RAN classification.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-80356-966-6",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-965-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-967-3",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"f86a9f720cc3ac0f1c385d0367ea89b9",bookSignature:"Dr. Fiaz Ahmad and Prof. Muhammad Sultan",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11624.jpg",keywords:"Agricultural Waste, Reuse, Reduction, Soil Health, Recycling, Agriculture and Environment, Modelling and Simulation, Agro-Industrial Waste, Bioresource Processing, Processing and Management, Crop Residue, Forest Waste",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 8th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 16th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 15th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 3rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 2nd 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"20 days",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Fiaz Ahmad is a researcher in the field of Agricultural Engineering with fifteen years of field and academic experience, currently in charge of the Agricultural Machinery Design Laboratory at Bahauddin Zakariya University. He applied for two patents at the national level.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"A renowned researcher in the field of Agricultural Engineering with 14 years of academic experience at Bahauddin Zakariya University. Winner of various prestigious fellowships, awards, and research grants. Published 250+ articles along with several books and chapters. Guest editor of seven ISI-SCI journals for publishers like SAGE, MDPI, and Frontiers.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"338219",title:"Dr.",name:"Fiaz",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"fiaz-ahmad",fullName:"Fiaz Ahmad",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/338219/images/system/338219.png",biography:"Dr. Fiaz Ahmad is an assistant professor and lecturer at the Department of Agricultural Engineering, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan. He obtained his Ph.D. in Agricultural Bioenvironmental and Energy Engineering from Nanjing Agriculture University, China, in 2015, and completed his postdoctorate in Agricultural Engineering from Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China, in 2020. He was awarded a fellowship from the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan for Ph.D. studies and from the Chinese Government for post-doctoral studies. He earned a BSc and MSc (Hons) in Agricultural Engineering from the University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan, in 2004 and 2007, respectively. He is the author of more than fifty journal and conference articles. He has supervised six master’s students to date, and is currently supervising six master and two doctoral students. Dr. Ahmad has completed three research projects with his research interest focusing on the design of agricultural machinery, agricultural waste management, artificial intelligence (AI), and agricultural bioenvironment.",institutionString:"Bahauddin Zakariya University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Bahauddin Zakariya University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"199381",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sultan",slug:"muhammad-sultan",fullName:"Muhammad Sultan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199381/images/system/199381.png",biography:"Muhammad Sultan is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Agricultural\r\nEngineering, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan (Pakistan). He completed his Ph.D.\r\nand Postdoc from Kyushu University (Japan) in the field of Energy & Environmental\r\nEngineering. He was an awardee of MEXT and JASSO fellowships (from the Japanese\r\nGovernment) during Ph.D. and Postdoc studies, respectively. He also did a Postdoc as\r\na Canadian Queen Elizabeth Advance Scholar at Simon Fraser University (Canada) in\r\nthe field of Mechatronic Systems Engineering. He worked for Kyushu University\r\nInternational Institute for Carbon-Neutral Energy Research (WPI-I2CNER) for two years.\r\nCurrently, he is working on 4 research projects funded by the Higher Education\r\nCommission (HEC) of Pakistan. He has completed six projects in past in the field of\r\nagricultural engineering. He has supervised 10+ M.Eng. and Ph.D. thesis and 10+\r\nstudents are currently working under his supervision. He has published 120+ journal\r\narticles, 100+ conference articles, 13 book chapters, and 6 books. He is serving as guest\r\neditor for the journals like Sustainability (MDPI), Agriculture (MDPI), Energies (MDPI),\r\nAdvances in Mechanical Engineering (SAGE), Frontiers in Mechanical Engineering, and\r\nEvergreen Journal of Kyushu University. His research is focused on developing energy-\r\nefficient temperature and humidity control systems for agricultural storage, greenhouse,\r\nlivestock, and poultry applications. 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From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Neuroblastoma is the most common extracranial solid tumour of early childhood and accounts for approximately 15% of all cancer related deaths in children. Aggressive drug refractory neuroblastoma cells have been frequently observed to contain genomic aberrations referred to as double-minute chromatin bodies and homogeneously staining regions. Both of these types of aberrations were found to contain multiple copies or amplification of specific genes, and in particular, the critical gene within these regions was later identified to be the
All three tumour-associated
MYC proteins are well established as nuclear phosphoproteins that act as regulators of transcription, and can both activate and repress the expression of its target genes [16].
Domains of the MYCN and MAX proteins. The N-terminus of MYCN has three elements, known as MYC homology boxes I-III, which are highly conserved in MYC proteins. The C-terminus contains the basic-region/helix-loop-helix/leucine-zipper that is responsible for interaction with the MAX protein.
The amino or N-terminus of MYCN acts as a transactivation domain that contains two highly conserved regions called Myc Homology Boxes I and II (MBI and MBII) [1]. This region has been shown to bind to nuclear cofactors, including TRRAP, p107, BIN1, MM-1, AMY-1, PAM, α-Tubulin, TIP48 and TIP49, to assist the targeting of protein to specific gene promoters [23, 25]. Another protein YAF2, has been demonstrated to bind to the central region of MYCN to further stimulate transcription upon MYCN-MAX transactivation [26]. All of these interacting proteins are a part of a transcription factor complex by which target genes are activated. Myc Homology Box III (MBIII) is conserved only within c-MYC and MYCN, but not MYCL, and is necessary for cellular transformation [27]. A fourth Myc Homology Box (MBIV) is also necessary for MYC transforming activity [28].
Recent studies have provided evidence of a function of MYCN that is independent from its role as a classical transcription factor. MYCN was shown to remodel large domains of euchromatin, regions of lightly packaged chromatin that contain active, functioning genes, by regulating histone acetylation [29, 30]. Two possibilities have been suggested for this role. The first is that MYCN maintains the activity of euchromatin, whilst the second is that MYCN maintains euchromatin at remote sites to act as an enhancer and regulator of genes at a distance. Novel functions of other MYC proteins have been identified through mutational analyses that have uncoupled the transforming ability of c-MYC from its role as a transcription factor [28, 31]. c-MYC was found to increase the translation of specific mRNAs by promoting the methylation of the 5’ mRNA guanine “cap”, including mRNAs encoding cyclin T1 and CDK9 [31]. A role for c-MYC has also been described in the initiation of DNA replication by binding to various components of the pre-replicative complex and localising to early sites of DNA replication [32]. These observations suggest that c-MYC may play a role in controlling initiation of the S phase of the cell cycle and contribute to replicative stress and genomic instability, to further accelerate tumorigenesis [17]. Even though the evidence has yet to be provided, given the high level of homology between c-MYC and MYCN, the described transcription-independent roles of c-MYC suggest similar roles will be identified for MYCN in contributing to tumour cell biology.
As indicated above, MYCN heterodimerises with MAX and binds with high affinity to a CACA/GTG E-box sequence found upstream of promoter target sequences [13]. The MYCN-MAX heterodimer activates transcription via several mechanisms. TRRAP (or TRansactivation/tRansformation Associated Protein) binds to the N-terminal region of MYCN and is essential for MYCN transformation. Through TRRAP, MYCN recruits histone acetylation (HAT) complexes to chromatin, including the 1.8 megaDalton SAGA complex (SPT/ADA/GCN5/Acetyltransferase) [33]. Histone acetylation is associated with gene activation by chromatin modification influencing histone-DNA and histone-histone contact [34]. TRRAP is involved with another HAT complex, TIP60, an H2A/H4 acetylase [35]. Interestingly,
The MYC family represents a particularly unusual set of transcription factors in that they can bind to and regulate approximately 10-15% of the entire genome [14]. Some MYCN target genes have been shown to be activated independently of TRRAP and HAT complexes. Investigation into HAT independent activation has revealed the involvement of RNA polymerase II at the promoter regions of target genes. c-MYC protein binding has been shown to stimulate the clearance of RNA polymerase II from the promoter region to allow for efficient transcription elongation by the RNA pol II kinases, TFIIH and positive transcription elongation factor b (PTEFb) [38]. c-MYC also regulates RNA pol II promoter clearance by controlling the expression of RNA pol II kinases via mRNA cap methylation, polysome loading, and the rate of translation [31].
Most studies have focused on the role of MYC proteins as transcriptional activators. However, cells transformed by constitutive expression of c-MYC are characterised by the loss of expression of numerous genes such as those involved in cell adhesion and cell cycle regulation, and even loss of
The understanding of transcriptional repression by MYC proteins was greatly advanced via the identification of repressed target genes such as
Due to the gross transforming ability of deregulated expression of MYC proteins, the expression of these protooncogenes is tightly regulated in normal cells at both the transcriptional and protein level. For example, MYC mRNA transcripts and proteins have very short half-lives and are expressed at constant levels as cells enter the cell cycle [56, 57]. Furthermore, anti-proliferative signals trigger rapid down-regulation in expression, and the phosphorylation patterns of MYC proteins are known to influence their stability. In addition to these mechanisms, expression of MYCN is particularly tightly regulated with regards to timing and tissue specificity. Thus, MYCN is normally expressed during embryonal development of the peripheral nervous system in neural crest cells [2]. Neural crest cells migrate during mid-gestation to populate the entire peripheral nervous system, including autonomic and peripheral ganglia and the adrenal gland. These migrating progenitor cells represent a highly proliferative population, and during normal development exit the cell-cycle and undergo differentiation following the colonisation to the ganglia and spinal cord area. This event is orchestrated by extracellular signalling molecules such as mitogens and cytokines and coincides with decreased expression of MYCN [56, 58]. Without this strict control, dysregulated MYCN expression impairs the ability of progenitor cells to undergo differentiation. Studies which sustained MYCN expression in murine neural crest cells under the control of a tyrosine hydroxylase promoter, demonstrated the capacity to cause neuroblastoma in transgenic mice [3]. Despite this transforming ability, MYCN is vital for normal embryonic development, and murine embryos lacking MYCN exhibit profound hypoplasia, particularly in the central and peripheral nervous system, disorganized architecture of the brain, defective heart development and defects in the lung, genitourinary system, stomach, intestines and limb buds [59].
In order to understand how extracellular stimuli controlled MYC expression in cells, gene mapping studies in association with
A key finding was made in 1986 which identified
Transcription alone cannot account for the large difference in mRNA levels following the introduction of proliferative or anti-proliferative stimuli. The rapid turnover of mRNA was also associated with the discovery of two distinct mechanisms of
The regulation of MYCN protein levels has also been investigated and phosphopeptide analysis has revealed that specific serine and threonine residues of MYCN are phosphorylated
The first transcriptional target for a MYC protein was discovered ten years after the identification of human
Expression microarrays and chromatin immunoprecipitation assays (ChIP) have helped researchers identify MYC-regulated targets as well as link MYC-target expression to functional cellular pathways which are associated with transformation [79, 80]. MYC and MYCN-regulated targets have since been linked to a number of transforming activities involving the cell cycle (eg. cyclin D2, CDK4, p21), cell proliferation (e.g. MDM2), growth, metabolism (e.g. ribosomal proteins, proteins involved in nucleotide biosynthesis such as thymidylate synthase and ODC1), cell adhesion and migration (e.g. integrins) and angiogenesis (e.g. thrombospondin) [81-86]. Indeed, the activation and repression of MYC target genes is a well-coordinated event. Time course studies using microarray have identified differences between early and delayed gene expression responses, following MYC activation in a MYC-inducible cell system [87]. Early-response MYC target genes are primarily involved in MAPK signalling, RNA metabolism and transcription factors, which suggests a program that prepares cells for entry into the S phase. On the other hand, delayed-response MYC target genes are involved in ribosomal biogenesis, nucleotide metabolism and energy metabolism, suggesting subsequent maintenance of cells during the S phase. Finally, late steady-state MYC-mediated transcription involved genes that regulate the cell cycle, nucleotide metabolism and DNA replication. Most genes that were activated in the early response were then repressed during this late steady-state phase. Furthermore, sustained MYC activation led to the silencing of differentiation-related genes and upregulation of genes that are involved cell proliferation.
During tumorigenesis, MYCN promotes cell cycle progression by the activation of cyclins (such as cyclin D1 and D2) as well as cyclin-dependent kinase 4 (CDK4), and represses the expression of mediators of cell cycle arrest such as p21 [73]. One important MYCN-regulated metabolic pathway involves the synthesis of polyamines, which are organic cations that enhance transcription, translation and replication [88].
Another gene whose expression is strongly correlated with
The evidence for a clinical role of MYCN in the tumorigenesis of neuroblastoma was first recognised when the amplification of the
The
The potent transforming ability of MYCN has been demonstrated by several studies, while
Whilst
Although the majority of the literature investigating
The most compelling evidence for a role of MYCN in the biology of medulloblastoma comes from two mouse models of this disease. Firstly, targeted expression of MYCN to the cerebellum in transgenic mice has demonstrated the importance of MYCN in contributing to the initiation and progression of medulloblastoma and also in the metastatic spread of disease to the spinal and paraspinal tissues via cerebral spinal fluid. Furthermore, the MYCN downstream targets Odc1, MDM2 and Fb1 were upregulated and correlated with
Molecular targeted therapy involves targeting malignant cell growth by directly inhibiting the function of specific molecules within a cell, namely those that are responsible for driving cancer progression. Such agents aim to block or exploit various aspects of cancer biology, such as genetic instability, proliferative signal transduction, aberrant cell cycle control, deregulated survival, angiogenesis and metastasis [121]. Numerous methods of molecular targeted therapy have been investigated, including antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) that hybridise to and inhibit the mRNA of a specific gene; peptide nucleic acids (PNAs), which are DNA analogues that specifically hybridise to DNA and/or RNA in a complementary manner to inhibit transcription/translation of a target gene; and small interfering RNA (siRNA), which silences gene expression by inducing the sequence specific degradation of complementary mRNA or by inhibiting translation [122]. However, such technologies although useful in the laboratory, have had limited success in the clinic due to problems associated with their delivery.
Immunotherapy has also generated interest, and utilises the body’s immune system to target and remove cancer cells by the recognition of certain molecular markers, or block specific cell receptor pathways. Another approach to molecular targeting, involves the development of synthetic small molecule inhibitors which potentially have the ability to interfere with a molecular target at multiple levels [122]. These small molecules may diffuse into cells to act directly on intracellular targets, such as inhibiting the expression of a target gene at the transcriptional or translational level, or inhibiting the function of a protein by directly binding to the protein and inducing conformational changes that prevent its interaction with other factors [123]. Synthetic small molecules are generally defined by a molecular weight cut-off of <500Da. They are favoured by the pharmaceutical industry because of their attractive pharmacokinetic properties, especially tumour cell penetration, and their relative ease of development and pharmaceutical production [123]. At present, strategies to develop novel small molecule inhibitors as viable therapies are aimed at using these technologies in combination with other cytotoxic drugs, with the hope of reducing drug dosages, and thus overcoming drug resistance associated with intensive chemotherapy, and reducing drug-related toxicity and side effects.
A number of molecular mechanisms have been identified as possible targets for the treatment of neuroblastoma. However, the prominent deregulated expression and amplification of
Inhibition of MYCN protein through its protein-protein interactions and protein-DNA interactions was previously seen as too difficult to target by small molecules [128]. However, it has been reported that small-molecule antagonists of MYC/MAX dimerisation interfered with c-MYC-induced oncogenic transformation of chicken embryo fibroblasts
The validity for targeting MYCN for therapeutic benefit relies on the gross transforming ability of this transcription factor. MYCN represents a particularly attractive target due to its lack of expression in adult and normal paediatric tissues. Although MYCN, and MYC proteins in general are commonly viewed as “undruggable” due to the nature of these proteins, MYCN offers potential advantages at a number of levels for therapeutic inhibition, either upstream, or downstream along the MYCN transcriptional pathway. If clinically useful MYCN inhibitors can be successfully developed, they are likely to find application in combination therapies involving conventional chemotherapeutic drugs and be used as an improved approach to target aggressive cancers that are driven by this oncoprotein.
From the first generation (1G) that were introduced in 1979 by Nippon Telegraph and Telephone (NTT) to today’s fifth generation (5G), mobile communication networks are constantly improving the speed and efficiency of bandwidth usage to support various applications with diverse requirements such as latency, high data rates and real-time support for random traffic demands [1].
The increasing number of not only smart phones, tablets and laptops but also the huge number of other devices such as IoT (Internet of Things) nodes, wearable devices for healthcare will demand significant challenges in 5G systems to manage a huge amount of devices and connections [2]. Besides, the exponential growth of mobile video services (e.g., live video streaming, online video gaming, mobile TV) requires wider bandwidth and higher spectral efficiency than that of 4G systems [3].
Such a huge volume of data traffic and connections will lead to 5G systems to use new and higher frequency bands [4]. Some other factors such as ultra-low latency (less than one millisecond), fast-tracking will also be considered in the design of 5G system architecture. 5G systems support radio connections and end-to-end network connectivity at ultra-high speed, lower latency, higher reliability and massive connectivity [5].
This book chapter gives the reader an up-to-date multiplexing techniques that are implemented in 5G systems. The contributions of this book chapter are listed below:
First, this book chapter provides a brief introduction of 5G system architecture for the readers to understand the components of 5G systems.
Second, provides an overview of basic multiplexing techniques as a foundation for 5G systems to implement FDD, TDD modes.
Finally, it describes MIMO service and data multiplexing operations from a mathematical background, physical antenna configurations, channels and signals, procedures for downlink and uplink MIMO schemes.
Today we see the evolution of Industry 4.0 manifested in smart factories, where collaborative robots are instantly connected. The entertainment industry advances dramatically with AR/VR technologies. People are using Zero Search with intelligent personal digital assistants. The Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) require all cars connected via C-V2X protocol. The Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) is used in smart cities and smart agriculture. This is the business ecosystem of 5G systems [6]. 5G systems enable people for living in an intelligently connected world. The 5G system architecture is illustrated in Figure 1. At the highest level, the 5G system consists of 5G NR RAN (gNB), 5G Core Network (5GCN)/EPC and different kinds of UEs for three kinds of service including Enhanced Mobile Broadband (eMBB), Ultra-reliable and Low-latency Communications (uRLLC), and Massive Machine Type Communications (mMTC) in a business ecosystem [7].
5G system architecture (vRAN approach).
5G NR (New Radio) is the global standard for the air interface of 5G networks developed by 3GPP with operation from below 1 GHz up to more than 40 GHz and massive MIMO beamforming capability [8].
RAN stands for Radio Access Network. RAN provides radio access and coordinates network resources across User Equipment (UE). For more general, the RAN is divided into two parts. The first part is the lower layer RAN split including the antenna integrated Radio Unit (RU) and the Distributed Unit (DU). The second part is the higher layer RAN split, a 3GPP standard F1 interface between the DU and the Centralized Unit (CU). DU and CU constitute Baseband Unit (BBU) [9].
Legacy LTE uses Evolved Node B (eNodeB or eNB) like Base Station (BTS) in GSM networks. Similarly, gNodeB (gNB – next generation Node B) is 5G Base Station. gNB features Software Defined Radio (SDR) with various MIMO options described in session 3 of this chapter [10].
In 5G NR, RU handles digital front end (DFE), part of the physical layer (low physical) and multiple beamforming operation. RU consists of a Remote Radio Head (RRH) and Active Antenna System (AAS) [11]. Antennas in AAS for 5G NR make use of the shorter element sizes at high frequencies to incorporate a larger count of radiating elements. These antenna arrays are essential for MIMO beamforming operations that play a vital role in 5G systems [12]. The RRH performs all RF functions like ADC/DAC, digital up/down-conversion, filtering and transmitting and receiving signals to the BBU including beamforming. RRH can also provide monitoring and control functions to optimize system performance.
In LTE systems, RRH is connected to the antenna by RF coaxial cable and is usually mounted near the antenna to reduce transmission line losses. In 5G NR, RRH and AAS are integrated in a small and compact form factor [6].
Common Public Radio Interface (CPRI) is the standardized interface that sends data from the RRHs to the Base Band Unit (BBU). CPRI is a very high-speed connection on fiber optic cable. eCPRI is enhanced CPRI which is used to reduce the burden on the fiber. The connection between the RUs and the DU is called fronthaul and it is fiber optic cable.
DU stands for Distributed Unit. DU is placed close to RU and runs RLC, MAC, parts of the Physical layer. This function consists of signal processing, network access. DU is controlled by CU (Centralized Unit). DU also supports FFT/IFFT functions [13].
CU provides support for the higher layers of the protocol stack such as SDAP, PDCP and RRC. Practically, there is a single CU for each gNB. A CU can control multiple DUs (can be more than 100 DUs). Each RU corresponds to one cell. Each DU can support one or more RUs, so in 5G systems, one gNB can control hundreds of cells. 5G NR cell can be femtocell, smallcell or macrocell [14]. 5G Small Cell Radio Nodes can be installed on walls or ceilings with network connectivity and power are provided over Ethernet. Midhaul connects the CU with the DU via F1 interface. Backhaul connects the 5G core to the CU. The 5G core may be up to 200 km away from the CU.
RIC is RAN Intelligent Controller which is responsible for all RAN operation and optimization procedures such as radio and resource connection management, mobility management, QoS management to support the best effective network operation.
There are three different approaches to design a RAN as abstracted in Table 1 [15].
Centralized/Cloud RAN (C-RAN) | Virtual RAN (vRAN) | Open-RAN (O-RAN) | |
---|---|---|---|
RU | Proprietary | GPP COTS hardware (e.g., SDR)/ OEM vendor | |
BBU hardware | Centralized functionality, proprietary hardware, software | Generic hardware platforms (e.g., COTS Server with virtualized software), BBU splits into DU and CU. | |
BBU software | Proprietary | Virtualized | Virtualized with open API |
Interface | Proprietary | Open | |
Interoperability | Single vender for RU and BBU | Single vender for RU and software | Multiple venders |
RAN classification.
COTS: commercial-off-the-shelf.
According to the definition of 3GPP, 5G has two networking modes: SA (Standalone) and NSA (Non-Standalone). 5G system Service-based architecture is illustrated in Figure 2 and corresponding functions are described in Table 2 [16].
5G system service-based architecture with core network functions.
Main functions | ||
---|---|---|
NSSF | Network Slice Selection Function | Selects the Network Slice Instance (NSI) based on information provided during UE attach. |
NEF | Network Exposure Function | Facilitates secure, robust, developer-friendly access to the exposed network services. |
NRF | Network Repository Function | Provides a single record of all network functions. |
UDM | Unified Data Management | Authentication Credential Repository, Access Authorization. |
AUSF | Authentication Server Function | Authentication and Authorization. |
PCF | Policy Control Function | Ensures policy and charging control, authorized QoS. |
AMF | Access and Mobility Management Function | NAS Signaling TerminationMobility ManagementNetwork Slicing. |
SMF | Session Management Function | Selection and control of UP function, UE IP address allocation and management. |
UPF | User Plane Function | Packet routing and forwarding, QoS handling. |
SMF | Session Management Function | Responsible for interacting with the decoupled data plane, creating updating and removing PDU sessions and managing session context with the UPF. |
Core network functions.
The EPC (Evolved Packet Core) network consists of MME (Mobility Management Entity), S-GW (Service Gateway) and PDN gateway. EPC performs functions such as mobility management, IP connection, QoS management, and billing management.
The structure and organization of this book chapter are illustrated in Figure 3.
Structure and organization of the book chapter.
The term “multiplexing” refers to the sharing of a
Multiplexing allows multiple channels/users to share the same SR. Multiplexing helps to increase the efficiency of using the SR and the transmission capacity of the system. Dynamic multiplexing makes the allocation of the SR more efficient.
5G NR systems also use “duplexing schemes” for Uplink (UL) and Downlink (DL) data transmission.
The traditional multiplexing techniques are:
We are now considering basic multiplexing techniques.
Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) is the division of total channel bandwidth into multiple, non-overlapping subbands. Each of these subbands is assigned to a user or a signal by modulating with the appropriate carrier frequency.
The multiplexer from the transmit side is responsible for multiplexing the modulated signals with different carrier frequencies into a total signal for transmission. The demultiplexer at the receiver is responsible for separating the total signal into signals of different users by different frequencies.
FDM has some disadvantages:
Analog system: noise accumulates in each hop if we use repeaters.
Difficult to fabricate high-Q bandpass filters.
Low multiplexing factor.
Frequency division multiplexing.
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) is a technique for the serial transmission of user data over a common medium such as a coaxial cable.
At a time, only one user’s data are transmitted serially in a time slot. TDM allows each user to use the entire system bandwidth.
In addition to user data, signaling and frame alignment word (FAW) are inserted into the frame. At the receiver, there is clock recovery and frame synchronization to recover data for each channel (Figure 5).
Time division multiplexing.
Space-Division Multiplexing (SDM) is a multiplexing technique for optical data transmission where multiple spatial channels are utilized. Figure 6 shows a generic optical MIMO-SDM system. At the transmitter, the user data signals are encoded, modulated, E/O converted and then multiplexed onto different wavelengths (λ1, λ2 ... λ
Space-division multiplexing for optical communications and application to 5G systems.
At the receiver, the transmitted signals are recovered using MIMO digital signal processing consisting of an N × N array of equalizers by DSP (digital signal processor). First, the N channels signal is demultiplexed by an SDM demultiplexer. Then the separate signals
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a multiple access method that allows multiple users to share the same time and frequency resources.
In a CDMA system, each user is assigned with specific spreading code, and all users can send information simultaneously over a single communication channel. Since CDMA is based on the spread spectrum principle, each transmitter will use a pseudo-random code to modulate the data, and the receiver decodes the modulated signal using its own pseudo-random code. The principle of CDMA is illustrated in Figure 7.
Code division multiple access.
5G NR supports both Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) and Time Division Duplex (TDD) schemes. TDD is the main duplexing mode for higher frequencies while FDD is used for lower frequencies as the interference problems with large cells is reduced by having different frequencies in UL and DL. FDD is similar to FDM, UL and DL use separate carrier frequencies. Data are transmitted in both directions simultaneously. TDD is similar to TDM, only one carrier frequency is used. Transmission/Reception in UL and DL is assigned by different time slots.
Since TDD is the main duplexing mode of a 5G NR, we will discuss more detail about TDD. We start with 5G NR frame structure. Just like the TDM system, 5G NR is frame structured. A frame has a fixed duration of 10 ms which consists of 10 subframes of 1 ms duration. Each subframe can have
Figure 8 shows the 5G NR frame structure. The number of slots per subframe (i.e.,
5G NR frame structure.
SCS | μ | Number of slots per subframe | Slot duration | Number of slots in a frame | Guard Period |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
15 Khz | 0 | 1 | 1 ms | 10 | Normal |
30 Khz | 1 | 2 | 500 μs | 20 | Normal |
60 Khz | 2 | 4 | 250 μs | 40 | Normal/Extended |
120 Khz | 3 | 8 | 125 μs | 80 | Normal |
Number of slots per subframe, slot duration, number of slots in a frame and guard period for reference SCS.
5G NR scalable slot duration.
Each slot is comprised of either 14 OFDM symbols or 12 OFDM symbols based on normal Guard Period (GP) and extended GP respectively. However, mini slots (2, 4, or 7 symbols) can be allocated for shorter transmissions. Slots can also be aggregated for longer transmissions.
Now we know the frame structure. When operating in TDD mode, we have to specify the exact timing for the uplink and downlink transmission. So, how do we define the time slots for uplink and downlink transmission?
Timeslots for uplink and downlink transmission are organized into DL-UL patterns. In LTE TDD, there are 7 predefined patterns for UL and DL allocation in a radio frame. There is no predefined pattern for 5G NR, but we can define a flexible pattern thanks to parameters in TDD UL/DL Common Configuration (
Field | Description |
---|---|
referenceSubcarrierSpacing | Reference SCS used to determine the number of slots in the DL-UL pattern. Only the values 15, 30 or 60 kHz (FR1), and 60 or 120 kHz (FR2) are applicable. |
dl-UL-TransmissionPeriodicity | Periodicity of the DL-UL pattern in ms. This time results in even number of slots depending on the SCS. Possible values are: 0.5 ms, 0.625 ms, 1 ms, 1.25 ms, 2 ms, 2.5 ms, 5 ms and 10 ms. |
nrofDownlinkSlots | Number of consecutive full DL slots at the beginning of each DL-UL pattern. |
nrofDownlinkSymbols | Number of consecutive DL symbols in the beginning of the slot following the last full DL slot (as derived from nrofDownlinkSlots). The value 0 indicates that there is no partial-downlink slot. |
nrofUplinkSlots | Number of consecutive full UL slots at the end of each DL-UL pattern. |
nrofUplinkSymbols | Number of consecutive UL symbols in the end of the slot preceding the first full UL slot (as derived from nrofUplinkSlots). The value 0 indicates that there is no partial-uplink slot. |
5G NR TDD DL/UL common configuration parameters.
You may ask yourself what is the difference between the DL-UL pattern and radio frame? The
From the above parameters, we can define TDD DL/UL configuration, aka. DL-UL pattern for 5G NR radio transmission as shown in Figure 10. In 5G NR, the slot configuration is flexible and can be changed from time to time while maintaining the focus on inter-cell interference aspects [21].
5G NR TDD UL/DL common configuration frame structure.
Then, the next question is how to design a transmission pattern? We know that time slots allocation for UL and DL depends on UL and DL traffic. We call that UL/DL traffic load ratio. To adapt with actual traffic, 5G NR supports 3 different TDD configurations as follows:
Field name | Value |
---|---|
dl-UL-TransmissionPeriodicity | 2.5 ms |
nrofDownlinkSlots | 3 |
nrofDownlinkSymbols | 10 |
nrofUplinkSlots | 1 |
nrofUplinkSymbols | 2 |
Since slot duration for reference SCS of 30 kHz is 0.5 ms, the number of slots in DL-UL periodicity would be
This DL-UL pattern is illustrated in Figure 11. This pattern repeats itself in the timeline.
Example on design a TDD downlink frame structure.
Perhaps the most challenging part of the 5G NR system is the MIMO operation modes. Let us start with SU-MIMO and MU-MIMO. SU-MIMO stands for Single-User MIMO. In Single User MIMO, both the base station and UE have multiple antennas, and the base station can transmit multiple data streams simultaneously to the UE using the same time/frequency resources. By doing so, it doubles (2 × 2 MIMO), or quadruples (4 × 4 MIMO) the peak throughput of a single user.
MU-MIMO stands for Multi User MIMO. The base station serves more than 2 UEs simultaneously. Since in MU-MIMO, the base station sends multiple data streams, one per UE, using the same time-frequency resources, MU-MIMO mode increases the total cell throughput, i.e., cell capacity. MU-MIMO is not a new concept. We have MU-MIMO in LTE (Transmission Mode 5 - TM5) and WLAN (802.11ad). However, in 5G NR the scale of MU-MIMO will be much larger and deployment will also be more common. 5G NR uses massive MIMO.
Massive MIMO employs a large number of transmit and receive antennas, improves spectral efficiency and increases the transmission data rate through spatial multiplexing to deliver multiple streams of data within the same resource block (time and frequency). Massive MIMO is also called Large Scale MIMO.
By now, you may ask a question:
Figure 12 shows a typical MIMO system equipped with
System and channel model for spatial multiplexing.
The relationship between the input and output of a MIMO system can be written as follows
where.
where
If the channel matrix
where
Assume the receiver knows the
where
From the Eq. (4), we can see that the base station can transmit simultaneously maximum of
If SNR is high, the number of data streams and data rate for each stream is chosen by the
Instead of transmitting a vector of symbols, we just transmit a single symbol at a time. The
Now we know how to transmit multiple data streams to a UE. We consider the way 5G NR implement MIMO modes.
Clearly, to implement SM, the network (gNB and UEs) should know the channel matrix
The first thing we have to know is the codebook. The
The requested index into a set of predefined matrices, a so-called codebook is
Together with the codebook,
It is very important to understand the physical antenna configurations, the antenna port and the relationship between them. The antenna system in 5G NR is an Active Antenna System (AAS). Typical active antennas are made up of a matrix of subarrays. Each subarray consists of individual dual-polarized elements. Each polarization is controlled by a beamforming (BF) coefficient. Therefore, the number of columns is doubled.
For example, Figure 13a shows 8T8R configuration with 4 columns, 1 row (4x1) consisting of 4 (1x8) subarrays. Figure 13b shows 64T64R configuration which is made up of 8 columns, 4 rows of (1x2) subarrays.
Physical antenna configuration.
Figure 14a shows single panel antenna. 5G NR supports both single panel and uniform (b) and non-uniform multi-panel (c). In 5G NR, logical antenna configuration is described by 3 parameters:
Single panel and multi panel antenna configurations.
In association with
We have:
Number of polarizations = 2,
Number of CSI-RS antenna ports = (2*
Number of beams in a column =
Number of beams in a row =
Number of beams = (
Each antenna port carries its own resource grid. One resource grid is transmitted on a given antenna port, subcarrier spacing configuration and transmission direction (downlink or uplink). The resource grid consists of a number of RBs (Resource Blocks) for one subframe.
Physical Channels and Signals for DL, UL and corresponding antenna port addresses are as follows (Table 5):
There is no strict mapping of antenna ports to physical antenna ports. Figure 15 indicates the mapping between antenna ports and physical antennas. One antenna port can be mapped to single or multiple physical antenna(s). Due to each antenna port representing a specific and unique channel model, the number of layers in the physical layer may reach the number of antenna ports. The number of layers may range from a minimum of one layer up to a maximum number of layers equal to the number of antenna ports. The layers are then mapped to the antenna ports.
Mapping antenna ports to physical antennas.
Legacy LTE supports 9 transmission modes (TM). To avoid sophisticated transmission mode handover for different scenarios, 5G NR uses the term
Downlink MIMO schemes.
Single User MIMO (SU-MIMO):
SRS-based (sounding reference signal)
CSI-RS-based (CSI - reference signal, codebook type I, Single / Multi panel)
Multi User MIMO (MU-MIMO):
CSI-RS without Beamforming (codebook type II Single Panel)
CSI-RS Beamformed (codebook type II Port Selection)
DL and UL channels are considered reciprocal. From a channel calculation perspective, in SRS-based Single User MIMO scheme, channel calculation obligation belongs to gNB, the remaining schemes rely on UE’s CSI report from its channel calculation. The device’s capability and channel condition decide the best MIMO mode among the above schemes.
UE transmits sounding reference signals through each of its antenna ports.
gNB estimates the channel (e.g., downlink precoding weights) based on received sounding reference signals
gNB transmits PDSCH using a calculated precoder.
This scheme is illustrated in Figure 17a, and very simple but due to size and power at the UE are limited, the number of the antenna of UE is smaller than that of gNB and adding more RF chains to UE is difficult, SRS resources are transmitted on antenna ports one by one by transmit antenna switching (TAS).
Downlink single user MIMO operation.
Figure 18 shows a typical downlink transmission CSI-RS based SU/MU-MIMO scheme. First of all, UE needs to know the
CSI reporting and equivalent channel for SU-MIMO.
In the equivalent MIMO channel, we have
UE reports gNB is its preferred PMI but gNB is not obligated to apply the precoding indicated by the PMI, and the gNB does not provide the UE with explicit information regarding the precoding procedure. The UE relies upon using the Demodulation Reference Signal (DMRS) when decoding the PDSCH.
CSI-RS single user MIMO scheme uses type I codebook which is based upon a specific set of assumed antenna configurations. The antenna configurations are Single Panel and Multi Panel as described in Tables 6 and 7.
Downlink channels | Function | Antenna port starting from: | |
---|---|---|---|
PDSCH | Physical downlink shared channel | Carry user data in the downlink direction | 1000 (1000 Series) |
PDCCH | Physical Control Channel | Carry DCI (Downlink Control Information) e.g., downlink scheduling assignments and uplink scheduling grants. | 2000 (2000 Series) |
CSI-RS | Channel State Information - Reference Signal | For DL CSI acquisition. CSI-RS is configured specifically to UE. But multiple users can also share the same resource. | 3000 (3000 Series) |
SS-Block/ PBCH | Physical broadcast Channel | The combination of SS and PBCH is known as SS-Block (SSB). PBCH carries very basic 5G NR system information for Use (Downlink System BW, Timing information in the radio frame, SS burst set periodicity, System frame number). | 4000 (4000 Series) |
PUSCH/DMRS | Physical Uplink Shared Channel / Demodulation Reference Signal | It is used by a 5G NR receiver to produce channel estimates for demodulation of the associated physical channel. | 1000 (1000 Series) |
SRS, precoded PUSCH | Sounding Reference signal | It is used for UL channel sounding. In contrast to LTE, it is configured specifically to UE. | 1000 (1000 Series) |
PUCCH | Physical Uplink Control Channel | transport UCI (Uplink Control Information) e.g., HARQ feedback, SR (Scheduling Request) and CSI report (CQI, PMI, RI, Layer Indicator LI). | 2000 (2000 Series) |
PRACH | Physical Random Access | Carry random access preamble from UE towards gNB (i.e., 5G NR base station). It helps gNB to adjust the uplink timings of the UE in addition to other parameters. | 4000 (4000 Series) |
Physical channels and signals and corresponding antenna port addresses.
Number of CSI-RS antenna ports | 4 | 8 | 12 | 16 | 24 | 32 | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
( | (2,1) | (2,2) | (4,1) | (3,2) | (6,1) | (4,2) | (8,1) | (4,3) | (6,2) | (12,1) | (4,4) | (8,2) | (16,1) |
( | (4,1) | (4,4) | (4,4) | (4,4) | (4,1) | (4,4) | (4,1) | (4,4) | (4,4) | (4,1) | (4,4) | (4,4) | (4,1) |
Single panel antenna configuration.
Number of CSI-RS antenna ports | 8 | 16 | 32 | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
( | (2,2,1) | (2,4,1) | (4,2,1) | (2,2,2) | (2,8,1) | (4,4,1) | (2,4,2) | (4,2,2) |
( | (4,1) | (4,1) | (4,1) | (4,4) | (4,1) | (4,1) | (4,4) | (4,4) |
Multi panel antenna configuration.
For codebook type I single panel: MIMO ranks: 1 to 8; CSI RS Ports: 2, 4, 8, 12, 16, 24, 32.
For codebook type I multi panel: MIMO ranks: 1 to 4; CSI RS Ports: 8, 16, 32.
gNB transmits
UE estimates the channel based on the received CSI-RS resources, selects the best PMI.
UE reports PMI, RI, CQI to gNB.
gNB decides a precoder to transmit PDSCH.
In Multi User MIMO schemes, gNB tries to communicate simultaneously with a set of UE through the same time/frequency resources. MU-MIMO schemes uses Type II codebook to provide more details about Channel State Information. MU-MIMO schemes support to a maximum of 2 layers per UE. This is smaller than that of SU-MIMO (up to 8 layers for type I single panel) but the maximum number of layers per cell is higher to allow multiple UE to use 2 × 2 MIMO simultaneously.
DL MU-MO Type II codebook allocates a set of beams to each UE. Each set of the beam is the weighted combination of beams with relative amplitudes and co-phasing phase shifts.
Beamformed CSI-RS relies upon the gNB having some advanced information to allow beamforming of the CSI Reference Signal transmissions.
Procedure for beamformed CSI-RS as follows: gNB transmits one or more CSI-RS, each in different “directions”. UE computes and reports CRI/PMI/CQI to gNB.
5G NR supports uplink PUSCH precoding up to 4 layers. However, in the case of DFT-based transform precoding, only single-layer transmission is supported. The transmitted symbols are layer mapped and then precoded at the UEs.
If gNB instructs UE on PDCCH regarding the choice of precoding matrix selected from a codebook: codebook based (Figure 19a). Otherwise, UE measure DL CS-RS signal to determine precoding weights (not constrained to a codebook): Non-codebook based (Figure 19b).
Uplink MIMO operation.
UE measures DL SCI-RS signal to design suitable precoders for the SRS transmission.
UE transmits up to four SRS resources where each resource has one antenna port.
gNB determines one or multiple SRIs based on the received SRSs, number of layers for PUSCH. In this example, SRS1 and SRS3 are selected. TRI is equal to the number of SRIs.
UE uses selected resources to transmit PUSCH.
UE transmits SRS from each of its antenna ports.
gNB estimates UL channel based on the received SRSs to select the best SRS for antenna port, appropriate rank and precoding matrix. gNB transmits SRI (SRS resource indicator), RI and TPMI to UE.
UE uses selected resources to transmit PUSCH from the indicated antenna port, the number of layers and precoding matrix.
5G networks are designed for a wide variety of use cases including urban mobile broadband, massive machine-type communications, ultra-reliable low latency communications, applications such as remote surgery, autonomous driving, a massive number of sensors communicating with the network, 3D video streaming.
The problem is that the physical infrastructure resources are limited. The need for data, services and operators working on the same network increase. The solution is network slicing (NS). NS will create virtual network segments for the different services within the same 5G network. NS will divide the physical network into independent logical subnets for different kinds of services, each of which has a size and structure suitable for dedicated service [29].
NS is one of the key features of 5G NR. NS allows operators to support efficiently different use cases and enterprise customers on a dedicated 5G network. NS leverages the running of multiple logical subnets on top of physical network, multiplexes data services over physical infrastructure.
The concept of network slicing is illustrated in Figure 20 showing two slices. One slice supports smartphones with 3D streaming, virtual reality (VR) connections with guaranteed throughput slice, the other supports automotive connectivity, IIoT for smart factory with low latency slice on the same network infrastructure [30].
Service multiplexing by network slicing.
An End-to-End (E2E) Network Slice consists of RU, RAN and Core Transport subnets. Basically, we have to designed Slice Profiles (for RAN, Core and Transport subnets) including the slice characteristics and requirements needed to support the service requested by the UE. Procedure for slicing is as follows:
Create slice profile:
The customer will provide their service requirements they want to run on a network slice including bandwidth, capacity, and latency. The operator creates a service level agreement, and allocates the necessary capacity and bandwidth for the slice by NSSAI (Network Slice Selection Assistance Information). NSSAI consists of up to 8 S-NSSAI (Single –NSSAI). The S-NSSAI contains two components: the SST (Slice/Service Type) and an optional SD (Slice Differentiator).
UE gathers information for slices when registering for the network:
The UE gathers information for the available slices when registering for the network via NAS signaling. A single UE may be assigned up to eight difference slices [31].
Determines the candidate AMF(s) or AMF Set to be used to serve the UE:
Once a PDU session is set up, the UE is then signaled to the NSSAI, assuming this has been provided earlier to the UE.
Selects which slices the UE can connect:
Based on required NSSAI and registered information, the network will select the appropriate slice instance and related resources, with the AMF coordinating the actions in the 5G core network. There is one AMF that is common for all the slices a single UE has.
This chapter presented multiplexing techniques utilized in 5G systems. Duplexing is one of the key factors affecting the performance of 5G NR in terms of their wide-area coverage. The Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) and Time Division Duplex (TDD) schemes utilized in 5G NR are inherited from FDM and TDM, providing flexibility for designing UL/DL patterns.
Spatial multiplexing supports multi layer transmission. Multiple beamforming will transmit data through targeted beams and advanced signal processing that could speed up data rates and boost bandwidth and reduce interference for nearby users. 5G NR permits to use different waveforms on subbands with scalable subcarrier spacing and transmission time interval operating on one frequency band. Network slicing creates independent logical subnets for different kinds of services.
With these multiplexing techniques, 5G systems could provide data rate up to 20 Gbps and capacity increase by 1000 times and flexible platform for the services like massive Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT), connected society, smart factories. It is expected that 5G combined with artificial intelligence can improve social life, make life better, more productivity, and safety.
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\n\nCSIC affiliated authors can also take advantage of a central Open Access fund (amounting to 10,000 EUR) to cover up to 50% of the rest of the OAPF until it expires. Effective for chapters accepted from January 1, 2020.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
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\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 15% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\n\nThe University of Massachusetts, Amherst is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 10% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\n\nThe University of Surrey is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 10% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\n\nMonographs Only
\n\n\n\nImportant: You must be a member or grantee of the above listed institutions in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
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The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. 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She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. 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Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983"},editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",slug:"ana-isabel-flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",slug:"christian-palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:8,paginationItems:[{id:"81557",title:"Object Tracking Using Adapted Optical Flow",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102863",signatures:"Ronaldo Ferreira, Joaquim José de Castro Ferreira and António José Ribeiro Neves",slug:"object-tracking-using-adapted-optical-flow",totalDownloads:18,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Information Extraction and Object Tracking in Digital Video",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",subseries:{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision"}}},{id:"81558",title:"Thresholding Image Techniques for Plant Segmentation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104587",signatures:"Miguel Ángel Castillo-Martínez, Francisco Javier Gallegos-Funes, Blanca E. 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In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/318930",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"318930"},fullPath:"/profiles/318930",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()