuela",surname:"Agostini",slug:"emanuela-agostini",fullName:"Emanuela Agostini"},{id:"213924",title:"Dr.",name:"Luca",surname:"Spadacini",slug:"luca-spadacini",fullName:"Luca Spadacini"}],corrections:null},{id:"59776",title:"Efficiency of Plasma Gasification Technologies for Hazardous Waste Treatment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74485",slug:"efficiency-of-plasma-gasification-technologies-for-hazardous-waste-treatment",totalDownloads:2132,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The chapter is devoted to the development of technologies for the processing of carbonaceous wastes, including hazardous ones, using plasma energy sources. In particular, plasma-steam equipment provides complete environmental safety and high quality of the synthesis gas produced. Its application is also discussed to exclude the risk of environmental pollution by heavy metals, if they are contained in the recycled waste. The advantages of using oxygen instead of air as an additional reagent in gasification processes are underlined. It is shown that the proposed variant of the processing technology corresponds well to the general idea of numerous publications in the world scientific literature, known as the Waste-to-Energy. It has been shown that plasma equipment has significant advantages in terms of the commercialization of processes for the treatment of sewage sludge and some other hazardous waste.",signatures:"Victor Zhovtyansky and Vitas Valinčius",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59776",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59776",authors:[{id:"14573",title:"Dr.",name:"Vitas",surname:"Valinčius",slug:"vitas-valincius",fullName:"Vitas Valinčius"},{id:"215478",title:"Dr.",name:"Victor",surname:"Zhovtyansky",slug:"victor-zhovtyansky",fullName:"Victor Zhovtyansky"}],corrections:null},{id:"58100",title:"Small-Scale Energy Use of Agricultural Biogas Plant Wastes by Gasification",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71700",slug:"small-scale-energy-use-of-agricultural-biogas-plant-wastes-by-gasification",totalDownloads:1033,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In Poland, there are 78 biogas plants producing a total electrical power of 85.94 MW. The byproduct of biogas plants is called a digestate. A single biogas plant with a power of 500 kW produces more than 10,000 ton of digestate per year. The goal of this chapter is to present a low-cost method of raw digestate processing with water content of about 94.55%, and also the results of thermal gasification of dried and pelletized digestate. Initial dehydration method is based on mechanical separation of the solid fraction in screw separator with a slot filter. Pre-dewatered digestate had been dried in biodrying process in semi-technical scale bioreactor. Afterward, the digestate was dried in tubular dryer and pelletized. The chapter covers the energy consumption for each stage of preparation of digestate for thermal gasification process. The gasification tests were conducted in fixed bed downdraft reactor. The chapter also features the physicochemical properties of digestate used in gasification process. The result of research on the gasification of drier digestate was gaseous fuel that does not differ from the quality of fuels obtained from the thermal treatment of other types of biomass.",signatures:"Dariusz Wiśniewski, Mariusz Siudak and Janusz Piechocki",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58100",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58100",authors:[{id:"213562",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Mariusz",surname:"Siudak",slug:"mariusz-siudak",fullName:"Mariusz Siudak"},{id:"213563",title:"Dr.",name:"Janusz",surname:"Piechocki",slug:"janusz-piechocki",fullName:"Janusz Piechocki"},{id:"213564",title:"Dr.",name:"Dariusz",surname:"Wiśniewski",slug:"dariusz-wisniewski",fullName:"Dariusz Wiśniewski"}],corrections:null},{id:"59324",title:"Pyrolysis and Gasification Characteristics of High Ash Indian and Turkish Coals",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73536",slug:"pyrolysis-and-gasification-characteristics-of-high-ash-indian-and-turkish-coals",totalDownloads:1186,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Pyrolysis and gasification studies of Indian and Turkish high ash coal samples have been performed using coupled TGA-MS method. Coal samples were heated in the TGA apparatus in an argon, steam, CO2 and blended mixtures of CO2 and steam in a temperature range from 25-1250°C with heating rates from 35 to 1000 K/min. Gas evolution measurements is performed using the mass spectrometry system. During the devolatilisation stage (350-700°C), the maximum mass loss has observed in which O2, CO2, CO, H2 and small amount of hydrocarbon compounds are released. Char gasification is mainly influenced by operating conditions such as heating rate and reaction temperature and also the char production method, its physical structure and size and chemical composition of the char. The steam and CO2 gasification rates of the chars are carried out at the temperatures of 850, 900, 950, and 1000°C. Three kinetic models are applied to describe the char conversion rates: volumetric model, grain model, and random pore model. The activation energy of Indian coal-char is varying from 122 to 177 kJ mol-1 under steam gasification and from 130 to 214 kJ mol-1 for CO2 gasification. The activation energy for char-steam gasification is 156-173 kJ/mol, whereas in the steam blended with CO2 gasification, it ranges between 162 and 196 kJ/mol for 3 mm particles. Similar trends are observed for the Arrhenius constant values for both sized particles.",signatures:"Jayaraman Kandasamy and Iskender Gökalp",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59324",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59324",authors:[{id:"211947",title:"Prof.",name:"Jayaraman",surname:"Kandasamy",slug:"jayaraman-kandasamy",fullName:"Jayaraman Kandasamy"},{id:"221644",title:"Prof.",name:"Iskender",surname:"GôKALP",slug:"iskender-gokalp",fullName:"Iskender GôKALP"}],corrections:null},{id:"61638",title:"Innovative Microreactors for Low-grade Feedstock Gasification",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74602",slug:"innovative-microreactors-for-low-grade-feedstock-gasification",totalDownloads:1e3,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The first fluidized bed thermogravimetric analyzer (FBTGA) has been developed. The proof of concept of the FBTGA has been carried out on the thermal decomposition of calcium hydroxide. The kinetics and modeling of coal pyrolysis and gasification were investigated in the FBTGA. The obtained activation energies for the individual gases that are produced from coal pyrolysis are 19 to 21% lower than those found for similar coals in the literature. This decrease in the activation energies is explained by a temperature gradient of 185 to 209°C. For the CO shift reaction, the resulting activation energy is 46.6 kcal/mol, increasing by 20% from the one used in the literature. The second reactor presented in this work is a TGA powered by electromagnetic irradiation. As an application for this reactor, a novel kinetic model based on a dual attempt to predict not only the yield but also the composition of bio-oil is presented. The validation of the developed models demonstrated an excellent capability of predicting the yield and quality of the produced oil. The third reactor is a saddle reactor, which consists of two V-shaped pairs of arms and minimizes the impact of the heat and mass transfer limitation on chemical reactions.",signatures:"Said Samih, Sherif Farag and Jamal Chaouki",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61638",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61638",authors:[{id:"96495",title:"Prof.",name:"Jamal",surname:"Chaouki",slug:"jamal-chaouki",fullName:"Jamal Chaouki"},{id:"212894",title:"Dr.",name:"Said",surname:"Samih",slug:"said-samih",fullName:"Said Samih"},{id:"214051",title:"Dr.",name:"Sherif",surname:"Farag",slug:"sherif-farag",fullName:"Sherif Farag"}],corrections:null},{id:"58257",title:"Integrated Gasification System for Power and Hydrogen Production",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71841",slug:"integrated-gasification-system-for-power-and-hydrogen-production",totalDownloads:996,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The growth of economic and living standard leads to more electricity demand. Unfortunately, due to more limitation of power station area and electricity grid development, energy delivery issue is rising up; hence, new method of delivering the power by different energy carrier is necessary to investigate. Hydrogen has the promising potential as an energy carrier due to its high gravimetric energy density and cleanliness to the environment. For comfortable storage and transportation, hydrogen is covalently bonded to methylcyclohexane (MCH) and liquid organic hydrogen carrier (LOHC). In this chapter, novel integrated gasification systems for coproduction of electricity and MCH from low-rank coal and microalgae have been proposed. The total energy efficiency is improved by applying enhanced process integration (EPI) technology to minimize exergy losses throughout the integrated system. The integrated system for microalgae is capable to provide more than 60% of total energy efficiency, while the integrated system for low-rank coal delivers the total energy efficiency of 84%.",signatures:"Lukman Adi Prananto and Muhammad Aziz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58257",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58257",authors:[{id:"98160",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Aziz",slug:"muhammad-aziz",fullName:"Muhammad Aziz"},{id:"212476",title:"Mr.",name:"Lukman Adi",surname:"Prananto",slug:"lukman-adi-prananto",fullName:"Lukman Adi Prananto"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"2763",title:"Gasification for Practical Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e576b2a136c1c20c784302344c65448e",slug:"gasification-for-practical-applications",bookSignature:"Yongseung Yun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2763.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144925",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongseung",surname:"Yun",slug:"yongseung-yun",fullName:"Yongseung Yun"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5448",title:"Recent Advances in Carbon Capture and Storage",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"128901fc967a8eb538f277c98fd917e3",slug:"recent-advances-in-carbon-capture-and-storage",bookSignature:"Yongseung Yun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5448.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144925",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongseung",surname:"Yun",slug:"yongseung-yun",fullName:"Yongseung Yun"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7828",title:"Alcohol Fuels",subtitle:"Current Technologies and Future Prospect",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c951982f9176ae38f87c0a978c8f7541",slug:"alcohol-fuels-current-technologies-and-future-prospect",bookSignature:"Yongseung Yun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7828.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144925",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongseung",surname:"Yun",slug:"yongseung-yun",fullName:"Yongseung Yun"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"448",title:"Biofuel Production",subtitle:"Recent Developments and Prospects",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c74ec286656d475a34445a835eee296d",slug:"biofuel-production-recent-developments-and-prospects",bookSignature:"Marco Aurelio dos Santos Bernardes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/448.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6625",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Aurelio",surname:"Dos Santos Bernardes",slug:"marco-aurelio-dos-santos-bernardes",fullName:"Marco Aurelio Dos Santos Bernardes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"582",title:"Biodiesel",subtitle:"Feedstocks and Processing Technologies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6515b40c0b7f5abd126e0325263a581c",slug:"biodiesel-feedstocks-and-processing-technologies",bookSignature:"Margarita Stoytcheva and Gisela Montero",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/582.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6375",title:"Prof.",name:"Margarita",surname:"Stoytcheva",slug:"margarita-stoytcheva",fullName:"Margarita Stoytcheva"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"450",title:"Biofuel's Engineering Process Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ff9814e64849f2167e29403f356e018e",slug:"biofuel-s-engineering-process-technology",bookSignature:"Marco Aurélio dos Santos Bernardes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/450.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6625",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Aurelio",surname:"Dos Santos Bernardes",slug:"marco-aurelio-dos-santos-bernardes",fullName:"Marco Aurelio Dos Santos Bernardes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2965",title:"Sustainable Degradation of Lignocellulosic Biomass",subtitle:"Techniques, Applications and Commercialization",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"79f3af7841253f5e3e67f53245c121d6",slug:"sustainable-degradation-of-lignocellulosic-biomass-techniques-applications-and-commercialization",bookSignature:"Anuj K. 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Heavy metals (HM) represent a group of metallic elements and metalloids characterized by a relatively density higher than 5 g/cm3, an atomic number greater than 20 and with properties like conductance of heat, current and luster surface [1, 2, 3].
Pollution or contamination of the environment with heavy metals is a major concern, due to their capacity to bioaccumulate and persistence in the environment, non-biodegradable nature, contaminate the food chains and their toxicity on the environment and living organisms (humans, animals and plants) [1, 2, 3]. Heavy metal toxicity is a concern of ecological, nutritional, evolutionary and environmental reasons [1].
Heavy metals are among the most investigated pollutants and received a higher attention by researchers, because of their toxicity [2, 4]. These elements are naturally present in the environment, but on which modern industrialization and urbanization, anthropogenic activities and use of fertilizers, led to increased levels of these metals in the environment and implicitly to a high exposure of living things to them [2, 5]. Among the heavy metals and the most toxic metalloids are chromium, mercury, arsenic, cadmium, lead, nickel, copper, zinc, but the most common heavy metals in the environment are chromium, manganese, nickel, lead, cadmium, copper and zinc [2].
Regarding their functions in biological systems, heavy metals can be essential and nonessential. The nonessential heavy metals do not possess biological functions in living organisms, being non-essential to metabolic system, both for plants and animals. Their category includes lead, cadmium, mercury, aluminum and arsenic [2, 6, 7], being able to exert toxic effects even at low concentrations [8]. The essential heavy metals are elements, which are indispensable for plant and animals, which play a vital role in biological processes and entire metabolism and may be required in living organism in different concentrations [2, 8]. These heavy metals are considered as trace elements because of their presence in trace concentrations (less than 10 ppm) in different environmental matrices [9]. The essentiality and toxicity of the trace metals depending on the dose of exposure [10]. This category includes 19 elements, among which the most important are manganese, iron, copper, zinc, nickel and chromium [2].
Trace elements or trace minerals are minerals necessary for the body, but in amounts between 1 and 100 mg/day for adults and represents less than 0.01–0.02% of the total body weight [10, 11, 12]. When they exceed these threshold concentrations, they become dangerous to the health of living organisms [1].
According to WHO classification, trace elements can be divided into three groups, such as essential elements (zinc, iodine, molybdenum, copper, selenium, chromium), probably essential elements (manganese, silicon, boron, vanadium, nickel) and potentially toxic elements (lead, cadmium, fluorine, mercury, aluminum, arsenic, barium, lithium, tin [13, 14].
Another classification of the trace elements was made by Frieden in 1981, based on their levels in biological tissues, being divided into 3 groups, namely essential trace elements (boron, cobalt, copper, iodine, manganese, molybdenum, zinc), probably essential trace elements (chromium, fluorine, nickel, selenium, vanadium) and physically promotive trace elements (bromine, lithium, silicone, tin) [13, 15].
The present chapter presents the characteristics of heavy metals, the main sources of heavy metal contamination of the environment, as well as human exposure sources. The impact of their toxicity on various environmental segments, such as water, air, soil, as well as on living organisms, animals, but especially humans, has also been described.
Heavy metals contamination of environment can come both from natural sources and from anthropogenic processes. Natural emissions of heavy metals include volcanic eruptions, rock weathering, sea-salt sprays, forest fires, biogenic sources, wind-borne soil particles and can be found in the nature as oxides, hydroxides, silicates, sulphates, sulphides, phosphates, organic compounds [4].
Anthropogenic processes which can release heavy metals in different environmental compartments, are industries, agriculture (insecticides, pesticides which can release As), fossil fuels combustion (Ni, V, Hg, Se, Sn), wastewater, mining, smelting (As, Cu, Zn), corrosion, metallurgical processes, residual organic matter, transportation (Pb) [4, 7, 16].
Heavy metals can produce side effects on soil, on water, on air, but also on plants, animals and humans [3, 4, 17]. In soil, high levels of heavy metals can produce alteration of soil quality through modification of pH, color, porosity and natural composition [4, 18], but also low crop production, loss of many types of normal flora and habitat [19]. Their accumulation into the water imposes serious problems on humans and ecosystems [4], due to decreasing of drinking water quality and purity, decreasing water supplies for all living organisms [19]. High levels of heavy metals in air can lead to harmful health problems, including respiratory infections, cardiovascular disease, premature mortality, eyes and skin irritation, but also can cause infrastructure deterioration, acid rain increasing, corrosion, eutrophication and haze [4], low yields of the crop, not enough oxygen [19]. In plants, they can produce damage of roots or leaves, interfere in important biochemical process, such as photosynthesis, alteration of minerals absorption, damage of chlorophyll, reduce the growth and development of the roots, which leading to reduction pf overall growth of the plant [3, 20, 21].
The toxicity of heavy metals in animal is manifested through decreased body weight, kidney damage, liver affections, shortened life span, increased oxidative stress, modifications of cells composition, DNA damage [17]. In humans they can produce kidney damage, liver affections, pulmonary effects, several types of cancer [3].
Heavy metals became toxic when are not metabolized by the body and accumulates in organs and soft tissues [4]. They reach the human body by ingesting contaminated water or food, inhalation of absorption through the skin. Among the pathways, ingestion in the common route that helps the heavy metals to enter to the animal bodies [3, 4]. The effect of this metals can be inhibitory, stimulatory and toxic for some biochemical processes [3], being able to produce various health problems on nervous system (Alzheimer, Parkinsoma, depression, dementia), on bone system (bone mineralization) an on reproductive system. Also, can produce DNA damage, RNA affection, or cancer of lungs, skin, bladder, due to production of ROS [3]. Their toxicity depends the dose of exposure, time of exposure, pollutant concentration, organism which are exposed to it, nature and oxidation state of the metal [3, 4].
Lead is the most important toxic heavy metal in the environment because can cause serious environmental contamination and health problems [1, 10]. The main sources of environmental contamination including industrial processes, such as fossil fuel burning, mining, smelting, manufacturing, recycling activities. It is also used for leaded pipes, lead-glazed or lead-soldered containers, leaded paint, leaded gasoline, leaded aviation fuel [10, 22].
The inorganic lead can enter into the human body by inhalation (pulmonary absorption) of contaminated air or by smoking (15%), or by ingestion (gastrointestinal absorption) of food (65%) and water (20%) [1, 3, 22, 23]. Although organic compounds are absorbed through skin, inorganic compounds cannot be absorbed [10].
According to the WHO guidelines, the international level of concern of poisoning with lead is 25 μg/dl of blood for adults and for children, it must be less than 5 μg/dl of blood [23]. Their absorption is influenced by the age and physiological status of the exposed person [22].
However, the nervous system is most affected by exposure to high concentrations of lead, in both children and adults. Because children absorb 4–5 times more ingested lead, it can cause impaired neurobehavioral development, learning disabilities, speech and language handicaps, poor attention span, lower IQ, diminished intelligence, anti-social behavior [10, 22]. At high concentration, lead can produce coma, convulsions and even death on children and may be left with mental retardation and behavioral disorders [10]. In adults it can be manifested headache, poor attention, irritability, loss of memory, dullness [9, 22]. Increased absorption rate was observed when other nutrients such as calcium or iron are lacking. Even at lower concentrations, known as safe levels, children face learning or behavioral problems, decreased intelligence in children [10]. Although it mainly affects the nervous system, the largest amount of lead is found in the kidneys [9, 22].
Research has shown that this heavy metal can cross the placental barrier in pregnant women who have high levels of it in the blood, causing fetal abnormalities such as low IQ level, encephalopathy, neurological disorders, disruption of calcium levels in nerve cells [3]. Pregnant women exposed to lead, can manifest miscarriage, premature birth, reduced birth weight, stillbirth [10, 22].
After absorption, 99% of lead is bound to the hemoglobin, being circulated through the vascular system to soft tissues, bones, liver, kidneys (organs of lead excretion), hair [3, 10, 19], being stored especially in teeth and bones (where in incorporated into the mineral in place of calcium) [10, 22]. The stored Pb can be reintroduced into the bloodstream, especially during pregnancy, exposing the fetus [10].
Lead can produce lungs disorders, reduced pulmonary function, anemia, liver damage, cardiovascular dysfunction, renal impairment, immunotoxicity, disturbance of the balance free radicals-antioxidant system, cognitive impairments [1, 5, 10, 17]. Anemia occurs as a result of the interaction that this metal has with the important enzymes involved in the synthesis of hemoglobin, enzymes that are responsible and transport oxygen. Thus, by retardation of these enzymes, the hemoglobin concentration is reduced [3]. At high concentration, it can produce high risk of hypertension, gastrointestinal disorders, Alzheimer’s disease, kidneys damage, interfere in vitamin D metabolism and thyrotoxicity, by affecting the normal function of thyroid gland, [3, 19, 22].
In people with high levels of lead in the blood, there was an impairment of sexual function, manifested by decreased libido, decreased sperm count and their mobility, changes in sperm composition [3, 22].
Also, this metal can cause changes at cellular level, such as decreased cell viability, cell distortion, reduced cohesion, lipid peroxidation, damage of protein folding, stop structural protein synthesis, intra- and inter-cellular signaling, apoptosis, ionic transportation, especially of calcium, cell adhesion, release of neurotransmitters, inhibiting enzymes activity, inhibits mineral absorption, affecting the activities of mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum, decreases level of glutathione, generation of reactive oxygen species or reducing antioxidants [1, 3, 17, 22]. Lead has ability to inhibit or mimic the activity of calcium and perturbs their intracellular cycling, may interfere with proteins, can be bound to biological molecules and interfering with their function by various mechanisms [22].
Studies demonstrated that lead can produce genetic damage by mechanisms which include inhibition of DNA synthesis and repair, oxidative damage, being considered by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as a probable human carcinogen [22].
Studies performed on animal models have shown altered homeostasis, induced kidney damage, decreases of antioxidant levels, decreased body weight, shortened life span, increases of total protein, albumin, histamine, creatinine, decreased red blood cells count [5, 17].
Cadmium is an industrial compound, used in plastic industry, for obtaining plastic stabilizer, but also for production of color pigments, alloys (being a by-product of zinc production), glass production, electroplating industries, welders, rechargeable batteries (about three-fourths of cadmium production). Others important sources include emissions from industrial activities, such as mining or smelting [1, 5, 9, 19, 22, 24].
Exposure to cadmium is achieved by ingestion of food or water, inhalation of contaminated dust, especially for employers which work in primary metal industries or in cadmium-contaminated places, or by smoking cigarettes [3, 5, 10, 19, 22]. Because this metal could not penetrate the skin barrier, dermal exposure not represent a health concern [10].
The main way of exposure for smokers is the smoking, while, for non-smokers, the primary source of exposure is food, such as peanuts, crustaceans and mollusks, leafy vegetables, sunflower seeds, cocoa powder, rice, grains, soybeans, mushrooms, potatoes [3, 10, 22, 25]. Biomonitoring studies have shown that in the case of cigarette smokers, blood and urine levels were generally high, moderate in former smokers and in non-smokers they were reduced [22]. This is related the capacity of this metal to accumulate in high concentrations in tabaco leaves [5, 26]. Their toxicity depends both, the dose of exposure and the exposure time [3]. The percentage of cadmium, absorbed after ingestion is 5–10%, but in diets with a low intake of iron, calcium or protein, the percentage absorbed is higher [10].
In case of occupational workers, in industries which uses this metal, inhalation is the primary way of exposure, so that a percentage of 5–35% of inhaled cadmium is absorbed into the blood, depending the form, particle size, or site of deposition. If this metal reaches the level of the alveoli, its absorption into the blood could be 100% [10]. Their chronic exposure has been associated with changes in pulmonary function, emphysema, decreases in olfactory function [22].
The most toxic form is divalent cadmium ion (Cd2+), which is the most common form and may disturb the basic cellular functions and can cause various side effects [3, 22]. This element can cause side effects even at low concentrations, due to its low excretion rate [17, 27].
Also, it has the capability to replace iron and copper in different cytoplasmic and membrane proteins, and these unbounded substituted metals participate in oxidative stress processes, due to their increased levels [17].
When it binds to cysteine-rich proteins, its concentration inside the body increases 3000 times, forming compounds, such as metallothionein, which can produce hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity [1, 3]. If attached to compounds such as histidine, glutamate or cysteine, it can cause iron deficiencies. As a result of exposure, the immune system and endocrine system is affected, even at a young age [3].
Studies have shown that women have higher levels of cadmium than men, and pregnant women have more levels than non-pregnant women. Cadmium does not cross the placental barrier, and remains trapped in it, preventing it from affecting the prenatal exposure of the fetus [3].
The target organs for cadmium are the liver, bones, vascular system, nerve tissues, but especially the kidneys, leading to their damage or malfunction [3, 17, 19, 28]. As their concentration inside the kidneys increases, the rate of calcium excretion from the body is high, which means an increased risk of kidney stones [3, 17, 29]. Also, its renal excretion causes damage to the renal tubules and tubular disfunction by promoting oxidative stress in proximal tubular cells [3, 17].
In case of acute ingestion, symptoms such as vomiting, vertigo, abdominal pain, burning sensation, muscle cramps, shock, loss of consciousness, nausea, convulsions appear in 15–30 min. Because this heavy metal is a severe pulmonary and gastrointestinal irritant, erosion of the intestinal tract, diseases of pulmonary, hepatic or renal or coma could appear, depending the route of poisoning [22].
The exposure to low levels, may affect the prostatic lipid metabolism and the increasing of the fatty acids used to synthesis of phospholipids, with effects on the composition and functions of the plasma membrane [3].
High levels of cadmium in the blood cause a decrease in bone density, especially in pregnant women. Also, it can produce Itai-itai bone disease, which is characterized by painful degenerative bone disease (such as osteomalacia and osteoporosis), renal tubular abnormalities, calcium and phosphate excretion, lung cancer [5, 10, 30].
Chronic exposure can cause effects such as anemia, emphysema, osteoporosis, renal disorders, anosmia, chronic rhinitis, but also have a depressant effect, by changing the levels of serotonin, norepinephrine or acetylcholine [3, 22].
By accumulating in the pancreas and blood, the both exocrine and endocrine function of the pancreas is affected, resulting in a reduction in serum insulin. It may also affect the pancreas to resisting the secretion of insulin, and producing diabetes type 2. Research has shown that it can affect adipose tissue and can lead to obesity. Research has shown that exposure to this element can alter the balance of pituitary hormones. On reproductive system, Cd can affect the synthesis of testosterone and progesterone, spontaneous abortion, low birth weight, changes and apoptosis of germ cells, reducing of semen quality, damage of DNA of sperm cells, apoptosis of Sertoli cells [3].
Long term exposure to cell, it could transform normal cell into malignant cells. Because it contributes to the development of certain types of cancer, such as lung, prostate, pancreatic or kidney cancer, especially in case of occupational exposure, it has been classified as no. 1 human carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer USA [3, 5, 17, 22, 31]. Rodent studies have demonstrated the capacity of this metal to causes pulmonary adenocarcinomas or prostatic proliferative lesions, leading to adenocarcinomas [22].
At the cellular level, Cd disrupts the respiratory chain of the mitochondria, involved in transport across cell membranes and cell damage through production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), blocking calcium channels, hinders sulfhydryl enzymes, interacts with some cell ligands, promote lipid peroxidation and protein carbonylation. It also affects oxidative phosphorylation pathways, mitochondrial genes involved in cell apoptosis, reducing the ATP level and the energy production. This heavy metal affects the activity of some antioxidant enzymes, such as glutathione reductase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase. Also, cadmium could interact with DNA and may reduce its binding capacity or repair, DNA damage or disruption of synthesis of nucleic acid or proteins [3, 17, 22, 24].
Animal studies have shown that it can produce disorders in the metabolism of zinc, copper and calcium, being able to decrease their absorption and resulting in low dietary intake [5, 32, 33]. The hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity of Cd was also observed, after administration of certain doses of cadmium [5, 33]. At cellular level, changes in cell-cell adhesion, autophagic response, changes in cellular signaling pathways, cell death [5], mitochondrial swelling, decrease in antioxidant levels, increases in urinary proteins, more vacuoles and lysosomes in proximal tubule cells were observed [17].
Arsenic is one of the most important heavy metals, with property of a semi metallic, is found in nature in the form of metalloid (As0) inorganic and organic form, and arsine (AsH3) [1, 17, 22, 34]. The main inorganic forms include the trivalent form, arsenite (As3+), and the pentavalent form, arsenate (As5+). Among the organic compounds of arsenic are the methylated metabolites, such as monomethylarsonic acid (MMA), dimethylarsinic acid (DMA) and trimethylarsine oxide [9, 22]. Inorganic arsenic compounds, found in water is more toxic than organic compounds, found in seafood, which is less harmful [1, 10, 17, 23, 35]. Studies demonstrated thar trivalent arsenite is 2–10 times more toxic than pentavalent arsenate [22]. The order of increasing toxicity of arsenic compounds is the following, organic arsenicals < metalloid (As0) < inorganic forms (As5+ < As3+) < arsine [5, 36, 37].
Arsenite, which is prevalent and more mobile, has the capability to bind to thiol or sulfhydryl groups of proteins and inactivate more than 200 enzymes, with effects on different organ systems, but also to inhibits the uptake of glucose into cells, fatty acid oxidation, production of acetyl coenzyme A, gluconeogenesis, synthesis of glutathione reductase and thioredoxin reductase. Arsenate can replace phosphate, involved in biological processes, including the transport system [3, 17, 22, 23, 38]. Environmental pollution with this heavy metal, occur as a result of volcanic eruptions, soil erosion or some anthropogenic activities [9, 22]. It is used to obtain industrially products, such as, insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, algicides, smelting, mining, sheep dips, ceramics and glass making, wood preservatives, refining of metallic ores, paints, dye stuffs or for some medicinal treatments for syphilis, yaws, amoebic dysentery, trypanosomiasis [1, 22].
The exposure to elevated levels of inorganic arsenic occurs through ingestion (oral route) of food and water contaminated, inhalation of smoking tobacco, dust or burning smoke from arsenic-treated wood, working in a place where this metal is made or used, dermal contact and parenteral route [5, 10, 22]. Diet, and especially water, is the most important source of exposure, with an intake of about 12–50 μg/day, but the dietary requirement has been suggested to be between 12 and 25 12–50 μg/day [22, 23, 39]. Food sources of arsenic are seafood, poultry, grains (especially rice), bread, cereal products, mushrooms, dairy products [23, 40].
Exposure from air and soil is much smaller, but in areas with a high contamination, the intake through these ways may become significant [22]. Inorganic and organic compounds leave the body through renal excretion. Most of inorganic compounds are eliminated within several days, but some will remain stored for several months or even longer. Organic compounds are eliminated by the body much faster than inorganic arsenic, so most of them will leave the body in a few days [10]. After the absorption in the body, the target organs are lungs, spleen, kidneys, liver, but also, hair, skin and nails, but the last three for long-term accumulation [5].
Researcher showed a strong association between arsenic exposure and increased risks of carcinogenic and systemic health effects, including cardiovascular, dermatologic, nervous, hepatobiliary, renal, gastrointestinal and respiratory diseases [3, 9, 22]. So, in the case of poisoning, the symptoms manifested are abdominal pain, hemolysis, keratosis and hyperkeratosis, edema, gangrene and finally skin cancer [3, 23, 35]. The severity of symptoms varies depending upon the oxidation state and chemical species of arsenic, the solubility, frequency and exposure time, exposure dose, individual susceptibilities, age, gender, genetic and nutritional factors of exposed person [3, 9, 22].
It has been observed that in the case of persons exposed to high concentrations, symptoms such as developmental abnormalities, diabetes, cardiovascular and peripheral vascular disease, pulmonary disease, hearing loss, liver fibrosis, cirrhosis, melanosis, hematologic disorders (anemia, leukopenia, eosinophilia), neurologic and neurobehavioral disorders and different carcinoma have occurred [1, 9, 17, 22, 41, 42].
Long term exposure influences the promotion of carcinogenesis in various tissues or organs, so in areas with higher pollution, was observed a higher mortality rate for different types of cancers, such as kidney, skin, liver, lungs and bladder [3, 9, 10, 22]. For this reason, arsenic and arsenic compounds has been classified as carcinogenic to humans by International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) [3, 10]. Also, symptoms like, pigmentation changes, skin lesions, hyperkeratosis, was observed, which may be a precursor to skin cancer. Even at low concentration for a long time, it could change the color of the skin [1, 10]. Chronic arsenic toxicity is termed arsenicosis [1].
At lower concentration, for shorter exposure, arsenic and its compounds may cause nausea and vomiting, reduced production of erythrocytes and leukocytes, abnormal heart beat, damage of blood vessels [1].
This heavy metal could cross the placenta, particularly during early gestation, and affect the fetus, leading to adverse pregnancy outcomes, such as spontaneous abortion, stillbirth, preterm birth, low birth weight), higher infant mortality [5, 10, 43]. Numerous studies demonstrated that in utero or in childhood exposure to this metal, can lead to increases mortality in young adults due to multiple cancers, cardiovascular diseases, kidney failure, lung damage [10, 44], but also negative impact on cognitive developments, intelligence and memory [10, 45].
Their genotoxicity was demonstrated through its capacity to inhibit DNA repair, induce some chromosomal anomalies and DNA damage, sister-chromatid exchanges, arrest cells in mitosis, induce expression of some genes and gene amplification, interfere with formation of micronuclei in different cells, promote oxidative stress, altered growth factors, interfere with cell signaling pathways, inhibition of cell proliferation, promote apoptotic mechanism in various cell (monocytes, T-cells, cancer cells, melanocytes, dermal cells, keratinocytes), mitochondrial disfunctions [5, 17, 22, 46].
In addition to the ability to bind certain structures or to replace some compounds, at cellular level, arsenic compounds could inhibit the mitochondrial enzymes involved in cellular respiration, inactivate some enzymes, such as thiolase and dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase and affects the oxidative phosphorylation [22].
Animal studies released that arsenic could produce deficits of growth, altered liver and breast milk triglyceride levels [17, 47], decrease of cell viability, induced apoptosis in some cells, increased oxidative stress, increased phosphorylation [17, 48], lower levels of corticosterone receptor, reduced learning and memory [17, 49].
Mercury or hydrargyrum is a heavy metal which belong to the transition elements series of periodic table [9, 22] and exist in the nature in three chemical forms, such as elemental or metallic or elementary mercury (Hg0), inorganic mercurous (Hg+1) and mercuric (Hg+2) and organic mercury compound, methylmercury (MeHg or CH3-Hg) and ethylmercury (EtHg or CH3CH2-Hg), the last two being obtained through methylation of inorganic mercuric form by microorganisms found in water and soil [5, 9, 17, 22, 50, 51]. Each chemical form has its own toxicity and chemical properties [9, 22]. Organic Hg compounds are more harmful than inorganic Hg, the order of increasing toxicity being following: metallic mercury (Hg0) < inorganic mercuric (Hg2+) < inorganic mercurous (Hg1+) < organic compounds [5]. At room temperature, elementary mercury is a liquid with high vapor pressure and released into nature as Hg vapor, which are more hazardous than liquid form [5, 9, 23].
It is used in numerous industrial processes, including mining (for extraction of gold), electrical industry (switches, thermostats, batteries), in lamp production factories (for fluorescent light bulbs), caustic soda production, measurement instruments (thermometers, manometers, barometers, mercury switches), nuclear reactors, paint industries, antifungal agents for wood processing, fungicides in agriculture (methylmercury and ethylmercury), soaps and some skin lightening creams (as mercury chloride) [1, 5, 22, 23, 52].
This metal can reach into the body through inhalation and ingestion of food contamination, especially of fish and seafood, but also by dental amalgams (which contain over 50% elemental mercury), preventive medical practices, industrial and agricultural operations, occupational operations [17, 22].
The most absorbed chemical species are elementary and methyl mercury (Me-Hg) [5, 22]. Metallic mercury, which is highly lipophilic, is absorbed by lungs (80%) and tissues lining the mouth and then passed into the cell through cell membranes when in oxidized and became inorganic mercuric (Hg2+), highly reactive. The elementary mercury has the capacity to cross the blood-brain barrier and the placental barrier [5, 22], having a higher neurotoxicity compared to inorganic mercury, which passes the cell membrane in a slower rate, but cannot cross the blood brain barrier and placenta [5]. Metallic mercury is slightly absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract, the toxicity in this case being reduced [5].
Methyl mercury is easily absorbed in gastrointestinal tract (95%) and circulated in the body, where bound to thiol groups, such as cysteine, with which it can form compounds able to pass the blood brain barrier [5, 17, 53]. Toxicokinetic of ethylmercury is similar with that of methylmercury [5, 53].
Methyl mercury entered in organism through the consumption of fish [5, 54], is absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract and due to its lipophilicity can pass the blood-brain barrier and placental barrier [22]. Cooking of fish does not diminish or eliminate mercury content [5]. Exposure to methyl mercury can produce mental retardation, cerebral palsy, deafness, blindness, dysarthria (especially at children exposed in utero) [17]. Instead, at higher concentration for short time, this could produce lung damage, nausea, vomiting, skin rashes, increased heart rate and blood pressure. Symptoms of organic mercury poisoning are depression, fatigue, memory problems, headache, tremors, hair loss [1].
Mercury and its compounds excretion rate depends on its oxidation state [10]. Elemental and inorganic mercury is eliminated by the kidney (urine) and minimally through gastrointestinal tract (feces), having a half-life of 30–60 days [10, 55, 56]. Organic compounds are excreted by feces, but are recirculated enterohepatic, in this case the half-life being 70 days.
Major of absorbed mercury accumulates into kidneys (where produce adverse effects on proximal tubules), hair, neurological tissues and liver [5, 22]. Because it accumulates in hair, it represents an index of exposure to methylmercury [5].
Elemental mercury exposure is associated with cough, dyspnea, fever, tremors, polyneuropathy of axonal sensor motor, malaise, gingivitis, delusions, hallucinations, mercurial erythrism, while exposure to inorganic mercury produce insomnia, renal tubular damage, wight loss, erythema, pruritus, hypersalivation, excessive perspiration [17].
Chronic mercury exposure produces neurological disorders, such as ataxia, shyness, tremors, numb limbs, memory problems, inability to speak, irritability, chewing, swallowing, muscle weakness, but also renal system disorders [1, 5, 23, 57]. Patients exposed to higher levels of methylmercury present increased tendon reflex [5, 57]. Low dose mercury can produce effects on neuronal systems, both on developing fetus and adolescent stage [17, 58], but also cell cytotoxicity, oxidative stress, which are associated with neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimer and Parkinson [17, 51, 59]. At low concentration, it can affect the human endocrine system, through reduced production of thyroid gland hormone, affecting physiological functions of endocrine glands, reduced binding capacity of hormone to receptor, the most affected hormones being adrenaline, estrogen, testosterone and insulin [3].
On reproductive system, studied demonstrated their capacity to produce infertility in both, men and women. In male the spermatogenesis is affected, while in women could affect the levels of progesterone and estrogens, which produce disfunctions in ovaries, irregular menstruation and sloped uterus [5].
Because mercury can pass the placenta during pregnancy, it can affect fetus and can cause various abnormalities of the baby, such as developmental disabilities, dysplasia of the cerebral and cerebral cortexes and neuronal ectopia, especially after exposure to methylmercury [3, 5, 17, 57].
Into the cell, inorganic compounds and methylmercury interact with cysteine residues of proteins, product oxidative stress through generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which can produce enzymes, nucleic acid and lipids damage and may proceed to cell death [17]. They can affect the calcium homeostasis, by increasing intracellular calcium through acceleration the influx from extracellular medium and mobilizing intracellular stores [22]. Methylmercury also interact with sulfhydryl (–SH) and selenohydryl (–SeH) groups of the proteins and could produce damage of nucleophilic groups involved in catalytic, binding and transport functions [17]. Inorganic mercury also produces reactive oxygen species (ROS) through affecting oxidative phosphorylation and electron transport [22].
A number of compounds, such as vitamin C, vitamin E, selenium, melatonin and enzymes, including, glutathione reductase, glutathione peroxidase, catalase, superoxide dismutase, can have a protective effect on the body through antioxidant mechanisms to reduce or avoid the formation of reactive oxygen species. Mercury genotoxicity was associated with DNA damage, conformational changes in proteins responsible for DNA repair, genetic mutations, mitotic spindle, chromosomal segregation, action on nucleic acids [22].
Aluminum, the third most common metal of the earth crust, exist in the environment in only one oxidation state (Al3+). It is naturally present in food, but also in the environment, as silicates, oxides and hydroxides. Aluminum and its compounds are poorly absorbed through ingestion and inhalation, but the rates of absorption are not yet known [1, 10].
The ways in which this metal can reach the body are ingestion, inhalation, dermal contact or drugs [3, 10, 60]. Human exposure takes place through the consumption of drinking water, food and beverages that are high in aluminum content, working in environment with high levels of this metal, hemodialysis, long term intravenous nutrition, cosmetic products, utensils and medicines which contains it, dusty environments [1, 3, 10]. Patients with kidney dialysis are more exposed to this metal, through contaminated dialysates and phosphate binders [1]. The bioavailability of aluminum from diet is influenced by its form, as well as the presence of other food constituents which help him to form complexes [10].
The primary way of excretion is through urine. Due to the its natural presence and intake from food, all people have some levels in the body, and also in the urine [10]. People suffering from kidney disease has a low rate of elimination from the body, which involves its accumulation in the body, affecting the bones and brain [1, 3]. Also, their accumulation in the body, leading to changes in proximal tubules, such as increases in number and size of lysosomes, damage of mitochondria [3].
After entry to body, aluminum accumulates in soft tissues where interact with proteins and lipids and may produce changes in their structure [3].
In case of poisoning, the principal symptoms are nausea, ulcer of mouth and skin, skin rashes pain, vomiting, diarrhea and arthritic pain [1, 3].
On nervous system, aluminum may produce loss of memory and coordination, problems with balance, neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer, dementia, Parkinson, sclerosis. The studies demonstrated that higher concentration of aluminum found in different parts of brain could initiate the development of Alzheimer disease in humans [1, 3]. This metal could form a complex with adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from neuronal cells, which can affect their signaling and cause excitotoxicity [3].
Dialysis patients treated with dialysis fluids which contain aluminum, showed neurotoxic effects, while humans exposed to high aluminum dust in the workplace, manifested aluminosis [10, 61].
Humans exposed to higher levels could manifest changes of secondary hyperparathyroidism, adynamic bone disease, osteomalacia, the last two being characterized by low bone remodeling. Their toxicity is associated with lung disorders, anemia, nervous system problems, impaired iron absorption [1]. The accumulation of aluminum in bones impaired the bone formation process, known as osteodystrophy and put antiproliferative effects on osteoblasts [3]. Workers chronically exposed to aluminum, developed contact dermatitis and irritant dermatitis [1].
At cellular level, studies conducted demonstrated that it can disturbs the homeostasis of magnesium, calcium and iron, lower cholinergic elevations, apoptotic death of neuronal cells, inhibition of enzymes involved in DNA repair, inhibition of activity of antioxidant enzymes, cross linking of DNA, affecting cell viability, plasma membrane, microvilli and cell function in cells kidney [3, 62]. This increases the peroxidation of lipids from plasma membrane, by enhancement of lipid hydroperoxides, which can reduce the molecular arrangement of lipoprotein at the surface of membrane, but, also physical and chemical properties change in high density lipid (HDL). Also, aluminum is involved in high production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which may obstruct normal process of mitochondria, initiation of inflammatory events and accumulation of iron, which induces genotoxicity in neuronal cells and death cells, affects the gene expression through interaction between aluminum and nucleic acid and monophosphate nucleotides [3].
Chromium exists in environment in oxidation states and from Cr+2 to Cr+6 [1, 3, 5, 22, 63]. It does not exist in elementary state (Cr0) [3, 22]. Trivalent oxidation state of Cr is considered more stable, followed by Cr+4. The most commonly forms are Cr+3 and Cr+6, both oxidation states being toxic to animals, humans and plants [5, 63]. Cr+3 is immobile and insoluble in water, while Cr+6 is mobile and highly soluble in water [1, 13]. The solubility of chromium depends on its pH, Cr+3 is soluble only in acidic pH, while in neutral and alkaline pH, Cr+3 gets precipitated [23].
Environmental contamination with it, occurs by oil burning, catalyst, pigments production, chromium steel, tannery facilities, but also fertilizers and sewage, because is extensively used in several industries, like metallurgy, refractory, tannins, production of paints and pigments, pulp and paper production, wood preservation [1, 9, 22]. Chromium released by the anthropogenic activities in the environment occurs mainly in the hexavalent form [22].
Human exposure occurs through ingestion of food and water which contain, inhalation, especially in case of occupational workers or by dermal contact [5, 64]. Through their bioaccumulation in the body, a variety of affections can appear, such as, dermal, renal, neurological and gastrointestinal diseases, but also development of several types of cancer, on lung, larynx, kidney, testicles, bones, bladder, thyroid [5, 65]. Chromium can affect the reproductive function in men, due to sperm count decline [19]. Ingestion of drinking water containing high level of chromium may cause tumor in stomach [3]. The target organs are lungs, but significant chromium exposure can take place through skin [3, 22].
Occupational exposure to chromium increases the risk of cancer of lung, liver, gastrointestinal tract and central nervous system, while in female workers cause abortion [3, 13, 38]. Excess of chromium can produce thyroid cancer through reduction of requirement level of thyroid hormone in the body, disrupting hormones synthesis and secretion, interfering in its metabolism or interaction with their receptors [3, 66].
Some humans are sensitive to Cr3+ and after exposure allergic reactions, including redness and swelling of the skin, can appear. This oxidation state is poorly absorbed by any way, the toxicity being attributable to Cr+6 oxidation form [22].
Ingestion of Cr+4 can cause irritation and ulcer of stomach and small intestine, anemia, disfunctions of male reproductive system and at high dose produces sever problems on nervous, respiratory and cardiovascular systems, digestive organs, excretory function [3]. Researcher studies demonstrated that high levels in water were associated with cancers of liver, lung and genitourinary system [5, 67].
Cr+6 can produce adverse effects on excretory system, reproductive system, asthma, allergy, irritation and ulcers in the stomach and small intestine, anemia, increased mortality due the development of cancer of lung, larynx, kidney, testicular, thyroid, bones [3, 5, 22, 68], and in case of excess inhalation appear irritation and ulcer of nose [3, 22]. Also, it can reduce the DNA replication, damage DNA transcription, chromosome aberrations and affection of RNA [3, 5, 69]. Inside the cell, Cr+6 is converted into Cr+5, as intermediate, and then in Cr+3, which can form complexes with proteins and DNA [1, 3]. Cr+5 and other intermediate compounds, including reactive species of carbon and oxygen, that form during the reduction of Cr+6 to Cr+3, can react with DNA [3]. When hexavalent cation reacts with cellular reductants, Cr+4 and Cr+3 can also be obtained. Cr+6 was classified as group I occupational carcinogen [5, 70].
In cell, mechanism of chromium toxicity generates reactive oxygen species (ROS), which bring cell apoptosis, damage of DNA, genomic instability [3, 5, 71], suppression of DNA synthesis and genes expression [3], but also induces hyperexpression of some antioxidant enzymes, such as, peroxidase, catalase, superoxide dismutase [23].
Their carcinogenicity and toxicity depend of concentration, time of exposure, tissue and cell type [5, 72], route of exposure (ingestion, inhalation or dermal) [10], generation of free radicals [5, 73], oxidation state and its reactivity [5, 10, 22],
Copper is a trace element, component of many enzymes, including ceruloplasmin and cytochrome C oxidase, tyrosinase and dopamine beta-hydrolase, zinc-copper superoxide dismutase (antioxidant defense) and others, having function in transport functions, detoxification, antioxidant defense, immune function, pigmentation and melanin production [10, 74]. When it is present in high levels in the body, it may become toxic [3].
Human exposure take place through its release from water carrying pipes, fungicides, cooking utensils, birth control tablets, food. Copper has the highest redox activity, which lead to production of reactive oxygen species. Also, it binds to thiol groups of proteins and cause changes in liver enzymes involved in biotransformation processes [3].
At cell level, it can change the activity of natrium (Na+)/potassium (K+) ATP-ase and change of plasma membrane permeability, due the affection of the natrium/potassium pumps and increases of level of natrium in cytoplasm [3]. Large amounts of copper are stored in the liver [74], while the target organs are nervous system organs, including ganglia, neurons, cerebellum and hippocampus [3].
Excess of copper in the body or hypercupremia, occurs naturally during pregnancy, but also by chronic exposure to it, being associated with a number of diseases including Wilson’s disease, hepatic disorders (cirrhosis, hepatitis, gastroenteritis), neurodisorders, hyperceruplasmin [3, 10, 74]. Neurodisorders produced by chronic exposure to copper include neurodegenerative disorders, like Alzheimer and Parkinson, but also Huntington disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis [3], cognitive impairment, personality and behavioral changes [74].
Cells studies demonstrated that copper is accumulated in some cancer cell, such as colon cancer cell, ovarian cancer cells, breast cancer cell, more than in normal cells. Also, at cellular level, it can cause oxidative damage of DNA, their reduction can be made by use of Cu specific chelating agents [3].
Hypocupremia or copper deficiency are represented by serum level less than normal value of 0.64–1.56 μg/mL. Extreme hypocupremia could produce Menkes disease, known as Menkes kinky hair syndrome, a genetic disorder, characterized by steely hair, due to a mutation of the transport protein mediating the copper uptake from the intestine, but also by progressive neurological deterioration and early childhood death [10].
Another trace element, zinc, is involved in over 200 enzymes, with action in immune system, catalytic and structural structures, but also, in processes like synthesis and degradation of some components, including lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, transcription and translation of polynucleotide, genetic expression, cell proliferation and differentiation, normal growth and development during pregnancy, childhood, adolescence, reduced growth rate and impaired resistance to infection [10].
Exposure to zinc of human is made by inhalation of zinc vapors and ingestion of a large overdose of zinc supplements, which contain zinc sulfate, overusing denture cream, but also by consumption of contaminated food and water [75, 76].
Zinc poisoning, at intakes higher than 100 mg/day, has been associated with abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, nausea.
Long term exposure can cause malabsorption of copper and in case of diabetics, it can affect immune function associated with diabetes mellitus [10]. Severe toxicity present symptoms like kidney injury, pancreatic function damage, liver failure, dehydration and acute gastrointestinal bleed, septic shock, lethargy, sideroblastic anemia and dizziness [74, 76]. Zinc inhalation could produce dyspnea, airway inflammation and acute respiratory distress symptom, especially in case of occupational exposure [76].
Because this metal could interfere in copper absorption in the gastrointestinal tract, leading to copper deficiency [10], chronic exposure can cause polyneuropathy and can affect bone marrow [76].
Nickel is an essential trace element for plant, animals and human, but also a chemical pollutant which exist in several oxidation states, but most common is Ni2+. In the body, it is involved in activation of some enzymes, in protein structure and function, in prolactin production [3, 10].
Environmental contamination with nickel comes from natural sources, like volcanic emissions, weathering of soils, but also from industry, being used in catalysts for automobile, electroplating, electroforming, jewelry production, medical prostheses, production of nickel-cadmium batteries, cast coins [19].
This metal can reach the body through ingestion of contaminated water and food, inhalation of dust or smoking cigarettes and dermal contact, leading to increases level of Ni in blood, urine and body tissues. However, less than 10% of ingested nickel is absorbed by gastrointestinal tract [3, 10].
It can pass through plasma membrane through diffusion, calcium transport channels and phagocytosis, is circulated to various tissues, where bind with albumin, histidine and macroglobulin. In case of nickel, the target organs are kidneys, bons, lungs, liver, brain and glands of endocrine system, but it is not accumulated in those, being excreted outside [3].
Nickel exposure can produce disorders of liver, kidney, spleen, brain and tissues, but also vesicular eczema, nasal and lung cancer. Also, it interferes in iron resorption, which lead to anemia, disturb the incorporation of calcium into skeleton, causing parakeratosis damage [10]. On reproductive system, this metal affects the quality of semen and cause abnormalities in it, including the tail of sperms [3].
Occupational exposure can cause allergic dermatitis, known as “nickel allergy”. In case of dermal contact, skin rash or allergic dermatitis appear, due to wearing of nickel-plated jewelry. Women are more sensible to nickel than men, especially in pregnant women which work in metallurgic industry and their babies hence structure abnormalities [3, 10].
At cellular level, it can produce breaking of DNA strands, cross linking of DNA protection, DNA oxidation, nucleotides removal, genes mutations, modifications of chromatids, binding to enzymes involved in DNA repair and degradation of protein, generation of ROS, enhances lipid peroxidation, affecting calcium and sulfhydryl homeostasis, degradation of glutathione [3].
Heavy metal pollution is global treat and increasing day by day, due to many natural and anthropogenic activities, which disturb natural composition of soil, water and air, but also of living organisms [3, 23].
These metals can enter the body from sources of contamination by ingestion, inhalation or dermal contact, where they are absorbed, then bioaccumulated in various organs or target tissues, for different periods of time [5, 22]. The most important is the occupational exposure for those working in industries where these metals are produced or used, which can be reduced by various engineering solutions [1].
Heavy metals can affect organs and their functions, causing adverse effects in humans like, cardiovascular, neurologic, gastrointestinal, immunologic, endocrine, reproductively disorders, but also various types of cancer, including lungs, bladder, skin. But, the severity of those side effects depends on chemical state, time and dose of exposure, solubility [22].
In order to prevent exposure to these metals, as well as the occurrence of health problems, it is important to establish safety limits for different matrices [19].
This work was achieved through Core Program, with the support of the Ministry of Research, Innovation and Digitization, contract 22 N/2019, project PN 19 02 03 02 and CNCS/CCCDI—UEFISCDI, project number PN-III-P3-3.6-H2020-2020-0011/Ctr. 1/2020.
The mini-screw assisted rapid palatal expansion (MARPE) technique comprises rapid maxillary expansion (RME) in adult patients using a mini-implant-supported device, permitting orthopedic expansion with few side effects [1, 2, 3]. This procedure is well accepted by patients owing to its low cost and less invasiveness compared to surgically assisted RME [4].
To perform the MARPE technique, cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) is essential as it allows a complete anatomical evaluation of the nasomaxillary complex region where the expander screw and mini-implants are placed [5]. Moreover, by assessing bone thickness from CBCT images, the amount of bicortical mini-implant thread insertion can be measured [6]. This is critical as the bicortical positioning of mini-implants permits wider distribution of expansion forces, avoiding the concentration of stress areas around the mini-implants, providing better skeletal effects [7, 8].
Therefore, an evaluation protocol using CBCT [9] was introduced to select the ideal region for the mini-implants. However, this technique does not consider all anatomical variations in each patient, and the lack of a guide that reproduces this planning in the patient’s oral cavity is a matter of concern. Thus, André [6] described a technique that performs a careful evaluation of important anatomical structures, such as nasal septum deviation, maxillary sinus extension, the sinuosity of the sutures evaluated, and location of the incisive foramen and transpalatal suture. Although the planning is more comprehensive, there is still a lack of guidance for reproducibility in the oral cavity.
With the advent of digital flow technology, a new technique was introduced, not only for planning, but also to reproduce the virtual placement of the entire appliance, providing accuracy, reproducibility, and safety to the MARPE technique. This technique, called MARPE Guide, consists of a three-dimensional digital placement, which comprises the positioning of the mini-implants specific for MARPE, as well as the expander screw itself. To overcome the shortcomings of the previously described planning techniques, a guide is generated that reproduces this digital placement [5, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15].
By superimposing the intraoral digital scanning file (STL) and CBCT (DICOM), it is possible to choose the correct location accurately and safely for the placement of the mini-implants and expander screws. Additionally, the structures of the nasomaxillary complex in a three-dimensional form are individually evaluated (Figure 1). Thus, the chances of failure are reduced using the MARPE guide, as it is possible to select the size and amount of mini-implant thread insertion of each mini-implant. Moreover, it permits accurate prediction of the mini-implant trajectory. Even in the most complex cases of anatomical variations, injury to important anatomical structures is avoided. This increases the safety of the technique, as well as the chances of success. For patients with severe transverse maxillary deficiency, increased palatal depth, or severe asymmetry, the MARPE Guide is associated with a MAEPE model called MARPE EX, developed in 2017 by Peclab (Peclab®, Belo Horizonte, Brazil). This device has an individualized mini-implant ring height, which permits positioning of the MARPE complex without colliding with the lateral palatal soft tissues. Height adjustment is performed according to the anatomy of each patient’s palate, even in severe cases of transverse deficiency and maxillary asymmetry [16]. Among the physical characteristics of MARPE EX, the increased distance between the anterior and posterior mini-implant rings is observed, in search of a larger support area for the mini-implants. Regarding the tension exerted by this device on the skull, less tension on the supporting teeth was observed, as well as a wider tension distribution over the entire lateral lamina of the pterygoid process [16].
The image of this case shows a MARPE complex positioning between the incisive foramen and transpalatal suture, not extending to the soft palate area. The midpalatal suture is observed in green, transpalatal suture is represented in blue, nasoapalatine duct is visualized in red, and mini-implants are presented in orange.
However, in complex cases of varying thickness of the maxilla and cases of advanced maturation of the midpalatal suture, even with virtual planning, these cases are limited. The increased interdigitation of the midpalatal suture is a strong resistance during RME. Therefore, Suzuki et al. [17] proposed the performance of corticoperforations in the region of the midpalatal suture during RME, to reduce the resistance by weakening the midpalatal suture, relying on the phenomenon of regional acceleration (corticoperforations). Although it appears to be an effective method, it is not a precise procedure as drilling is performed based on the palatal raphe (soft tissue), which does not always coincide with the midpalatal suture itself. Therefore, the Corticoperfuration Guide (Cortex guide) provides the most effective weakening of this suture, enabling guided drilling, performed precisely following its path, that may be sinuous, rectilinear, or curved. Another important and unmentioned factor is perforation along the transpalatal suture. Perforation in the more posterior region is of utmost importance, as the maxillary posterior region demonstrates greater resistance during RME [16, 18].
By adding this new technique of digital planning with the advantages of MARPE EX, treatments are anticipated to become safer, more accurate; thus, expanding the possibility of treatment for patients with severe transverse deficiency, maxillary asymmetry, and variations in the maxillary thickness. Thus, this book chapter proposes the presentation of the virtual MARPE placement as well as the guided corticoperforation technique (Cortex Guide).
The analysis of the maturation of facial sutures is performed through the file in DICOM format. For the midpalatal suture, the analysis follows the method proposed by Angelieri et al. [19], where the operator must be calibrated to perform this technique with reproducibility [20]. This technique is critical as an auxiliary diagnostic method, as it provides information regarding the challenge and resistance during the separation of the midpalatal suture according to its maturation stage. Next, another suture, the zygomaticomaxillary suture, involved in RME is classified (established by Angelieri et al. [21]). This evaluation is performed by accessing the sagittal and coronal sections of the CT scan, and the suture is evaluated in a stage from A to E, where A is the earliest stage of maturation and E is the most advanced stage. The pterygopalatine suture was also evaluated, although there is no consolidated classification in the literature. When it is in an advanced stage of maturation, this suture is quite homogeneous compared to neighboring bone tissues, which is alarming to orthodontists as it suggests greater resistance to RME. Next, the location and shape of the transpalatal suture are analyzed. It is ideal to perform virtual placement of the mini-implants anteriorly to this suture (Figure 1); however, in many cases, owing to the positioning of the incisive foramen and reduced anteroposterior dimension of the maxilla, the most anterior virtual placement is not always feasible [5] (Figure 2).
In this case, the posterior mini-implants could not be placed anterior to the transpalatal suture due to the reduced sagittal size of the maxilla, and the variation in shape and size of the incisive foramen. The midpalatal suture is observed in green, the transpalatal suture is observed in blue, the nasopalatine duct is visualized in red, and mini-implants are presented in red.
In addition to the maturation stage, it is critical to verify the shape and aspect of these sutures as they can be straight, sinuous, or curvilinear. This can occur both horizontally and vertically (observed in coronal and axial sections). This verification is of total importance to perform the virtual placement without touching the sutures (Figure 3).
Anterior mini-implants bordering a sinuous suture, without touching it.
After suture analysis, the three-dimensional files (STL and DICOM, Figure 4) were superimposed [10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15]. As described in the literature [5], both files should be of good quality because they provide essential information, such as hard and soft tissue thickness, anatomical variations, and location and trajectory of the mini-implants. Failure to take this information into account may lead to complications and failure of the MARPE technique.
Superimposition of the CBCT file (DICOM) and the digital file reproducing the teeth and the soft tissue of the upper dental arch (STL).
This procedure can be performed in any software that accepts the superimposition of the STL and CBCT files and also permits the importation of mini-implants and the MARPE expander screw-in STL format. This combination allows a three-dimensional evaluation of the maxilla; therefore, the orthodontist can evaluate important aspects for the digital positioning of the MARPE device, as it permits simulation of the positioning in different regions.
The ideal region for the mini-implant insertion should contain sufficient bone to perform the expansion, advocating a bicortical positioning [7], as observed in Figure 5A. In cases of reduced bone thickness along the maxilla, it is currently feasible to add two more mini-implants to the device [22], as depicted in Figure 5B.
(A) Bicortical insertion of mini-implants in a patient with good bone thickness. (B) Reduced bone thickness along the entire maxilla, requiring the placement of two additional mini-implants.
After the initial evaluation of the region with the most appropriate bone thickness, a complete anatomical evaluation is initiated, where the location of the midpalatal suture, transpalatal suture, and incisive foramen are first considered.
These three anatomical components plus adequate bone thickness are the key factors for positioning the EX expander screw and the four or six mini-implants. However, it is critical to observe the distance of this complex from the lateral mucosa to maintain soft tissue integrity during RME.
Anatomical variations are common and must be thoroughly observed when planning the MARPE digital placement such as deviated septum (Figure 6), maxillary sinus extension (Figure 7), impacted teeth (Figure 8), maxillary torus (Figure 9), palate depth, and maxillary reduced shape and size (Figure 7). For patients with V-shaped palate in the anterior region the digital planning requires a posterior displacement of the appliance for the mini-implant support rings to be well adapted, bicortical, and have an adequate amount of excess mini-implant thread.
Nasal septum deviation to the left side of the patient.
Alveolar extension of the maxillary sinus and severe transverse deficiency of the maxilla.
Impacted tooth in the region near the anterior mini-implant installation placement site.
(A) Sagittal section demonstrating the presence of the palatal torus. (B) Three-dimensional reconstruction of the maxilla illustrating the palatine torus.
Digital placement with MARPE EX permits not only to individualize the height of the mini-implant rings in each region (respecting the anatomy of each individual and a safe distance from the mucosa) but also to measure and place different mini-implant lengths, always preconizing a bicortical positioning [2, 14]. This positioning is verified in each section of the tomography (Figure 10) and in the three-dimensional reconstruction.
(A) Coronal section, illustrating the digital placement of MARPE, even in cases of severe atresia and asymmetry. (B) Sagittal section, showing the bicortical position of the mini-implants, respecting a discrete distance from the mucosa to avoid collision during expansion. (C) Placement of the mini-implants, respecting the midpalatal suture, as well as the transpalatal suture and the incisive foramen.
For more complex cases, such as bone volume variation, advanced age and advanced skeletal maturation, guided corticoperforation is performed. This is done following the anatomy of the midpalatal suture and the transpalatal suture. In some patients, the midpalatal suture is inclined and/or sinuous in the coronal direction. We do not use the soft tissue (palatine raphe) as a reference to locate the midpalatal suture, because sometimes they are not coincident (Figure 11).
Palatal raphe and midpalatal suture are not coincident. If the corticoperfortaion is not performed in a guided way. It can lead to an error during the procedure.
For the simulation of the drilling, we used digital files with a cylindrical format that reproduces the thickness of the widest portion of the drill used. These cylinders are positioned in such a way that they reach bicortical positioning and maintain a uniform distance between them when possible. Each perforation is analyzed in the three-dimensional simulation and checked in each tomography section to ensure that the perforations are bicortical and if there is no collision with important structures such as the nasopalatine duct.
When installing drills, we always recommend an inclination that can be performed in the mouth. In this way, we inclined the drills between 10° and 30° with respect to the occlusal plane. The drills are performed precisely following the direction of the suture, either rectilinear or sinuous (Figure 12).
(A) Perforations performed with bicortical positioning. (B) Note that the positioning respects the suture inclination in both coronal and axial directions. (C) The perforations are performed preserving bone tissue around the MARPE mini-implants.
It is advisable to maintain a safe distance between the corticoperforation and the region of the MARPE mini-implants as when trying to weaken the suture, we should not weaken the region surrounding the mini-implants, as the tension exerted in this region is high [16] and close perforations can weaken this region, which requires a large bone supply (Figure 12C). For this reason, MARPE Guide and Cortex Guide planning should be performed together (Figure 13).
In the top image we see the simulations of the corticoperforations that would be ideal for this case. However, in the bottom image we note that the perforation in yellow is very close to the posterior mini-implants, which could compromise the technique.
After this careful process, it is time to create the guides, which will reproduce both the digital positioning in the prototyped model (MARPE Guide), providing reproducibility to the appliance manufacturing, exactly as done virtually, and the corticoperforation guide (Cortex Guide), which reproduces the digital perforation of each point created, with angulation and insertion limits.
Below, we present a complete MARPE Guide and Cortex Guide planning, following all the parameters discussed above (Figures 14–19).
(A) Virtual corticoperforation drills installed in the midpalatal suture and transpalatal suture. (B) Coronal view (transpalatal suture). (C) Lateral view in sagittal section (midpalatal suture).
Sagittal section of the tomography – left side. MARPE installed respecting the bicortical positioning and with the distance of the mini-implant rings from the mucosa.
Sagittal section of the CT scan – left side.
3D reconstruction of the CT scan illustrating a safe distance of the mini-implants from the transpalatal suture. Note the bicortical positioning of the four mini-implants.
Occlusal view of the virtually installed MARPE, preserving the lateral tissue and soft palate.
MARPE guide and cortex guide in the same image to check if there is any collision between the digital plans, such as drilling too close to a mini-implant.
Subsequently, the MARPE guide and cortex guide are made as detailed above.
For the virtual placement of MARPE, a concern about injuries caused to the soft tissue due to the contact of the mini-implant rings is resolved with the digital placement (with the MARPE EX and MARPE guide). It has an internal stop that accommodates each mini-implant support ring (Figure 20), and its height is established according to the individual’s anatomy. It is important to keep the expander screw body as horizontal as possible (Figure 21) in the coronal section of the tomography without touching the lateral mucosa.
In green we see the MARPE guide, which accommodates the adjustable mini-implant rings of the MARPE EX, to reproduce the positioning performed during the virtual placement.
Digital horizontal support (gray) that are responsible for keeping the MARPE appliance at the planned height during the virtual placement, so that the expander screw does not touch the soft tissue and mainly, remains as horizontal as possible, preventing it from causing any asymmetry in the patient.
We should be aware of the occlusal plane and nasal floor inclination, which, when altered, can cause asymmetry in the patient. Thus, a stop that holds the expander screw body in position is necessary (Figure 21). This guide design is inserted into the patient’s STL file, so they are printed at once, which reduces the chances of error by overlapping the guide to the patient’s model, in addition to saving printed material.
The corticoperforation guide, requires a retentive design (that embraces the posterior teeth), as it will be adapted in the mouth, as a positioner and vertical limiter of each perforation (Figure 22) and must remain stable during the process.
3D planning of the corticoperforation guide, which reproduces the angulation of each perforation, following the midpalatal suture and transpalatal suture. This guide will also be the limiter for the drill cutter, as soon as it touches the guide, the clinician will know that it has reached the nasal floor cortical.
Finally, it is possible to fabricate MARPE with the reproducibility of each of the precautions taken during the virtual placement. The MARPE EX is made on the guide template (Figure 23), where its mini-implant rings fit exactly inside each small guide, which eliminates transfer errors. It also determines the height and inclination of the expander screw, preventing asymmetries during expansion. Using laser welding, it is possible to weld the MARPE EX to the bands without damaging the prototype model or causing any swelling of the metal of the MARPE EX, owing to the heat of the formerly used silver-based welds.
MARPE device built over the printed MARPE guide template.
After this phase, the appliance is polished, and it is ready to reproduce with accuracy the digital planning in the oral cavity. Note that the guide is not used in the oral cavity; it serves as a guide for fabricating the appliance. In the oral cavity the guide for cementation is the bands on the first permanent molars.
To reproduce the corticoperforations in the oral cavity, after designing the guide, it is critical to make an impression of the guide in biocompatible resin (Figure 24), and this protocol must be followed even if the guide remains in the oral cavity for some time.
Cortex guide printed in biocompatible resin.
For a very short time, the MARPE technique was performed without CT scanning. This type of treatment required three-dimensional (3D) planning since the maxilla contains important structures that must be preserved, both for the patient’s safety and success of the technique. The first safety protocols were based on bone and mucosa thickness measurements in the region of first premolars, second premolars, first molars, and second molars [6, 9]. Despite providing important information, these protocols did not show the exact trajectory of MARPE mini-implants. Moreover, the standardization of the patient’s head position and evaluation of the tomography sections could not be faithfully reproduced in the oral cavity. This necessitated the creation of digital positioning guides [10, 11, 12, 13]. In cases of severe transverse deficiency of the maxilla or asymmetry [23], devices such as the MARPE maxillary skeletal expansion (MARPE MSE) or MARPE SL cannot be indicated because the expander screw does not fit in the palate (Figure 25).
Model of MARPE without adjustable mini-implant rings. This figure shows that without adjustable mini-implant rings the MARPE does not fit patients with severe transverse disability.
Thus, the present study proposes the development of a guide for planning the MARPE technique using MARPE EX [5, 16], to evaluate the capacity of this guide in performing an ideal positioning of the MARPE, prioritizing the adaptation of the mini-implant rings, and respecting the individual anatomy of the patient’s palate. The distance between the mini-implants is higher in MARPE EX than that of the other models of MARPE, which, according to a previous study [16], was favorable for better results. Another advantage is that MARPE EX accepts this guide model, where we can place the mini-implant rings away from the palate at customized heights according to the patient’s anatomy. This distance from the palate in its closest region is approximately 0.2 mm, both towards the palate (vertical) and towards the lateral mucosa (horizontal) [5]. Therefore, no ring juxtaposed should be left juxtaposed to the tissues.
The EX model was also chosen because it demonstrated less tension in the teeth and mini-implants during RME [16], and it presented more tension, with wide distribution, in the lateral lamina of the pterygoid process [16]. According to Brunetto et al. [18], the lateral lamina of the pterygoid process offers the greatest resistance during RME. Recent clinical studies have shown that bicortical directly influence treatment with MARPE [8, 24], particularly in patients with advanced maturation stage sutures as the bicortical positioning of mini-implants permits the separation of even the most posterior sutures, such as the lateral lamina from the medial lamina of the pterygoid process [8]. Thus, this demonstrates the importance of a guide that correctly reproduces this bicorticality in the patient, such as the MARPE Guide. It is also important to recognize the importance of the bands, which, in addition to distributing stress, are responsible for transferring the guide model to the oral cavity.
The three initial parameters for placing an MARPE must be discussed. First, it should not touch the midpalatal and transpalatal sutures; second, it should be distant from the incisive foramen; and third, preferably anterior to the transpalatal suture, avoiding collision/perforation of the mini-implants with sutures. We should not touch the incisive foramen to avoid contact with the nerve of the incisive canal, which can result in anterior maxillary paresthesia.
The location of the transpalatal suture does not always coincide with the soft palate; however, if it does, we avoid placing it posteriorly to the transpalatal suture, so that the mini-implants are not inserted in a region of free mucosa, with more chances of inflammation, great difficulty in cleaning, and loss of the mini-implants. However, in some cases of the reduced anteroposterior distance of the maxilla, this becomes unavoidable. The patient’s anatomical variation should be considered as it influences the results, such as mini-implants placed in the nasal septum in a patient with palate asymmetry [25] and resulting in a unilateral opening [25]. This highlights the importance of using 3D planning, where insertion in the septum can be easily avoided and bilateral opening can be achieved, eliminating side effects.
While dealing with anatomical variations, it is common to find patients with variations in maxillary sinus extension (Figure 7). If the mini-implants are inserted into the sinus cavity, in addition to creating an oral-sinus communication that can generate pain, inflammation, and discomfort, this is a region without trabecular bone, that is, a region that lacks bone volume. Therefore, mini-implants cannot withstand the tension exerted during maxillary expansion [16].
Corticoperforation can be indicated when a torus palatine (Figure 9) is detected as it has the potential to decrease the chances of success. Guided corticoperforation, besides allowing perforation of the transpalatal suture, provides accuracy due to the angulation of the guide, which was determined in the virtual simulation, leaving the patient free of perforations outside the suture. Corticoperforations oriented by the palatine raphe may cause asymmetric fractures or even case failure because if performed too close to the mini-implant placement site, they reduce the bone volume required for the tension exerted in the mini-implant region [16]. Another risk of not virtually simulating the corticoperforations and creating a stop guide is to over drill the nasal cavity floor, causing pain to the patient and a bucco-nasal communication, which may lead to sinusitis; in case of inflammation, possibly worsening to bone necrosis or osteomyelitis.
The two-dimensional plans do not predict the mini-implant trajectory, and the choice of the mini-implant can be highly subjective and susceptible to errors. The use of the MARPE Guide has already presented interesting results in the literature. By combining the benefits of the MARPE Guide with the MARPE EX and the use of the Cortex Guide, virtual placement may be performed in a patient with palate asymmetry, bone volume variation, and advanced stage of midpalatal suture classification. This results in tension in the lateral lamina considering the patient’s anatomy. Clinical studies are needed to evaluate the results of this new technique in a considerable number of patients.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
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\n\n\n\nIntechOpen is committed to disseminating high-quality scientific research in a manner that exemplifies the best practice in scholarly publishing. IntechOpen is an official member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), which advocates the maintenance of the highest ethical standards for all parties involved in the act of publishing, including Authors, Academic Editors of the book, Peer Reviewers, the publisher and Societies, where applicable.
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\n\nAll scientific works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing. IntechOpen is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and all participating referees and Academic Editors are expected to review submitted scientific works in line with the COPE Ethical Guidelines for Peer Reviewers where applicable.
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\n\n\n\n\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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Since from August 2013 working as a Associate Professor, and in 2016 promoted to Profeesor in the School of Basic Sciences: Department of Chemistry and having 20 years of teaching and research experiences.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rani Channamma University, Belagavi",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yusuf Tutar conducts his research at the Hamidiye Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Biochemistry, University of Health Sciences, Turkey. He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"436430",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mesut",middleName:null,surname:"Işık",slug:"mesut-isik",fullName:"Mesut Işık",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/436430/images/19686_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bilecik University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a scientist and Principal Investigator at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering the lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via artificial intelligence-based analyses of exosomal Raman signatures. Dr. Paul also works on spatial multiplex immunofluorescence-based tissue mapping to understand the immune repertoire in lung cancer. Dr. Paul has published in more than sixty-five peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award and the 2022 AAISCR-R Vijayalaxmi Award for Innovative Cancer Research. He is a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"14",type:"subseries",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11410,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa is a Full Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Alicante, Spain, and has been the vice president of International Relations and Development Cooperation at this university since 2010. She created the research group in applied biochemistry in 2017 (https://web.ua.es/en/appbiochem/), and from 1999 to the present has made more than 200 contributions to Spanish and international conferences. Furthermore, she has around seventy-five scientific publications in indexed journals, eighty book chapters, and one patent to her credit. Her research work focuses on microbial metabolism (particularly on extremophile microorganisms), purification and characterization of enzymes with potential industrial and biotechnological applications, protocol optimization for genetically manipulating microorganisms, gene regulation characterization, carotenoid (pigment) production, and design and development of contaminated water and soil bioremediation processes by means of microorganisms. 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