Power ratings of naval reactor designs.
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8851",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Advances in Neural Signal Processing",title:"Advances in Neural Signal Processing",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Neural signal processing is a specialized area of signal processing aimed at extracting information or decoding intent from neural signals recorded from the central or peripheral nervous system. This has significant applications in the areas of neuroscience and neural engineering. These applications are famously known in the area of brain–machine interfaces. This book presents recent advances in this flourishing field of neural signal processing with demonstrative applications.",isbn:"978-1-78984-114-5",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-113-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-396-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81424",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"advances-in-neural-signal-processing",numberOfPages:142,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"a44ac118b233b29a3d5b57d61680ec38",bookSignature:"Ramana Vinjamuri",publishedDate:"September 9th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8851.jpg",numberOfDownloads:4976,numberOfWosCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:5,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:13,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 16th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 28th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 15th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 15th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 5th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!0,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",slug:"ramana-vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",biography:"Ramana Vinjamuri received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering with a specialization in dimensionality reduction in control and coordination of human hand from the University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, in 2008. From 2008 to 2012, he worked as a postdoctoral research associate in the field of Brain-Machine Interfaces (BMI) to control prostheses at the School of Medicine, the University of Pittsburgh, where he received the Mary E Switzer Merit Fellowship from the National Institute on Disability, Independent Living, and Rehabilitation Research (NIDILRR) in 2010. From 2012 to 2013, he worked as a research assistant professor in the Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, in the area of neuroprosthetics. He also worked as an assistant professor in the Department of Biomedical Engineering, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, New Jersey, from 2013 to 2020. He holds a secondary appointment as an adjunct assistant Professor at the Indian Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, India. He is currently an assistant professor in the Department of Computer Science and Electrical Engineering, University of Maryland, USA.\n\nIn 2018, Dr. Vinjamuri received the Harvey N Davis Distinguished Teaching Award for excellence in undergraduate and graduate teaching. He also received the National Science Foundation (NSF) CAREER Award in 2019 and an NSF Industry-University Cooperative Research Centers (IUCRC) Planning Grant in 2020. His other notable research awards are from the US-India Science and Technology Endowment Fund (USISTEF) and the New Jersey Health Foundation.",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1178",title:"Electrophysiology",slug:"electrophysiology"}],chapters:[{id:"73018",title:"Introductory Chapter: Methods and Applications of Neural Signal Processing",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93335",slug:"introductory-chapter-methods-and-applications-of-neural-signal-processing",totalDownloads:694,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Dingyi Pei and Ramana Vinjamuri",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73018",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73018",authors:[{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",surname:"Vinjamuri",slug:"ramana-vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri"}],corrections:null},{id:"68369",title:"Cerebral Spectral Perturbation during Upper Limb Diagonal Movements",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88337",slug:"cerebral-spectral-perturbation-during-upper-limb-diagonal-movements",totalDownloads:946,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"While it has been suggested that diagonal rhythmical bilateral movements promote improvement in motor and cognitive functions, no study that we are aware of has actually examined electrophysiological changes during diagonal movements. Therefore, we aimed to study cerebral activity during the performance of diagonal and vertical movements (DM and VM, respectively), through EEG recording focusing on theta, alpha, and beta frequency bands. Following independent component analysis, we computed time-frequency and source localization analysis. We found that (1) increased frontal theta during the initiation of DM was possibly related to the computational effort; (2) a biphasic pattern of frontoparietal alpha/beta modulations was found during VM; and in addition, (3) source localization showed increased frontal theta during DM generated in the middle frontal cortex. We will discuss the current results and their implications in relation to task difficulty, spatial and temporal computation.",signatures:"Fabio Marson, Patrizio Paoletti, Stefano Lasaponara, Joseph Glicksohn, Antonio De Fano and Tal Dotan Ben-Soussan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68369",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68369",authors:[{id:"191040",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tal",surname:"Dotan Ben-Soussan",slug:"tal-dotan-ben-soussan",fullName:"Tal Dotan Ben-Soussan"},{id:"195042",title:"Prof.",name:"Joseph",surname:"Glicksohn",slug:"joseph-glicksohn",fullName:"Joseph Glicksohn"},{id:"309442",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabio",surname:"Marson",slug:"fabio-marson",fullName:"Fabio Marson"},{id:"309443",title:"Dr.",name:"Patrizio",surname:"Paoletti",slug:"patrizio-paoletti",fullName:"Patrizio Paoletti"},{id:"309444",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefano",surname:"Lasaponara",slug:"stefano-lasaponara",fullName:"Stefano Lasaponara"},{id:"309445",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",surname:"De Fano",slug:"antonio-de-fano",fullName:"Antonio De Fano"}],corrections:null},{id:"68413",title:"Correlations of Gait Phase Kinematics and Cortical EEG: Modelling Human Gait with Data from Sensors",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88465",slug:"correlations-of-gait-phase-kinematics-and-cortical-eeg-modelling-human-gait-with-data-from-sensors",totalDownloads:667,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Neural coding of gait intent and continuous gait kinematics have advanced brain computer interface (BCI) technology for detection and predicting human upright walking movement. However, the dynamics of cortical involvement in upright walking and upright standing has not been clearly understood especially with the focus of off-laboratory assessments. In this study, wearable low-cost mobile phone accelerometers were used to extract position and velocity at 12 joints during walking and the cortical changes involved during gait phases of walking were explored using non-invasive electroencephalogram (EEG). Extracted gait data included, accelerometer values proximal to brachium of arm, antecubitis, carpus, coxal, femur and tarsus by considering physical parameters including height, weight and stride length. Including EEG data as features, the spectral and temporal features were used to classify and predict the swing and stance instances for healthy subjects. While focusing on stance and swing classification in healthy subjects, this chapter relates to gait features that help discriminate walking movement and its neurophysiological counterparts. With promising initial results, further exploration of gait may help change detection of movement neurological conditions in regions where specialists and clinical facilities may not be at par.",signatures:"Chaitanya Nutakki, Sandeep Bodda and Shyam Diwakar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68413",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68413",authors:[{id:"71863",title:"Prof.",name:"Shyam",surname:"Diwakar",slug:"shyam-diwakar",fullName:"Shyam Diwakar"},{id:"300655",title:"Mr.",name:"Chaitanya",surname:"Nutakki",slug:"chaitanya-nutakki",fullName:"Chaitanya Nutakki"},{id:"300656",title:"Mr.",name:"Sandeep",surname:"Bodda",slug:"sandeep-bodda",fullName:"Sandeep Bodda"}],corrections:null},{id:"69516",title:"Multiscale Segmentation of Microscopic Images",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89003",slug:"multiscale-segmentation-of-microscopic-images",totalDownloads:443,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The chapter introduces multiscale methods for image analysis and their applications to segmentation of microscopic images. Specifically, it presents mathematical morphology and linear scale-space theories as overarching signal processing frameworks without excessive mathematical formalization. The chapter introduces several differential invariants, which are computed from parametrized Gaussian kernels and their derivatives. The main application of this approach is to build a multidimensional multiscale feature space, which can be subsequently used to learn characteristic fingerprints of the objects of interests. More specialized applications, such as anisotropic diffusion and detection of blob-like and fiber-like structures, are introduced for two-dimensional images, and extensions to three-dimensional images are discussed. Presented approaches are generic and thus have broad applicability to time-varying signals and to two- and three-dimensional signals, such as microscopic images. The chapter is intended for biologists and computer scientists with a keen interest in the theoretical background of the employed techniques and is in part conceived as a tutorial.",signatures:"Dimiter Prodanov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69516",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69516",authors:[{id:"109518",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimiter",surname:"Prodanov",slug:"dimiter-prodanov",fullName:"Dimiter Prodanov"}],corrections:null},{id:"68909",title:"Empirical Mode Decomposition of EEG Signals for the Effectual Classification of Seizures",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89017",slug:"empirical-mode-decomposition-of-eeg-signals-for-the-effectual-classification-of-seizures",totalDownloads:587,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Empirical mode decomposition (EMD) is a remarkable method for the analysis of nonlinear and non-stationary data. EMD will breakdown the given signal into intrinsic mode functions (IMFs), which can represent natural signals effectively. In this work, the competence of EMD with traditional features to classify the seizure and non-seizure EEG signals is studied. Due to the complex nature of human brain, the EEG signals which are recorded from different regions of brain are non-stationary in nature. Different features such as entropy features (approximate entropy (ApEn), sample entropy (SmEn), Shannon entropy (ShEn), Rényi entropy (RnEn)), fractal dimension features (Petrosian fractal dimension, Higuchi fractal dimension, Katz fractal dimension), statistical features (mean, standard deviation and energy) and exponential energy features are extracted from IMFs and fed to a SVM classifier. The performances of extracted features are studied independently. The result shows that, the EMD method is well suited for complex seizure EEG signal classification.",signatures:"Fasil OK and Reghunadhan Rajesh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68909",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68909",authors:[{id:"301012",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Rajesh",surname:"Reghunadhan",slug:"rajesh-reghunadhan",fullName:"Rajesh Reghunadhan"},{id:"301015",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Fasil",surname:"O.K.",slug:"fasil-o.k.",fullName:"Fasil O.K."}],corrections:null},{id:"69548",title:"Detection of Epileptic Seizure Using STFT and Statistical Analysis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89026",slug:"detection-of-epileptic-seizure-using-stft-and-statistical-analysis",totalDownloads:422,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this study, EEG data from two volunteer individuals, a healthy individual and a patient with epilepsy, were investigated with two different methods in order to distinguish healthy and patient individuals from each other. The data were obtained from a healthy individual and from a patient with epilepsy at the time of epileptic seizure and of seizure-free interval. The data are those of which validity and reliability were proven and were supplied from the data bank records of University Hospital of Bonn in Germany. In the study, the statistical parameters of the collected data were calculated, then the same data were analysed using short-time Fourier transform (STFT) method, and then they were compared. Both statistical parameter results and spectrum analysis results are compatible with each other, and they can successfully detect healthy individuals and epileptic patients at the time of epileptic seizure and seizure-free interval. In this sense, the results were mathematically highly compatible, which offers significant information for the diagnosis of the disease. In the analysis, the variance values were determined as 253.203 for the healthy individual, 806.939 for the patient at seizure-free interval and 6985.755 for that patient at the time of seizure. Accordingly, standard deviation can be said to be quite distinctive in the designation of values. The frequencies of all three cases resulted in 0, 0–5 and 0–20 Hz, respectively, as a result of conducted STFT analysis, which is quite consistent with the results of the statistical analysis parameters.",signatures:"Furkan Kalin, T. Cetin Akinci, Deniz Türkpence, Serhat Seker and Ufuk Korkmaz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69548",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69548",authors:[{id:"303541",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"T. Cetin",surname:"Akinci",slug:"t.-cetin-akinci",fullName:"T. Cetin Akinci"},{id:"303582",title:"Prof.",name:"Serhat",surname:"Seker",slug:"serhat-seker",fullName:"Serhat Seker"},{id:"303583",title:"Dr.",name:"Deniz",surname:"Türkpençe",slug:"deniz-turkpence",fullName:"Deniz Türkpençe"},{id:"303584",title:"Dr.",name:"Ufuk",surname:"Korkmaz",slug:"ufuk-korkmaz",fullName:"Ufuk Korkmaz"},{id:"303585",title:"BSc.",name:"Furkan",surname:"Kalin",slug:"furkan-kalin",fullName:"Furkan Kalin"}],corrections:null},{id:"68373",title:"Information Processing and Synaptic Transmission",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88405",slug:"information-processing-and-synaptic-transmission",totalDownloads:592,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The brain is probably the most complex machinery for information processing we can imagine. The amount of data it manages is extremely huge. Any conscious or unconscious event both internal and coming from the environment needs to be perceived, elaborated, and responded with an appropriate action. Moreover, the high-level activities of mind require the connection of logical elaboration, the relationship with past experience (memory), and the transfer of information among different areas of the brain participating to the elaboration of the thought. Almost all brain illnesses or even simple defaults can be related to a corruption of the basic system which manage information in the brain. The main actors in transferring and managing information are the synapses, and then the understanding of the brain information processing cannot disregard the full understanding of the synaptic functionality. In the present chapter, by using as example the most common type of the brain synapse (the glutamatergic synapse), we will present the basic mechanism of synaptic transmission stressing some of the most relevant mechanisms which regulate the transfer and management of information.",signatures:"Vito Di Maio and Silvia Santillo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68373",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68373",authors:[{id:"299828",title:"Dr.",name:"Vito",surname:"Di Maio",slug:"vito-di-maio",fullName:"Vito Di Maio"},{id:"299838",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvia",surname:"Santillo",slug:"silvia-santillo",fullName:"Silvia Santillo"}],corrections:null},{id:"70077",title:"Computer Simulations of Hippocampal Mossy Fiber Cleft Zinc Movements",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90094",slug:"computer-simulations-of-hippocampal-mossy-fiber-cleft-zinc-movements",totalDownloads:625,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Zinc ions have key regulatory, structural, and catalytic functions and mediate a variety of intra- and intercellular processes. The hippocampal mossy fiber boutons contain large amounts of free or loosely bound vesicular zinc, which can be co-released with glutamate. Zinc can interact with a variety of ionic channels (N-VDCCs, L-VDCCs, KATP), glutamate receptors (AMPA, KA, NMDA 2A, 2B), glutamate transporters (GLAST, EAAT4), and molecules (ATP). The dynamic properties of cleft free, complexed, and total zinc were addressed, considering the known concentration and affinity of various cleft zinc sensitive sites, mainly in the postsynaptic area and in glial cells. The computer model included three different zinc release processes, with short, medium, and long duration, described, like the uptake ones, by alpha functions. The results suggest that, depending on the amount of release, zinc clearance is largely due, either, to zinc binding to NMDA 2A receptor sites or to glial GLAST transporters.",signatures:"Johnattan C.S. Freitas, João N. Miraldo, Carlos Manuel M. Matias, Fernando D.S. Sampaio dos Aidos, Paulo J. Mendes, José C. Dionísio, Rosa M. Santos, Luís M. Rosário, Rosa M. Quinta-Ferreira and Emília Quinta-Ferreira",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70077",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70077",authors:[{id:"308359",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Emilia",surname:"Quinta-Ferreira",slug:"maria-emilia-quinta-ferreira",fullName:"Maria Emilia Quinta-Ferreira"},{id:"308361",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Matias",slug:"carlos-matias",fullName:"Carlos Matias"},{id:"311289",title:"Mr.",name:"Johnattan C.S.",surname:"Freitas",slug:"johnattan-c.s.-freitas",fullName:"Johnattan C.S. Freitas"},{id:"311290",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando D.S,",surname:"Sampaio Dos Aidos",slug:"fernando-d.s-sampaio-dos-aidos",fullName:"Fernando D.S, Sampaio Dos Aidos"},{id:"311291",title:"Dr.",name:"Paulo J.",surname:"Mendes",slug:"paulo-j.-mendes",fullName:"Paulo J. Mendes"},{id:"311292",title:"Dr.",name:"José C.",surname:"Dionísio",slug:"jose-c.-dionisio",fullName:"José C. Dionísio"},{id:"311293",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa M.",surname:"Santos",slug:"rosa-m.-santos",fullName:"Rosa M. Santos"},{id:"311294",title:"Dr.",name:"Luís M.",surname:"Rosário",slug:"luis-m.-rosario",fullName:"Luís M. Rosário"},{id:"311295",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa M.",surname:"Quinta-Ferreira",slug:"rosa-m.-quinta-ferreira",fullName:"Rosa M. Quinta-Ferreira"},{id:"311296",title:"Mr.",name:"João N.",surname:"Miraldo",slug:"joao-n.-miraldo",fullName:"João N. 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The largest experience in operating nuclear power plants has been in nuclear naval propulsion, particularly aircraft carriers and submarines.This accumulated experience may become the basis of a proposed new generation of compact-sized nuclear power plants designs.The mission for nuclear powered submarines is being redefined in terms of signal intelligence gathering and special operations. The nuclear powered vessels comprise about 40 percent of the USA Navy\'s combatant fleet, including the entire sea based strategic nuclear deterrent.All the USA Navy’s operational submarines and over half of its aircraft carriers are nuclear-powered.
The main considerations here are that nuclear powered submarines do not consume oxygen like conventional power plants, and that they have large endurance or mission times before fuel resupply; limited only by the available food and air purification supplies on board. Another unique consideration is the use of High Enriched Uranium (HEU) to provide a compact reactor system with enough built-in reactivity to overcome the xenon reactor dead time for quick restarts and long fuel burnup periods between refuelings.
During World War II, submarines used diesel engines that could be run on the water surface, charging a large bank of electrical batteries.These could later be used while the submarine is submerged, until discharged.At this point the submarine had to resurface to recharge its batteries and become vulnerable to detection by aircraft and surface vessels.Even though special snorkel devices were used to suck and exhaust air to the submarine shallowly submerged below the water\'s surface, a nuclear reactor provides it with a theoretically infinite submersion time.In addition, the high specific energy, or energy per unit weight of nuclear fuel, eliminates the need for constant refueling by fleets of vulnerable tankers following a fleet of surface or subsurface naval vessels.On the other hand, a single refueling of a nuclear reactor is sufficient for long intervals of time.
With a high enrichment level of 93 percent, capable of reaching 97.3 percent in U235, modern naval reactors, are designed for a refueling after 10 or more years over their 20-30 years lifetime, whereas land based reactors use fuel low-enriched to 3-5 percent in U235, and need to be refueled every 1-1 1/2 years period.New cores are designed to last 50 years in carriers and 30-40 years in submarines, which is the design goal of the Virginia class of submarines.
Burnable poisons such as gadolinium or boron are incorporated in the cores.These allow a high initial reactivity that compensates for the build-up of fission products poisons over the core lifetime, as well as the need to overcome the reactor dead time caused by the xenon poison changes as a result of operation at different power levels.
Naval reactors use high burn up fuels such as uranium-zirconium, uranium-aluminum, and metal ceramic fuels, in contrast to land-based reactors which use uranium dioxide, UO2.These factors provide the naval vessels theoretical infinite range and mission time.For all these considerations, it is recognized that a nuclear reactor is the ideal engine for naval propulsion.
A compact pressure vessel with an internal neutron and gamma ray shield is required by the design while maintaining safety of operation.Their thermal efficiency is lower than the thermal efficiency of land based reactors because of the emphasis on flexible power operation rather than steady state operation, and of space constraints. Reactor powers range from 10 MWth in prototypes to 200 MWth in large subsurface vessels, and 300 MWth in surface ships.
Newer designs use jet pump propulsion instead of propellers, and aim at an all electrical system design, including the weapons systems such as electromagnetic guns.
In the USA, initially the General Electric (GE) Company developed a liquid metal reactor concept; and the Westinghouse Company, a pressurized water reactor concept.Each company built an Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) owned and financed development laboratory.Westinghouse used the site of the Allegheny County Airport in a suburb of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvaniafor what became known as the Bettis Atomic Power Laboratory.GE built the Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory in the state of New York.
The Westinghouse program used pressurized water as the coolant. It revealed how corrosive hot water could be on the metal cladding surrounding the fuel.It realized that the use of zirconium resisted such corrosion.The pure metal was initially used as the cladding for the fuel elements, to be later replaced by a zirconium alloy, Zircaloy that improved its performance.Zirconium has a low neutron absorption cross section and, like stainless steel, forms a protective, invisible oxide film on its surface upon exposure to air.This oxide film is composed of zirconia or ZrO2 and is on the order of only 50 to 100 angstroms in thickness.This ultra thin oxide prevents the reaction of the underlying zirconium metal with virtually any chemical reagent under ambient conditions.The only reagent that will attack zirconium metal at room temperature is hydrofluoric acid, HF, which will dissolve the thin oxide layer off of the surface of the metal and thus allow HF to dissolve the metal itself, with the concurrent evolution of hydrogen gas.
Jules Verne, the French author in his 1870 book: “20,000 Leagues Under the Sea,” related the story of an electric submarine.The submarine was called the “Nautilus,” under its captain Nemo.Science fiction became reality when the first nuclear submarine built by the USA Navy was given the same name. Construction of the Nautilus (SSN-571) started on June 14, 1952, its first operation was on December 30, 1954 and it reached full power operation on January 13, 1955.It was commissioned in 1954, with its first sea trials in 1955.It set speed, distance and submergence records for submarine operation that were not possible with conventional submarines.It was the first ship to reach the North Pole.It was decommissioned in 1980 after 25 years of service, 2,500 dives, and a travelled distance of 513,000 miles.It is preserved at a museum at Croton, Connecticut, USA.
The "Nautilus", the first nuclear powered submarine (Photo: USA Navy).
An experimental setup designated as the S1W prototype was built for the testing of the Nautilus’s nuclear reactor at the Idaho National Laboratory (INL) in 1989.The section of the hull containing the reactor rested in a “sea tank” of water 40 feet deep and 50 feet in diameter.The purpose of the water was to help the shielding designers study the “backscatterradiation” that might escape the hull, scatter off the water, and reflect back into the living quarters of the ship.
The reactor for the Nautilus was a light water moderated, highly enriched in U235 core, with zirconium-clad fuel plates.The high fuel enrichment gives the reactor a compact size, and a high reactivity reserve to override the xenon poison dead time.The Nautilus beat numerous records, establishing nuclear propulsion as the ideal driving force for the world\'s submarine fleet.Among its feats was the first underwater crossing of the Arctic ice cap.It traveled 1,400 miles at an average speed of 20 knots.On a first core without refueling, it traveled 62,000 miles. Another nuclear submarine, the Triton reenacted Magellan\'s trip around the Earth.Magellan traveled on the surface, while the Triton did it completely submerged.
There have been more reactor concepts investigated in the naval propulsion area by different manufacturers and laboratories than in the civilian field, and much can be learned from their experience for land applications, particularly for small compact systems.According to the type of vessel they power, they have different first letter designations: A for Aircraft carrier, C for Cruiser, D for Destroyer and S for Submarine.They are also designated with a last letter according to the designer institution or lead laboratory: B for Bechtel, C for Combustion Engineering, G for General Electric and W for Westinghouse.A middle number between the first and last letter refers to the generation number of the core design.For instance, the A1B is the first generation of a core design for aircraft carriers with Bechtel operating the lead laboratory for the design.
Naval reactors designs use boron as a burnable neutron poison.The fuel is an alloy of 15 percent zirconium and 85 percent uranium enriched to a level of about 93 percent in U235.The burnable poisons and high enrichment allow a long core lifetime and provide enough reactivity to overcome the xenon poisoning reactor dead time. An axial direction doping provides a long core life, and a radial doping provides for an even power and fuel burnup distributions.
The Westinghouse Electric Corporation under contract to the USA Navy constructed, tested and operated a prototype Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) submarine reactor plant.This first reactor plant was called the Submarine Thermal Reactor(STR).On March 30, 1953, the STR was brought to power for the first time.In 1953 it achieved a 96 hours sustained full power run simulating a crossing of the Atlantic Ocean.The second S1W core sustained in 1955 an 66-day continuous full power run, simulating a high speed run twice around the globe.
The STR was redesigned as the first generation submarine reactor S1W, which reached criticality on March 30, 1953, was the prototype of the USS Nautilus (SSN 571) reactor and was followed in the middle to late 1950s by the Aircraft carrier reactor A1W, the prototype for the aircraft carrier USS Enterprise plant. Westinghouse\'s Bettis Atomic Power Laboratory was assigned the responsibility for operating the reactor it had designed and built, hence the W in the name.
Plate fuel element configuration (
The fuel elements are sandwich plates made of U and Zr and clad in Zr.The maximum temperature in the fuel was 645 °F and the sheath temperature was 551 °F with an average cycle time of 600 hours or just 600 / 24 = 25 days. The reactor temperature is limited by the pressure needed to prevent boiling, necessitating high pressure vessels, piping and heat exchangers.The steam was generated at a relatively low pressure.A high level of pumping power was required, and the fuel was costly.However this design presented few hazards, was proven in service, and an expensive moderator was not needed.
The S1C reactor used an electric drive rather than a steam turbine like in the subsequent S5W reactor design rated at 78 MWth and a 93 percent U235 enriched core that was the standard in the 1970s.The S6G reactor plant was rated at 148 MWth and the D2W core was rated at 165 MWth. The S6G reactor is reported to be capable of propelling a Los Angeles class submarine at 15 knots or 27.7 km/hr when surfaced and 25 knots or 46.3 km/hr while submerged. The Sea Wolf class of submarines was equipped with a single S6W reactor, whereas the Virginia class of submarines is equipped with an S9G reactor.
It is worth noting that the higher achievable submerged speed is partly due to the absence of wave friction resistance underwater, suggesting that submarine cargo ships would offer a future energy saving alternative to surface cargo ships.
The A1W (Aircraft carrier, 1st prototype, Westinghouse) plant consisted of a pair of prototype reactors for the USS Enterprise USA Navy nuclear-powered aircraft carrier.Located at the Naval Reactors Facility, the two PWRs designated A and B, were built within a portion of a steel hull.The plant simulated the Enterprise’sengine room. The A1W plant was the first in which two reactors powered one ship propeller shaft through a single-geared turbine propulsion unit.As the Navy program evolved, new reactor cores and equipment replaced many of the original components.The Navy trained naval personnel at the A1W plant and continued a test program to improve and further develop its operational flexibility.
The A1W prototype plant was started in 1956 for surface ships using two PWRs.The plant was built as a prototype for the aircraft carrier USS Enterprise (CVN 65), which was the first nuclear-powered aircraft carrier. Power operation of the A1W plant started in October of 1958.In the A1W and A2W designs, the coolant was kept at a temperature between 525-545 °F or274-285 °C. In the steam generators, the water from the feed system is converted to steam at 535 °F or 279 °C and a pressure of about 600 psi or 4 MPa. The reactor coolant water was circulated by four large electric pumps for each reactor.The steam was directed from each steam generator to a common header, where the steam is then sent to the main engine, electrical generators, aircraft catapult system, and various auxiliaries.The main propulsion turbines are double ended, in which the steam enters at the center and divides into two opposing streams.The main shaft was coupled to a reduction gear in which the high rotational velocity of the turbine shaft is stepped down to a usable rotational rate for ship propulsion.
In the A3W reactor design used on the USS John F. Kennedy a 4-reactor plant is used.In the A4W design with a life span of 23 years on the Nimitz Class carriers only two reactors per ship are used with each providing 104 MWth of power or 140,000 shaft HP. The A1B is also a two reactor design for the Gerald R. Ford class of carriers.
This reactor design was built by the General Electric (GE) Company, hence the G designation.The neutron spectrum was intermediate in energy. It used UO2 fuel clad in stainless steel with Be used as a moderator and a reflector.The maximum temperature in the fuel could reach 1,700 +/- 300 °F with a maximum sheath temperature of 900 °F, with a cycle time of 900 hours or 900 / 24 = 37.5 days.
A disadvantage is that the coolant becomes activated with the heat exchangers requiring heavy shielding.In addition Na reacts explosively with water and ignites in air, and the fuel element removal is problematic.On the other hand, high reactor and steam temperatures can be reached with a higher thermal efficiency.A low pressure is used in the primary system.
Beryllium has been used as a moderator in the Sea Wolf Class of submarines reactors.It is a relatively good solid moderator, both from the perspectives of slowing down power and of the moderating ratio, and has a very high thermal conductivity.Pure Be has good corrosion resistance to water up to 500 °F, to sodium to 1,000 °F, and to air attack to 1,100 °F.It has a noted vapor pressure at 1,400 °F and is not considered for use much above 1,200 °F even with an inert gas system.It is expensive to produce and fabricate, has poor ductility and is extremely toxic necessitating measures to prevent inhalation and ingestion of its dust during fabrication.
A considerably small size thermal reactor can be built using beryllium oxide as a moderator.It has the same toxicity as Be, but is less expensive to fabricate.It can be used with a sodium cooled thermal reactor design because BeO is corrosion resistant to sodium.It has similar nuclear properties to Be, has a very high thermal conductivity as a ceramic, and has a good resistance to thermal shock.It can be used in the presence of air, Na and CO2.It is volatile in water vapor above 1,800 °F.In its dense form, it resists attack by Na or the Na-Kalloy eutectic, which remains liquid at room temperature,at a temperature of 1,000 °F.BeO can be used as a fuel element material when impregnated with uranium.Low density increases its resistance to shock.A BeO coating can be applied to cut down on the fission products release to the system.
The USS Seawolf submarine initially used a Na-cooled reactor that was replaced in 1959 by a PWR to standardize the fleet, because of superheater bypass problems causing mediocre performance and as a result of a sodium fire.The steam turbines had their blades replaced to use saturated rather than superheated steam.The reactor was housed in a containment vessel designed to contain a sodium fire.
The eighth generation S8G reactorwas capable of operating at a significant fraction of full power without reactor coolant pumps.The S8G reactor was designed by General Electric for use on the Ohio Class (SSGN/SSBN-726) submarines. A land based prototype of the reactor plant was built at Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory at Ballston Spa, New York.The prototype was used for testing and crew training throughout the 1980s.In 1994, the core was replaced with a sixth generation S6W Westinghouse reactor, designed for the Sea Wolf Class submarines.
The Experimental Beryllium Oxide Reactor (EBOR)’s objective was to develop beryllium oxide as a neutron moderator in high-temperature, gas-cooled reactors.The project was cancelled in 1966 before construction was complete. Among the reasons for the cancellation was the encouraging progress achieved, concurrent with the EBOR construction, in developing graphite as a moderator.This reduced the importance of developing beryllium oxide as an alternate. No uranium fuel ever was loaded into the EBOR and it never operated or went critical before the program was cancelled.
The Super Critical Water Reactor (SC-WR) was considered with an intermediate energy neutron spectrum.The fuel was composed of UO2 dispersed in a stainless steel matrix.It consisted of 1 inch square box with parallel plates and sine wave filters with a type 347 stainless steel cladding 0.007 inch thick.The maximum temperature in the fuel reached 1,300 °F with an average cycle time of 144 hours or 144 / 24 = 6 days.
The materials for high pressure and temperature and the retention of mechanical seals and other components caused a service problem. The water coolant reached a pressure of 5,000 psi.The high pressure and temperature steam results in a high cycle efficiency, small size of the reactor with no phase change in the coolant.
The Organic Cooled and Moderated Reactor has been considered as a thermal neutron spectrum shipboard power plant.The Terphenyl waxy organic coolant was considered promising because it liquefied at high temperatures but did not corrode metals like water. Also, it operated at low pressure, significantly reducing the risk of coolant leak and loss of coolant through depressurization. A scaled-up reactor, the Experimental Organic Cooled Reactor, was built in anticipation of further development of the concept.
The rectangular-plates fuel clad in aluminum can be natural uranium since the organic coolant can have good moderating properties.The cladding temperature can reach 800 °F with an average cycle time of 2,160 hours or 2,160 / 24 = 90 days. The overall heat transfer coefficient of the coolant is low with the formation of polymers under irradiation that require an adequate purification system.The perceived advantages are negligible corrosion and the achievement of low pressure at a high temperature.
A Diphenyl potential coolant broke down under irradiation. The hydrogen in the compound turned into a gas, forming bubbles. The bubbles reduced the moderator density and made it difficult to maintain the chain reaction.The initially clear liquid turned into a gummy and black breakup product. No uranium fuel ever was loaded into the reactor and it never operated or went critical before the program was cancelled.
The alpha class of Russian submarines used an alloy of Pb-Bi 45-50 percent by weight cooled fast reactors.The melting point of this alloy is 257 °F.They faced problems of corrosion of the reactor components, melting point, pump power, polonium activity and problems in fuel unloading. Refueling needed a steam supply to keep the liquid metal molten.Bismuth leads to radiation from the activated products, particularly polonium.An advantage is that at decommissioning time, the core can be allowed to cool into a solid mass with the lead providing adequate radiation shielding.This class of submarine reactors has been decommissioned.
The S5G was the prototype of a PWR for the USS Narwhal.It was capable of operating in either a forced or natural circulation flow mode.In the natural circulation mode, the cooling water flowed through the reactor by natural convection, not by pumps.Use of natural circulation instead of pumps reduced the noise level in the submarine. To prove that the design concept would work in an operating ship at sea, the prototype was built in a submarine hull section capable of simulating the rolling motion of a ship at sea. The S5G continued to operate as part of the Navy’s nuclear training program until that program was reduced after the end of the Cold War.
The S5G reactorhad two coolant loops and two steam generators.It had to be designed with the reactor vessel situated low in the ship hull and the steam generators high in order for natural circulation of the coolant to be developed and maintained using the chimney effect. It was largely a success, although the design never became the basis for any more fast attack submarines besides the Narwhal.The prototype testing included the simulation of the engine room of an attack submarine.By floating the plant in a large pool of water, the whole prototype could be rotated along its long axis to simulate a hard turn.This was necessary to determine whether natural circulation would continue even during hard maneuvers, since natural circulation is dependent on gravity.
The USS Narwhal had the quietest reactor plant in the USA naval fleet.Its 90 MWth reactor plant was slightly more powerful than the other fast attack USA nuclear submarines of that era such as the third generation S3G and the fifth generation S5W.The Narwhal contributed significantly to the USA effort during the Cold War.With its quiet propulsion and the pod attached to its hull, it used a towed sonar array and possibly carried a Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) for tapping into communication cables and maintaining a megaphones tracking system at the bottom of the oceans.
It was intended to test the potential contribution of natural circulation technology to submarine noise suppression by the avoidance of forced flow pump cooling.The reactor primary coolant pumps are one of the primary sources of noise from submarines in addition to the speed reduction gearbox and cavitation forming collapsing bubbles from the propeller.The elimination of the coolant pumps and associated equipment would also reduce mechanical complexity and the space required by the propulsion equipment.The S5G was the direct precursor to the eighth generation S8G reactor used on the Ohio class ballistic missile submarines; a quiet submarine design.
The S5G was also equipped with coolant pumps that were only needed in emergencies to attain high power and speed.The reactor core was designed with very smooth paths for the coolant.Accordingly, the coolant pumps were smaller and quieter than the ones used by the competing S5W core, a Westinghouse design,and were also fewer in number.In most situations, the submarine could be operated without using the coolant pumps, useful for stealth operation.The reduction in the electrical requirements enabled this design to use only a single electrical turbine generator plant.
The S8G prototype used natural circulation allowing operation at a significant fraction of full power without using the reactor pumps, providing a silent stealth operation mode.To further reduce engine plant noise, the normal propulsion setup of two steam turbines driving the propeller screw through a reduction gear unit was changed instead to one large propulsion turbine without reduction gears.This eliminated the noise from the main reduction gears, but at the expense of a large main propulsion turbine.The turbine was cylindrical, about 12 feet in diameter and 30 feet in length.This large size was necessary to allow it to rotate slowly enough to directly drive the propulsion screw and be fairly efficient in the process.
The S7G core was controlled by stationary gadolinium-clad tubes that were partially filled with water.Water was pumped from the portion of the tube inside the core to a reservoir above the core, or allowed to flow back down into the tube.A higher water level in the tube within the core slowed down the neutrons allowing them to be captured by the gadolinium tube cladding rather than the uranium fuel, leading to a lower power level.
The design constituted a unique fail-safe control system.The pump needed to run continuously to keep the water level pumped down.Upon an accidental loss of pump power, all the water would flow back into the tube, shutting down the reactor.
This design also had the advantage of a negative reactivity feedback and a load-following mechanism.An increase in reactor power caused the water to expand to a lower density lowering the power.The water level in the tubes controlled the average coolant temperature, not the reactor power.An increase in steam demand resulting from opening the main steam throttle valves would automatically increase reactor power without action by the operator.
The S9G is a PWR built by General Electric with increased energy density, and new plant components, including a new steam generator design featuring improved corrosion resistance and a reduced life cycle cost.This reactor in the Virginia Class SSN-774 submarines is designed to operate for 33 years without refueling and last the expected 30 year design life of a typical submarine. It produces about 40,000 shaft horsepower, or about 30 MWth of power.
The higher power density decreases not only the size of the core, but also enhances quiet operation through the elimination of bulky control and pumping equipment.It would be superior to any Russian design from the perspective of noise reduction capability, with 30 units planned to be built. The core for a contemplated New Attack Submarine is expected to last for the operational life of the ship.The design goals include eliminating the need for a refueling, will reduce life cycle costs, cut down the radiation exposure of shipyard staff, and lessen the amount of radioactive waste generated.This is possible because of many developments such as the use of advanced computers to perform three-dimensional nuclear, thermal, and structural calculations; further exploitation of a modified fuel process; and better understanding of various reactor technologies which permits more highly optimized designs.Performance improvements are gained through advances in such areas as thermal hydraulics and structural mechanics, and by optimizing reactor-to-systems interfaces.
The new reactor with increased energy density has new plant components, such as a new concept steam generator, with improved corrosion resistance and reduced life-cycle costs.The new steam generators allow greater plant design flexibility and decreased construction costs due to a smaller size, spatial orientation, and improved heat transfer efficiency which reduces coolant flow requirements.They alleviate the corrosion concerns encountered in existing designs of steam generators, while reducing component size and weight and providing greater flexibility in the overall arrangement.
The USA built one single nuclear merchant ship: the Savannah.It was designed as a national showpiece, and not as an economical merchant vessel.For compactness, the steam generators and steam drums surround the reactor core.This Integral Design configuration also provides shielding for the crew.It was retired in 1970.
The 630-A reactor, a low-power critical experiment, was operated at the Idaho National Laboratory (INL) to explore the feasibility of an air-cooled, water-moderated system for nuclear-powered merchant ships.Further development was discontinued in December 1964 when decisions were made to lower the priority of the entire nuclear power merchant ship program.
Nuclear Ice Breakers like the Russian Lenin and the Arktica were a good success, not requiring refueling in the arctic regions. The Otto Hahn bulk ore carrier was built by Germany.It operated successfully for ten years. The Mutsu was an oceanographic research vessel built in Japan in 1974.Due to a design flaw causing a radiation leakage from its top radiation shield, it never became fully operational. The Sturgis MH-1A was a floating nuclear power plant ship.It was carrying a 45 Megawatts Thermal (MWth) PWR providing remote power supplies for the USA Army.
Reactor type | Rated power | |
shaft horse power, [shp] | [MW]* | |
A2W | 35,000 | 26.1 |
A4W/A1G | 140,000 | 104.4 |
C1W | 40,000 | 29.8 |
D2G | 35,000 | 26.1 |
S5W | 15,000 | 11.2 |
S5G | 17,000 | 12.7 |
S6W | 35,000 | 26.1 |
S8G | 35,000 | 26.1 |
S9G | 40,000 | 29.8 |
Power ratings of naval reactor designs.
The Savannah, the first USA merchant ship.
The nuclear navy benefited the civilian nuclear power program in several ways.It first demonstrated the feasibility of the PWR concept, which is being currently used in the majority of land based power reactors worldwide.Second, naval reactors accumulated a large number of operational experience hours, leading to improvements in the land based reactors.The highly trained naval operational crews also become of great value to the civilian nuclear utilities providing them with experienced staffs in the operation and management of the land based systems.
The loop-typenaval reactor design for the nuclear ship Savannah.The reactor core is surrounded by the heat exchangers and the steam drums providing a compact shielding design.The horizontal steam generator was replaced by a vertical tube steam generator and an integrated system in subsequent designs. 1: Reactor core, 2: Water shield, 3: Coolant inlet, 4: Pb Shield layer, 5: Steam drum, 6: Heat exchanger, 7: Pressurizer, or volume compensator, 8: Equalizer line, 9: Cutoff channel, 10: Gate valve, 11: Coolant pumps, 12: Instrumentation channel. (
Land based reactors differ in many ways from naval reactors.The thermal power of land based reactors is in the range of 3,000 MWth or higher.In contrast, a submarine reactor\'s power is smaller in the range of the hundreds of MWths.Land based systems use uranium fuel lightly enriched to the 3-5 percent range.This low level enrichment was imposed on the designers of land-based reactors to primarily avoid the circulation of highly enriched fuel. It is an impediment since it forces the use of a large volume for the core, increases the capital cost and hence the cost of the electricity produced.Highly enriched fuel at the 93-97 percent level is used in naval reactors to provide enough reactivity to override the xenon poison dead time, compactness as well as provide higher fuel burnup and the possibility for a single fuel loading over the useful service time of the powered ship.
Table 2 shows the composition of highly enriched fuel used in nuclear propulsion as well as space reactor designs such as the SAFE-400 and the HOMER-15 designs (Poston, 2002).Most of the activity is caused by the presence of U234, which ends up being separated with the U235 component during the enrichment process.This activity is primarily alpha decay and does not account for any appreciable dose.Since the fuel is highly purified and there is no material such as fluorine or oxygen causing any (α, n) reactions in the fuel, the alpha decay of U234 does not cause a neutron or gamma ray dose.If uranium nitride (UN) is used as fuel, the interaction threshold energy of nitrogen is well above the alpha emission energies of U234.Most of the dose prior to operation from the fuel is caused by U235 decay gammas and the spontaneous fission of U238.The total exposure rate is 19.9 [µRöntgen / hr] of which the gamma dose rate contribution is 15.8 and the neutron dose rate is 4.1.
Isotope | Composition (percent) | Activity (Curies) | Decay Mode | Exposure Rate Contribution [µR/hr] |
U234 | 0.74 | 6.1 | Alpha decay | unappreciable |
U235 | 97.00 | Decay gammas | appreciable | |
U238 | 2.259 | Spontaneous fissions | appreciable | |
Pu239 | 0.001 | Alpha decay | unappreciable | |
Total | 6.5 | 19.9 |
Composition of highly enriched fuel for naval and space reactors designs (Poston, 2002).
Reactor operators can wait for a 24 hours period; the reactor dead time, on a land based system for the xenon fission product to decay to a level where they can restart the reactor.A submarine cannot afford to stay dead in the water for a 24 hour period if the reactor is shutdown, necessitating highly enriched fuel to provide enough high reactivity to overcome the reactor dead time effect.A nuclear submarine has the benefit of the ocean as a heat sink, whereas a land based reactor needs sufficiently large water reservoirs to be available for its safety cooling circuits
For these reasons, even though the same principle of operation is used for naval and land based reactor designs, the actual designs differ substantially. Earlier naval reactors used the loop type circuit for the reactor design for the Savannah reactor.There exists a multitude of naval reactor designs.More modern designs use the Integral circuit type.
Integral type of naval reactor vessel (
Because of the weight of the power plant and shielding, the reactor and associated steam generation equipment is located at the center of the ship.Watertight bulkheads isolating the reactor components surround it. The greater part of the system is housed in a steel containment, preventing any leakage of steam to the atmosphere in case of an accident.The containment vessel for the Savannah design consisted of a horizontal cylindrical section of 10.7 meters diameter, and two hemispherical covers. The height of the containment was 15.2 meters.The control rod drives are situated in a cupola of 4.27 m in diameter, on top of the containment. The containment vessel can withstand a pressure of 13 atm.This is the pressure attained in the hypothetical maximum credible accident, or design-basis accident. It is postulated as the rupture of the primary loop and the subsequent flashing into steam of the entire coolant volume.
The secondary shielding consists of concrete, lead, and polyethylene and is positioned at the top of the containment. A prestressed concrete wall with a thickness of 122 cm surrounds the lower section of the containment. This wall rests on a steel cushion. The upper section of the secondary shielding is 15.2 cm of lead to absorb gamma radiation, and 15.2 cm of polyethylene to slow down any leaking neutrons.The space between the lead plates is filled with lead wool.The lead used in the shielding is cast by a special method preventing the formation of voids and inhomogeneities.
Layout of the OK-150 plant. 1: Reactor, 2: Steam generator, 3: Main circulation pumps, 4: Control rod drives mechanism, 5: Filter, 6: Cooler, 7: Emergency cooling pump, 8: Primary circuit pressure relief valve, 9: Feedwater inlet, 10: Steam outlet (
The polyethylene sheets are spaced so as to allow thermal expansion. Thick collison mats consisting of alternate layers of steel and wood are placed on the sides of the containment. The effective dose rate at the surface of the secondary sheet does not exceed 5 cSv (rem)/year. The containment is airtight.Personnel can remain in it for up to 30 minutes after reactor shutdown and the radiation level would have fallen to less than 0.2 cSv (rem)/hr. The primary shielding is here made of an annular water tank that surrounds the reactor and a layer of lead attached to the outer surface of the tank, to minimize space.The height of the tank is 5.2 m, the thickness of the water layer, 84 cm, and the thickness of the lead is 5-10 cm.The weight of the primary shields is 68.2 tons, and with the water it is 118.2 tons. The weight of the containment is 227 tons. The secondary shielding weights 1795 tons consisting of: 561 tons of ordinary concrete, 289 tons of lead, 69 tons of polyethylene, and 160 tons of collison mats.The latter consist of 22 tons of wood and 138 tons of steel. The shielding complex is optimized to minimize the space used, while providing low radiation doses to the crew quarters. It is comparatively heavy because of the use of lead and steel, and is complicated to install.
The Integral circuit design offers a substantial degree of inherent safety since the pumps; the steam generators and reactor core are all contained within the same pressure vessel.Since the primary circulating fluid is contained within the vessel, any leaking fluid would be contained within the vessel in case of an accident.This also eliminates the need for extensive piping to circulate the coolant from the core to the steam generators.In loop type circuits, a possibility exists for pipe rupture or leakage of the primary coolant pipes.This source of accidents is eliminated in an integral type of a reactor (Collier, 1987).
The fission process generates a multitude of fission products with different yields (Lamarsh, 1983). Table 3 shows some of these fission products yields resulting from the fission of three fissile isotopes:
Isotope | 92U233 | 92U235 | 94Pu239 |
53I135 | 0.04750 | 0.06390 | 0.06040 |
54Xe135 | 0.01070 | 0.00237 | 0.01050 |
61Pm149 | 0.00795 | 0.01071 | 0.01210 |
Fission products yields from thermal 2200 m/sec neutrons,
The most prominent of these fission products from the perspective of reactor control is 54Xe135.It is formed as the result of the decay of 53I135.It is also formed in fission and by the decay of the tellurium isotope: 52Te135.This can be visualized as follows:
The half lives of the components of this chain are shown in Table 4.The end of the chain is the stable isotope 56Ba135. Because 52Te135 decays rapidly with a half life of 11 seconds into 53I135, one can assume that all 53I135 is produced directly in the fission process.
Denoting I(t) as the atomic density of iodine in [nuclei/cm3],ψ as the thermal neutron flux [n /(cm2.sec)]one can write a rate equation for the iodine as:
where:
λI is the decay constant in [sec-1], with
Isotope | Half Life, T1/2 |
52Te135 | 11 sec |
53I135 | 6.7 hr |
54Xe135 | 9.2 hr |
55Cs135 | 2.3x106 yr |
56Ba135 | Stable |
Half lives of the isotopes in the xenon decay chain.
A rate equation can also be written for the xenon in the form:
where
The large value of the absorption cross section of Xe, and its delayed generation from iodine, affect the operation of reactors both under equilibrium and after shutdown conditions.
Under equilibrium conditions, the rate of change of the iodine as well as the xenon concentrations is zero:
This leads to an equilibrium concentration for the iodine as:
The equilibrium concentration for the xenon will be:
Substituting for the equilibrium concentration of the iodine, we can write:
Ignoring the effects of neutron leakage, since it has a minor effect on fission product poisoning, we can use the infinite medium multiplication factor for a poisoned reactor in the form of the four factor formula (Ragheb, 1982):
and for an unpoisoned core as:
We define the reactivity ρ of the poisoned core as:
In this equation,
ε is the fast fission factor,
p is the resonance escape probability,
ν is the average neutron yield per fission event,
Σf is the macroscopic fission cross section,
ΣaF is the macroscopic absorption cross section of the fuel,
f is the fuel utilization factor.
The fuel utilization factor for the unpoisoned core is given by:
And for the poisoned core it is:
where:
ΣaM is the moderator\'s macroscopic absorption coefficient,
ΣaP is the poison\'s macroscopic absorption coefficients.
From the definition of the reactivity in Eqn. 10, and Eqns. 11 and 12 we can readily get:
It is convenient to express the reactivity in an alternate form.For the unpoisoned critical core:
From which:
Substituting this value in the expression of the reactivity, and the expression for the regeneration factor, we get:
For equilibrium xenon:
Inserting the last equation for the expression for the reactivity we get:
Dividing numerator and denominator by σaX we get: Eq. 18b
The parameter:
at 20 degrees C, and has units of the flux [neutrons/(cm2.sec)].
The expression for the reactivity is written in terms of
For a reactor operating at high flux,
and we can write:
For a reactor fueled with U235, ν =2.42, p= ε =1, the value for ρ for equilibrium xenon is:
or a negative 2.74 percent.
A unique behavior occurs to the xenon after reactor shutdown.Although its production ceases, it continues to build up as aresult of the decay of its iodine parent.Therefore the concentration of the xenon increases after shutdown.Since its cross section for neutrons is so high, it absorbs neutrons and prevents the reactor from being restarted for a period of time denoted as the “reactor dead time.”
In a land based reactor, since the xenon eventually decays, after about 24 hours, the reactor can then be restarted.In naval propulsion applications, a naval vessel cannot be left in the water unable to be restarted and vulnerable to enemy attack by depth charges or torpedoes.For this reason, naval reactor cores must be provided with enough reactivity to overcome the xenon negative reactivity after shutdown.
To analyze the behavior, let us rewrite the rate equations for iodine and xenon with
Using Bateman\'s solution (Ragheb, 2011), the iodine and xenon concentrations become respectively:
Substituting for the equilibrium values of X0 and I0 we get:
Negative reactivity due to xenon poisoning. Flux = 5x1014 [n/(cm2.sec)] (
The negative reactivity due to xenon poisoning is now a function of time and is given by:
Figure 7 shows the negative reactivity resulting from xenon after reactor shutdown.It reaches a minimum value, which occurs at about 10 hours after shutdown.This post shutdown reactivity is important in reactors that have operated at a high flux level.If at any time after shutdown, the positive reactivity available by removing all the control rods is less than the negative reactivity caused by xenon, the reactor cannot be restarted until the xenon has decayed. In Fig. 7, at an assumed reactivity reserve of 20 percent, during the time interval from 2.5 hours to 35 hours, the reactor cannot be restarted.This period of 35-2.5 = 32.5 hours is designated as the “Reactor Dead Time.”
This reactor dead time is of paramount importance in mobile systems that may be prone to accidental scrams.This is more important at the end of core lifetime, when the excess reactivity is limited.For this reason, mobile reactors necessitate the adoption of special design features, providing the needed excess reactivity to override the negative xenon reactivity, such as the use of highly enriched cores.
In land based systems such as the Canadian Deuterium Uranium (CANDU) reactor concept, booster rods of highly enriched U235 are available to override the xenon dead time after shutdown, leading to a higher capacity factor.Power fluctuations induced to follow demand in any power reactor lead to xenon oscillations without any reactor shutdown.The changes of xenon concentrations due to load following are compensated for by adjusting the chemical shim or boron concentration in the coolant, and by control rods adjustments.
The USA nuclear fleet grew rapidly at the height of the East West Cold War in the 1980s.About one fourth of the submarine fleet carried intercontinental ballistic missiles.These can be ejected by the use of compressed air while the submarine is totally submerged, with the rocket engine starting once the missile is above the water surface.
In the Falkland Islands War, a single nuclear British submarine paralyzed the entire Argentinean Naval fleet. It sunk the cruiser “General Belgrano” and forced the Argentine Navy to not deploy out of port.
During the first and second Gulf Wars, and in the Lybia conflict, the USA Navy launched Tomahawk missiles, had unchallenged use of the oceans and protected 85 percent of the war supplies that were transported by ships.
The mission of the aircraft carrier force is to provide a credible, sustainable, independent forward presence and a conventional deterrence in peace times. In times of crisis, it operates as the cornerstone of joint and/or allied maritime expeditionary forces.It operates and support air attacks on enemies, protects friendly forces and engages in sustained independent operations in times of war.As an example, the vital statistics of the nuclear Nimitz Class aircraft carrier are:
Power Plant:Two nuclear reactors, four shafts.
Length:1,092 feet.
Beam:134 feet.
Displacement:97,000 tons at full load.
Speed:30 knots, 34.5 miles per hour.
Aircraft:85.
Crew:500 officers, 5,000 enlisted.
The USA submarine force maintains its position as the world’s preeminent submarine force.It incorporates new and innovative technologies allowing it to maintain dominance throughout the naval battle space.It incorporates the multiple capabilities of submarines and develops tactics for high seas control, land battle support as well as strategic deterrence.It also fills the role of a stealthy signal and intelligence gathering and a full spectrum of special operations and expeditionary missions.It includes forces of ballistic missiles submarines (SSBN), guided missile submarines (SSGN), and attack submarines (SSN).The vital statistics of the Ballistic Missile Trident submarines and the guided missiles submarines are:
Armament, SSBN:Trident missiles.
Armament, SSGN:154 Tomahawk missiles, 66 Special operation Forces.
Power Plant:One nuclear reactor, one shaft.
Length:560 feet.
Beam:42 feet.
Displacement:18,750 tons, submerged.
Speed:20 knots, 23 miles per hour.
Crew:15 officers, 140 enlisted.
The statistics for the fast attack Los Angeles class submarines are:
Power Plant:One nuclear reactor, one shaft.
Length:360 feet.
Beam:33 feet.
Displacement:6,900 tons, submerged.
Speed:25 knots, 28 miles per hour.
Crew:12 officers, 121 enlisted.
The nuclear Russian navy also reached its peak at the same time as the USA navy.The first of the Typhoon Class 25,000 ton strategic ballistic missile submarines was launched in 1980 from the Severodvinsk Shipyard on the White Sea.In the same year the first OscarClass guided missile submarine was launched.It is capable of firing 24 long range anti-ship cruise missiles while remaining submerged.Five shipyards produced seven different classes of submarines.
The Delta IV class is nuclear-powered with two VM-4 pressurized water reactors rated at 180 MWth.There are two turbines, type GT3A-365 rated at 27.5MW. The propulsion system drives two shafts with seven-bladed fixed-pitch propellers.
Five hundred years ago the contender for the dominance of the world’s oceans was the Chinese imperial exploration fleet which was at its peak technologically centuries ahead of its competitors.A strategic mistake by its emperor was to neglect its sea access with the result of opening the door to European (The Opium Wars) and then Japanese military intervention and occupation.Being the world’s second largest importer of petroleum after the USA, China seeks to protect its energy corridors by sea and free access to Southeast Asia sea lanes beyond the Indochinese Peninsula.
China’s naval fleet as of 2008 had 5 nuclear powered fast attack submarines and one ballistic missiles submarine carrying 12-16 nuclear tipped missiles with a range of 3,500 km.This is in addition to 30 diesel electric submarines with 20 other submersibles.
The Chinese submarine fleet is expected to exceed the number of USA’s Seventh Fleet ships in the Pacific Ocean by 2020 with the historic patience and ambition to pursue a long term strategy of eventually matching and then surpassing the USA’sregional dominance.
The nuclear powered Echo I and II, and the Charlie I and II can fire eight antiship weapons cruise missiles while remaining submerged at a range of up to 100 kilometers from the intended target.These cruise missile submarines also carry ASW and anti-ship torpedoes.
The nuclear cruise missile submarines are meant to operate within range of air bases on land.Both forces can then launch coordinated attacks against an opponent\'s naval forces.Reconnaissance aircraft can then provide target data for submarine launched missiles.
Submarine Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBMs) on Nuclear Powered Ballistic Missile Submarines (SSBNs) have been the basis of strategic nuclear forces.Russia had more land based Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs) than the SLBM forces (Weinberger, 1981).
The Russian ICBM and SLBM deployment programs initially centered on the SS-9 and SS-11 ICBMs and the SS-N-6/Yankee SLBM/SSBN weapons systems. They later used the Multiple Independently targetable Reentry Vehicles (MIRVs) SS-N-18 on the Delta Class nuclear submarines, and the SS-NX-20 on the nuclear Typoon Class SSBN submarine.
The Russian SLBM force has reached 62 submarines carrying 950 SLBMs with a total of almost 2,000 nuclear warhead reentry vehicles.Russia deployed 30 nuclear SSBNs, and the 20 tube very large Typhoon SSBN in the 1980s. These submarines were capable to hit targets across the globe from their homeports.
The 34 deployed Yankee Class nuclear submarines each carried 16 nuclear tipped missiles.The SS-N-6/Yankee I weapon system is composed of the liquid propellant SS-N-6 missile in 16 missile tubes launchers on each submarine.One version of the missiles carries a single Reentry Vehicle (RV) and has an operational range of about 2,400 to 3,000 kilometers.Another version carries 2 RVs, and has an operational range of about 3,000 kilometers.
The Delta I and II classes of submarines displaced 11,000 tons submerged and have an overall length of about 140 meters.These used the SS-N-8 long range, two stages, liquid propellant on the 12-missile tube Delta I and the 16 missile tube Delta II submarines.The SS-N-8 has a range of about 9,000 kilometers and carries one RV. The SS-N-18 was used on the 16 missile tube Delta III submarines, and has MIRV capability with a booster range of 6,500 to 8,000 kilometers, depending on the payload configuration.The Delta III nuclear submarines could cover most of the globe from the relative security of their home waters with a range of 7,500 kilometers.
The TyphoonClass at a 25,000 tons displacement, twice the size of the Delta III with a length of 170 m and 20 tubes carrying the SS-NX-20 missile each with 12 RVs, has even greater range at 8,300 kms, higher payload, better accuracy and more warheads.
At some time the Russian Navy operated about 377 submarines, including 180 nuclear powered ones, compared with 115 in the USA navy. The Russian navy operated 220 attack submarines, 60 of them were nuclear powered.These included designs of the November, Echo, Victor, and Alfa classes.The Victorclass attack submarine, was characterized by a deep diving capability and high speed.
The Alfa Class submarine is reportedto have been the fastest submarine in service in any navy.It was a deep diving, titanium hull submarine with a submerged speed estimated to be over 40 knots.The titanium hull provided strength for deep diving.It also offered a reduced weight advantage leading to higher power to weight ratios resulting in higher accelerations.The higher speed could also be related to some unique propulsion system.The high speeds of Russian attack submarines were meant to counter the advanced propeller cavitation and pump vibration reduction technologies in the USA designs, providing them with silent and stealth hiding and maneuvering.
The Nuclear Powered Russian VICTOR I class Attack Submarine (
The Alfa Class of Russian submarines used a lead and bismuth alloy cooled fast reactors.They suffered corrosion on the reactor components and activation through the formation of the highly toxic Po210 isotope.Refueling needed a steam supply to keep the liquid metal molten above 257 °F.
Advantages were a high cycle efficiency and that the core can be allowed to cool into a solid mass with the lead providing adequate radiation shielding.This class of submarines has been decommissioned.
The Seawolf class of submarines provided stealth, endurance and agility and are the most heavily armed fast attack submarines in the world.
They provided the USA Navy with undersea weapons platforms that could operate in any scenario against any threat, with mission and growth capabilities that far exceed Los Angeles-class submarines.The robust design of the Seawolf class enabled these submarines to perform a wide spectrum of military assignments, from underneath the Arctic icepack to littoral regions of the world. These were capable of entering and remaining in the backyards of potential adversaries undetected, preparing and shaping the battle space and striking rapidly.Their missions include surveillance, intelligence collection, special warfare, cruise missile strike, mine warfare, and anti-submarine and anti-surface ship warfare
Builder | General Dynamics, Electric Boat Division. |
Power plant | One S6W nuclear reactor, one shaft. |
Length | SSN 21 and SSN 22: 353 feet (107.6 meters) SSN 23: 453 feet (138 meters) |
Beam | 40 feet (12.2 meters) |
Submerged Displacement | SSN 21 and SSN 22: 9,138 tons (9,284 metric tons) SSN 23 12,158 tons (12,353 metric tons) |
Speed | 25+ knots (28+ miles / hour, 46.3+ kilometers / hour) |
Crew | 140: 14 Officers; 126 Enlisted |
Armaments | Tomahawk missiles, MK-48 torpedoes, eight torpedo tubes |
Commissioning dates | Seawolf: July 19, 1997 Connecticut: December11, 1998; Jimmy Carter: February 19, 2005. |
Seawolf class of submarines technical specifications.
The Ohio Class submarine is equipped with the Trident strategic ballistic missile from Lockheed Martin Missiles and Space.The Trident was built in two versions, Trident I (C4), which is phased out, and the larger and longer range Trident II (D5), which entered service in 1990.The first eight submarines, (SSBN 726 to 733 inclusive) were equipped with Trident I and the following ten (SSBN 734 to 743) carry the Trident II. Conversion of the four Trident I submarines remaining after the START II Treaty (Henry M. Jackson, Alabama, Alaska and Nevada), to Trident II began in 2000 and completed in 2008.Lockheed Martin produced 12 Trident II missiles for the four submarines.
The submarine has the capacity for 24 Trident missile tubes in two rows of 12.The dimensions of the Trident II missile are length 1,360 cm x diameter 210 cm and the weight is 59,000 kg.The three-stage solid fuel rocket motor is built by ATK (Alliant Techsystems) Thiokol Propulsion.The USA Navy gives the range as “greater than 7,360 km” but this could be up to 12,000 km depending on the payload mix.Missile guidance is provided by an inertial navigation system, supported by stellar navigation.Trident II is capable of carrying up to twelve MIRVs, each with a yield of 100 kilotons, although the SALT treaty limits this number to eight per missile.The circle of equal probability, or the radius of the circle within which half the strikes will impact, is less than 150 m.The Sperry Univac Mark 98 missile control system controls the 24 missiles.
The Ohio class submarine is fitted with four 533 mm torpedo tubes with a Mark 118 digital torpedo fire control system.The torpedoes are the Gould Mark 48 torpedoes.The Mark 48 is a heavy weight torpedo with a warhead of 290 kg, which has been operational in the USA Navy since 1972.The torpedo can be operated with or without wire guidance and the system has active and/or passive acoustic homing. The range is up to 50 km at a speed of 40 knots.After launch, the torpedo carries out target search, acquisition and attack procedures delivering to a depth of 3,000 ft.
The Ohio class submarine is equipped with eight launchers for the Mk 2 torpedo decoy.Electronic warfare equipment is the WLR-10 threat warning system and the WLR-8(V) surveillance receiver from GTE of Massachusetts.The WLR-8(V) uses seven YIG tuned and vector tuned super heterodyne receivers to operate from 50MHz up to J-band.An acoustic interception and countermeasures system, AN/WLY-1 from Northrop Grumman, has been developed to provide the submarine with an automatic response against torpedo attack.
The surface search, navigation and fire control radar is BPS 15A I/J band radar. The sonar suite includes: IBM BQQ 6 passive search sonar, Raytheon BQS 13, BQS 15 active and passive high-frequency sonar, BQR 15 passive towed array from Western Electric, and the active BQR 19 navigation sonar from Raytheon.Kollmorgen Type 152 and Type 82 periscopes are fitted.
The main machinery is the GE PWR S8G reactor system with two turbines providing 60,000 hp and driving a single shaft.The submarine is equipped with a 325 hp Magnatek auxiliary propulsion motor.The propulsion provides a speed in excess of 18 knots surfaced and 25 knots submerged.
It is designed for mine avoidance, special operations forces delivery and recovery. It uses non acoustic sensors, advanced tactical communications and non acoustic stealth. It is equipped with conformal sonar arrays which seek to provide an optimally sensor coated submarine with improved stealth at a lower total ownership cost.New technology called Conformal Acoustic Velocity Sonar (CAVES) could replace the existing Wide Aperture Array technology and is to be implemented in units of the Virginia Class.
Power Plant | Single S9G PWR Single shaft with pump jet propulsion One secondary propulsion submerged motor |
Displacement | 7,800tons, submerged |
Length | 277 ft |
Draft | 32 ft |
Beam | 34 ft |
Speed | 25+ knots, submerged |
Horizontal tubes | Four 21 inches torpedo tubes |
Vertical tubes | 12 Vertical Launch System Tubes |
Weapon systems | 39, including: Vertical Launch System Tomahawk Cruise Missiles Mk 48 ADCAP Heavy weight torpedoes Advanced Mobile Mines Unmanned Undersea Vehicles |
Special warfare | Dry Deck Shelter |
Sonars | Spherical active/passive arrays Light Weight Wide Aperture Arrays TB-16, TB-29 and future towed arrays High frequency chin and sail arrays |
Counter measures | 1 internal launcher 14 external launchers |
Crew | 113 officers and men |
Technical Specifications of the Virginia Class of Submarines.
High Frequency Sonar will play a more important role in future submarine missions as operations in the littorals require detailed information about the undersea environment to support missions requiring high quality bathymetry, precision navigation, mine detection or ice avoidance.Advanced High Frequency Sonar systems are under development and testing that will provide submarines unparalleled information about the undersea environment.This technology will be expanded to allow conformal sonar arrays on other parts of the ship that will create new opportunities for use of bow and sail structure volumes while improving sonar sensor performance.
Nuclear-powered icebreakers were constructed by Russia for the purpose of increasing the shipping along the northern coast of Siberia, in ocean waters covered by ice for long periods of time and river shipping lanes.The nuclear powered icebreakers have far more power than their diesel powered counterparts, and for extended time periods.During the winter, the ice along the northern Russian sea way varies in thickness from 1.2 - 2 meters.The ice in the central parts of the Polar Sea is 2.5 meters thick on average.Nuclear-powered icebreakers can break this ice at speeds up to 10 knots.In ice free waters the maximum speed of the nuclear powered icebreakers is 21 knots.In 1988 the NS Sevmorpu was commissioned in Russia to serve the northern Siberian ports.It is a 61,900 metric tonnes, 260 m long and is powered by the KLT-40 reactor design, delivering 32.5 propeller MW from the 135 MWth reactor.
Russia operated at some time up to eight nuclear powered civilian vessels divided into seven icebreakers and one nuclear-powered container ship.These made up the world\'s largest civilian fleet of nuclear-powered ships.The vessels were operated by Murmansk Shipping Company (MSC), but were owned by the Russian state.The servicing base Atomflot is situated near Murmansk, 2 km north of the Rosta district.
Icebreakers facilitated ores transportation from Norilsk in Siberia to the nickel foundries on the Kola Peninsula, a journey of about 3,000 kms.Since 1989 the nuclear icebreakers have been used to transport wealthy Western tourists to visit the North Pole.A three week long trip costs $ 25,000.
The icebreaker Lenin, launched in 1957 was the world\'s first civilian vessel to be propelled by nuclear power.It was commissioned in 1959 and retired from service in 1989.Eight other civilian nuclear-powered vessels were built: five of the Arktika class, two river icebreakers and one container ship.The nuclear icebreaker Yamal, commissioned in 1993, is the most recent nuclear-powered vessel added to the fleet.
The nuclear icebreakers are powered by PWRs of the KLT-40 type.The reactor contains fuel enriched to 30-40 percent in U235.By comparison, nuclear power plants use fuel enriched to only 3-5 percent.Weapons grade uranium is enriched to over 90 percent. American submarine reactors are reported to use up to 97.3 percent enriched U235.The irradiated fuel in test reactors contains about 32 percent of the original U235, implying a discharge enrichment of 97.3 x 0.32 = 31.13 percent enrichment.
Under normal operating conditions, the nuclear icebreakers are only refueled every three to four years.These refueling operations are carried out at the Atomflot service base.Replacement of fuel assemblies takes approximately 1 1/2 months.
For each of the reactor cores in the nuclear icebreakers, there are four steam generators that supply the turbines with steam.The third cooling circuit contains sea water that condenses and cools down the steam after it has run through the turbines.The icebreaker reactors\' cooling system is especially designed for low temperature Arctic sea water.
Several trends may end up shaping the future of naval ship technology: the all electrical ship, stealth technology, littoral vessels and moored barges for power production.Missions of new naval systems are evolving towards signal intelligence gathering and clandestine special forces insertion behind enemy lines requiring newer designs incorporating stealth configurations and operation.
The all-electric ship propulsion concept was adopted for the future surface combatant power source.This next evolution or Advanced Electrical Power Systems (AEPS) involves the conversion of virtually all shipboard systems to electric power; even the most demanding systems, such as propulsion and catapults aboard aircraft carriers.It would encompass new weapon systems such as modern electromagnetic rail-guns and free electron lasers.
Littoral vessels are designed to operate closer to the coastlines than existing vessels such as cruisers and destroyers.Their mission would be signal intelligence gathering, stealth insertion of Special Forces, mine clearance, submarine hunting and humanitarian relief.Unmanned Underwater Vehicles (UUVs), monitored by nuclear-powered Virginia Class submarines would use Continuous Active Sonar (CAS) arrays which release a steady stream of energy, the sonar equivalent of a flashlight would be used as robots to protect carrier groups and turning attacking or ambushing submarines from being the hunters into being the hunted.
The CVN-21\'s new nuclear reactor not only will provide three times the electrical output of current carrier power plants, but also will use its integrated power system to run an Electro Magnetic Aircraft Launch System(EMALS) to replace the current steam-driven catapults, combined with an Electromagnetic Aircraft Recovery System (EARS). To store large amounts of energy, flywheels, large capacitor banks or other energy storage systems would have to be used.
A typical ship building experience involved the design conversion of one class of submarines to an all-electric design.The electric drive reduced the propulsion drive system size and weight; eliminating the mechanical gearbox.However, the power system required extensive harmonic filtering to eliminate harmonic distortion with the consequence that the overall vessel design length increased by 10 feet.
Tests have been conducted to build stealth surface ships based on the technology developed for the F-117 Nighthawk stealth fighter.The first such system was built by the USA Navy as “The Sea Shadow.”The threat from ballistic anti ship missiles and the potential of nuclear tipped missiles has slowed down the development of stealth surface ships. The USA Navy cut its $5 billion each DDG-1000 stealth destroyer ships from an initially planned seven to two units.
Missile defense emerged as a major naval mission at the same time that the DDG-1000’s stealth destroyer design limitations and rising costs converged, all while shipbuilding budgets were getting squeezed.The SM-3 Standard missile, fired only by warships, is the most successful naval missile defense system; having passed several important trials while other Ballistic Missile Defense, BMD weapons are under testing.The ballistic-missile threat is such that the USA Navy decided it needed 89 ships capable of firing the SM-3 and that the DDG-1000 realistically would never be able to fire and guide the SM-3 since the stealth destroyer is optimized for firing land-attack missiles not Standard missiles.
The DDG-1000 stealth destroyer is optimized for firing land-attack missiles; not Ballistic Missile Defense, BMD missiles.The Raytheon Company builds the DDG-1000’s SPY-3 radar, and Bath Iron Works, the Maine shipyard builds the DDG-1000. (Source: Raytheon).
The USA Navy has 84 large surface combatants, split between Arleigh
The vision of floating barges with nuclear reactors to produce electrical power for industrial and municipal use, hydrogen for fuel cells, as well as fresh desalinated water at the shores of arid areas of the world may become promising future prospects.The electricity can be used to power a new generation of transportation vehicles equipped with storage batteries, or the hydrogen can be used in fuel cells vehicles.An urban legend is related about a USA Navy nuclear submarine under maintenance at Groton, Connecticut, temporarily supplying the neighboring port facilities with electricity when an unexpected power outage occurred.This would have required the conversion, of the 120 Volts and 400 Hz military electricity standard to the 10-12 kV and 60 Hz civilian one.Submarines tied up at port connect to a connection network that matches frequency and voltage so that the reactors can be shut down.The two electrical generators on a typical submarine would provide about 3 MWe x 2 = 6 MWe of power, with some of this power used by the submarine itself.In case of a loss of local power, docked vessels have to start their reactors or their emergency diesel generators anyway.
The accumulated experience of naval reactors designs is being as the basis of a trend toward the consideration of a new generation of modular compact land-based reactor designs.
The Phalanx radar-guided gun, nicknamed as R2-D2 from the Star-Wars movies, is used for close-in ship defense.The radar controlled Gatling gun turret shooting tungsten armor-piercing, explosive, or possibly depleted uranium munitions on the USS Missouri, Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.(Photo: M. Ragheb).
The term “cosmetic” has its origin from the Greek term “kosme’tikos,” a noun to denote the art of beautifying the body [1]. Since ancient times, humans have searched for materials and developed many products to mainly enhance female beauty. Over the centuries, cosmetics have been developed and influenced by different ethnic traditions, from the times of the Pharaohs to the modern times [2]. Since then, physical appearance has been an inseparable part of daily human existence, improving their self-image and self-esteem. However, the esthetic concept of beauty has changed overtime, and beauty standards have been modified according to many factors such as social, ethnic, and religious belief influences [2]. Personal hygiene has been also part of human life since the ancient times. Traditionally related to hygiene habits during religious activities, the preparation of food, or the prevention of diseases, hygiene practices have also greatly changed through the cultures and eras, from bathing facilities in the Roman period to modern synthetic products such as body lotions or hair tonics [3].
\nIn the last years, the variety of cosmetics and personal care products (PCPs) have greatly increased (Table 1), in parallel to their manufacturing and consumption volumes in developed and developing countries. For example, the consumption of cosmetics and perfumery in Spain has consecutively increased in the last years, reaching a total of 1280 million units sold of these products and 770 million units exported during 2018. To date, the USA is the leader in the consumption of cosmetics and perfumery, with an amount of 78.6 billion euros, followed by China (52 billion euros), Japan (32 billion euros), and Brazil (28 billion euros) [4]. Despite the current beauty standards are not similar along cultures and ethnicities, it is acknowledged that women have a greater use of cosmetics and personal care products (PCPs) when compared with men [5], and therefore, potential adverse effect may affect predominantly to this population.
\nMost used cosmetics and personal care products.
\nTable 1 summarizes the main types of cosmetics and PCPs commonly used worldwide.
\nThe World Health Organization defines an endocrine disrupting chemical (EDC) as an exogenous substance or mixture of substances that alter one or more functions of the endocrine system and consequently cause adverse effects on the health of an intact organism or its progeny [6].
\nThe main characteristics of exposure to EDCs are as follows [7, 8, 9, 10]:
There is no safe dose of EDCs. They act at low concentrations and in combination with endogenous hormones, making it difficult to establish a threshold level of no effect.
Exposure to EDCs during periods of special vulnerability of the individual’s development—pregnancy, lactation, puberty—causes damage with adverse effects throughout their lives and descendants.
The curves that relate the exposure doses to EDCs with the adverse effect are not linear. The response does not always increase in the same proportion as the exposure dose.
In general terms, individuals are not exposed to a single type of EDC but to a mixture of EDCs. Therefore, the effects are difficult to predict given the possible synergistic, additive, or antagonistic actions between chemical residues (the cocktail effect).
As a result of exposure to EDCs in a certain individual, consequences can be observed in subsequent generations, due to either genomic involvement or epigenetic mechanisms. There is great difficulty in establishing a causal association because the effects observed after exposure can occur after long latency periods.
EDCs are distributed in the environment due to their widespread use. Depending on their resistance to physical, chemical, and biological degradation as well as their degree of liposolubility, EDCs can be divided into “persistent EDCs” and “non-persistent EDCs.” In the case of persistent EDCs, low biodegradability, volatility, bioaccumulation in the trophic chain, and biomagnification are its most outstanding characteristics [11]. Furthermore, they can be transmitted to the offspring through the mother during pregnancy and lactation [12]. Since the 1970s, most countries have banned or severely restricted the production, handling, and disposal of the majority of them due to consistent evidence of their adverse effects at doses traditionally considered safe [13, 14]. Despite this, global population is suspected to be primarily exposed to these pollutants through diet, given the bioaccumulation pattern of these chemicals in the food chain [14].
\nOn the other hand, non-persistent EDCs are less liposoluble, and therefore, they are prone to be metabolized and excreted rapidly [15, 16]. In addition to a variety of pesticides such as glyphosate or permethrins, this group includes bisphenol-A (BPA) and its analogues, parabens (PBs) [methyl- (MeP), ethyl- (EtP), propyl- (PrP), and butyl-paraben (BuP)], phthalates, and benzophenones (BPs). Currently, there is diverse evidence showing the presence of numerous EDC families (mainly phthalates, bisphenols, parabens, and benzophenones) in cosmetic products and PCPs [17, 18, 19, 20]. However, contrary to most persistent EDCs, international regulation of their production, handling, and disposal is limited to a reduction in the concentrations of some specific compounds for those cosmetics in the EU market (EU 1004/2014). Table 2 summarized the trade name, CAS number, and hormonal activity attributed to some of the most frequently used EDCs in cosmetics and PCPs.
\nMost common endocrine disrupting chemicals in cosmetics and personal care products.
Trade name, CAS number and demonstrated hormonal activities.
Phthalates are used as a plasticizer in cosmetics and PCPs. The study carried out by Gao and Kannan [17] recently revealed that phthalates were found in >90% of the 77 feminine hygiene products analyzed. Mainly, they were found in all the tested pads, panty liners, tampons, and wipes. Furthermore, phthalates were also found in bactericidal creams and solutions, deodorant sprays, and powders. In another study, Guo and Kannan [18] showed that phthalates were also present in leave-on products, such as skin lotions, hair care products, perfumes, skin toners, deodorants, and creams. In this regard, detectable levels of phthalates were found in face creams, eyeliner creams, hand creams, sunscreens, lipsticks, and nail polish. These EDCs were also detected in products for dental hygiene and rinse-off products (including body wash, shampoos, hair conditioners, face cleaners, and shaving gels).
\nIn the case of the PB family, its main use in cosmetic products and PCPs is due to their antimicrobial properties [21]. It has been shown that the use of mixtures of paraben congeners allows the increase of their preservative capacity with the use of lower levels of each compounds [19]. Average daily application rates per women for face creams, hand or body lotions, facial cleansers, shampoos, and bath gel were 2.1, 8.7, 4.1, 12.8, and 14.5 g, respectively [22]. Yazar and Johnsson [20] carried out a study where they verified the composition of a series of 204 cosmetic products, which included shampoos, hair conditioners, liquid soap, wipes from different brands, and stores. The results showed that at least 44% of the analyzed cosmetics contained at least one PB congener. The PB that was found in the highest proportion was MeP (41% of the products), followed by PrP (25%). In the study carried out by Gao and Kannan [17], it was found that all feminine hygiene products contained at least one PB, and both MeP and EtP were found in >80% of these compounds, mainly in wipes, creams, bactericide solutions, deodorant sprays, and powders. Moreover, it has been reported that PBs were detected in 40% of the dental hygiene products analyzed and 60% in other types of daily hygiene products. MeP and PrP were the most detected compounds (40% of the analyzed samples), followed by BuP (∼20%). The highest concentrations of MeP, EtP, PrP, and BuP ranged between 1040 and 8200 μg/g, which represent approximately 0.1–0.8% per product by weight [18]. Another study carried out in China [19] found PBs in all the categories of PCPs analyzed. Almost all creams, lotions, and face cleaners contained MeP and PrP, with concentrations of MeP slightly higher than PrP (2830 and 1560 μg/g, respectively). Their presence was greater in creams and lotions than in shampoos and body soaps.
\nBPs are used as ultraviolet (UV) filters. As shown in the study carried out by Rastogi [23], 75 sunscreen products from Europe and the USA tested contained levels of up to three UV filters. A recent study [24] verified the presence of BP-1 and BP-3 in 19.1% of their analyzed products (283 samples analyzed), especially in makeup products, which represented 45.2% of the products with the presence of BPs.
\nIn addition to these three families, the chemical composition of cosmetics and PCPs also contains many other compounds, although with a lower percentage of the presence in these products. Among them, bisphenols, camphenes, dimethicones, and oxycinnamates can be found. Within these minority families, bisphenols are the one that are usually found in the greatest presence in cosmetic products. The main use of BPA is the manufacture of epoxy resins, obtaining polycarbonate plastics, which have great mechanical and thermal stability, as well as very good transparency [25], while the main use of the families of camphenes, dimethicones, and oxycinnamates is that they are used as preservatives in the manufacture of PCPs [26, 27]. Nevertheless, the concentrations of these substances in cosmetics and PCPs have been poorly addressed.
\nContrary to persistent EDCs that mainly reach body internal compartments through diet, the main route of human exposure to non-persistent EDCs released from cosmetics and PCPs is mainly the dermal route [28]. Therefore, these EDCs avoid the first-pass metabolism, enhancing the bioavailability and therefore the biological effect of the parent compounds [15]. In this regard, several studies have related to the use of cosmetics and PCPs and internal levels of PB and BPs. For example, it has been recently found that levels of some PB and BPs in menstrual blood are related to the use of cosmetics [29]. Moreover, urinary concentrations of PBs were related to the use of hair products, deodorants, face, and hand creams [30]. Similarly, Larsson et al. [31] found higher levels of PBs and phthalates among those women with higher use of hygiene products.
\nEDCs act at very different levels of complexity, interfering a variety of hormone-signaling pathways. For instance, they can modify the circulating levels of hormones by acting on their synthesis, metabolism, or degradation. They can also reduce, increase, or interfere with the specific receptors for hormonal action and therefore affect the ability to respond to natural hormones [32]. In the particular case of EDCs that interfere in steroid hormone-related signaling pathways, the observed effects seem to be linked to the activation/blocking of nuclear receptors, which are the most common modes of action responsible for dose curves with nonmonotonic response in experimental studies [33]. In fact, many EDCs released from cosmetics and PCPs have been evidenced to exert estrogenic and antiandrogenic activities in both
An increasing number of studies have also linked exposure to EDCs with epigenetic changes in humans [41, 42]. An unexposed individual may show epigenetic changes due to (1) altered ovum or sperm after EDC exposure or (2) in utero exposure to EDCs. In this regard, it has been evidenced that fetal exposure to environmental pollutants with endocrine disrupting properties such as mirex, chlordane, or
Furthermore, inflammation and oxidative stress have also been recently postulated as possible mechanisms of action of EDCs [47, 48, 49, 50]. In this regard, oxidative stress, that is, the imbalance between the production of free radicals and the antioxidant capacity, has been shown to be enhanced after exposure to a variety of EDCs, including PBs and BPs [47, 49, 50]. For instance, human exposure to PB and BP has been linked to higher levels of lipid peroxidation [50, 51]. Moreover, local disruption of the antioxidant capacity has also been reported [47]. Although the underlying mechanisms are still poorly understood, it has been suggested that, at least in part, EDCs might induce oxidative stress via estrogen receptor-α signaling pathways [52]. Moreover, EDC exposure has also been evidenced to trigger an inflammatory microenvironment [50, 53]. With an intimate relationship, both oxidative and inflammatory responses have also been suggested as crucial mechanisms beyond a variety of chronic diseases, as well as some gynecological conditions such as endometriosis [54, 55].
\nThe consequences of exposure to EDCs seem to be different depending on age and gender (Table 3). In the case of men, EDC exposure is suspected to cause alterations in the development of the genitourinary system including cryptorchidism, testicular cancer, and infertility [56, 57]. Among women, the increase in hormone-dependent cancers (either breast or ovarian) [56] as well as uterine fibroids and endometriosis might also be related to inadvertent exposure to EDCs. Moreover, chronic conditions such as metabolic syndrome and its components (obesity, insulin resistance, hypertension, or dyslipidemia), neurobehavioral development disorders, and poor thyroid function are also on the list of possible effects of EDC exposure. In particular, in utero exposure to EDCs is believed to have consequences of such magnitude that they would hardly be suspected in studies of adult individuals. For example, in utero exposure to some EDCs has been linked to increased risk for breast cancer or endometriosis [58, 59]. This association gives maternal exposure some very particular peculiarities and places women of childbearing age in the limelight of most studies on endocrine disruption.
\nOver the years and in parallel with the change in people’s habits and lifestyle, numerous evidence has revealed that cosmetics could cause a variety of disease conditions in humans. For instance, women are suspected to have a greater risk for some chronic conditions such as obesity and metabolic syndrome than men [60], and in addition to physiological differences between genders, the greater female consumption of cosmetics and PCPs might also underlie this enhanced risk. Moreover, the consumption of cosmetics and PCPs might also be beyond the development of female-specific diseases such as breast or ovarian cancer. In this regard, Darbre [61] first alarmed scientific community about the potential effect of PCPs in breast cancer, suggesting that underarm cosmetic use might increase breast cancer. In fact, they detected a variety of EDCs including PBs in breast tumors, with higher concentrations in those samples from the axilla region, suggesting that their concentrations might be related to the application of deodorant products, body lotions, sprays, moisturizers, and sunscreen products in areas close to the human breast. However, current evidence on the relationship between cosmetic/PCP use and risk of cancer is not very conclusive. In this regard, in a case-control study comprised by 209 cases of breast cancer and 209 healthy controls, Linhart and Talasz [62] reported that the greater use of underarm cosmetic products was associated with increased risk of breast cancer. Contrary, a cohort study did not found any association between use of skincare products and risk of cancer of the breast and endometrium [63]. Another study carried out by McGrath [64] reported that those women with a higher use of antiperspirant products were diagnosed with breast cancer at an earlier age. Furthermore, it has been observed that long-term exposure to body care creams containing ethinyl estradiol may increase the risk of abnormal genital bleeding and breast cancer [65]. Interestingly, a case-report study found that synthetic hormones found in lotions used by the mother were present in very high concentrations in the hair of the girl [66].
\nHowever, the variety of products and differences in dosage, patterns of use, and individual susceptibility to specific product formulations pose great difficulties to detect a potential effect of cosmetic and PCP habits on human adverse effects [36, 61, 67, 68, 69]. Thus, the use of internal burden of EDCs seems to better reflect the magnitude of cosmetic and PCP use, independently of the type of product used or the dose applied. In this regard, urinary levels of PBs have been related to greater risk for breast cancer [70]. Some studies have also addressed the potential association between exposure to PCP-released EDCs and the origin and development of other female diseases. In this regard, the presence of trace levels of PBs was found in endometrial tissue samples suspected of being related to an increased risk of endometrial carcinoma [71]. Levels of PrP were also related to diminished ovarian reserve in a prospective cohort study of the US women seeking fertility treatment [72]. Regarding the development of sex characteristics during puberty, a recent study observed associations between levels of PBs and earlier development of the breasts and the pubic hair in girls. Moreover, earlier menarche was also related to higher levels of PBs [73].
\nRegarding BPs,
Other hormonally active chemicals widely used in cosmetics are phthalates. Exposure to various congeners has been associated with the appearance of various female diseases. Exposure to di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate has been linked to an increased risk of preterm delivery [78, 79, 80] and intrauterine growth restriction [81]. Furthermore, it has also been associated with reduced total oocyte yield and a reduced probability of achieving pregnancy and live birth [82]. Other phthalate congeners, such as monoethyl phthalate and dibutyl phthalate, have also been linked to decreased fertility in women [79, 83].
\nSeveral investigations have also suggested the potential association between BPA exposure and adverse outcomes in women. For instance, it has been shown that elevated serum or urine BPA levels are associated with anovulation [84], lower antral follicle counts [85, 86], preterm birth [87], and infertility [88]. Moreover, increasing urinary BPA levels were associated with delayed menarche in adolescent girls [89, 90]. Furthermore, higher BPA levels have been associated with an increased risk of developing polycystic ovary syndrome [84, 91, 92, 93], ovarian failure [94], infertility [95], and fibroids [96, 97]. Triclosan, widely present in soaps, detergents, and toothpaste, has also been related to decreased fertility [98], although the currently available evidence is scarce.
\nAs mentioned above, detectable levels of PBs and BPs have been detected in endometrial tissue and menstrual blood [29, 71]. Trace levels of intact PBs were predominantly detected in endometrial carcinoma tissues (23%) in contrast to normal endometrium samples (2%), and thus, authors suggested that they might be related to an increased risk of endometrial carcinoma [71]. On the other hand, several PBs and BPs have been detected in menstrual blood samples, a biological sample in intimate contact with the endometrium [29]. Moreover, these menstrual blood concentrations of PBs and BPs were related to the magnitude of use of creams and cosmetics, evidencing that these EDCs from cosmetics and PCPs are capable of reaching a wide variety of biological matrices and thus might orchestrate, or at least contribute, to the development and progression of multiple gynecological diseases such as endometrial cancer and endometriosis.
\nConcerning endometriosis, the origin of endometriosis still remains unclear. To date, although various theories have been postulated to give a possible explanation for the origin of endometriosis [99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105], none of them consistently explains the onset and progression of the disease in deeper stages. Currently, it is known that it is a multifactorial disease in which genetic, epigenetic, immunological, hormonal, and environmental factors are involved [106]. Due to the suspected increase in the number of cases in the last decades [107], it is suspected that, in addition to the increased awareness among doctors and patients, environmental risk factors are suspected to also contribute to the onset and progression of this disease. This environmental hypothesis of the origin of the disease is also reinforced due to the estrogen-dependent nature of this pathology [53, 108].
\nDespite the growing public concern about human risks derived from the use of PCPs and cosmetics, there is little evidence on their influence on endometriosis (Table 4). To our knowledge, only one study has investigated the relationship between EDCs released from sunscreens and endometriosis. Concentrations of 2-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzophenone, 2,4-dihydroxybenzophenone, 2,2′-dihydroxy-4-methoxybenzophenone, 2,2′,4,4′-tetrahydroxybenzophenone, and 4-hydroxi-benzophenone were analyzed in urine samples collected from 600 women. The results obtained suggest that exposure to elevated levels of 2,4-dihydroxybenzophenone (BP-3) may be associated with a higher probability of a diagnosis of endometriosis [109]. As authors mentioned, these findings denoted an approximate 65% increase in the odds of an endometriosis diagnosis in women with the highest BP-3 concentration compared to women with lower concentrations.
\n\nSome adverse effects of EDCs in humans.
Studies exploring associations between exposure to cosmetics- and PCPs-released EDCs and endometriosis.
Regarding BPA exposure, a recent meta-analysis revealed limited and contradictory epidemiological evidence regarding the contribution of BPA in the risk for endometriosis [110]. Thus, despite few studies have reported an absence of association between urinary levels of BPA and disease [111, 112], others reported increased risk for endometriosis [53, 113, 114, 115]. Even more, it has been recently suggested that levels of oxidative stress might act as a mediation effect on the association between exposure to bisphenols and endometriosis risk [53]. Furthermore, exposure to BPA has not only been related to the onset of endometriosis, but it might be also involved in the progression of the disease [112, 114]. Moreover, these findings are supported by different experimental studies. In this sense, recent
Other EDCs found in cosmetics and PCPs are phthalates. Several studies have explored the existing associations between exposure to these chemicals and endometriosis, showing conflicting results. One of the very first investigations reported higher concentrations of phthalates in women with a confirmed diagnosis of endometriosis [118]. Similarly, two studies evidenced an increased risk of endometriosis in women with higher levels of mono (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate [111, 119]. Conversely, few studies did not found any association between levels of urinary levels of any phthalate congener and enhanced risk for endometriosis [112, 120, 121, 122].
\nCurrently, there are no studies that have explored the possible contribution of other EDCs released from cosmetics and PCPs (such as parabens, oxycinnamates, camphenes, and dimethicones) and the risk of endometriosis. Moreover, the combined effect of EDCs released from these products on endometriosis has not been addressed yet.
\nTo date, there is still very limited evidence on the potential role of EDCs released from cosmetics and PCPs on the origin and development of endometriosis. In general terms,
This work was supported by a grant from the Spanish Ministry of Health-FEDER (FIS PI17/01743) and the Research Chair “Antonio Chamorro/Alejandro Otero.” It was also partly supported by the European Union Commission (the European Human Biomonitoring Initiative H2020-EJP-HBM4EU) and the Spanish Consortium for Research on Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP). The authors are also grateful to the Carlos III Institute of Health (ISCIII) for the predoctoral research contracts (IFI18/00052 and FI17/00316) granted to F.M. Peinado and L.M. Iribarne-Durán, respectively, and the José María Segovia de Arana contract granted to N. Olea (INT18/00060).
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\\n\\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\\n\\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
\\n\\n\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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medicinal products used in cell therapy applications. Several MSC products have already advanced to phase III clinical testing and market approval. The manufacturing of MSCs must comply with good manufacturing practice (GMP) from phase I in Europe and phase II in the US, but there are several unique challenges when cells are the therapeutic product. Any GMP-compliant process for the production of MSCs must include the expansion of cells in vitro to achieve a sufficient therapeutic quantity while maintaining high cell quality and potency. The process must also allow the efficient harvest of anchorage-dependent cells and account for the influence of shear stress and other factors, especially during scale-up. Bioreactors are necessary to produce clinical batches of MSCs, and bioprocess development must therefore consider this specialized environment. For the last 10 years, we have investigated bioprocess development as a means to produce high-quality MSCs. More recently, we have also used bioreactors for the cocultivation of stem cells with other adult cells and for the production of MSC-derived extracellular vesicles. This review discusses the state of the art in bioprocess development for the GMP-compliant manufacture of human MSCs as products for stem cell therapy.",book:{id:"8244",slug:"new-advances-on-fermentation-processes",title:"New Advances on Fermentation Processes",fullTitle:"New Advances on Fermentation Processes"},signatures:"Jan Barekzai, Florian Petry, Jan Zitzmann, Peter Czermak and Denise Salzig",authors:[{id:"297959",title:"Dr.",name:"Denise",middleName:null,surname:"Salzig",slug:"denise-salzig",fullName:"Denise Salzig"},{id:"312719",title:"MSc.",name:"Jan",middleName:null,surname:"Barekzai",slug:"jan-barekzai",fullName:"Jan Barekzai"},{id:"312720",title:"MSc.",name:"Florian",middleName:null,surname:"Petry",slug:"florian-petry",fullName:"Florian Petry"},{id:"312721",title:"Dr.",name:"Jan",middleName:null,surname:"Zitzmann",slug:"jan-zitzmann",fullName:"Jan Zitzmann"},{id:"312723",title:"Prof.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Czermak",slug:"peter-czermak",fullName:"Peter Czermak"}]},{id:"70255",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90006",title:"Craft Beers: Current Situation and Future Trends",slug:"craft-beers-current-situation-and-future-trends",totalDownloads:1326,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"During the twentieth century, the consolidation of large multi-national beer companies and the homogenization of the specified beer types have led to a considerable growth in the beer industry. However, the growing demand by consumers of a single and distinctive product, with a higher quality and better sensory complexity, is allowing for a new resurgence of craft beer segment in recent years. This chapter reviews some different alternatives of innovation in the craft brewing process: from the bottle fermented beers with non-Saccharomyces yeast species, to the use of special malts or specific adjuncts, hop varieties, water quality, etc. All of them open a lot of new possibilities to modulate flavor and other sensory properties of beer, reaching also new consumers looking for a specific story in one of the oldest fermented beverages.",book:{id:"8244",slug:"new-advances-on-fermentation-processes",title:"New Advances on Fermentation Processes",fullTitle:"New Advances on Fermentation Processes"},signatures:"María Jesús Callejo, Wendu Tesfaye, María Carmen González and Antonio Morata",authors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"},{id:"201383",title:"Prof.",name:"María Jesús",middleName:null,surname:"Callejo",slug:"maria-jesus-callejo",fullName:"María Jesús Callejo"},{id:"201384",title:"Prof.",name:"Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"González",slug:"carmen-gonzalez",fullName:"Carmen González"},{id:"287144",title:"Dr.",name:"Wendu",middleName:null,surname:"Tesfaye",slug:"wendu-tesfaye",fullName:"Wendu Tesfaye"}]},{id:"66048",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84672",title:"Amino Acids Profiling for the Diagnosis of Metabolic Disorders",slug:"amino-acids-profiling-for-the-diagnosis-of-metabolic-disorders",totalDownloads:3263,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Inborn errors of metabolism (IEM) represent a group of inherited diseases in which genetic defect leads to the block on a metabolic pathway, resulting in a single enzyme dysfunction. As a downstream consequence of the residual or full loss of the enzymatic activity, there is an accumulation of toxic metabolites in the proximity of the metabolic block and/or a deficiency of an essential metabolic product which leads to the clinical presentation of the disease. While individually IEMs are rare, a collectively estimated incidence of metabolic inherited disorders is 1:800. The genetic basis of IEMs can involve abnormalities such as point mutations, deletions or insertions, or more complex genomic rearrangements. Categorization of IEM can be simply made on the basis of the affected metabolic network: fatty acids oxidation disorders, protein/amino acids metabolism disorders, disorders of carbohydrate metabolism, lysosomal storage diseases, peroxisomal disorders, and mitochondrial diseases. This chapter will overview amino acid metabolism-related inherited disorders and amino acid analysis for the diagnosis and routine monitoring of this category of IEMs.",book:{id:"7012",slug:"biochemical-testing-clinical-correlation-and-diagnosis",title:"Biochemical Testing",fullTitle:"Biochemical Testing - Clinical Correlation and Diagnosis"},signatures:"Yana Sandlers",authors:[{id:"285558",title:"Dr.",name:"Yana",middleName:null,surname:"Sandlers",slug:"yana-sandlers",fullName:"Yana Sandlers"}]},{id:"67829",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87160",title:"Solid-State Fermentation of Cassava Products for Degradation of Anti-Nutritional Value and Enrichment of Nutritional Value",slug:"solid-state-fermentation-of-cassava-products-for-degradation-of-anti-nutritional-value-and-enrichmen",totalDownloads:1129,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The cassava plant is grown in tropical and subtropical countries, which represents, alongside with its by-products, an important source of food and feed. Hence, this plant has the capacity to promote the economic development of those countries and provide food security. However, cassava has some disadvantages due to the antinutrient compounds produced in its tissues. In addition, the cassava roots have a low protein content. Due to the economic and practical advantages, the solid-state fermentation (SSF) has been used as a cost-effective and efficient processing method to detoxify the cassava products and enrich them in nutrients. This chapter reviews the solid-state fermentation technique of cassava products for the production of valuable components for food and feed applications, microorganisms involved in this process, and key factors used to optimize the SSF process.",book:{id:"8244",slug:"new-advances-on-fermentation-processes",title:"New Advances on Fermentation Processes",fullTitle:"New Advances on Fermentation Processes"},signatures:"Mohamed Hawashi, Tri Widjaja and Setiyo Gunawan",authors:[{id:"297246",title:"Dr.",name:"Setiyo",middleName:null,surname:"Gunawan",slug:"setiyo-gunawan",fullName:"Setiyo Gunawan"},{id:"304847",title:"Prof.",name:"Tri",middleName:null,surname:"Widjaja",slug:"tri-widjaja",fullName:"Tri Widjaja"},{id:"304848",title:"Mr.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Hawashi",slug:"mohamed-hawashi",fullName:"Mohamed Hawashi"}]},{id:"66237",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84969",title:"Urinary Iodine: Biomarker for Population Iodine Nutrition",slug:"urinary-iodine-biomarker-for-population-iodine-nutrition",totalDownloads:1114,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Many reports or manuals had focused on the implementation of iodine deficiency disorder (IDD) elimination programme from the point of view of the programme managers. In this chapter, we will focus on the importance of urinary iodine testing, its related diagnosis and further biomarker testing suggested for further diagnosis related to thyroid health. This chapter will be relevant for the respondents to the monitoring programme, particularly the 8–10-year-old schoolchildren and pregnant women, i.e., the vulnerable targeted groups from either the iodine-deficient areas or the Universal Salt Iodization (USI) gazetted areas. USI has been proposed by the World Health Organization (WHO) as the most cost-effective programme to eliminate IDD, and it is also a way to increase the intelligent quotient (IQ) of the world population for the future. This chapter had been laid out so that the readers will know briefly the rationale behind the testing of urinary iodine among schoolchildren and pregnant women under the implementation of the USI programmes in their countries and their benefits, especially the utilisation of urinary iodine as the biomarker to portray the population iodine status. Diagnosis including iodine-induced thyroid diseases and further biomarkers measurement besides urinary iodine is also discussed briefly.",book:{id:"7012",slug:"biochemical-testing-clinical-correlation-and-diagnosis",title:"Biochemical Testing",fullTitle:"Biochemical Testing - Clinical Correlation and Diagnosis"},signatures:"Husniza Hussain, Rusidah Selamat, Lim Kuang Kuay, Fuziah Md Zain and Muhammad Yazid Jalaludin",authors:[{id:"219402",title:"Dr.",name:"Husniza",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"husniza-hussain",fullName:"Husniza Hussain"},{id:"239718",title:"MSc.",name:"Rusidah",middleName:null,surname:"Selamat",slug:"rusidah-selamat",fullName:"Rusidah Selamat"},{id:"289785",title:"Dr.",name:"Fuziah",middleName:null,surname:"Md Zain",slug:"fuziah-md-zain",fullName:"Fuziah Md Zain"},{id:"289787",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Yazid",middleName:null,surname:"Jalaludin",slug:"muhammad-yazid-jalaludin",fullName:"Muhammad Yazid Jalaludin"},{id:"295170",title:"Dr.",name:"Lim Kuang",middleName:null,surname:"Kuay",slug:"lim-kuang-kuay",fullName:"Lim Kuang Kuay"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"66048",title:"Amino Acids Profiling for the Diagnosis of Metabolic Disorders",slug:"amino-acids-profiling-for-the-diagnosis-of-metabolic-disorders",totalDownloads:3263,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Inborn errors of metabolism (IEM) represent a group of inherited diseases in which genetic defect leads to the block on a metabolic pathway, resulting in a single enzyme dysfunction. As a downstream consequence of the residual or full loss of the enzymatic activity, there is an accumulation of toxic metabolites in the proximity of the metabolic block and/or a deficiency of an essential metabolic product which leads to the clinical presentation of the disease. While individually IEMs are rare, a collectively estimated incidence of metabolic inherited disorders is 1:800. The genetic basis of IEMs can involve abnormalities such as point mutations, deletions or insertions, or more complex genomic rearrangements. Categorization of IEM can be simply made on the basis of the affected metabolic network: fatty acids oxidation disorders, protein/amino acids metabolism disorders, disorders of carbohydrate metabolism, lysosomal storage diseases, peroxisomal disorders, and mitochondrial diseases. This chapter will overview amino acid metabolism-related inherited disorders and amino acid analysis for the diagnosis and routine monitoring of this category of IEMs.",book:{id:"7012",slug:"biochemical-testing-clinical-correlation-and-diagnosis",title:"Biochemical Testing",fullTitle:"Biochemical Testing - Clinical Correlation and Diagnosis"},signatures:"Yana Sandlers",authors:[{id:"285558",title:"Dr.",name:"Yana",middleName:null,surname:"Sandlers",slug:"yana-sandlers",fullName:"Yana Sandlers"}]},{id:"67429",title:"Resource-Based View of Laboratory Management: Tissue Bank ATMP Production as a Model",slug:"resource-based-view-of-laboratory-management-tissue-bank-atmp-production-as-a-model",totalDownloads:1079,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Modern health care organizations, e.g., tissue banks, require a resource-based view (RBV) for an efficient stimulation of innovation, productivity, and performance, especially in the context of laboratory management and new product development. High quality advanced therapy medicinal products (ATMPs) are expected to bring important health benefits; therefore, their production has to be performed in accordance with good manufacturing practice (GMP). Although there are no precisely defined criteria for quality control/evaluation methods of obtained ATMPs, all aspects of pharmaceutical quality of ATMPs’ development, manufacturing, distribution, inspection, and review processes ought to be strictly fulfilled. Explicit performance management and production regimes in accordance with pharmacopeia and RBV philosophy have been proposed in this chapter.",book:{id:"7012",slug:"biochemical-testing-clinical-correlation-and-diagnosis",title:"Biochemical Testing",fullTitle:"Biochemical Testing - Clinical Correlation and Diagnosis"},signatures:"Wojciech Smętek, Jacek Węgrzyk, Agnieszka Klama-Baryła, Wojciech Łabuś, Małgorzata Kraut, Michał Szapski, Mariusz Nowak and Diana Kitala",authors:[{id:"203598",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Diana",middleName:null,surname:"Kitala",slug:"diana-kitala",fullName:"Diana Kitala"},{id:"204300",title:"Dr.",name:"Agnieszka",middleName:null,surname:"Klama-Baryła",slug:"agnieszka-klama-baryla",fullName:"Agnieszka Klama-Baryła"},{id:"204303",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Nowak",slug:"mariusz-nowak",fullName:"Mariusz Nowak"},{id:"271428",title:"Dr.",name:"Wojciech",middleName:null,surname:"Łabuś",slug:"wojciech-labus",fullName:"Wojciech Łabuś"},{id:"294857",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Wojciech",middleName:"Grzegorz",surname:"Smętek",slug:"wojciech-smetek",fullName:"Wojciech Smętek"},{id:"294860",title:"Ms.",name:"Małgorzata",middleName:null,surname:"Kraut",slug:"malgorzata-kraut",fullName:"Małgorzata Kraut"},{id:"294861",title:"Mr.",name:"Michał",middleName:null,surname:"Szapski",slug:"michal-szapski",fullName:"Michał Szapski"},{id:"294862",title:"Mr.",name:"Jacek",middleName:null,surname:"Węgrzyk",slug:"jacek-wegrzyk",fullName:"Jacek Węgrzyk"}]},{id:"69881",title:"Bioprocess Development for Human Mesenchymal Stem Cell Therapy Products",slug:"bioprocess-development-for-human-mesenchymal-stem-cell-therapy-products",totalDownloads:1439,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are advanced therapy medicinal products used in cell therapy applications. Several MSC products have already advanced to phase III clinical testing and market approval. The manufacturing of MSCs must comply with good manufacturing practice (GMP) from phase I in Europe and phase II in the US, but there are several unique challenges when cells are the therapeutic product. Any GMP-compliant process for the production of MSCs must include the expansion of cells in vitro to achieve a sufficient therapeutic quantity while maintaining high cell quality and potency. The process must also allow the efficient harvest of anchorage-dependent cells and account for the influence of shear stress and other factors, especially during scale-up. Bioreactors are necessary to produce clinical batches of MSCs, and bioprocess development must therefore consider this specialized environment. For the last 10 years, we have investigated bioprocess development as a means to produce high-quality MSCs. More recently, we have also used bioreactors for the cocultivation of stem cells with other adult cells and for the production of MSC-derived extracellular vesicles. This review discusses the state of the art in bioprocess development for the GMP-compliant manufacture of human MSCs as products for stem cell therapy.",book:{id:"8244",slug:"new-advances-on-fermentation-processes",title:"New Advances on Fermentation Processes",fullTitle:"New Advances on Fermentation Processes"},signatures:"Jan Barekzai, Florian Petry, Jan Zitzmann, Peter Czermak and Denise Salzig",authors:[{id:"297959",title:"Dr.",name:"Denise",middleName:null,surname:"Salzig",slug:"denise-salzig",fullName:"Denise Salzig"},{id:"312719",title:"MSc.",name:"Jan",middleName:null,surname:"Barekzai",slug:"jan-barekzai",fullName:"Jan Barekzai"},{id:"312720",title:"MSc.",name:"Florian",middleName:null,surname:"Petry",slug:"florian-petry",fullName:"Florian Petry"},{id:"312721",title:"Dr.",name:"Jan",middleName:null,surname:"Zitzmann",slug:"jan-zitzmann",fullName:"Jan Zitzmann"},{id:"312723",title:"Prof.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Czermak",slug:"peter-czermak",fullName:"Peter Czermak"}]},{id:"69537",title:"Serum Protein Electrophoresis and Its Clinical Applications",slug:"serum-protein-electrophoresis-and-its-clinical-applications",totalDownloads:1975,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"This chapter focuses on the principle of electrophoresis and its utilization in a clinical laboratory. A sincere attempt has been made to discuss about clinical applications of serum protein electrophoresis, throwing light on the significance of serum protein electrophoresis in the management of multiple myeloma. Emphasis has been made on quality assurance in terms of accuracy and precision in electrophoresis to ensure reliability of patient results. A note on issues with lack of standardization of reporting of electrophoresis and an insight into global efforts to standardize the reporting of the assay has been included in this chapter.",book:{id:"7012",slug:"biochemical-testing-clinical-correlation-and-diagnosis",title:"Biochemical Testing",fullTitle:"Biochemical Testing - Clinical Correlation and Diagnosis"},signatures:"Satish Ramanathan and Chakravarthy Narasimhachar Srinivas",authors:[{id:"229011",title:"Dr.",name:"Satish",middleName:null,surname:"Ramanathan",slug:"satish-ramanathan",fullName:"Satish Ramanathan"}]},{id:"68145",title:"Current Status of Alkaline Fermented Foods and Seasoning Agents of Africa",slug:"current-status-of-alkaline-fermented-foods-and-seasoning-agents-of-africa",totalDownloads:1814,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Fermented foods and seasoning agents play central roles in the food and nutrition security of nations across the world, but particularly so in Africa, Asia, South America and Oceania. As several people across the world gravitate back to “eating natural,” there is a new emphasis on these fermented foods and seasoning agents which are also critical cultural foods in countries and societies where they are important. The result is the growth in demand for these products beyond what the traditional kitchen technologies is able to cope with. In Africa, many of the seasoning agents are products of alkaline fermentation of legume seeds, pulses and in some cases animal proteins and sea foods. There is an upswing in the popularity of these seasoning agents and around them, new cottage industries are growing, as against the kitchen technology that sustained them through the ages. This chapter will explore the state of biotechnological developments around these foods and seasoning agents and point the way to good manufacturing practice and industrial development and the need to grow this value chain that has helped to sustain societies through ages.",book:{id:"8244",slug:"new-advances-on-fermentation-processes",title:"New Advances on Fermentation Processes",fullTitle:"New Advances on Fermentation Processes"},signatures:"Jerry O. Ugwuanyi and Augustina N. 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. 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He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. 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His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. 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He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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(Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. 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Silva, Eliete A. Alvin, Lais S. de Jesus, Caio C.L. de França, Marílya P.G. da Silva, Samaysa L. Lins, Diógenes Meneses, Marcela R. Lemes, Rhanoica O. Guerra, Marcos V. da Silva, Carlo J.F. de Oliveira, Virmondes Rodrigues Junior, Renata M. Etchebehere, Fabiane C. de Abreu, Bruno G. Lucca, Sanívia A.L. Pereira, Rodrigo C. Rosa and Noelio O. 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Paul",slug:"organoids-and-commercialization",totalDownloads:33,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Organoids",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11430.jpg",subseries:null}},{id:"81412",title:"Mathematical Morphology and the Heart Signals",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104113",signatures:"Taouli Sidi Ahmed",slug:"mathematical-morphology-and-the-heart-signals",totalDownloads:19,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Biosignal Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11153.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}},{id:"81360",title:"Deep Learning Algorithms for Efficient Analysis of ECG Signals to Detect Heart Disorders",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103075",signatures:"Sumagna Dey, Rohan Pal and Saptarshi Biswas",slug:"deep-learning-algorithms-for-efficient-analysis-of-ecg-signals-to-detect-heart-disorders",totalDownloads:31,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Biosignal Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11153.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}},{id:"81294",title:"Applications of Neural Organoids in Neurodevelopment and Regenerative Medicine",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104044",signatures:"Jing Gong, Jiahui Kang, Minghui Li, Xiao Liu, Jun Yang and Haiwei Xu",slug:"applications-of-neural-organoids-in-neurodevelopment-and-regenerative-medicine",totalDownloads:25,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Organoids",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11430.jpg",subseries:null}},{id:"81318",title:"Retinal Organoids over the Decade",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104258",signatures:"Jing Yuan and Zi-Bing Jin",slug:"retinal-organoids-over-the-decade",totalDownloads:41,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Organoids",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11430.jpg",subseries:null}},{id:"81068",title:"Characteristic Profiles of Heart Rate Variability in Depression and Anxiety",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104205",signatures:"Toshikazu Shinba",slug:"characteristic-profiles-of-heart-rate-variability-in-depression-and-anxiety",totalDownloads:20,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Biosignal Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11153.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}}]},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[{caption:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",value:9,count:1,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",value:7,count:13,group:"subseries"}],publishedBooks:{},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[],publicationYearFilters:[],authors:{paginationCount:302,paginationItems:[{id:"198499",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Glossman-Mitnik",slug:"daniel-glossman-mitnik",fullName:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/198499/images/system/198499.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Daniel Glossman-Mitnik is currently a Titular Researcher at the Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados (CIMAV), Chihuahua, Mexico, as well as a National Researcher of Level III at the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología, Mexico. His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 255 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 2 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institution:{name:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. 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In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. 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He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. 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