\r\n\t- Traditionally accepted topics related to global health security,
\r\n\t- The impact of human activities and climate change on “planetary health”,
\r\n\t- The impact of global demographic changes and the emergence chronic health conditions as international health security threats.
\r\n\t- A theme dedicated to the COVID-19 Pandemic,
\r\n\t- Novel considerations, including the impact of social media and more recent technological developments on international health security.
\r\n\tThe goal of this book cycle is to provide a comprehensive compendium that will be able to stand on its own as an authoritative source of information on international health security.
",isbn:"978-1-78985-940-9",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-939-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-154-3",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"edbc267908c2f140f991de15d99276df",bookSignature:"Dr. Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Dr. Sagar C. Galwankar and Dr. Andrew C. Miller",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10624.jpg",keywords:"Threats, Monitoring, Food Security, Emerging Infections, Transmission, Geopolitics, Climate Change, Cyber Health Security, COVID-19, Novel Coronavirus, Pandemic, Coronavirus",numberOfDownloads:439,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 20th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 5th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 4th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 25th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 24th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"5 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"An Associate Professor of Surgery at Temple University School of Medicine and a Chair of the Department of Research and Innovation, St. Luke's University Health Network. A member of multiple editorial boards and co-author of over 550 publications.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"An Associate Professor of Surgery & Integrative Medicine at Northeast Ohio Medical University and Cardiothoracic Surgeon at the Summa Health Care System. A prolific writer and presenter, with multiple books, hundreds of peer-reviewed articles, and innumerable presentations around the world.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"A CEO of the INDUSEM Health and Medicine Collaborative, Global Executive Director. of the American College of Academic International Medicine (ACAIM) and head of the World Academic Council of Emergency Medicine.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:"A Director of Research in the Department of Emergency Medicine at Nazareth Hospital in Philadelphia, USA, and co-chief editor of the International Journal of Critical Illness and Injury Science. 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He completed residencies in Emergency Medicine and Internal Medicine at the State University of New York (SUNY) Downstate Medical Center (2010) where he served as Chief Resident for Research. He completed fellowships in Pulmonary Medicine at the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center (2013) and Critical Care Medicine at the National Institutes of Health (2014). He is active in the American College of Academic International Medicine, and is co-chief editor of the International Journal of Critical Illness and Injury Science. 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Major features are longitudinal tracheids in softwood species, and vessel elements and longitudinal fibers in hardwood species. The lumens of their cells are large enough to provide a good pathway for flow of liquid resin. Interconnecting pits are often adequate to permit resin flow. However, high-molecular weight resins or occlusions in the pits or lumens may inhibit flow. This conglomeration of resin and wood substance is called the “interphase region.” Two substrates, each with its own interphase, and the interface between the substrates, comprise the “bond line.” The geometry of the interphase region varies as a result of many factors, such as wood anatomy, permeability, porosity, resin viscosity, surface energy, consolidation pressure, and others [1].
\nA cursory glance through the literature shows the creation of a new or existing wood adhesives, which are seen as research and development activities to improve. Glue in all industrial sectors is a modern need; it is also important in the furniture industry. Now in the new world “green living, green thinking” is the order. It needed a lot of research on environmental and human friendly adhesives for the new chorus. For example, there are a lot of research works done for the elimination of formaldehyde emissions from particleboard adhesive. Wood glue is a major area of importance for industrial and commercial activities. This particular study was made to explain the importance to improve the adhesion strength.
\nIt is more important to know the use of wood adhesives and their technical properties. These properties are given below.
\nIn furniture and forest product industry, “wood adhesives” have played an important role in the development and efficient use of wood. In wood products, the most commonly used material is glue. If we check different wood products (plywood, MDF, particleboard, OSB, structural frame and wooden architectural doors, windows, and frames), adhesives are more important to retain their structure. Significant amounts of adhesives are used in floor coverings, kitchen counters and for ceiling and wall tiles. They are also used in nonstructural applications, within car upholstery and accessories. Adhesives increase the resistant strength and stiffness of the composite sheet. The adhesion of the glue depends on the wood-adhesive bonding chain.
\nAdhesive bonding performance between wood elements is presumed to be significantly influenced by the degree of penetration of the adhesive into the porous network of interconnected cells. Research on the bonding performance has been conducted through microscopic examination and associated techniques, in an effort to establish relationships with the bond performance. Variation between wood species, the wide variety of adhesive application and curing processes, and many types of adhesive chemistries and formulations make sweeping generalities difficult. However, troubleshooting bonding problems and designing new adhesive systems and processes may be facilitated by understanding the fundamentals of adhesive penetration [1].
\nThe interphase region is an uneven layer, as illustrated in Figure 1. The geometry of the interphase is assumed to affect bond performance. Adhesive joints under load must transfer stress from component to component through the interphase region. The structural makeup of the interphase, its volume and shape, will dictate the magnitude of stress concentrations and ultimately have a significant impact on the performance of the bond [1].
\nExample of epi-fluorescence microphotograph with the penetration of UF resin into poplar at three different pressures applied during the press cycle: 0.5 N/mm2, 1 N/mm2, and 1.5 N/mm2 for radial and tangential penetration [
There were many researches made on penetration of wood adhesives. The penetration of adhesive into wood can be categorized into two groups:
\nGross penetration
Cell wall penetration.
Gross penetration results from the flow of liquid resin into the porous structure of wood, mostly filling cell lumens. Hydrodynamic flow and capillary action could be explained as gross penetration. Cell-wall penetration occurs when resin diffuses into the cell wall or flows into microfissures.
\nIn wood, the least resistance to hydrodynamic flow is in the longitudinal direction, following the lumens in the long and slender tracheid of softwood, or through the vessels of hardwoods. Since vessels are connected end-to-end with perforation plates and there is no pit membrane, this cell type dominates the penetration of adhesives in hardwoods. Using optical microscopy, the author has observed resin in pit chambers of both hardwood and softwood species and in cell lumens in which the only entry pathway for the resin was through the pit.
\nAdhesive penetration influences link 4 through 7 in reference [3]. All of the potential adhesion mechanisms are influenced by penetration. The concept of mechanical interlocking is obviously dependent on penetration of the adhesive phase beyond the external wood surface. In addition, the combined adhesion force due to covalent bonding and formation of secondary chemical bonds is directly related to the area of surface in contact between the adhesive and the cell wall.
\nIn reference [3], a chain-link analogy for an adhesive bond is proposed as shown in Figure 2 and inferred that the bond is only as good as the weakest link in the chain. Adhesive penetration plays a vital role in this analogy. Link 1 is the pure adhesive phase, unaffected by the substrates. Links 2 and 3 represent the adhesive boundary layer that may have cured under the influence of the substrates and is no longer homogeneous. Links 4 and 5 represent the interface between the boundary layer and the substrate and constitute the “adhesion” mechanism. That mechanism may be mechanical interlocking, covalent bonding, or secondary chemical bonds due to electrostatic forces. Links 6 and 7 represent wood cells that have been modified by the process of preparing the wood surface or the bonding process itself.
\nChain link analogy for an adhesive bond in wood.
For example, rotary peeling of veneer causes fractures that initiate in the radial-longitudinal plane. The cells in the region may have been weakened, and thus increase the potential for failure of the bond. Planning, flaking, sanding, and other mechanical surface preparation techniques will also cause minute fractures in the wood cells. Finally, links 8 and 9 represent the unadulterated wood. A properly designed adhesive bond would have the lower limit of structural integrity located at links 8 and 9. In other words, the wood should be the weakest link [1].
\nAdhesion is the tendency of dissimilar particles or surfaces to bond to one another. The internal forces between molecules that are responsible for adhesion are chemical bonding, dispersive bonding, and diffusive bonding. These intermolecular forces can make cumulative bonding and bring certain emergent mechanical effects.
\nCohesion word (cohaerere in Latin language) means “stick or stay together.” Cohesive force is the tendency of similar molecules to stick together. They attract mutually. Cohesive force caused by the shape and structure of molecules, which makes the distribution of orbiting electrons irregular when molecules get close to one another, creating electrical attraction that can maintain a microscopic structure such as a water drop.
\nChain link analogy for adhesion and cohesion is shown in Figure 3. The adhesive and cohesive definition refers to the forces that keep together the adhesive with the substrate (adhesion) and the adhesive to itself (cohesion). These forces correspond to:
\nChain link for adhesion and cohesion.
chemical bonds
intermolecular forces
The meaning of “wetting” is always misunderstood because there are many explanations for wetting in the literature. Some examples are given below:
\nBecause several phenomena occur when this contact is made, it seems logical to assume that the term wetting is best used in a generic sense. Putting this concept in perspective, the term wetting is used to cover the processes of adhesion, penetration, and spreading. All these cases explain definitely different types of wetting. Setting adhesion as a subgroup of the wetting is a result of its surface energetics. It is identified simply as the wetting conditions that apply during “face to face contact” [9].
\nExplaining the wetting.
We can clarify this by stating that using the surface energetics approach. The word adhesion implies strictly an interracial phenomenon, while in practical, two materials bond together. Wetting phenomenon is shown in Figure 4.
\n“Penetration” refers to wetting conditions when a liquid works its way up along the walls of a solid material, and “spreading” refers to wetting conditions involved when a liquid flow out over a surface. In Figure 4, this theory is explained. In reference [10], wetting is explained as a process that takes place when a liquid contacts a solid surface. Usually the process of adhesion takes place in air; thus, three phases are involved: liquid, solid, and vapor.
\nThe contact angle of a liquid with a solid surface is a convenient measure of wettability; it is an indicator of the affinity of a liquid for a solid. In reference [11], contact angle measurements are made in various ways, the balance of a liquid drop which is lean on a plane solid surface is under the movement of three surface tensions. In Figure 5, basic conditions are explained.
\nFinite contact angle with liquid resting on solid surface.
The three types of surface stress are explained below:
\nat the interface of the liquid and vapor phase,
at the interface of the solid and the liquid phase,
at the interface of the solid and vapor phase,
Using of contact angle in wettability reduces the fact that the tendency for a given mass of liquid to spread and adhere to a solid surface increases as the angle “θ” decreases.
\nIf the contact angle is “θ", it will be inverse measure of wettability, while the cosine of “θ” is an apparent direct measure. In Young\'s equation for the classical case of the three phase line, get in touch with between a smooth, rigid, and solid phase “S”, a liquid “L”, and vapor “V’, expresses the relationship between the equilibrium contact angle “θ ”, and the three-surface tensions
As mentioned in reference [12],
This equation contains two solid-surface tensions, which are extremely difficult, if possible at all, to measure, it is usually combined with in reference [12], and this relationship relates the work of adhesion,
As mentioned in reference [13], ‘’Dupre equation” is given below,
\nThe combination of Eqs. (1) and (2) yields the original Young-Dupre equation, which has been one of the most useful tools in the experimental approach to study surface behavior:
\nAs mentioned in reference [10], ‘’Young and Dupre’s equation” is given below,
\nIn reference [14], many of the main derivations and arguments concerning the validity of these equations are described. Their conclusion, after detailing the results of the various thrusts to this end, seems worthy of particular note: ‘’
Although in reference [14], the results of various derivations of Young\'s and Dupre\'s equations have been discussed, it is important here to note briefly the major results because of their relationship and bearing on other methods of measuring wettability.
As mentioned in reference [11], ‘’Boyd and Livingston equation” is given below,
\nwhere :
\nπsv: the change in the surface free energy upon adsorption of the vapor of the contacting liquid.
In reference [10], Eq. (3) includes the factor πsv in cases other than vacuum, and more correctly assumes the following form:
\nGlue is the most important raw material coming after wood in furniture industries. Especially after World War II, glue ameliorated its time and bonding techniques and developments occurring in plywood block board and in the production of chipboard. It has led to developments in a positive direction. Results of the physical and mechanical properties of these materials have been borne and assessed in a wide variety of places where there are opportunities for its usage. In past, plant and animal glues are used, later they left the place for the synthetic resin. Animal glue has to fight against instability and resistance to hot water and microorganisms and the lack of block board limit their usage, though the use and application of synthetic resin in plywood production eliminate these drawbacks. Thus, these materials are now in different atmospheric conditions, letting in water, as well as in direct contact with the water on the concrete breakdown, in mold making, etc., as these are used widely in very different fields. Adhesives used in the furniture industry prior to 1930s were obtained from crop and animals, and those obtained from animals are classified as:
\n\tAnimal glue or gelatin—obtained from skin, bone, and fish residues.
\tBlood—obtained from the raw with blood from slaughterhouses.
\tCasein—derived from an animal milk protein.
Adhesives obtained from animals are gelatin-type adhesives. They are obtained from waste and by-products of the animal industries. Raw materials of animal adhesives are hides, sinews, and bones of cattle and other animals. The wastes of leather industry (from tanned hides) are also utilized. Adhesives that are made from hides are of higher grade than glue obtained from bones and tendons [17].
\nAdhesives obtained from animals are of gluten origin and are obtained by boiling collagens in water agent. To prepare such a solution, adhesive solution is left in cold water which induces swelling (15-30 minutes for the powder and 2 hours for beads), and then if necessary, heat at temperatures not exceeding 60°C in bain-marie. Animal glues can be wetted with water and pasted on any support material. During withdrawal, dry animal glue is proportional to the water used to prepare the solution. The viscosity of the binder solution varies with the change in pH. At low viscosities, pH is between 4.5 and 5.
\nAdhesives obtained from animals are treated one or three times with cold and clean water depending on the part of the animal, glue weight, and size keeping it for a while in this aqueous gel and by heating at 60°C temperature to bring it to the suitable condition. If the glue is not suitable for boiling, it will weaken its gluing property. In plywood and veneer industries, the glue is applied with a gluing machine. It is more important not to use excess glue unnecessarily. Because, in this case, the deterioration of the balance between the amount of water present in the glue and moisture content of the wood material will cause distortion, such as a crack up, swelling, and corrugated formation of drawbacks. In this regard, the inconveniences of glue application are much more than the minimum driving. These issues suggest that when applied, the amount of glue from animals should be held in 10 per 9.29 m2.
\nPlywood unit is prepared by applying hot melted adhesive between the layers placed in the cold press, uses the fluid state glue, and is subsequently heated to 60°C in order to bring it by a press. Later heat up to 25°C for the purpose of heated press 60°C so. Subsequently, 25°C > a is cooled. Unfavorable side of animal glues are that they comes off when contacted with water or at 80°C temperature and due to higher relative humidity of animal glue bonding there is the loss of precision. Furthermore, animal glues, with the action of microorganisms can easily undergo deterioration.
\nBotanical adhesives are obtained mostly by processing starchier plants. As well as some of the resins of wood species fall into this group. Both in animal glue and vegetable glue, formaldehyde (an organic compound with the formula CH₂O) and so on are used to prevent microorganisms.
\nPlant-derived adhesives are divided into two groups as starch- and cellulose-derived. The first group is adhesives derived from starch, extracted from plants, such as corn, rice, potatoes, and wheat and is generally used in bookbinding, paper bags, and cardboard boxes.
\nThe second group of adhesives is made from cellulose, derived from trees, shrubs, or fruits such as bananas, which are used more in stickers affixed to glass.
\nCellulosic derivatives are thermoplastic adhesives. Thermoplastics are in solid phase at normal temperature. On heating, they soften and melt; this property helps them to protect the floor when a chemical alteration occurs. They occur as an adhesive solution, dispersion, and in solid form. Once heated, they become solid ones. A liquefied thermoplastic material can provide adhesion when allowed to cool. In solution and dispersion they remain as a film by the evaporation of the liquid solvent. They are classified into two groups:
\nCellulose nitrates are cellulose, which are obtained from cotton by reaction with nitric acid and sulfuric acid. The color of cellulose nitrate normally is opaque or transparent, but under the day light, it will be dark. It is resistant to water and oils, and it biodegrades at moderate temperature in weak acids, alkalis, and organic solvents. But it is a strong, flexible adhesive. There is even aged adhesive reversibility.
\nCellulose ethers are prepared by reactions of suitable alcohol sulfate or chloride salts in an alkaline environment. They are sold in the market as organic solvents or by dissolving the gel powder in water and a vaporizable solvent. After the evaporation of the solvent, they remain as thermosetting polymers. Upon evaporation, there is a degree of shrinkage and decrease in volume. In these cases, the adhesive is not suitable to be used for structural strength.
\nIn 1930s, synthetic resin adhesives were used in the woodworking industry. They have many advantages for use in the woodworking industry. In the outdoor furniture, synthetic resin adhesives can be used in joints that remain as strong as the wood even in unprotected exposure to the weather. Most of the “animal” adhesives can be used in furniture joints for interior use only [18].
\nInorganic adhesives are based on typical compounds, such as sodium silicate, magnesium oxychloride, lead oxide (litharge), sulfur, and various metallic phosphates. These materials form strong resistant bonds for special applications, and are still widely used. The advent of synthetic organic polymer adhesives during the last two decades has led to a decline in the use of many of the older inorganic adhesives laboratory recipes [19].
\nThe more important adhesives for wood are currently produced by chemical synthesis. Chemical synthesis, usually converts synthetic adhesives from liquid to solid by a hardener or a setting agent. These agents may be furnished separately for addition to the resin before use, or they may be present (particularly with spray-dried powdered resins) in the resin as supplied [18, 20].
\nThe advantages and disadvantages of synthetic resin adhesives are given below.
\nAdvantages
\nlow cost materials,
easy to use and to scale-up for industrial use, and
high temperature resistant joints.
Disadvantages
\ncannot cope with large CTE mismatch,
are only good for low stress applications,
joints not leak-tight, and
surface preparation is critical.
Polyvinyl resin emulsions are thermoplastics, softening when the temperature is increased to a particular level and hardening again when cooled. PVA adhesives are copolymer based. PVA adhesive solidifies by evaporation or by absorption of water by the gluing material. Solidification time is relatively short, about 45 seconds. The best temperature for using PVA adhesive is around 20°C. PVA resins have long storage and working lives at normal room temperatures. Users must avoid in-storage evaporation or freezing. Packaging should be modified to keep them cool. They are diluted to last longer. PVA adhesives are milky-white fluids to be used at room temperature in the form supplied by the manufacturer. Emulsion films are resistant, waterproof, usually applied quickly, does not smell, and they do not change the taste. They are durable to machine use and are oil-resistant [17, 18, 20].
\nPVA
As a furniture adhesive, PVAC is used for general assembly applications, film overlay and high-pressure lamination, edge gluing, wood veneer, and edge bonding. The demand has increased by 400% in the last 20 years. In furniture market ‘’white glue” continues to be a staple for both home and shop.
\nTo spread and for adhesion of substrates, adhesives should have the “soaking” feature. In most adhesives used in packaging, easily evaporating agent such as water flow (water as solvent) is used for dissolving the adhesive. It evaporates leaving behind a sticky substance and it easily glues. On the other hand, a solvent is used in Hot-melt before applying instead of dissolving it. The unifying feature can be caused by the solidification of hot melt adhesives. Heat dissipates more quickly in the case of a volatile liquid even for a waterproof layer. Fast heat dissipation provides quick bond formation. In the furniture industry, hot-melt adhesives are furnished in solid form.
\nTherefore, hot melt is ideal for applications, especially where high speed, early adhesion is important. The lack of a liquid solvent, frost, weathering, and decay do not affect the shipment and storage of hot-melt adhesives. The biggest disadvantage of hot-melt adhesives is their limited heat resistance. In furniture market, they usually are sold as chunks, granules and in cord form on reels.
\nHot-melt adhesives are thermoplastic materials. Even at mildly elevated temperature, a major part of the glue is lost by melt at the end. The bond is formed very quickly depending upon the temperature difference between the glue and the parts being joined. The setting time as brief as a fraction of a second has been reported. The durability of hot melt used in the packaging decrease at 60°C and deteriorate at 70°C. The most common use of hot melt is in packaging material, joining a low molecular weight resin and a waxy ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymer (EVA). According to the attached, EVA additives integrate power, product durability, and resistance to hot seam and heat. (If the resin is useful in the hot seam accelerates adhesion largely determines the color and odor). Most crystallized substances as waxy material softening point, resistance to heat and set the time. Most frequent uses of hot melts in wood gluing have been for edge banding of panel boards [22–24].
\nContact adhesives are generally based on synthetic rubber, which is obtained by dissolving in suitable liquids. Contact adhesives are sold under a variety of names in the market. As a result of evaporation of the flux contained in the glue, the glue dries. Bonding of large surfaces with contact adhesive is difficult.
\nContact adhesives are usually used to bond:
\nplastic laminates to plywood or particleboard for counter-tops,
restaurant and kitchen tables,
edge of particle boards and MDF,
upholstering of sofas, and
PVC edge to boards.
Contact adhesives should be applied to both surfaces, and allowed to dry, depending on the ambient temperature and the chemical structure of glue. The wait and airtime (10 minutes, 15 minutes) varies. Contact adhesives are unique in that they develop considerable strength immediately upon contacting surfaces [16].
\nUrea formaldehyde resins are widely used in chipboard or plywood production. UF resin is produced by heating suitable urea and formaldehyde at 115°C for 5 hours. They are usually produced during the production of high quality glue E3 formaldehyde emissions. UF resins came into market in 1930s. UF resin can be formulated either for hot pressing or for room temperature curing by different types and amounts of catalyst. UF resins are compatible with various low cost extenders or fillers, thus permitting variation in both quality and cost. They are available with solid contents from about 40–70% percent. They are also marketed as dry powders, with or without incorporating the catalyst [18].
\nUF resins are used as adhesives provide a number of advantages to manufacturers in the wood industry. The use of UF resins adhesives make it superior to other chips and boards them, providing the reasons for the choice of MDF and plywood production as follows:
\nlow cost,
a very different baking (curing) conditions,
easy to use,
low energy consumption during production with low firing temperature,
ability to easily dissolve in water,
microorganisms and abrasion resistance,
hardness,
great thermal properties, and
colorless.
UF resin has some disadvantages despite an outstanding advantage. UF resins have a high durability, especially in low humidity and high temperature. Hence UF resin produced from forest industry products are suitable for indoor use only. The combination of temperature with humidity reduces adhesive property of the urea formaldehyde and melamine urea formaldehyde adhesives in the product and leads to formaldehyde gas emission.
\nMelamine-formaldehyde resin is obtained from polycondensation of melamine and formaldehyde. In the reaction between formaldehyde and melamine, the melamine (2, 4, 6 - triamino- 1, 3, 5- triazine) gives derivatives containing different numbers of methyl groups participating amine group. The number of methyl groups may be up to six. The water-soluble methyl melamine cross-linking at elevated temperatures over a methylene or ether bridges are converted to the formaldehyde resin.
\nMF resins are usually used in the impregnated decor paper, barrier lining the balance and preservation, post-forming craft, and overlays. They are also used in production for hardwood Kraft paper impregnated overlay and coatings for the tray. MF resin adhesives are sold in furniture market as powders. MF resin adhesives are prepared by mixing with water or used with a MF hardener. The color of MF adhesive is almost white, but the addition of filler usually gives them a light tan color similar to the urea resins. MF resins are considerably more expensive than PF or UF resins. Uncatalyzed MF resin adhesives also have been investigated for gluing heavy laminated ship timbers at curing temperatures of 140–190°F [18, 20].
\nSilicone adhesives are known as polysiloxanes. In the chemical structure of silicones, silicon (
They are very good electric insulators as well as hydraulic fluids and emulsion-breaking agents, and they are also used to reduce water permeability of various materials, such as paper. Silicone rubbers are also electrically insulating and chemically resistant and maintain flexibility in a wide temperature range. These are the important features. It is most commonly used in protective sheath and insulating varnishes.
\nIn furniture industry, silicone adhesives are usually used to:
\nfinish material at counter-tops,
bond edges and finish points at parquets,
bond kitchen and bath cupboards, and
bond upholstering fabric of sofas.
Single component silicone adhesives require a humidity of 5–95% to cure. Besides the presence of humidity, a temperature between 5 and 40°C is required to cure the adhesive [25].
\nThe aim of this chapter has been to present a selective review of the literature of wood adhesives. Different kinds of wood adhesives were explained. Today wood products and wood adhesive industry have many aspects in common. Furniture designers should know wood adhesives and their using tips. Bonding theory and wetting phenomenon were explained in this chapter. An effort was made to tie the status of research in wood adhesion with main adhesive types. The principal results of this section can be summarized as follows:
\nThe positive relationships of glue-bond quality and adhesive penetration into the wood structure.
The positive relationships glue-bond quality and wettability of the wood structure.
Explaining bonding theory with samples.
Chain link analogy for adhesion and cohesion has a strong influence on optimum conditions for good bonding.
Organic (animal, plant), semisynthetic, and synthetic adhesives were explained with their usage.
On the forefront of adhesion research, types and using tips of adhesives are important. Wood adhesives and adhesion theory depends on wood surface, contact angles, and adhesive type.
\nMycotoxins are low-molecular-weight nature products as secondary metabolites by filamentous fungi or mold, which display overlapping toxicities to invertebrates, plants, and microorganism. The term mycotoxin was coined in 1962 in the aftermath of unusual veterinary crisis close to London, England, where nearly 100,000 turkey poultry died. It came out that was linked to peanut meal contaminated by aflatoxins. Now, more than 300 mycotoxins are found; however, only very few mycotoxins caught scientists’ eyeball, which have been proven to be carcinogenic and toxic.
\nHuman food can be contaminated with mycotoxins during storage. One of the principal classes of highly toxic carcinogenic mycotoxins is the metabolite of
Discovery of practical and economical procedure to prevent aflatoxin contamination, detect and degrade
\n
Unquestionably, prevention is the best method to control mycotoxin contamination. As the result of the high prevalence of AFB1 in the foods, many strategies are being developed to prevent or remove AFB1 contamination. In general, two ways are available to prevent AFB1 from contamination: pre- and postharvest treatment. Pre-harvest techniques are the first barrier to prevent mycotoxin contamination in all kinds of grains or feed. Pre-harvest techniques include the use of genetically altered crops that are resistant to
The first option to reduce aflatoxin is to physically separate the mold-contaminated grains or feed (kernel, seeds, and nuts) from the intact and apparently uncontaminated product. The physical procedure is the safe way not to alter the products significantly, including cleaning, sorting, and handpicking [7]. In the developing countries or economically underdeveloped areas, the people have little or no access to do mycotoxin testing of their foods. Hand sorting is still the primary method to remove AFB1. As compared with other methods including flotation and dehulling of the grains, hand sorting of maize grains boasts <6% of AFB1 and <5% of fumonisin B1. Thus hand sorting of maize grains is being recommended as a last line of defense against mycotoxin exposure among subsistence consumers [8].
\nAflatoxins are well known to be stable at high temperature. In modern food/feed manufacturing technology, heating treatment is always used to degrade mycotoxins to a certain extent during the processing. Recent studies have shown that AFB1 could be significantly removed at high humidity [9, 10, 11, 12]. However, several possible facts are associated with the prediction of the extent of mycotoxin reduction, such as initial mycotoxin concentration, the extent of binding between mycotoxin and food or feed products, heat penetration, moisture content, and processing conditions. Nonetheless, heat treatment to partially reduce the mycotoxin concentration in the food/feed stuffs is still the feasible physiological method because heating technique can be carried out easily at low cost. Extrusion cooking is broadly used in the field of food industry, which is an efficient process in food/feed process. High temperature with short-time extrusion is commonly used in the industry [5].
\nPerez-Flores et al. [13] found that aflatoxin content could be significantly reduced by microwave thermal-alkaline treatment in the traditional Mexico food tortillas. Using extract acidification methods to mimic human stomach digestion procedure to quantify AFB1 concentration, the results indicated that the aflatoxin reduction was almost permanent. However, this thermal-alkaline treatment for tortilla-making could only remove most of AFB; thus some AFB would be left in the food.
\nAnother most commonly reported physical decontamination technology is γ radiation. The use of γ radiation has been reported on some kinds of food substrates including groundnuts, grains, palm juice, soybean, and animal feed. Irradiating the food products with a γ-ray source is moderately effective with an average percent reduction of 65% at high irradiation dose [14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20]. Gamma irradiation is a promising method to improve the safety and economy of moderately fungi-damaged feedstuffs.
\nElectrolyzed water treatment is a sort of newly developing skill to treat AFB1-contaminated foods or feeds. The AFB1 was markedly reduced when treated with EOW, particularly with neutral electrolyzed oxidizing water (NEW). The levels of OH that exist in EOW could be the important reason that leads to significant fungicidal efficiencies against
Pulsed light has been demonstrated to be an effective decontamination technique capable of destroying bacteria, viruses, fungi, and spores at the surface of food and material [24]. The work of Moreau et al. [25] provides the first demonstration of a nonthermal technology allowing mycotoxin destruction and inactivation of their mutagenic activity. They evaluated that the effectiveness of the pulsed light technology for the degradation of mycotoxins. AFB1 was destroyed around 98% by eight flashes of pulsed light.
\nThe use of chemical additives upon the contaminated foods has been one popular method, especially the additives themselves would be used in the foods.
\nAmmonization of maize, rice, barley, peanuts, and cottonseeds to alter the toxic and carcinogenic effects of aflatoxin contamination has been intensely researched by the scientists from government agencies and universities in the world. Several studies have shown that aflatoxin B1 levels were reduced effectively and permanently by 1 hour ammonia treatment. Treatment with either NH4OH at high temperature or gaseous NH3 can effectively reduce aflatoxin B1 content sometimes reaching above 99%. But at lower temperature, for example, at 25°C, AF1B level could not be reduced very well. Their study revealed that the moisture level of the product and holding temperature were the crucial factors to have influence upon the efficacy of aflatoxin decontamination [26, 27, 28, 29]. The degradation of AFB1 is ammonization of aflatoxin (AFD1), which has been shown to be far less mutagenic than AFB1.
\nAly and Hathout [30] investigated the effect of hydrochloric acid on AFB1 degradation in contaminated corn gluten under different HCl concentrations. The effect of AFB1 degradation by HCl is in a temperature-, HCl concentration-, and time-dependent manner. During the wet milling process, treating with 1 mol/L HCl at 100°C resulted in degradation of AFB1 by 27.6% after 4 hours and reached to 42.5% after 8 hours. When concentration of HCl increased, the degradation of AFB1 increased, and it will completely degrade AFB in the presence of 5 mol/L HCl after 4 hour at 110°C.
\nPrevious studies have shown that some organic acids have detoxification ability in treatment of aflatoxin-contaminated foods [31]. Mendez-Albores et al. showed that citric acid and lactic acid have efficiency upon aflatoxin degradation. When the acid concentration increased, the amount of B-aflatoxins decreased, and citric acid has more notable effect upon AFB degradation. Lee et al. also found the reduction rates of AFB1 in 1.0 N citric acid and lactic acid treatment for 18 hour could reach 94.1 and 92.7%, respectively [11].
\nOzonation is another commonly used chemical control method. Ozonolysis at a concentration 6–90 mg/L is effective to degrade AFB1 in short-time treatment. As short as 15 min, all molds were inactivated, and
Using microorganisms or enzymes for biodegradation of aflatoxins is one of the well-known strategies to decrease the level of aflatoxins in the foods or feed products. The methods of biologically based interventions are being actively studied because they are efficient, specific, and environmentally friendly as compared with other non-biological degradation methods.
\nMany bacteria in the soil are able to degrade aflatoxins.
Fungi can not only produce aflatoxins but also degrade aflatoxin. Such four fungal strains
The mechanism of degradation AFB by yeasts and lactic acid bacteria is due to their adhesion to cell wall components. However the role of yeasts and lactic acid bacteria on AFB is controversial. A few study showed there was no effect of yeasts and lactic bacteria upon aflatoxin [44]. The results showed that high levels of aflatoxins in raw maize would not be degraded during the fermentations in the processing of the west African traditional food “kenkey.” Other studies reported very efficient aflatoxin reductions after fermentation. Chu et al. [45] reported that AFB1 concentration dramatically decrease during brewing process, which suggested that
Lactic acid bacteria have been previously reported to possess antimycotoxigenic activities both in vitro and in vivo. The specific strains of lactic acid bacteria will bind selected dietary aflatoxin contaminants. The ability of 12
Some specific enzymes to degrade aflatoxins have been purified from microbial systems. Using enzyme to degrade aflatoxins have some merits, such as avoiding to change flavor or impairing the nutritional value. Motomura et al. [52] investigated the ability of degrading AFB1 in cultured supernatants from 19 fungi and purified 1 enzyme with aflatoxin degradation activity from
In the past cold plasma is used for sterilization of sensitive materials. Lately, much attention has been paid to cold plasma as a new microbial decontamination technology in the food industry. It has the advantages of high efficiency and short treatment time, no residue, and low impact on the quality of treated food products [55, 56]. Recently the degradation of mycotoxins by cold plasma was studied. It was reported that AFB1 could be successfully removed by 5 s of treatment with microwave-induced argon plasma [57]. Nitrogen gas plasma could efficiently bw degraded to 10% of initial concentration within a 15-min treatment [58]. Low-temperature radio-frequency plasma degraded 88% of AFB1 within 10 min [59]. High-voltage atmospheric cold plasma (HVACP) is a novel nonthermal decontamination technology that has the potential to be used in the food industry. HVACP treatment of aflatoxin has been shown to degrade 70% of the total aflatoxin in 12 min [60, 61].
\nThere is one approach to solve AFB1 contamination is the addition of sorbents in the foods. This process is not the same as the degradation process, because it does not involve destroying or reducing the amount of AFB1 in the foods or feeds. They act as binding agents to prevent AFB1 absorbed from intestinal tract after ingestion. Chlorophyllin added to the contaminated feeds could reduce AFB1-DNA adduct by 37% in rainbow trout which led to a 77% reduction of tumor incidence [62]. Another study observed that chlorophyllin exhibited the reduction of AFB1-DNA adducts, boasting the reduction of AFB1-album adducts by 65% and urinary AFM1 by 90% in rats; chlorophyll also reduces AFB1-DNA adducts, AFB1-album adducts, and urinary AFM1 levels by 55, 51, and 92%, respectively [63].
\nClay works similarly to chlorophyll and chlorophyllin. By addition of the clay into the animal feeds, AFM1 level in milk is reduced accordingly with the decrease of AFB1 absorption rate [64]. And no overt toxicities were observed after SD rats were fed with NovaSil clay (NS) for more than half year [65]. For human beings, NS was performed for clinical study, and the side effect were reported in 99.5% of the persons as compared to the control group. After 3 months, the level of AFB1-albumin adduct was significantly decreased in both low-dose group and high-dose group. The level of AFM1 in urine samples decreased 58% in the high-dose group in 3 months. And there was no liver and kidney function or hematological parameter change reported [66, 67]. From these studies, NS diet can be regarded as a safe and effective method to reduce AFB1 toxicity in the foods.
\nIn addition, different types of mineral clays have been tested for their capabilities to bind AF in animal feeds. These absorbents, such as activated carbon (charcoal), zeolite, and saponite-rich bentonite, reduced AFB1 absorption in the gastrointestinal tract [68].
\nRecently, some inexpensive, new promising methods on top of conventional methods for decontamination of food and raw materials have been developed. In the beer or wine factories, some fermentation residues were observed to have the ability of degradation of AFB. A group in Italy have shown that biosorption of mycotoxins onto grape pomace may be a reasonably low-cost decontamination method. The theoretical maximum adsorption capacities (mmol/kg dried pomace) were calculated at pH 7 and 37°C; around 1 hour of contact, that pomace could adsorb almost half of initial AFB1 concentration, but it seems the adsorption rate was kept stable within pH ranges [69]. Similarly, Bovo et al. [70] also found AFB adsorption by beer fermentation residue (BFR) ranged from 45.5 to 69.4% at pH 3.0 and from 24.0 to 63.8% at pH 6.0.
\nAmong all mycotoxins, the group of aflatoxins has received much attention due to their severe impact on human and animal health. AFB1 is the most potent carcinogenic agent associated with hepatocellular carcinoma. And AFB1 can negatively affect nutrition absorption, growth and development, and immune system function. AFB1 contamination in the food/feed supplies was found in various countries, particularly in Asia and Africa. A lot of methods to remove or prevent AFB1 contamination, degrade AFB1, or inhibit AFB1 absorption have been developed in the last several decades. The efficiency of aflatoxin decontamination is subject to such factors as food conditions (food constituents, moisture content, pH conditions) and decontamination technologies and conditions. The traditional physical methods for separation or dehulling of the contaminated grains are the simple and safe ways without expensive costs to reduce the dietary exposure to aflatoxins; they can be chosen by anyone or in any area, which makes them the best methods for poor or undeveloped area. Decontamination of aflatoxin is one of the significant challenges for the food industry. The treated food should keep their nutrition values or other important desired qualities, and no residues be left or new contaminates be produced. Either most of the physical and chemical approaches for aflatoxin detoxification might affect the nutritional properties of the foods or be unsafe for human consumption; however, gamma radiation, ozone applications, microwave heating, electron beam, pulsed light, electrolyzed water, and cold plasma showed great potentials for future applications. Recently some inexpensive methods showed good perspectives for reducing aflatoxins in beer and wine factory, which are good choice to be adopted in commercial factory. Biological approaches based on removal or degradation of aflatoxins by bacteria and yeasts are of the promising perspectives, although these practices cannot be currently adopted for foods commercially. While applying these new technologies to make decontamination of aflatoxin, it shall be vital to make clear of the mechanisms of aflatoxin detoxification to determine the practical applications of these approaches in food products, especially concerning their impacts upon the food constituents. Furthermore, combination with traditional and novel technologies shall be also considered to improve the efficiency of decontamination and break through the limitations for specific technologies.
\nThis study was supported partly by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 81860489, 81760502, 81572353,81372639,81472243,81660495, and 81460423), the Innovation Program of Guangxi Municipal Education Department (Nos. 201204LX674 and 201204LX324), Innovation Program of Guangxi Health Department (No. Z2013781), the Natural Science Foundation of Guangxi (Nos. 2018GXNSFAA281043, 2017GXNSFAA198002, 2017GXNSFGA198002, 2016GXNSFDA380003, 2015GXNSFAA139223, 2013GXNSFAA019251, 2014GXNSFDA118021, and 2014GXNSFAA118144), Research Program of Guangxi “Zhouyue Scholar” (No. 2017–2038), Research Program of Guangxi Specially-invited Expert (No. 2017-6th), the “12th Five-Year Plan” Planning Program of Guangxi Education Science (No. 2015C397), the Innovative Program of Guangxi Graduate Education (No. JGY2015139), Research Program of Guangxi Clinic Research Center of Hepatobiliary Diseases (No.AD17129025), and Open Research Program from Molecular Immunity Study Room Involving in Acute and Severe Diseases in Guangxi Colleges and Universities (Nos. kfkt20160062 and kfkt20160063).
\nIntechOpen's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. An Author, one must:
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\n\nAuthors are responsible for ensuring all addresses and emails provided are correct. Under affiliation(s) all Authors should indicate where the research was conducted. Please note that no changes to the affiliation(s) can be made after the chapter has been published.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2017-05-29
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