\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5830",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Extrusion of Metals, Polymers and Food Products",title:"Extrusion of Metals, Polymers, and Food Products",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Extrusion is a very popular manufacturing process, especially because of its versatility in terms of materials and shapes. Representing the vast and multifaceted field of extrusion, this book contains write-ups on latest developments from experts in the field. Part (A) on Metal Extrusion contains chapters on spur gear manufacturing, stiff vacuum extrusion, and indirect extrusion for subsurface tubular expansion. Part (B) on Food and Polymer Extrusion includes chapters on extrusion cooking of functional foods, changes in nutritional properties in extrusion of cereals, physicochemical changes of starch in extrusion of corn flour, extruded aquaculture feed, optimal design of polymer extrusion dies, and extrusion cooking technology for food products.",isbn:"978-953-51-3838-9",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3837-2",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-3983-6",doi:"10.5772/65577",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"extrusion-of-metals-polymers-and-food-products",numberOfPages:220,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"a69184f72a3f46dd5e4db6313f248509",bookSignature:"Sayyad Zahid Qamar",publishedDate:"February 28th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5830.jpg",numberOfDownloads:19096,numberOfWosCitations:29,numberOfCrossrefCitations:18,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:45,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:92,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 5th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 26th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 17th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 17th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 17th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"21687",title:"Prof.",name:"Sayyad Zahid",middleName:null,surname:"Qamar",slug:"sayyad-zahid-qamar",fullName:"Sayyad Zahid Qamar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/21687/images/system/21687.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zahid Qamar, Sayyad is currently working as a professor at the Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Department, Sultan Qaboos University (SQU), Muscat, Oman. He has over 25 years of academic and research experience from different international universities. He has also worked as a professional mechanical engineer in the field for over six years in the heavy engineering and fabrication industry in the following positions: Manager Research and Development; Deputy Manager Design; Production Engineer; and Quality Control Engineer. His research areas are applied materials and manufacturing; applied mechanics and design; reliability engineering; and engineering education. As part of the Applied Mechanics and Advanced Materials Research Group (AM2R) at SQU, he has been involved in different applied research–funded projects in excess of four million US dollars. He has over 200 research/technical publications to his credit (research monographs, edited book volumes, book chapters, publications in refereed international journals and conferences, and technical reports). He has served as associate editor, guest editor, and member of the editorial board for different research journals (including Materials and Manufacturing Processes, Journal of Elastomers and Plastics, the Journal of Engineering Research, American Journal of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, etc).",institutionString:"Sultan Qaboos University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"14",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Sultan Qaboos University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Oman"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1404",title:"Manufacturing Engineering",slug:"industrial-engineering-and-management-manufacturing-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"56842",title:"Introductory Chapter: Extrusion - From Gear Manufacturing to Production of Cereals",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70557",slug:"introductory-chapter-extrusion-from-gear-manufacturing-to-production-of-cereals",totalDownloads:1344,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Sayyad Zahid Qamar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56842",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56842",authors:[{id:"21687",title:"Prof.",name:"Sayyad Zahid",surname:"Qamar",slug:"sayyad-zahid-qamar",fullName:"Sayyad Zahid Qamar"}],corrections:null},{id:"54998",title:"Application of Open-die Warm Extrusion Technique in Spur Gear Manufacturing",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68503",slug:"application-of-open-die-warm-extrusion-technique-in-spur-gear-manufacturing",totalDownloads:1097,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The open‐die warm extrusion technique is recommended for spur gear manufacturing. This forming technique is systematically researched by using numerical simulation analysis and physical experiments. The lubricating condition, entrance angle, and initial blank size are determined as the crucial factors on the forming quality. The influence of each factor on this technology is fully understood and ascertained. The reasons for causing the forming defect in insufficient sections are analyzed and the die structure and extrusion speed are optimized by using the response surface method (RSM) for defects control and improving the forming quality. Furthermore, the improved process, “Variable Contour Two‐Step Warm Extrusion,” is presented in order to obtain good forming results in a poor lubricating condition.",signatures:"Wei Wang and Jun Zhao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54998",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54998",authors:[{id:"197847",title:"Dr.",name:"Wei",surname:"Wang",slug:"wei-wang",fullName:"Wei Wang"},{id:"198321",title:"Prof.",name:"Jun",surname:"Zhao",slug:"jun-zhao",fullName:"Jun Zhao"}],corrections:null},{id:"54969",title:"Stiff Vacuum Extrusion for Agglomeration of Natural and Anthropogenic Materials in Metallurgy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68502",slug:"stiff-vacuum-extrusion-for-agglomeration-of-natural-and-anthropogenic-materials-in-metallurgy",totalDownloads:1450,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Recently developed concept of stiff vacuum extrusion (SVE) agglomeration for iron and steel making helps to innovate the briquetting technology and make it competitive with sintering. The results of the R&D in this field show that extrusion attributes very specific properties to the agglomerated products—BREX (extrusion briquettes), which favors their wide utilization in metallurgy—among them are quick strengthening of the BREX, their high hot strength, very low self-cost, and maintenance values. A set of the successful projects have been realized in iron making, ferroalloy production, and direct-reduced iron (DRI) production.",signatures:"Ivan Kurunov and Aitber Bizhanov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54969",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54969",authors:[{id:"198030",title:"Dr.",name:"Aitber",surname:"Bizhanov",slug:"aitber-bizhanov",fullName:"Aitber Bizhanov"},{id:"204875",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",surname:"Kurunov",slug:"ivan-kurunov",fullName:"Ivan Kurunov"}],corrections:null},{id:"56620",title:"Indirect Extrusion: A Multifaceted Approach of Sub-surface Tubular Expansion",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70311",slug:"indirect-extrusion-a-multifaceted-approach-of-sub-surface-tubular-expansion",totalDownloads:1197,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Extrusion and indirect extrusion is a very old manufacturing process used in multitudes of applications mainly focused on transportation, household and power industries. Indirect extrusion has found an interesting application in petroleum industry, which resulted in resolving many unsolvable issues over the last few decades. The current and expected future global demand for hydrocarbons became a driving force for researchers to find new comprehensive and cheaper solutions for hydrocarbon production. The challenges faced in oil and gas fields, while drilling, constructing and operating new and old vertical/horizontal wells, are many. The use of indirect extrusion for in-situ expansion of sub-surface tubulars used in wells revolutionized the drilling and completion as opposed to one and half decade back. The emergence of solid expandable tubular technology has changed the basics of how we design and construct wells. The original development of the technology was to overcome the challenges faced by the petroleum industry to reach ultra-deep reservoirs, off-shore drilling, drilling in high-pressure/difficult zones and repair/maintenance of old/ageing wells. However, it gained significant interest of researchers and operators in providing solutions to wide-range problems. The development of a computational framework using finite element method (FEM) enabled to determine the force required for expansion and resulting dimensional changes in final product, which is of direct assistance to the field engineers. The effect of friction and stress variations along contact surface is also determined.",signatures:"Tasneem Pervez, Sayyad Z. Qamar, Omar S.A. Al-Abri and Rashid\nKhan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56620",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56620",authors:[{id:"21687",title:"Prof.",name:"Sayyad Zahid",surname:"Qamar",slug:"sayyad-zahid-qamar",fullName:"Sayyad Zahid Qamar"},{id:"21690",title:"Prof.",name:"Tasneem",surname:"Pervez",slug:"tasneem-pervez",fullName:"Tasneem Pervez"},{id:"205425",title:"Dr.",name:"Omar S.A.",surname:"Al-Abri",slug:"omar-s.a.-al-abri",fullName:"Omar S.A. Al-Abri"},{id:"205426",title:"Dr.",name:"Rashid",surname:"Khan",slug:"rashid-khan",fullName:"Rashid Khan"}],corrections:null},{id:"55427",title:"The Extrusion Cooking Process for the Development of Functional Foods",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68741",slug:"the-extrusion-cooking-process-for-the-development-of-functional-foods",totalDownloads:1979,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The extrusion cooking technology is applied to the development of instant functional foods. It has advantages of low cost, sustainability, and versatility for production of a wide variety of food products. For formulation of functional foods, bioactive compounds are added to base mixtures, the main sources being fruits, vegetables, cereals, oleaginous plants, legumes, and industrial food by-product such as pomace. These sources provide phenolic compounds such as anthocyanins, flavonols, and procyanidins besides betalains, carotenoids, vitamins, amino acids, and complex polysaccharides such as dietary fiber sources. During the extrusion cooking process, ingredients are mixed, conditioned, and transformed to a melt fluid, thus causing degradation or a release of functional compounds because of structural and chemical changes caused by the effects of some process variables such as temperature, moisture content, screw speed, and inherent factors such as geometrical configuration of the extruder. Retention of bioactive compounds to obtain extruded functional foods is an important topic. The description of degradation by means of mathematical models has been used to determine the impact of process variables on stability and concentrations of certain compounds in final extruded products. These models have been successfully applied, showing a good fit and adequately describing the variability of these compounds in extrusion cooking systems under specific conditions.",signatures:"Martha G. Ruiz-Gutiérrez, Miguel Á. Sánchez-Madrigal and\nArmando Quintero-Ramos",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55427",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55427",authors:[{id:"198372",title:"Dr.",name:"Armando",surname:"Quintero-Ramos",slug:"armando-quintero-ramos",fullName:"Armando Quintero-Ramos"},{id:"199583",title:"Dr.",name:"Martha Graciela",surname:"Ruiz-Gutiérrez",slug:"martha-graciela-ruiz-gutierrez",fullName:"Martha Graciela Ruiz-Gutiérrez"},{id:"199584",title:"MSc.",name:"Miguel Ángel",surname:"Sánchez-Madrigal",slug:"miguel-angel-sanchez-madrigal",fullName:"Miguel Ángel Sánchez-Madrigal"}],corrections:null},{id:"55197",title:"Changes in Nutritional Properties and Bioactive Compounds in Cereals During Extrusion Cooking",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68753",slug:"changes-in-nutritional-properties-and-bioactive-compounds-in-cereals-during-extrusion-cooking",totalDownloads:1668,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Maintaining and improving the nutritional quality of foods during processing are the main market and industry concerns. Thus, research should focus on novel and sustainable ways for selecting the appropriate processing method that either increases or does not affect the nutrient content of foods. Thermal processing techniques such as extrusion cooking are widely used for producing breakfast cereals, snack foods, pasta, pet food, etc. Extrusion cooking is a continuous process that uses a combination of high-temperature, high-pressure, and high shear conditions in a short period of time, which results in molecular transformation and chemical reactions within the extruded products. Extrusion cooking brings on many biochemical changes such as denaturation of proteins, gelatinization of starch, lipid modifications, inactivation of microorganisms and enzymes, formation of volatile flavor components, and increase in soluble dietary fiber. Furthermore, extrusion cooking has the potential to improve the nutritional quality of the products by improving starch and protein digestibility and increasing the retention of bioactive compounds with antioxidant properties. Also, this highly efficient technology minimizes water pollution and energy consumption. This review aims to discuss the current information regarding changes in nutritional properties and bioactive compounds in cereals processed by extrusion cooking.",signatures:"Cuauhtémoc Reyes Moreno, Perla C. Reyes Fernández, Edith O.\nCuevas Rodríguez, Jorge Milán Carrillo and Saraid Mora Rochín",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55197",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55197",authors:[{id:"198302",title:"Dr.",name:"Saraid",surname:"Mora-Rochín",slug:"saraid-mora-rochin",fullName:"Saraid Mora-Rochín"},{id:"199537",title:"Dr.",name:"Perla C.",surname:"Reyes Fernández",slug:"perla-c.-reyes-fernandez",fullName:"Perla C. Reyes Fernández"},{id:"199538",title:"Dr.",name:"Edith O.",surname:"Cuevas Rodríguez",slug:"edith-o.-cuevas-rodriguez",fullName:"Edith O. Cuevas Rodríguez"},{id:"199539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cuauhtémoc",surname:"Reyes Moreno",slug:"cuauhtemoc-reyes-moreno",fullName:"Cuauhtémoc Reyes Moreno"},{id:"199540",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",surname:"Milán Carrillo",slug:"jorge-milan-carrillo",fullName:"Jorge Milán Carrillo"}],corrections:null},{id:"55213",title:"Physicochemical and Rheological Changes of Starch in Nixtamalization Processes: Extrusion as an Alternative to Produce Corn Flour",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68742",slug:"physicochemical-and-rheological-changes-of-starch-in-nixtamalization-processes-extrusion-as-an-alter",totalDownloads:1376,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Corn tortilla is a food consumed mainly in México and Central America. It provides 50% of total calories ingestion and is a good source of fiber. Tortilla is produced by the nixtamalization process using corn, water and lime. It has been produced by alternative processes as extrusion, reducing cooking liquor, and increasing dietary fiber. The aim of this book chapter is to describe the changes in corn starch by different nixtamalization processes, also are presented the advantages and disadvantages of both processes, encouraging some aspects of producing corn flour by extrusion. The extrusion is a technology that is dependent of process variables and is reflected on quality of end product. Several factors are involved, as feed moisture and temperature, and they have a direct impact on corn starch physicochemical, textural, and rheological properties.",signatures:"Carlos Martín Enríquez Castro, Patricia Isabel Torres-Chávez,\nBenjamín Ramírez-Wong, Ana Irene Ledezma-Osuna, Armando\nQuintero-Ramos, Jaime López-Cervantes and María Irene Silvas-\nGarcía",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55213",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55213",authors:[{id:"29654",title:"Dr.",name:"Benjamin",surname:"Ramirez-Wong",slug:"benjamin-ramirez-wong",fullName:"Benjamin Ramirez-Wong"},{id:"144339",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia Isábel",surname:"Torres-Chávez",slug:"patricia-isabel-torres-chavez",fullName:"Patricia Isábel Torres-Chávez"},{id:"190200",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaime",surname:"López-Cervantes",slug:"jaime-lopez-cervantes",fullName:"Jaime López-Cervantes"},{id:"204959",title:"MSc.",name:"Carlos Martín",surname:"Enriquez-Castro",slug:"carlos-martin-enriquez-castro",fullName:"Carlos Martín Enriquez-Castro"},{id:"204960",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Irene",surname:"Ledesma-Osuna",slug:"ana-irene-ledesma-osuna",fullName:"Ana Irene Ledesma-Osuna"},{id:"204961",title:"Dr.",name:"Armando",surname:"Quintero-Ramos",slug:"armando-quintero-ramos",fullName:"Armando Quintero-Ramos"},{id:"204962",title:"Dr.",name:"María Irene",surname:"Silvas-García",slug:"maria-irene-silvas-garcia",fullName:"María Irene Silvas-García"}],corrections:null},{id:"55511",title:"Extruded Aquaculture Feed: A Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69021",slug:"extruded-aquaculture-feed-a-review",totalDownloads:1909,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Agro-industrial by-products are processed materials that can have high protein content or other nutrients. The agro-industrial by-products are traditionally sold at low prices for animal feed consumption. These residues of the agro-industry have a high concentration of nutritional and bioactive compounds, which can be applied as fishmeal substitutes. In this chapter, it is shown how extrusion can be an alternative process for aquaculture feed production, increasing digestibility, and functional properties of the aquaculture feed, such as water stability and floatability. The thermal process during extrusion decreases the antinutritional factors present in legumes or other agro-industrial by-products, such as trypsin inhibitors and lectins. This chapter reviews research related to new protein sources that can potentially complement or substitute fishmeal for aquaculture feed. The use of bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) protein and cottonseed meal as a fishmeal substitute are shown, as well as the optimization of the extrusion process for aquaculture feed production. The incorporation of plant protein into the aquaculture production contributes to a more sustainable process. The effect of the extrusion parameters on the final product and quality are explained.",signatures:"Efren Delgado and Damian Reyes-Jaquez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55511",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55511",authors:[{id:"199555",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Efren",surname:"Delgado",slug:"efren-delgado",fullName:"Efren Delgado"},{id:"202148",title:"Dr.",name:"Damian",surname:"Reyes-Jaquez",slug:"damian-reyes-jaquez",fullName:"Damian Reyes-Jaquez"}],corrections:null},{id:"58004",title:"Extrusion Processing of Ultra-High Molecular Weight Polyethylene",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72212",slug:"extrusion-processing-of-ultra-high-molecular-weight-polyethylene",totalDownloads:2734,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:12,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) is a unique thermoplastic polymer with excellent performances. It has ultra-high molecular weight and extreme rheological behaviour, which make it a worldwide challenge to process UHMWPE continuously with little or without processing aids. Although the polymer processing technology has been increasingly maturated, it still cannot carry out the industrialized production efficiency by conventional processing methods and apparatus at present. In this chapter, we review the progress of extrusion processing technology for UHMWPE, including ram extrusion, single screw extrusion, twin screw extrusion and novel extrusion technology based on extensional rheology. By summarizing of these processing technologies, a basic framework of the processing principles and methods for UHMWPE is clearly presented. It is helpful for us to understand the processing characteristics and methods for such thermoplastic polymer with ultra-high molecular weight.",signatures:"Haichen Zhang and Yong Liang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58004",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58004",authors:[{id:"220229",title:"Dr.",name:"Haichen",surname:"Zhang",slug:"haichen-zhang",fullName:"Haichen Zhang"},{id:"220726",title:"Dr.",name:"Yong",surname:"Liang",slug:"yong-liang",fullName:"Yong Liang"}],corrections:null},{id:"57984",title:"Design of Polymer Extrusion Dies Using Finite Element Analysis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72211",slug:"design-of-polymer-extrusion-dies-using-finite-element-analysis",totalDownloads:1808,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model has been developed to compute the pressure, temperature, velocity, viscosity and viscous dissipation in the high-density polyethylene (HDPE) extrusion process. The numerical approach agrees fairly well with the experimental data recorded during the extrusion process of the material. The extrusion spider die was designed to produce high-density polyethylene pipes of 32 mm inner nominal diameter and 2.4 mm thickness. In order to investigate if the spider legs are able to perform under the pressure occurred using the maximum flow rate provided by the single screw extruder of this study, a stress analysis was conducted on a single spider leg. This fluid-structure interaction (FSI) problem was solved using the COMSOL Multiphysics software. Finally, the results obtained from the FE analysis were applied in the design and fabrication of the spider die, selecting IMPAX (tool steel) as fabrication material.",signatures:"G.N. Kouzilos, G.V. Seretis, C.G. Provatidis and D.E. Manolakos",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57984",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57984",authors:[{id:"11880",title:"Dr.",name:"Christopher",surname:"Provatidis",slug:"christopher-provatidis",fullName:"Christopher Provatidis"},{id:"220055",title:"Dr.",name:"Georgios",surname:"Kouzilos",slug:"georgios-kouzilos",fullName:"Georgios Kouzilos"},{id:"221981",title:"Dr.",name:"Georgios V.",surname:"Seretis",slug:"georgios-v.-seretis",fullName:"Georgios V. 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There is a growing interest in finding detection technologies enabling real-time and on-line monitoring of many elements having remarkable, (in some cases dramatic), impacts on our everyday lives. Consequently, a huge effort has been devoted to designing and building instruments with capabilities that would not even be thought of a few years ago. Nowadays are required instruments to analyse many fields of high interest ranging from environmental pollutants or pathogens in air and water, up to the Security and Safety in the urban ambient or in the logistic chain of food production and transport, as well as many other applications.
In most cases, the realisation of this kind of device involves analytical techniques that should avoid chemical reactants, difficult to be used outside specialised laboratories. Moreover, the device has to be routinely applied by almost untrained people that should also be able to read and understand the measurement result. At the same time, the analytical equipment must be self-contained and available at a very low cost.
Nowadays, the only available solution suitable to satisfy the whole of these requirements is to develop highly miniature integrated equipment to allow mass production using technologies likewise the planar technologies driven by the development of microelectronics. At the present state of the art, most of these requirements can be satisfied when it is possible to develop sensing techniques belonging to the family of the optical integrated microdevices.
Optical detection can concern different properties of light such as Intensity, (in the case of photometric analyses), Wavelength, (in the case of spectroscopic analyses), Refractive Index, (in the case of Index change due to the presence of the analyte molecules at the Sensor Surface), etc.
A large variety of optical and photonic microdevices, based on interferometric, energy dispersive elements, photonic micro and nanofluidic devices, has been designed, studied and reported in the literature [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6].
The development at industrial quality level of active optical materials, (particularly Lithium Niobate, LiNbO3), joined to the use of planar technology, has allowed the fabrication of monolithic integrated optical microdevices having sensing capabilities comparable to the correspondent standard laboratory equipment.
As highlighted in the next paragraphs, IO and Photonics microfabrication techniques, offer the possibility to generate in monolithic and miniaturised systems, nearly all the equivalents of classical optical components (mirrors, splitters, combiners, phase shifters, etc.). Furthermore, such IO components can be integrated into and interfaced with guided wave circuits, such as integrated optical waveguides and optical fibres. These characteristics often strongly simplify all issues related to optical alignment and maintenance, the flow of the luminous signal, carrying the information, being firmly confined within fixed and well defined optical channels. In the following an overview of the characteristics and potentialities of IO devices is presented, in particular for a wide range of interferometric sensing applications.
The basic element of any Integrated Optic device is the optical waveguide that can be generated by tailoring the refractive index (n) in the near-surface region of the base material. It must be remembered that the light transmission is confined in the regions where the refractive index is higher than in the surroundings.
Several techniques have been developed to obtain local variation of the refractive index creating the possibility to obtain an integrated optical waveguide. In this chapter, we will only mention some of the most common techniques used for LiNbO3 substrate, which is one of the most used materials in optical device fabrication. One possibility is to use local doping processes obtained by photolithographic definition of the desired waveguide geometry associated with the dopant thermal diffusion (typically, Ti diffusion or Proton exchange processes), to increase the refractive index in the doped region. Alternatively, it is possible to create a waveguide by lowering the refractive index of the base material in the regions outside the waveguide introducing lattice damage through ion bombardment. A third possibility is to pattern the surface with the desired geometry, and etching the surrounding region to obtain a ridge waveguide protruding from the surface. Figure 1 reports a sketch of the two geometries.
Two basic geometries of integrated optics waveguides: (a) buried waveguide, (b) ridge waveguide.
In general, the geometries of the integrated microsystems are designed to reproduce the same physical effects obtained by optical instrumental architectures created in laboratory, assembling several optical elements like mirrors, beam splitters, etc.
Probably, the most frequently used integrated micro-spectrometric devices are based on the Mach-Zehnder Interferometric, (MZI), geometry [1, 2, 3, 4] or on Young Interferometer, (YI) or, more recently, on the Staircase Micro Diffractive Gratings, (MDG) first developed by Michelson [5].
All these devices take advantage of the Electro-Optic properties of the LiNbO3 substrate. In fact, the optoelectronic properties of the substrate allow to locally controlling the refractive index of a waveguide by applying a suitable electric field, so creating a Pockels cell that induces a phase modulation in the light transmitted in the specific waveguide (See Figure 2).
Integrated version of a Pockels cell to be used as a phase modulator.
In particular, it can be useful to recall that, in the case of spectroscopic analysis techniques, the wavelength-dispersive systems, such as prisms or gratings, spatially spread the light wavelengths at different angles allowing the direct measurements of the relative intensities, (wavelength spectrum), by using suitable photodetectors at the corresponding angles.
On the contrary, in the Fourier Transform Spectroscopy the intensity of the total light beam that contains the whole ensemble of wavelength, at the same time, is measured. In this case, the measurement with a traditional Mach-Zehnder instrument is performed by splitting the light beam into two branches that are then recombined giving rise to an interference pattern. The light intensity of the recombined beams is measured as a function of the phase shift, generated by the respective different optical path-lengths
Figure 3(a), reports a typical example of Mach-Zehnder equipment, whereas Figure 3(b) is shown the equivalent device fabricated with planar technology. Following the optical interference laws, the intensity measured by the photodetector (PD) depends on the phase shift between the two optical paths. Inducing a variation in the optical paths,
Upper: Traditional Mach-Zehnder interferometer geometry. The light beam first crosses the BS1 beam splitter then, through the M1 and M2 mirrors, the two light beams are recombined in BS2 and then arrive in the photodetector PD. lower: Equivalent integrated optic device: The voltage applied to the electrodes controls the phase shift in the light beams propagating in the two arms.
Actually, due to the relatively simple design, the Mach-Zehnder Interferometer, (MZI), is the most adequate configuration for the monolithic fabrication of integrated optics microsensors. In fact, this structure is particularly suitable for sensing problems as it can combine high resolution and high sensitivity performances together with an excellent insensitiveness on mechanical vibration or other environmental effects. Many applications of optical sensors based on MZ interferometer have been reported in literature, both in the case of already cited Fourier Transform, (FT), and spectroscopy. In the case of Bio-chemical analyses, the phase shift between the electromagnetic waves propagating in the two arms of the MZI is generated by the adhesion of the analyte molecules on the surface of one (sensing) arm that has been left uncovered by the cladding protecting the whole device from the environment [4, 5, 6]. The working principle, in this case, is based on the optical path variation,
Hybrid MZI with a sensing pad in one arm integrated with a wavelength dispersive system [
As previously anticipated, when the monolithic interferometer is fabricated on Electro-optic material, typically LiNbO3, the phase shift can be generated by exploiting the Pockels effect to modify the refractive index in one of the two arms, through the application of an electric field using two electrodes placed in a suitable position close to the optical waveguide (see Figure 3(b)).
If a continuous variation of the phase shift is generated, it is realised a so-called scanning interferometer and the whole set of intensity data measured as a function of the phase shifts gives rise to the so-called Interferogram. The Fourier Transform of the Interferogram gives rise to the frequency spectrum of the light containing the spectral information on the element to be detected [3, 4]. In the traditional instrument of Figure 3(a) the scanning effect is usually produced by uniformly moving one of the two mirrors giving rise to a corresponding optical path variation in one arm of the interferometer generating the desired phase shift variation. On the contrary, in an integrated microdevice, the scanning effect can be simply obtained by applying a voltage ramp to the electrodes (see Figure 3(b)), without the need for moving parts.
The detailed description of the Fourier Transform Spectroscopy principle and the detailed mathematical considerations have been extensively reported in a number of articles and textbooks [2, 3, 6]. In this work, we only report a concise description of the operation system of a scanning integrated MZI (see Figure 3(b)).
In order to achieve good spectral resolution, the scanning Interferometer needs phase shifts suitable to produce interferograms of many tens of interference fringes. This involves the need that the substrate material has an electro-optical coefficient as high as possible. In our case, the output intensity is monitored as a function of the optical path variation induced by a suitable variable electric field, applied to the arms. The interferometric output
where k = 1/λ is the wavenumber of the incident radiation, and Δp is the optical path difference.
In our case, the optical path difference can be expressed by the linear relationship
where: L is the arm length, and
where
From Eq. (1) it appears that in the case of monochromatic light, the intensities recorded by the detector, (i.e. the Interferogram), has a sinusoidal shape. In the real case, we deal with quasi-monochromatic light and the MZI output are somehow distorted as reported in Figure 5 in the case of the incident light generated by a diode laser emitting in a narrow window around 635 nm.
(a) Raw signal detected during the scanning cycle, (interferogram) and (b) the Fourier transform of the interferogram, giving the wavelength spectrum of the incident light.
When dealing with a wideband (‘white’) light, the conceptual behaviour is the same. Even if the interferogram is remarkably modified and several corrections must be applied to the over-simplified scheme previously reported [3], it is always possible to perform the spectrometric analysis of the incoming light. Figure 6 reports an example of a real case of E131 dye (Patent Blue) detection with an integrated MZI.
Example of densitometry performed with an IO micro-interferometer on an E131 dye solution.
More recently, a new generation of integrated architectures has been suggested for spectroscopic analyses, in particular the integrated monolithic version of the Young interferometer (YI) and the integrated monolithic version of the Michelson’s (‘Echelle’) Diffractometer. Figure 7 reports the sketch of the Young geometry in the integrated version. In this case, the waveguides’ geometries are geometrically arranged like in the MZI, the only difference is at the detection side that is here based on an arrayed detector.
Integrated version of the young interferometric geometry the far-field geometry for the detection of the modifications of the interference pattern, originated by the analyte adhesion on the sensing pad in one of the two arms.
A more recent architecture has been realised on the basis of Michelson’s echelle grating that, when fabricated with electro-optic material (LiNbO3), becomes a Programmable Micro diffractive Grating (PMDG) extending the range of this kind of micro-optical device to an extremely large field of applications. Figure 8 reports the comparison between the original static diffractive grating proposed by Michelson and the integrated PMDG, fabricated for high sensitivity detection systems based on the correlation spectroscopy technique. In Michelson’s original device, the wavefront portions emerging from the different steps crosses different glass thicknesses, so the different optical paths acquire different phase shift as a function of the glass thickness crossed. The different wavefront emerging from each step interfere with each other giving rise to a far-field diffraction pattern that can be observed in far-field conditions on screen S, of Figure 8(a).
(a) Michelson’s echelle diffraction grating. (b) Integrated programmable diffractive grating (PMDG) based on LiNbO3 substrate.
If the integrated waveguides array sketched in Figure 8(b) is fabricated on electro-optical substrate, it can have the same behaviour as the Michelson’s echelle device. In fact, each waveguide may have a different refractive index as a function of the electric field applied to the electrodes so, each portion of the wavefront emerging from each waveguide has a different phase and, in far-field conditions, they interfere with each other generating a diffraction pattern like in the case of Michelson’s device.
The great difference between the two cases is that the device shown in Figure 8(a) is static and the diffractive properties are fixed by the construction parameters, whereas the PMDG device, the diffractive properties are programmable simply by changing the voltage applied at each electrode. This feature enormously expands the field of the applications of this Integrated Optics microdevice that can go far beyond the sensing systems arriving to have implications in many strategic areas such as optical fibre transmission, cryptography, quantum optic devices, optical computing, etc.
Correlation spectroscopy architectures have been widely studied for at least 20−30 years and are now argument described in the textbooks [8, 9, 10]. Therefore, in the present work, we will not enter in detail in the presentation of this technique and we will take as a reference the ‘holographic correlation spectroscopy’ architecture [11] treating in detail the subject of correlation spectroscopy in connection with the use of computer-generated optical elements. In particular, we will consider the conclusion of reference [11] when discussing the use of the PMDG to create synthetic spectra of several compounds, some of which are of interest for Environmental control, Food production and transportation, Bio-Chemical hazard, safety and security problems.
In particular, due to its programmability, the device can generate, at least in principle, synthetic spectra of almost any analyte of interest. The PMDG may have hundreds of diffractive elements in very small overall dimensions and, with the suitable software, it can generate a digital library containing the synthetic spectra of plenty of molecules. When the PMDG is exploited in this architecture, the sensing instrument described here can be considered as an example of a new sensor concept, in fact, in traditional instruments, the optical spectrum processing is determined by the correlation between the light transmitted through an unknown sample and the light transmitted through a reference cell containing a known mixture of the chemical molecule to be detected. In this case, due to the PMDG properties, the optical spectrum processing is based only on the correlation between the light transmission through an unknown sample and the data of a digital library. This trait greatly increases the sensor flexibility if compared with other recent instruments in which the spectrally dispersed light is delivered onto a coded mask to provide spectral filtering of the sample spectrum light [11].
In conclusion, this new sensor is particularly suited for safety and security applications because it avoids the use of a reference cell containing reference materials that can be difficult and hazardous to handle, in the case of detection of dangerous, poisoning, or explosive targets. Furthermore, it allows great flexibility if compared with the coded mask filtering described in Ref. 11, because the number of molecules that can be detected is now only limited by the wavelength transmission window of the electro-optic material used as a substrate for the PMDG device and by the sensitivity range of the detector used. Finally, exploiting during the data collection the dark-field correlation technique, it can be obtained a remarkable increase in the sensitivity of the whole system. In fact, by using shrewdness to construct the reference synthetic spectrum to be the complement of the target transmission spectrum, the signal-to-noise ratio becomes very large. Actually, with this shrewdness, all the wavelengths different from those matching the absorbance of the target, are blocked creating a programmable filter that allows the transmission of only a very small fraction of the incident light in correspondence of the desired wavelengths exclusively. So, when the spectral absorption lines match the planned transmission complement it is obtained a very large signal-to-noise ratio, allowing extremely high sensitivity detection.
The architecture of ‘holographic correlation spectroscopy’ is schematically reproduced in Figure 9, is particularly simple and takes advantage of the intrinsic PMDG flexibility and reconfigurability features. In the geometry of Figure 9, a broadband ‘white’ light coming from an external source crosses, (one or several times), a sample cell containing the analyte to be investigated. Then the radiation crosses the PMDG optical element, placed in transmission architecture. In the present case, the external broadband light source could cover the whole transparency range of the LiNbO3 base material ranging from 0.450 μm to 5.5 μm.
Schematic of a holographic correlation spectrometer set-up including the PMDG which acts as the reference cell. The light coming from a broadband source passes through the measurement cell which contains the unknown analyte. The diffraction pattern generated by the PMDG at the diffraction angle
The wideband radiation coming from the external source is then transmitted through the PMDG device and precisely defined by the ensemble of the programmed driving electrical potentials applied to the different waveguides. The degree of correlation between the sample cell spectrum, (unknown), and the synthetic spectrum programmed through the reference (PMDG) cell is then measured on a photodetector placed at a suitable diffraction angle
To increase the sensitivity and the selectivity of the set-up, the usual techniques can be adopted, in particular: (i) Lock-in techniques are applied by modulating the transmission spectrum through the PMDG and recording the detector output at the same modulation frequency or/and (ii) Darkfield technique, i.e. applying a suitable map of the driving electrical potentials, the PMDG can be configured to synthetize the complement of the real target to be analysed, so obtaining a much larger signal-to-noise ratio and a consequent remarkable increase of both sensitivity and selectivity of the detection system.
The key point in the programming of a waveguide-based PMDG for a synthetic spectra generation is the determination of a driving voltage pattern able to introduce the required phase shifts on each of the M waveguides, (Typically
In this section, a mathematical framework for the specific case in which the functional elements are electro-optical waveguides is presented and discussed [12].
Under the hypothesis of working in the Fraunhofer approximation, the diffracted field at an angle
where
Framework for the solution of the PMDG diffraction problem.
In Eq. (4),
where
where In = |U(λn)|2 is the intensity of the target spectrum and I
This is physically equivalent to introducing a programmable phase-shift offset in the first term of Eq. (5). Then, the actual voltage pattern to apply to the different electrodes of the PMDG is calculated from the Dm values, resulting from the optimization routine, once the technological parameters have been defined.
For the solution of the multivariable optimization problem, several numerical approaches have been proposed and implemented so far, in particular, iterative Fourier Transform phase-retrieval algorithm [12], genetic algorithms [11] or gradient-based multi-variable minimization routines [13]. The Nelder–Mead Simplex Method [14] demonstrates to be extremely effective providing a monotonic and rapid convergence to the minimum of the error function ℇ. Moreover, the numerical implementation of this method is available in the most common scientific computation libraries.
An example of synthetic spectrum created with the numerical method of reference [14] is reported in Figure 11 where a portion of the COCl2 spectrum has been reconstructed in the hypothesis of a PMDG having
(a) Experimental absorbance spectrum of gaseous phosgene (target spectrum T) and (b) PMDG-synthetized spectrum of the same analyte (synthetic spectrum S). (c) Values of the optimised Dm (m = 1. .,50) control parameters.
The Ghost Imaging, (GI) phenomenon is based on the spatial correlation of light to form images and, since the early pioneering work in 1995, several experiments on the argument have been presented [15, 16, 17, 18]. The GI is obtained by correlating the intensities of two spatially separate light beams, one of the two light beams illuminates an object to be imaged. The second beam, which does not see the object, (reference beam), if it is detected with a position-sensitive sensor, gives rise to the spatial image of the object created by the non-interfering photons.
Besides the GI in the space domain, another kind of ‘ghost experiments’ were performed in the frequency (Spectral), domain [19, 20, 21]. It must be pointed out that in Ref. to [20], thes kinds of experiments were performed using a classical thermal light emitted by a broad-band superluminescent diode. These experiments allowed to exploit real spectroscopy measurements detecting spectral lines of chemical molecules like CHCl3 [20] and the spectral lines of Er3+ dopant [21] in LiNbO3 non-linear material placed in one arm of an Asymmetric Non-Linear Interferometer, (ANLI). These preliminary approaches to experimental spectroscopic sensing demonstrate that a new field of sensing can be opened exploiting effects such as ‘ghost spectrometry’. These new sensing techniques can allow extending the sensing limits of the traditional detectors and performing spectrometric measurements with non-interacting photons.
Before describing the experimental procedures, of ghost imaging in the frequency domain, let us give a rapid oversimplified description of the basic principles of the ‘ghost’ phenomena. In Ref. [22], this architecture was studied in detail and it was concluded that it gives rise to a condition that is often referred to as maximally entangled states of a two-mode field. If the two modes are physically separated like in the case of the arms of an MZI, we are in presence of separate path-entangled states that can have important applications to interferometry and interferometric analyses.
In particular, considering the case of a coherent intense light beam injected in an integrated MZI, the photons are spatially confined in geometrically separated single-mode waveguides, where they have a very high spatial and time coherence [22]. Moreover, the photon density inside the waveguides can reach values that are orders of magnitude higher than in the case of free space propagation. In these conditions, an integrated optical device is particularly suitable for both practical applications and basic quantum optics studies.
The integrated version of an ANLI, used to obtain ghost imaging in the frequency domain [23], is schematically reported in Figure 12 as taken from reference [21].
Schematic of the experimental layout. The ANLI is used in [
In that case, the ANLI was not built as a monolithic device but was realised in a hybrid set-up in which the 980 nm Laser source was injected in a 50:50 Y coupler single-mode optical fibres. One arm was coupled with an Er3+ doped LiNbO3 monolithic waveguide, whereas the other arm was coupled with a monolithic Pockels phase modulator as the one shown in Figure 2. Then the MZI geometry was completed by coupling the two arms with an identical second optical fibre Y coupler. Finally, the injected 980 nm photons arrive in the photodetector passing through a (975 ± 25) nm pass-band filter that eliminates all the photons generated by the interaction of the 980 nm pump with the Er3+ doped nonlinear LiNbO3 arm. In any case, the photons generated by the interaction in the doped arm can only give rise to a continuous background because they cannot contribute to the interference process due to the ‘Which Way’ criterion.
The principle of the experiment was based on the Quantum properties stating that two Fourier Transform pairs are conjugate variables. So, operating a Fourier Transform in the time-frequency space-domain, it is possible to get information on the wavenumber space-domain of the 930 nm pump photons annihilated, (generating up or down-conversion), as a consequence of the pump photons interaction with the Er3+ doped nonlinear LiNbO3. This intriguing effect takes place when the doped material is placed in one arm of the ANLI and the photodetector do not even see the photons generated by up or down-conversion in the doped arm.
The spectroscopy experiment was performed by injecting the 980 nm laser beam in the input port ‘
Spectra obtained by Fourier transform analyses with the setup of
In Figure 13, the two spectroscopic measurements of the Er3+ energy levels performed with an In GaAs
The complete Er3+ Spectrum extending form visible to SWIR wavelengths was obtained reporting most of the spectral lines as listed in the literature.
The difference in the amplitudes can be attributed to the different sensitivities of the two detectors. Moreover, as previously clarified, only the 980 nm monochromatic pump photons that have not interacted with the Er3+ doped crystal can reach the detector. In fact, the 980 nm photons that interacted with Er3+ are annihilated, giving rise to the up or down-conversion photons that are eliminated by the (975 ± 25) nm passband filter.
In conclusion, with the ANLI integrated architecture reported in Figure 12, the Er3+ spectral lines appeared independently of the different sensitivity of the used detectors also over the whole SWIR, where the Si
The previously described results give a strong indication that, by using ‘ghost imaging’ in the frequency domain, it is possible to develop a new generation of integrated interferometric instruments, (most likely based on the ANLI architecture of Figure 12), having the capability to work with interaction-free photons. This allows extending the spectral measurement remarkably beyond the photodetector sensitivity limits, in particular in spectral regions where the photodetectors are not available or have too low sensitivity. In particular, some preliminary contacts indicate that this effect is of strong interest for several applications, with particular attention to astrophysical applications.
Optical long baseline interferometry is a technique that is undoubtedly providing high angular resolution observations in optical astrophysics. Fizeau in 1868 [25] was the first to attempt using interferometry for astronomical observations, without reaching the wanted result, eventually proposed and revised by Stéphane in 1874 [26]. Nevertheless, only in 1921, Michelson and Pease [27] first succeeded in measuring stellar diameters with a single telescope equipped with a pupil mask. The schematics and characteristics of their apparatus are reported in Figure 14. Unfortunately, their interferometer was not that sensitive to allow further investigation. In fact, a 1.0 milliarcsecond diameter on the sky translates to 0.5 μm in optical path difference (OPD), on a
(a) Scheme of the two slits mask experiment from Michelson and Pease. A star, with an α angular diameter, is imaged after its light passes through a double slit mask, with B as the slit distance. An interferogram appears as a function of the optical path difference (OPD), with the first minimum at OPD = λ/2, where λ is the wavelength of the impinging light. The fringes disappear when the OPD overcomes the source coherence length, e.g. (b) and (c) show different coherence length interferograms.
In practice, modern direct interferometry only started in 1975 with Labeyrie [28] who produced stellar interference with two separated telescopes.
Modern long baseline interferometry requires the combination of several stellar beams collected from different apertures (telescopes). The first interferometers started working with only two apertures, such as GI2T [29], SUSI [30], PTI [31], IOTA [32], COAST [33] and NPOI [34, 35]. The increase in the number of apertures was one of the major features of new generation interferometers. Today, the principal operational interferometric observatories, which use this type of instrumentation, include VLTI [35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45], and CHARA [37].
Current projects are using interferometers to search for extrasolar planets, either with nulling techniques, by astrometric measurements of the reciprocal motion of the star or through direct imaging.
In Figure 15, the geometry of the ideal interferometer is reported. Let us specify the incident source flux power F in units of energy incident per unit time per unit cross-sectional area, and the collecting area of the apertures A1 and A2 as A. Then, apart from some efficiency factors, the detected power
Ideal stellar interferometer schematics.
where
In the space of relative delay
The complex visibility of these fringes is proportional to the Fourier transform of the object intensity distribution (Van-Cittert Zernike theorem), hence allowing to resolve particulars, very narrow from the angular point of view. Following these principles, stellar interferometry is offering to present days astronomers the ability to study celestial objects in unprecedented detail. It is possible to see details on the surfaces of stars and even to study celestial bodies close to a black hole [46] (Figure 16).
(a) Conventional star image, (b) same with two telescopes stellar interferometry having baseline
Stellar interferometry has become even more effective due to the advent of high sensitivity detectors and of large aperture telescopes. Nevertheless, to implement it, a complex system of mirrors has normally to be set up to bring the light from the different telescopes, constituting the synthetic aperture, to the instruments, where it is combined and processed (see scheme in Figure 17). This is technically demanding, as the light paths have to be set equal to within 1.0 μm over distances of a few hundred metres, in order to avoid an OPD offset out of the coherence length.
Schematics of IO apparatus required for two telescopes stellar interferometry. Light from the same source collected by telescopes 1 and 2 is injected in 2x2 IO beam splitters/combiners 1 and 2, respectively. One output port of each combiner is used to perform photometric adjustment whereas the second ports are combined in a third IO 2x2 beam splitter/combiner, at which output ports the interferometric signal is collected and processed.
For ground-based interferometers, the source phase is corrupted by atmospheric turbulence. This prevents an absolute measurement of the source phase. However, it is possible to measure the difference in the source phase between two wavelengths. In practice, stellar interferometry requires star tracking techniques to compensate for astronomic seeing due to atmospheric turbulence.
In recent years, integrated optics and photonics technology, inherited from the telecom field and micro-sensor applications, was proposed for astrophysical interferometry. Results obtained with components coming from micro-sensor application were first presented by Berger et al. in a seminal series of dedicated works [38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44]. These authors demonstrated the validity and feasibility of the integrated optics technology for astronomical interferometry, by using telecom fibre coupler/combiners. Following a complete laboratory characterisation of the optical properties of the applied IO components, a first set-up was tested at the Infrared Optical Telescope Array (IOTA) observatory, in Arizona.
The above-mentioned studies demonstrated that beam combiners are very stable and lead to precise measurements. Moreover, IO components are versatile and easy to handle. In particular, the number of optical alignment adjustments strongly simplifies, which dramatically reduces the complexity of multiple-beam combinations for aperture synthesis imaging (Figure 18).
(a) Fibre pig-tailed IO y-branch mounted on mechanical support, (b) SEM picture of the IO Y-junction, allowing beam splitting as well as fibre signal combining.
Other examples of IO based stellar interferometers are present by the VLTI, where the VINCI apparatus, based on IO beam combiners and fibre optics components, has allowed astronomers to reach the unprecedented resolution of 4.0 milliarcseconds in sky observations [46].
Absorption or emission spectroscopy is largely adopted for remote sensing in both Earth and Space exploration, on board dedicated satellite platforms.
In this case, all general resources (weight, encumbrance, energy consumption, etc.) are particularly limited, furthermore, the onboard instrumentation is exposed to harsh environmental conditions (vibrations, ultra-high vacuum, radiation, temperature gradients, etc.). For these reasons, IO devices can represent a very important solution, particularly when based on monolithic structures (Figure 19).
(a) Carbon fibre telescope integrating three IO micro-interferometers. (b) Detail of an integrated MZ micro-interferometer equipped with front-end optics, readout electronics and packaging, ready to use (the overall package length is 12 cm).
Integrated scanning micro-interferometers with Mach–Zehnder geometry, have been designed and produced by using MEOS (Micro Electro Optical Systems) technologies.
The obtained micro-devices are based on integrated optical waveguides on LiNbO3 (LN) crystals, electrically driven, without moving parts, by exploiting the electro-optical properties of the material. These IO devices are Fourier Spectrometers in that they operate the Fourier Transform of the input radiation spectral distribution, which is eventually recovered starting from the output signal by means of Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) techniques.
Such micro-interferometers weigh a few grams, require a power consumption of a few mW and, in principle, can operate in the whole LN transmittance range (0.36 μm–4.5 μm).
In the literature several works have been reported [12, 47, 48] describing the development of a whole series of micro-interferometric apparatuses, demonstrating in principle the applicability of IO MEOS technology for Space exploration and Earth remote sensing. The micro-interferometers were produced on x-cut LiNbO3 single-crystal substrates, by applying non-conventional micromachining techniques, based on high-energy particle beams processing.
Performances were particularly tested in the 0.4 μm–2.5 μm spectral window, with some extension also in the 2.5 μm–4.5 μm range. In the Visible region 0.4 μm–0.7 μm this microsystem demonstrated a spectral resolution suitable for detecting the characteristic lines of the solar spectrum together with the absorption bands of common gases present in Earth’s atmosphere (see Figures 20 and 21).
(a) Solar radiation interferogram, (b) corresponding FFT (solid), reference (dot).
(a) Raw interferogram as obtained from an integrated scanning MZI, and (b) the absorption analysis of the NO2 analyte, (lower curve), introduced in a wide band light (upper curve).
Recent developments of Integrated Optics and Photonics components allow implementing complex, rugged, robust and miniaturised interferometric systems, which applications span all the fields of sensing interferometry also including the possibility of upcoming quantum effects applications, already shortly mentioned in paragraph 4. In this work, a general overview of the present state of the art was presented, with the intention to stimulate the interests of investigators and researchers operating in multidisciplinary contexts and in general in all fields of sensing and analytics.
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From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). 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She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. 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