Policies that helped biodiesel in Brazil.
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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RenovaBio",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79670",slug:"biodiesel-in-brazil-should-take-off-with-the-newly-introduced-domestic-biofuels-policy-renovabio",body:'The climate of our planet undergoes changes that mainly derive from the emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs), among which is carbon dioxide (CO2), considered by many as the most significant man-made GHG. When expelled by the exhaust of internal combustion-powered vehicles, CO2 accumulates in the atmosphere and causes an increase in the Earth’s average temperature. As CO2 has a very long atmospheric lifetime [1], usually longer than the other three main heat-trapping gases (methane, nitrous oxide, and CFCs—except for CFC-13 and CFC-115), it is seen as the chief culprit of global warming, which has worried the scientific community around the world in recent years.
Bearing in mind that it is essential to limit CO2 emissions in the air, dozens of heads of state and hundreds of scientists from all over the globe gathered at the end of 2015, in Paris, for the 21st Conference of Parts—also known as COP21 or Paris Agreement—with the main goal of engaging nations in an international agreement on climate change in which everyone pledged to collaborate so that the increase in the average temperature of our planet should not exceed the limit of 2°C by the end of this century.
At the COP21, Brazil voluntarily committed to: (1) cut down on GHG emission up to 37% by 2025 and 43% by 2030—considering 2005 as the base year for both scenarios [2]—which would represent approximately 1.2 million tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2eq) by the year 2020 [3]; (2) increase the use of biofuels from sustainable bioenergy up to 18% of the total domestic energy mix by the year 2030 [4]; and (3) increase the share of renewables to an estimated 45% by the same year [5].
So, considering the scenario wherein CO2 needs to be banned from our environment for the sake of our own planet, it is reasonable for biofuels to present themselves as clean and renewable alternatives [6] for the gradual replacement of fossil fuels such as gasoline and mineral diesel, for example. Therefore, because biodiesel is biodegradable, less toxic, and almost 100% renewable [7, 8], it stands as an option.
After 2005, some public policies were created in Brazil as an attempt to definitely establish biodiesel as replacement for fossil diesel, mainly in the transport sector. Although successful to some extent, none of them compare in scope and reach to the recently created National Biofuels Policy (RenovaBio), whereto there is a hope it will make the production and use of biodiesel increase at a much faster rate.
Therefore, this work is primarily aimed at informing the reader about the past biodiesel policies that were implemented to boost its production and use, providing special emphasis to the most recent one: RenovaBio.
The first time Brazil began to flirt with biodiesel was during the 1920s, when the
Although the first real tests with biodiesel in Brazil began to appear 20 years later, in the early 1940s, during World War II [10], it was only during the 1970s, after continued increases in oil prices, that conventional biodiesel technology, using a catalyst and an alcohol, became well known in Brazil [11].
With the oil shock of 1973, the world awakened to the importance of finding different sources of energy that were not dirty like those produced by the fossil fuels. That year became a landmark in our planet’s energy history, whose focus would be on overcoming the energy crisis via two main groups of action: conservation of energy—or energy saving—and the use of alternative sources of energy [12].
Following that type of awareness, Expedito Parente, the leading Brazilian biodiesel scientist at that time, created the first patents of that biofuel in the country, which would represent the outcome of his studies in the late 1970s and early 1980s. As a result, he became the mainstay and principal proponent of the early developments of biodiesel in Brazil.
The first policies created to promote the production and consumption of biodiesel in Brazil (Table 1) are discussed ahead.
Year | Mechanism | Program name and acronym (in Portuguese) |
---|---|---|
2004 | Decree No. 5297 | Social Fuel Stamp (SCS) |
2005 | Law No. 11097 | National Program of Production and Use of Biodiesel (PNPB) |
2009 | Law No. 12187 | National Policy on Climate Change (PNMC) |
2014 | Law No. 13033 | Mandatory blend on diesel: increase to 6% and 7% |
2016 | Law No. 13263 | Mandatory blend on diesel: increase to 8%, 9% and 10% |
2017 | Law No. 13576 | National Biofuels Policy (RenovaBio) |
Policies that helped biodiesel in Brazil.
The Brazilian government launched the Social Fuel Stamp program—or
Plentiful in both regions, castor would be a nice contender if it were not for the fact that this oilseed presents a very high viscosity content of 14.1 mm2/s, which is way above the maximum determined by the Brazilian Petroleum Agency (ANP) of 6.0 mm2/s [16]. That technical constraint alone deems castor an unsuitable alternative feedstock for the production of biodiesel [10, 17, 18, 19, 20].
The SCS is also a mechanism that serves to reduce government taxes and allow the Brazilian Development Bank (BNDES) to grant lower funding fees for biodiesel producers who acquire raw materials from—and provide technical assistance to—family farmers [15].
Through ANP, the Federal government promotes auctions for the purchase of biodiesel. During the first stage of the auction, 80% of the total volume is offered to biodiesel producers who already have the SCS. This phase, restricted to holders of the stamp, grants them the purchase and delivery of the product for specified periods. The remaining 20% of biodiesel is offered to any producer, with or without the stamp [21, 22].
Although the SCS program was conceived to bring about major social and economic changes in the North and Northeast regions, as initially intended by the government, except for some modest progress, many authors see it as a failure. The reasons vary from high logistic and harvesting costs to low economies of scale, low utilization of agricultural machinery, artificial irrigation and fertilizer, and lack of access to financing due to red tape [18]. Therefore, this program is currently under revision in order to correct the aforesaid problems, already realized by the government.
On January 13, 2005, the Brazilian government formally introduced The National Program of Production and Use of Biodiesel (PNPB, Brazilian acronym for
One of the main objectives of PNPB, besides the promotion of social inclusion of family farmers, primarily from the North and Northeast regions of Brazil, was also to reduce the import of mineral diesel [9, 24], thus positively affecting the Brazilian trade balance.
In addition, the program also meant to establish a minimum blending percentage of biodiesel into petroleum diesel. At first, the suggested blending percentage (2%) was optional to run from 2005 to 2007, then mandatory from January 2008 onward (Table 2).
Table 2 shows that the production percentage rates from 2005 to 2010 were (on average) very high when compared to the ones from 2011 to 2017. Although 2014 was a year in which the blend changed twice, the percentage increase was relatively low: only 17%. And since then, the percentage has declined, even negative in 2016—a year in which there was a decrease in the biodiesel production for the first time since the establishment of the PNPB program, in 2005.
Right from the beginning of the PNPB program, soybean has become the main and overwhelmingly dominant raw material for biodiesel production, accounting for an average of 75% and beef tallow, in second, with an average of 15%. Other raw materials, such as cotton seed, used cooking oil, and other fats would represent, altogether, the remaining 10% [25]. This high dominance of both feedstocks has driven the Brazilian government to create mechanisms to incentivize the use of alternative raw materials [15, 26].
Law No. 12187 was sanctioned on December 29, 2009, and amended by the Presidential Decree No. 7390 on December 9, 2010 [27]. Together, they establish principles, goals, instruments, and guidelines of the National Policy on Climate Change (PNMC) and elucidate terms such as adaptation, mitigation, emissions and sources of emissions, greenhouse gases, and their eminent impacts [27].
Both law and decree also provide that any measures taken to reduce any type of emissions must have a national range, besides being focused on the prevention or minimization of damages caused directly by anthropogenic activities. On the other hand, these measures should also consider the different socioeconomic contexts of their application, as well as allocate to the population and economic sectors the burdens and charges resulting from such impacts.
Furthermore, both policies also shed light on how to diminish natural and anthropogenic impacts, and how to promote the understanding about the consequences of existing and forthcoming climate change events [27].
One of PNMC’s guidelines is Brazil’s Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) committed at the Paris Agreement.
On September 24, 2014, the Federal government enacted Law No. 13033 [28], turning mandatory the blending of biodiesel into petroleum diesel in the following percentages: 6% (B6) beginning on July 1, 2014, and 7% (B7) starting on November 1 of the same year.
This policy also allows the voluntary addition of biodiesel to diesel in amounts greater than the mandatory percentage in public transport, rail, inland navigation, equipment, or vehicles for mineral extraction and electric power generation, tractors, and other automotive vehicles intended to pull or tow agricultural machinery or to carry out agricultural work [28].
Law No. 13263, implemented on March 23, 2016, alters Law No. 13033 to establish new mandatory blending percentages of biodiesel into mineral diesel, as follows: 8, 9, and 10 (B8, B9, B10) to commence on March 1 of 2017, 2018, and 2019, respectively [29]. But the latter policy upholds the prerogative of voluntary addition of the former.
This law also authorizes the increment of up to 15% (B15) of biodiesel to fossil diesel sold to end users, in any part of the country, after completion (up to 36 months of its enactment) of specific tests and experiments on engines that validate the use of the mixture [29]. The specific tests (50 or so) shall be conducted by more than 20 different companies, spread out through more than 15 locations nationwide [21].
With the anticipation of the B10 blend to March 2018, there should be a progressive increase in the biodiesel-to-diesel mix aiming to achieve the B15 in 2025 in order to meet the country’s NDC, committed at the Paris Agreement [21].
The National Policy on Biofuels or
Besides helping the biodiesel market, RenovaBio will also boost the ethanol industry and Brazil’s foreign trade balance by diminishing the country’s reliance on imported corn ethanol from the United States.
With a nationwide scope, this program also outlines rules for marketing biofuels in the country under the flag of environmental sustainability, and fosters credibility and predictability of national fuel supply. By doing so, RenovaBio will not just help the environment, but it will lay the market conditions for domestic and foreign private investments [31, 32].
This fresh and innovative regulatory framework is supported by two main pillars: the encouragement of energy efficiency throughout the production and use of biofuels and the recognition of biofuels capacity to remove carbon from the environment [33], or mitigate its impacts.
When formulating the basic tenets of RenovaBio, policy-makers and researchers took into account successful international models of initiatives that were enacted for the areas of biofuels and renewable energy, such as the Low Carbon Fuel Standard (LCFS), the Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS), and the Renewable Energy Directive (RED) [34, 35].
Both LCFS and RFS laws, implemented in the United States in 2005 and 2007, respectively, are primarily aimed at reducing carbon intensity in the transport sector [36, 37], while the RED directive, sanctioned in the Europe Union, in 2009, demand that each EU country expressively increase their share of renewable energy to the energy mix in a way that the overall EU share be 20% by the year 2020 [38].
Biofuels have aroused the interest of the Brazilian government in the light of its mitigating potential against the harm caused by petroleum-derived fuels, mainly in the transport sector [22]. Therefore, by enacting RenovaBio, the Brazilian government has overtly shown to the international scientific community its desire to comply with the Paris Agreement, in which the country presented its voluntary goals for 2030 under the NDC.
To achieve these goals, Brazil will adopt actions to reduce GHG projected emissions and increase the share of renewable energy and biofuels into the country’s energy matrix [39], as aforementioned.
Furthermore, there is a possibility of voluntary use of biodiesel in mineral diesel to be greater than the mandatory blend in specific cases, such as: 20% in captive fleets or road users serviced by supply point; 30% in rail transport; 30% in agricultural and industrial use; 100% in experimental use, specific or in other applications [21].
Decree No. 9308, sanctioned on March 15, 2018, addresses the annual compulsory targets to reduce domestic emissions of GHGs and assigns to the National Energy Policy Council (CNPE) the definition of these goals, which are based on recommendations of the Interministerial Committee on Climate Change (CIM) [40].
The breaking down of the national mandatory targets—provided by CNPE—into an individual goal that must be assigned to each biofuel distributor is responsibility of ANP. The distributors that do not comply with their individual goals will be subject to a fine proportional to the noncompliance goal, which may not exceed 5% of their annual revenue, registered in the previous two years [40].
This decree has also established a RenovaBio Committee to provide technical support to CNPE in the process of defining—until June 2018—the annual national reduction targets and it is consisted of agents from seven Ministries, among them Mines and Energy, Environment, and Agriculture. Representatives of other federal, state, and municipal agencies, as well as public and private sector entities from the biofuels market, in addition to technicians and specialists from the sector, whose assistance will be considered provision of unpaid public services, may also be part of this committee as guests [40].
One of the new facets of RenovaBio, missing in previous biofuels policies, is the creation of two important market mechanisms:
Chapter 2 of the RenovaBio policy defines the CPEB as a document issued exclusively by inspection companies as a result of the biofuel certification process. These companies must be highly qualified as such (ISO-standard) and be approved by the government in order to inspect the biofuel companies—either producers or importers [30].
After the inspection and certification are over, ANP will audit the whole process in order to approve or disapprove the issuance of the certificate. In case of approval, the list of certified producers and/or importers is published in the official government gazette so they can take advantage of their certification status when marketing their biofuels.
In case of disapproval, ANP then assesses the whole process to see if there was incompleteness or any sort of fraud. If the latter is the case, then ANP establishes an administrative process to revoke the accreditation of the inspection company. If the former is the problem, then ANP sends the whole paperwork to the inspection company redo the process again [41], as shown in Figure 1.
CPEB issuance process flowchart. Source: Adapted from [
Article 28 of the RenovaBio law states that a bonus of up to 20% will be applied on the value of the energy and environmental efficiency grade of the producer or importer of biofuel whose CPEB proves a negative emission of GHGs in its life cycle in relation to its substitute of fossil origin.
It is up to the RenovaBio Committee, among other responsibilities, to monitor the market, supply, and development of the production of biofuels, particularly the installed capacity of companies that hold the certificate that deems their production efficient and environmentally friendly. Government Order No. 103 of March 22, 2018, has set the green light for this Committee to start its activities immediately [42].
Chapter 2 of the RenovaBio law states that Decarbonization Credits are instruments registered in the form of scripture for the purpose of attesting the individual target of fuel distributors whose proof of achievement shall be based on the amount of credits held by the fuel distributor on the date defined by the policy [30].
The values of the annual mandatory targets were established in units of CBios, with each CBio corresponding to 1 ton CO2eq, whose calculations consider the difference between the GHG emissions in the life cycle of a biofuel and the emissions in the life cycle of its fossil substitute [40].
These calculations will consider energy efficiency in MJ/ton or cbm and environmental impact in gCO2e/ton or cbm [33] and will be carried out by RenovaCalc, which is a tool that accounts for the carbon intensity of a biofuel in gCO2eq/MJ [43].
Besides carrying out analyses and studies for the definition of compulsory goals, plus the evaluation and suggestion of preventive measures to adapt them, other responsibilities of the RenovaBio Committee are the monitoring of supply, demand, and price of CBios issued and traded in the stock exchange from the commercialization of biofuels. Figure 2 shows the links of CBios with the biofuel producers and distributors and how they interplay with the government agencies and certifying companies.
CBios flowchart. Source: Adapted from [
Historically, Brazil has adopted soybean and beef tallow as the main feedstocks for the fulfillment of biodiesel demand in the country. As previously mentioned, soybean alone accounts for three-fourths of the domestic production, mostly done in the Mid-West and in the South, regions that house the vast majority of Brazil’s biodiesel plants, whose owners are also major soy producers and agribusiness companies, well established in both areas for a long time and, therefore, are better prepared to take advantage of the big soy market that was developed throughout the country [3].
Since the inception of the PNPB program, in 2005, biodiesel production has leap-frogged from 736 thousand to 4.3 billion liters in just 12 years (Figure 3). Such a growth turned Brazil into the second biodiesel producer in the world, trailing only the United States, as the number one producer with approximately 5.5 billion liters, in 2016 [44].
Biodiesel annual production (B100) and accumulated installed capacity. Source: Adapted from [
In footstep with the production growth, the installed capacity also jumped from zero to approximately 8 billion liters in about the same period (Figure 3). If on one hand, this growth leads to an idle capacity rate that is close to 50%; on the other hand, it makes biodiesel producers optimists to comfortably meet the production forecasts for at least 5 years after the enactment of the new biofuel policy.
The expected biodiesel production growth to 18 billion liters in 2030 suggests a major boost of the installed capacity to around 22 billion liters. In order to meet that forecast, it will be necessary not just to expand the capacity of current plants but also a twofold increase in the number of biodiesel plants in operation now (Table 3).
Year | B100 (m3) | % | Blend |
---|---|---|---|
2005 | 736 | — | B2 |
2006 | 69,002 | 9275 | B2 |
2007 | 404,329 | 486 | B2 |
2008 | 1,167,128 | 189 | B2/B3 |
2009 | 1,608,448 | 38 | B3/B4 |
2010 | 2,386,399 | 48 | B5 |
2011 | 2,672,760 | 12 | B5 |
2012 | 2,717,483 | 2 | B5 |
2013 | 2,917,488 | 7 | B5 |
2014 | 3,422,210 | 17 | B5/B6/B7 |
2015 | 3,937,269 | 15 | B7 |
2016 | 3,801,339 | −3 | B7 |
2017 | 4,291,294 | 13 | B8 |
2018 | 5,590,000* | 30 | B10 |
Status | Accomplished | Forecasted | Unit (million) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Year | 2016 | 2020 | 2025 | 2030 | |
Soybean | |||||
Processed | 40.7 | 55.1 | 77.3 | 107.2 | t/year |
Installed capacity | 65.0 | 68.8 | 96.6 | 134.0 | t/year |
Number of plants | 117 | 120 | 139 | 165 | — |
Biodiesel | |||||
Production | 3.8 | 6.4 | 11.4 | 18.0 | m3/year |
Installed capacity | 7.3 | 8.0 | 14.3 | 22.5 | m3/year |
Number of plants | 50 | 51 | 76 | 109 | — |
Future scenario for soybean processing units and biodiesel refining.
Source: Adapted from [45].
That kind of growth will require an investment volume of R$ 21.7 billion [45], equivalent to approximately US$ 7 billion, from the government and the private sector, which will represent a major boost on the local economy where the current biodiesel plants are already installed, as well as where the new ones should be built.
Such expansion in the production and use of biodiesel should represent some positive externalities like the creation of new jobs along the entire biodiesel chain, and the reduction of CO2 emissions in the atmosphere as a replacement for part of the petroleum diesel Brazil still needs to import, which should represent an economy of US$ 1 billion per year for an equivalent amount of nearly 1.2 billion liters of diesel not imported [3].
The complexity of this policy requires the government to pay special attention to questions on how the process steps will be supervised and how to allocate the individual targets of the biofuel distributors which, in turn, can acquire the decarbonization certificates whose prices still need to be defined, as well as the costs for the certification of production [46].
The technology mostly used to produce biodiesel in Brazil is the transesterification, which is inefficient. Besides, the process uses methanol, which is from a fossil source, instead of ethanol, which is cleaner, renewable, and produced locally from sugarcane. And the country still imports a good chunk of the alcohol that is used to produce biodiesel, therefore affecting the trade balance negatively.
Furthermore, there needs to be greater incentives for the diversification of the mix of raw materials used in the production of biodiesel, since soybeans and beef tallow together represent about 90% of the total and they present environmental problems due to the use of pesticides and herbicides [47], as well as GHG from land use and land use change [48].
Perhaps alternative sources, such as palm—whose yield per hectare is approximately six times greater than that of soybeans [22]—may be an option. However, this feedstock still needs investments in R&D so that its production increases in such a way that the amount of available oil would be enough not only to meet its main market—culinary—but also the production of biodiesel.
Although at this moment in time palm does not have enough scale to meet the market demand for biodiesel, Embrapa’s research with this oilseed has had positive results in adapting it to other environments that are different from the traditional ones in the legal Amazon, where most of palm is harvested [21].
Thus, it is hoped that palm oil will have a much larger penetration in the mix of raw materials for the production of biodiesel and, therefore, provide a greater competitiveness of the sector and increase the income of family farmers, especially those from the north and northeast. But that will depend as well on the success of policies such as
On the overseas front, the European Union has recently strengthened its position to disfavoring traditional biofuels, such as ethanol from sugarcane and corn, and biodiesel from oilseeds. The maximum demand for these biofuels in energy demand is forecasted to decrease from 7% in 2020 to 3.8% in 2030. This proposal has received harsh criticisms from various sectors of the industry [21], as well as from the scientific community.
At a moment in which the demand for food and bioenergy will continue to grow for the next years as a result of populational growth, increased world income, and the evolution of energy policies toward cleaner and more sustainable sources [21], the European Union position, along with the United States decision to withdraw from the Paris Agreement, raises concerns regarding the immediate growth of biofuels worldwide. On the other hand, Brazil has now a great opportunity to set the stage to confirm its world leadership in the field of biofuels [33].
Over the last years, we have noticed that a clear global movement is underway to reduce the use of fossil fuels in order to decrease the GHG emission in the atmosphere and, therefore, limit the rise of the temperature of our planet to 2°C, preferably to 1.5. One of the ways to achieve this reduction is by replacing fossil fuels used in motor vehicles with renewable ones such as biodiesel.
The enactment of the latest and most innovative domestic biofuels policy to date, RenovaBio, establishes a legal framework for its production and use in the country by promoting energy efficiency and competitiveness of the sector through meritocracy.
By allowing greater market predictability for the entire biofuels chain, RenovaBio poises to take this industry in Brazil to new heights by creating more jobs and boosting the economy with major investments from the government and private sectors.
However, there are some problems that may undermine the whole program if not addressed accordingly. For example, at the time of the creation of the Social Fuel Stamp, the focus was put on the social side of the program, neglecting the technical aspects that deemed that initiative a failure, as in the case of castor and palm feedstocks.
Another major problem lies in the technology used to produce biodiesel in Brazil: the transesterification, which is inefficient. Also, the process uses methanol—which besides from being a fossil source, the country still imports a good chunk of it—instead of ethanol, which is cleaner, renewable, and produced from the local sugarcane.
Furthermore, the main raw materials used to produce biodiesel in Brazil (soy and beef tallow) present some environmental problems that are already known by the government and industry experts, largely due to the use of pesticides and herbicides, in addition to GHG from land use and land use change.
This work was supported by grants from CAPES and FAPESP through grant number 2012/51466-7 and grant number 2014/50279-4.
Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) is a population-based, stochastic optimization algorithm. It is modelled after the intelligent behavior patterns found in swarms of animals when they manage their biological needs. It was first introduced in 1995 [1], and since then many enhancements and new versions of the algorithm have appeared. The model originates from the behavior of flocks (swarms) of birds when in search of food sources. It was inspired by research carried out by Heppner and Grenander [2], in order to experiment on a “cornfield model”. Exploiting these studies, Kennedy and Eberhart developed the PSO algorithm, in which the members of the swarm, called
In this chapter, two PSO algorithms are presented. First, the original PSO, which utilizes a global best position
Both aforementioned algorithms have been applied to wave scattering problems, and results of numerical implementations alongside with conclusions are provided. Precisely, we consider the cloaking problem concerning the excitation of a layered spherical medium with perfect electric conducting (PEC) core by an external dipole. The main purpose is to determine suitable parameters of the magneto-dielectric layers covering the PEC core so that the scattered far-field is significantly reduced for a wide range of observation angles. Obtained optimal designs demonstrating efficient cloaking performance are presented exhibiting reduced values of the bistatic scattering cross section for realizable coatings parameters. It is particularly stressed that the CAPSO determines optimal values of the scattering problem’s variables, which yield highly-efficient cloaking designs by employing ordinary coatings materials.
PSO algorithms in computational methodologies and engineering applications involving electromagnetic waves were initially developed in [5, 6], where implementations in antenna design were also proposed. A quantum PSO algorithm, based on Quantum Mechanics rather than the Newtonian rules considered in the original versions of the algorithm, was developed in [7] and applied for finding a set of infinitesimal dipoles producing the same near and far fields of a circular dielectric resonator antenna. A molecular dynamics formulation of the PSO algorithm leading to a physical theory for the swarm environment was presented in [8] and applied to problems of synthesis of linear array antennas. Variants of PSO algorithms with relevant applications in electromagnetic design problems, like microwave absorbers and base station antenna optimization for mobile communications were analyzed in [9]. Specifically, concerning the cloaking behavior of layered media, related optimization problems were investigated in [10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16]. Optimization techniques for meta-devices design are overviewed in [17].
In this section, the basic principles of Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) are presented and an in depth description of the algorithms that have been developed and applied for the considered cloaking problems is given. After discussing the theoretical basis of the swarm optimization method and its ties to Swarm Intelligence, the PSO algorithm and the chaotic-enhanced version (CAPSO) of the accelerated particle swarm optimization (APSO) algorithm are described.
PSO is a population-based stochastic optimization algorithm, modelled after the behavior of swarms of animals, like flocks of birds, swarms of various types of insects or ants or school of fish [18]. In literature, it is also categorized as a metaheuristic algorithm. Usually, the population is referred to as a swarm. These types of methods are also considered to be and referred to as behaviorally-inspired, opposed to evolutionary-based methods like genetic algorithms, although some parallels can be drawn between them, with regards to their inner workings. Another similar research field is artificial life. The term, as well as the algorithm, was originally proposed in 1995 [1] and although PSO’s precursor was the study and simulation of animal behavior (even in the hopes of studying human social behavior), it grew into an optimizer, with a simple, yet well-defined description. By definition, PSO is indissolubly linked to Swarm Intelligence.
The appeal of swarm optimizers is due to numerous reasons. There exist many types of biological swarms, so one can safely assume that they constitute a promising pool of inspiration and resources to draw methods and conclusions from. The global adaptive behavior of the swarm, and its co-operational behavior and decision making, is practical but not strictly utilitarian, since a swarm behaves with fluid and elegant coordination. Additionally, the way a biological swarm acts can be clearly and directly perceived by humans. Thus, we have a better understanding of the animals’ purpose, goals, communication and utility unlike other natural phenomena, which can be way more abstract, complicating the creation of a well-structured model or method.
Since the initial introduction of PSO, several variations of the method have been introduced. A plethora of algorithms have been and are still being designed with different parameters and applications in mind, in order to adjust to specific problems. These numerous variants are widely used and examined, and, thus, PSO has grown to be a very effective technique. In the following subsection, a more generic description of the swarm and its behavior is presented, while detailed descriptions of specific algorithms are given in the sequel.
The term “particle” refers to the points in the
Each particle maintains information about two characteristics; its position
According to [19], the biological swarm has three specific qualities. First,
In order to clearly establish the link between PSO and Swarm Intelligence, we present a comprehensible list of Swarm Intelligence principles, in reference to Millonas’ categorization [1, 18, 20]. Let us refer to a group of entities that collectively act and behave. This group has Swarm Intelligence if these principles are true.
One can observe that stability and adaptability are principles that go hand-in-hand and the best strategy to approach, is to safely explore a viable middle ground. Some level of randomness or noise should exist in the group, to a degree that diverse response is allowed to happen. That is the reason why such parameters are usually very important to the algorithms and can dramatically change their results.
PSO dictates that the swarm acts in a way which is complicit with the aforementioned principles. In the original PSO publication, Kennedy and Eberhart do confirm that the PSO algorithm has been designed to function in this manner. Similar explanations and proofs were provided in literature [1, 18]. As it has been briefly mentioned, in PSO, particles maintain their position and velocity, and have the ability to react to environmental time and space stimuli in order to update them. They do so in time steps-iterations, thus following the
In this section, we refer to the original PSO algorithm [1], alongside with the upgrade proposed in 1998 [3] which utilizes an inertia mechanism.
The PSO algorithm follows all the principles and characteristics mentioned so far. By default, a maximization optimizer is considered due to the way the model works, but there exist methods to effectively utilize the algorithm in order to find minima as well.
The behavior of the flock was heavily inspired by and based upon Heppner’s [2] simulation of a bird flock, referred to as a
Kennedy and Eberhart [1] utilized Heppner’s simulation model, and designed the PSO algorithm in order to use these advantageous observations. So, in the PSO algorithm, the model is as follows.
When particles locate a good solution to the optimization problem, this knowledge is transmitted to the whole swarm, meaning that the
All particles do gravitate towards good solutions, but not in an absolute forced way, because,
all particles maintain their personal memory spot for their own value
The particles move with respect to Newton’s laws of motion, while there exist parameters to insert some randomness. There exist also learning rates that the particles adhere to.
In 1998, Shi and Eberhart [3] proposed strategies on how to fine-tune the parameters of the original PSO algorithm. Particularly, they suggested the use of an inertia weight mechanism
Therefore, the velocity and position updates are described, respectively, in the following formulae, with respect to iteration
where the parameters
After describing the model of the algorithm, a concrete and defined algorithm can be presented for the computational implementation. The algorithm is depicted in pseudo code form in Figure 1.
The PSO algorithm pseudo code.
Regarding the various parameters, we make the following remarks. Usually a size of 20 to 30 for
As we have previously mentioned, in the original version of the PSO algorithm, both a global (
It is noted that the individual best
Ergo, the APSO algorithm only uses the global best
where
In [21], the following simplified formula is also suggested for the particle location update in a single step:
hence there is no need of utilizing structs or vectors for the velocity, while separate initializations and updates are also avoided.
The typical parameter values for this accelerated PSO are
or
Other non-increasing functions
Gandomi et al. proposed a variation of the APSO algorithm, the chaotic APSO (CAPSO) [4]. According to the study, the attraction parameter
The method suggested for tuning the parameter
In the original proposal of CAPSO [4], many chaotic maps were tested in terms of convergence and effectiveness. The results were listed in detail, and it was noted that the
Sinusoidal Map:
As an alternative, the following simplified form has also been suggested and applied [4, 23]:
Singer Map:
where
Having described the basis of the APSO algorithm, as well as the improvements added from chaotic maps, the CAPSO algorithm is now presented in pseudo code form in Figure 2.
The CAPSO algorithm pseudo code.
The following information is provided for the various paramaters. Usually a size of 40 for
Many suggestions can be made regarding the robustness of algorithms, as well as the speed, effectiveness and organization of the code. All these highly depend on the programming language, development technique, programmer expertise, computational load of the optimization problem and numerous more parameters. When developing these algorithms, we must take into consideration all of the above, and more, since applications can greatly diversify from one another.
Below, two suggestions are made regarding the PSO and APSO/CAPSO algorithms, which, when applied, improved the testing process on a complicated wave scattering optimization problem detailed below. However, they are not heavily dependent on the nature of said optimization problem, and they could be proven to be helpful regardless.
In this section, PSO optimizations to representative applications of wave scattering theory are presented. Precisely, we investigate the electromagnetic cloaking of spherically layered media excited by an external source. The optimizations concern the determinations of the physical (material) and geometrical characteristics of the layered medium so that the scattered far field generated by the layered medium is significantly reduced.
The scattering geometry is depicted in Figure 3. It consists of a layered spherical medium
Geometrical configuration of the considered spherically-layered medium excited by an external dipole.
The exact solution of the considered scattering problem was determined in [24, 25, 26] by means of a combined Sommerfeld and T-matrix methodology in conjunction with suitable eigenfunctions expansions. Specifically, the electric fields in each spherical shell are decomposed into primary and secondary components, which are then expressed as series of the spherical vector wave functions. The unknown coefficients in the expansions of the secondary fields are determined analytically by imposing the transmission boundary conditions on the interfaces of the spherical shells and applying a T-matrix method. It is emphasized that the exact solution of the scattering problem (here this is obtained in the form of a Mie series) is crucial for the fast and efficient implementation of the PSO algorithm in the present setting.
By applying the above-described methodology, we obtain the following expression of the total scattering cross section
where
while functions
with
where
The objective function we consider in the optimization schemes is the
For the numerical solution of the scattering problem, we used the code developed in [24], which is valid for an arbitrary number
The conducted experiments focused on small values of
The external magnetic dipole was taken at
Normalized bistatic cross section in the
As in
Significant reductions in the far-field contributions with respect to the bare PEC sphere are observed for large ranges of the observation angles. Particularly, the CAPSO algorithm determines optimal variables corresponding to notably smaller objective function’s values for a wide range of observation angles than the classic PSO algorithm. Moreover, the improved performance of the CAPSO algorithm is exhibited by the fact that the attained solutions yield reduced scattered far-field’s values for all angles in the
Besides, the effectiveness of the cloaking performance of the layered medium with respect to variations of the dipole’s distance from the external boundary
Since its introduction to the scientific community, particle swarm optimization (PSO) has gone through many enhancements and variants, and has been applied to numerous diverse problems. The particles that compose the swarm’s population act in a manner that follows the basic principles of Swarm Intelligence, as presented in literature. The algorithms utilize the intelligent swarm in order to discover the optima of objective functions. In this chapter, two algorithms were described. The PSO algorithm (1998 version), and the CAPSO algorithm which is a variant of the APSO algorithm. In the PSO, particles move with respect to Newton’s laws of motion, and they are described by both position and velocity. Particles’ position and velocity updates are affected by the global best
The PSO and CAPSO algorithms were developed and tested for cloaking problems concerning the covering of a perfectly conducting core by a number of coating layers with optimal parameters so that the total scattered field is significantly reduced. The resulting scattering performance of the medium was examined and it was demonstrated that both PSO and CAPSO algorithms are effective in achieving the goal of the scattered field reduction. Particularly, the CAPSO was shown to be successful in determining optimal solutions yielding enhanced cloaking behavior for a notably large range of the observation angles.
It is noted that the developed algorithms do not utilize a population topology mechanism since the global best is well known to all particles. Thus, in future research, alternative variants of these algorithms could be explored, for example the SPSO 2011 [31] or the Adaptive Clan PSO [32].
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
PSO | Particle Swarm Optimization |
APSO | Accelerated Particle Swarm Optimization |
CAPSO | Chaotic Accelerated Particle Swarm Optimization |
PEC | Perfect Electric Conducting |
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. 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He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. 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She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. 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Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. 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A dynamic career research platform which is based on the thematic areas of comparative vertebrate physiology, stress endocrinology, reproductive endocrinology, animal health and welfare, and conservation biology. \nEdward has supervised 40 research students and published over 60 peer reviewed research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Queensland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517"},editorialBoard:[{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"191123",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan José",middleName:null,surname:"Valdez-Alarcón",slug:"juan-jose-valdez-alarcon",fullName:"Juan José Valdez-Alarcón",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBfcQAG/Profile_Picture_1631354558068",institutionString:"Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo",institution:{name:"Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"161556",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Dos Anjos",middleName:null,surname:"Pires",slug:"maria-dos-anjos-pires",fullName:"Maria Dos Anjos Pires",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS8q2QAC/Profile_Picture_1633432838418",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"209839",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",middleName:null,surname:"Spinu",slug:"marina-spinu",fullName:"Marina Spinu",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLXpQAO/Profile_Picture_1630044895475",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"92185",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Savic",slug:"sara-savic",fullName:"Sara Savic",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/92185/images/system/92185.jfif",institutionString:'Scientific Veterinary Institute "Novi Sad"',institution:{name:'Scientific Veterinary Institute "Novi Sad"',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Serbia"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{id:"82196",title:"Multi-Features Assisted Age Invariant Face Recognition and Retrieval Using CNN with Scale Invariant Heat Kernel Signature",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104944",signatures:"Kamarajugadda Kishore Kumar and Movva Pavani",slug:"multi-features-assisted-age-invariant-face-recognition-and-retrieval-using-cnn-with-scale-invariant-",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"82063",title:"Evaluating Similarities and Differences between Machine Learning and Traditional Statistical Modeling in Healthcare Analytics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105116",signatures:"Michele Bennett, Ewa J. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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