The dimensions of the transmitting and receiving antennas at different frequencies for working in saline environment.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8283",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Innovations in Higher Education - Cases on Transforming and Advancing Practice",title:"Innovations in Higher Education",subtitle:"Cases on Transforming and Advancing Practice",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Higher education contributes to the development of countries and their competitiveness in a global marketplace. However, to remain relevant and meet the demands of an ever-changing world, institutions and their operations must progress in unison with the changing world in which they function. Innovation can play a critical role in transforming and advancing practice and therein address socio-economic, organizational, operational and social challenges. The complexity and scope of higher education opens up the possibilities and potential for innovations to transpire in diverse settings and contexts. This book is a collection of easy-to-follow, vignette-based innovations that have transformed or advanced practice and in doing so contributed to ensuring the relevance and value of higher education in a continuously changing world.",isbn:"978-1-83881-047-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-048-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-044-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78409",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"innovations-in-higher-education-cases-on-transforming-and-advancing-practice",numberOfPages:172,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"9c8b8a6fe8578fbf2398932ce8c1b717",bookSignature:"Dominique Parrish and Joanne Joyce-McCoach",publishedDate:"June 24th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8283.jpg",numberOfDownloads:8093,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:6,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:10,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 21st 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 11th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 10th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 29th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 28th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"197795",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Dominique",middleName:null,surname:"Parrish",slug:"dominique-parrish",fullName:"Dominique Parrish",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197795/images/system/197795.jpeg",biography:"Professor Parrish is Pro Vice-Chancellor Learning and Teaching\nat Macquarie University, Australia. In this role, Professor Parrish has responsibility for the institutional digital strategy, initiatives in employability and Work Integrated Learning, institutional infrastructure associated with learning spaces, academic\nstaff capability and support of student-focused teaching. Prior\nto this role, Professor Parrish was Associate Dean (Education)\nin the Faculty of Science, Medicine and Health at the University of Wollongong,\nshe ran her own consultancy business for 6 years, and was the marketing manager\nfor a professional sporting team. Professor Parrish has managed and led numerous sector, institutional and faculty learning and teaching initiatives and she is\ncurrently president of Australasian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary\nEducation (ASCILITE).",institutionString:"Macquarie University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Macquarie University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"258929",title:"Dr.",name:"Joanne",middleName:null,surname:"Joyce-McCoach",slug:"joanne-joyce-mccoach",fullName:"Joanne Joyce-McCoach",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258929/images/system/258929.jpg",biography:"Dr. Joyce-McCoach is Academic Program Director and Acting\nInternational Director in the School of Nursing and Midwifery\nin the College of Science, Health and Engineering at La Trobe\nUniversity, Australia. Dr. Joyce-McCoach has held numerous positions across a number of tertiary institutions. She is a proficient\nclinical nurse, with extensive experience and responsibilities in\nadministration and practice and comprehensive knowledge in\nthe areas of primary health, community, and general nursing. Dr. Joyce-McCoach\nis extremely experienced in the development of challenging and engaging learning\nenvironments in which students become lifelong scholars and learners and the facilitation of student-centred learning in a productive and supportive environment.\nHer experience in Australia and internationally has developed her appreciation of\nglobal university education issues.",institutionString:"LaTrobe University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"La Trobe University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1316",title:"Higher Education",slug:"higher-education"}],chapters:[{id:"64108",title:"Transformative Teaching of Engineering in Sub-Saharan Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81608",slug:"transformative-teaching-of-engineering-in-sub-saharan-africa",totalDownloads:1022,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter advocates transformative teaching in later stages of sub-Saharan Africa’s engineering students’ study periods. The teaching is meant to help them discover their potential in direct solution of the region’s engineering problems. Student attention can be drawn to many of these problems through transformative teaching. Two illustrative case studies are presented. They demonstrate how students at one South African University of Technology were enabled to address common, authentic and ‘real world’ problems in the course of their learning. A review of theory of teaching modes is given first, with more focus on transformative teaching. The cases follow. The first case seeds a maintenance and continuous improvement culture among successive student cohorts, eventually producing an evolved new product ready for the market in a period of about 5 years. The second case uses multi-level, multi-national students, deploying multi-sourced funds and working at multi-premises in difficult campus study circumstances, to develop completely new products that are field-tested at two sites about 6000 km apart. Benefits, limitations and challenges of the teaching and how to navigate the latter, are given. Following its substantial benefits and the ways to overcome its challenges, transformative teaching is recommended to all engineering academics in the region.",signatures:"Kant Kanyarusoke",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64108",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64108",authors:[{id:"260500",title:"Dr.",name:"Kant",surname:"Kanyarusoke",slug:"kant-kanyarusoke",fullName:"Kant Kanyarusoke"}],corrections:null},{id:"65373",title:"Interdisciplinary Engagement in Higher Education: Opportunities Explored",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84209",slug:"interdisciplinary-engagement-in-higher-education-opportunities-explored",totalDownloads:811,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"There are increasing pressures on universities to make their graduates ready for life and work, in addition to ensuring technical and professional competence. This chapter discusses the implications of supporting such an approach for higher education in a university in Australia where the university was treated as an urban living lab, supporting student engagement for a course innovated to cover three different disciplines. Urban living labs are a form of collaborative partnership particularly in urban areas to support sustainability outcomes. The innovation presented here was in using a green building on campus, bringing students from different disciplines, to study this green building, thereby also partnering with industry. The key question driving the research was whether academic-industry partnerships may be used to understand the performance of green buildings on an urban campus. The anchor course was in construction management and the other disciplines were business and computer science. Twenty three students undertook study of predetermined spaces of a green building on campus. The results show that as a pilot study, this project was successful, with good engagement of students, teaching and non-teaching staff from the university and industry. However, it was more difficult to convert the pilot to mainstream teaching and learning.",signatures:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65373",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65373",authors:[{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga"}],corrections:null},{id:"70084",title:"The Social Intrapreneurship, Innovating in the Competences Delivered to Students: Case Engineering Students of the University of La Serena, Chile",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84734",slug:"the-social-intrapreneurship-innovating-in-the-competences-delivered-to-students-case-engineering-stu",totalDownloads:408,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"It is important to connect the concepts of innovation and development with the incoming entrance of sociological phenomena, in such a way that an integrating education is allowed, where the role of university education becomes a key element, where innovation in the competences delivered to the undergraduate students it becomes a challenge, which is approached from the perspective provided by the strategies that allow students to wake up the social intrapreneurship.",signatures:"Segundo Ricardo Cabana Villca",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70084",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70084",authors:[{id:"260297",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Ricardo",surname:"Cabana",slug:"ricardo-cabana",fullName:"Ricardo Cabana"}],corrections:null},{id:"63117",title:"A Responsive Higher Education Curriculum: Change and Disruptive Innovation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80443",slug:"a-responsive-higher-education-curriculum-change-and-disruptive-innovation",totalDownloads:1679,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This case illustrates how a large, regional university redesigned its program review, curriculum proposal, and curriculum approval processes to maintain currency and viability and meet regional educational needs. The chapter analyzes the problem, process, and outcomes of the changes, and discusses implications for broader contexts. It introduces the concept of disruptive innovation, discusses innovation and change within higher education, provides context for the institution highlighted in the case study, and outlines the initiatives. It then reviews the innovations from a change process model perspective and considers the implications of the case analysis. The chapter concludes with thoughts on the extent of change needed in higher education to keep pace with a continually-evolving global environment.",signatures:"Maureen Snow Andrade",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63117",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63117",authors:[{id:"96902",title:"Dr.",name:"Maureen",surname:"Snow Andrade",slug:"maureen-snow-andrade",fullName:"Maureen Snow Andrade"}],corrections:null},{id:"63826",title:"Learning Innovations for Identifying and Developing Talent for University",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81380",slug:"learning-innovations-for-identifying-and-developing-talent-for-university",totalDownloads:893,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"As a response to global and local imperatives for organizational, operational, and social change facing education today, learning innovations developed by Curtin University’s Learning Futures team offer examples of new technology-enhanced learning experiences used to identify and develop talent for university. The innovations presented are helping to reset school-university relationships to a focus on direct, scalable, and personalized digital learning services, delivered via interactive technologies that utilize game-based and team-based learning approaches. Two frameworks are proposed: one for collecting and evaluating evidence of a future ready learner and one for situating technology innovations across five domains of higher education learning and teaching. The case study indicates that new educational technology innovations can support an expansion of the university’s mission, as well as its academic, research, and service-based strategic actions, by enabling a continuum of potential entry points for learners of all ages, accessible anywhere at any time.",signatures:"Mel Henry, David C. Gibson, Charles Flodin and Dirk Ifenthaler",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63826",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63826",authors:[{id:"261658",title:"Dr.",name:"David C.",surname:"Gibson",slug:"david-c.-gibson",fullName:"David C. Gibson"}],corrections:null},{id:"65101",title:"Planning for Improvement: Leadership Development among University Administrators",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83452",slug:"planning-for-improvement-leadership-development-among-university-administrators",totalDownloads:860,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Information on the professional development of university administrators is relatively sparse, yet effective leadership and management are essential to sustaining high quality environments for faculty, staff, and students. This chapter discusses the use of professional development plans and multi-source feedback among higher education administrators. Results from a large national study of university deans and department chairs are presented and practical strategies for improving leadership development and fostering positive organizational change are illustrated through case examples. Given the high cost of failed leadership, greater attention to the preparation, support, and evaluation of individuals serving in administrative leadership roles is likely to provide dividends to all involved.",signatures:"Tracy L. Morris and Joseph S. Laipple",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65101",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65101",authors:[{id:"261901",title:"Dr.",name:"Tracy",surname:"Morris",slug:"tracy-morris",fullName:"Tracy Morris"},{id:"270751",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",surname:"Laipple",slug:"joseph-laipple",fullName:"Joseph Laipple"}],corrections:null},{id:"64542",title:"Talent Management as a Core Source of Innovation and Social Development in Higher Education",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81377",slug:"talent-management-as-a-core-source-of-innovation-and-social-development-in-higher-education",totalDownloads:1318,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"In the new millennium, talent management (TM) has become more important and has received attention from institutions that seek a foundation on the map institutions of excellence. Higher education institutions are represented by their possession of highly qualified employees who are able to show initiative, creativity and excellence in performance. Those individuals are the core resources of innovation and social development. It is apparent that there is a great competition among institutions in this modern technology era, driving an increase in knowledgeable employees along with vast market changes. Consequently, academic institutions have started to rethink their procedures and policies to achieve better attraction, development and retention of those employees. Therefore, this chapter aims to improve the theoretical and pragmatic comprehension of TM as an essential source of innovative and educational development. Through pragmatic use of elements of previous research approaches combined with a comprehensive qualitative study, this study concludes that higher education institutions are aware of innovation sources that are currently used in managing talent in their divisions and faculties. These were talent attraction, talent development, and talent retention. Both empirical research represented by the case study in the higher education sector and previous research confirm that the best practices of TM are considered as attraction, development and retention of talent.",signatures:"Atheer Abdullah Mohammed, Abdul Hafeez-Baig and Raj Gururajan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64542",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64542",authors:[{id:"260495",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Atheer Abdullah",surname:"Mohammed",slug:"atheer-abdullah-mohammed",fullName:"Atheer Abdullah Mohammed"},{id:"260498",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdul Hafeez",surname:"Baig",slug:"abdul-hafeez-baig",fullName:"Abdul Hafeez Baig"},{id:"260499",title:"Prof.",name:"Raj",surname:"Gururajan",slug:"raj-gururajan",fullName:"Raj Gururajan"}],corrections:null},{id:"64745",title:"An Integrated Model for Invigorating Innovation and Entrepreneurship in Higher Education",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82502",slug:"an-integrated-model-for-invigorating-innovation-and-entrepreneurship-in-higher-education",totalDownloads:1106,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The growth trajectories of innovation and entrepreneurship within higher education have largely followed discrete paths such that each developed independent of the other. The structural locations of innovation and entrepreneurship within higher education institutions have a lot to do with this strategic discrepancy. In some cases, entrepreneurship is mostly located within business schools and its focus is on teaching students’ business basics and entrepreneurship basics, while innovation is located within any of the variants of university innovation hubs and technology transfer units. Innovation is also used as a buffer to shield real change and transformation in higher education especially in reference to innovative teaching, innovative education and so on, which, in essence, can best be described as improvements rather than innovation. It is also important to note that one of the critical plinths of entrepreneurship—creativity—has generally been marginalised in the core activities of higher education. While entrepreneurship has, over the course of more than three decades, gained legitimacy traction within higher education, innovation has fairly been on the margins of core university strategies but is becoming increasingly pertinent in higher education albeit in ways requiring critical reflection. However, creativity remains largely on the margins of core higher education activities, and its explicit teaching has not yet gained strong academic legitimacy. It is not clear why creativity, innovation and entrepreneurship have assumed discrete growth paths within higher education when there is such a palpable mutual reinforcement amongst these concepts. In this chapter, I report on the study I conducted in purposively selected Scandinavian and South African universities, which was aimed at: (1) better understanding how innovation and entrepreneurship are nurtured and developed in these institutions as well as the role of creativity in all these endeavours (2) identifying the key drivers of this nascent interest in innovation and entrepreneurship within higher education and why creativity remains on the margins even when the academic legitimacy of innovation and entrepreneurship increases (3) developing a more integrated model that could better coordinate the differentiated activities of not only innovation and entrepreneurship units but also those of faculties so that there is greater mutual reinforcement and shared responsibilities that could optimise the social impact of higher education academic activities and those of innovation and entrepreneurship units. Five Scandinavian universities and three South African universities were selected, and fifteen Directors of innovation hubs and entrepreneurship centres were interviewed. While there are overlaps amongst faculty activities, innovation hubs and entrepreneurship centres, these overlaps are informal and poorly coordinated, which vitiates their total impact on society.",signatures:"Teboho Pitso",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64745",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64745",authors:[{id:"259594",title:"Dr.",name:"Teboho",surname:"Pitso",slug:"teboho-pitso",fullName:"Teboho Pitso"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1990",title:"International Perspectives of Distance Learning in Higher Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e9f445b89a42e6221004f529ac247127",slug:"international-perspectives-of-distance-learning-in-higher-education",bookSignature:"Joi L. Moore and Angela D. 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This cone has the height in the prolongation of the neutrino’s direction and the base of the Cherenkov cone is forming in the continuation of the neutrino’s direction, keeping its angle at the top of the cone. The base of the Cherenkov cone moves further in the same direction as the neutrino that produced the Cherenkov Effect. The electromagnetic effect of the Cherenkov cone is perpendicular to the lateral surface of the cone and it has the energy directly proportional to the energy of the neutrino. It is this neutrino that produced this effect. By determining the energy and the direction of the neutrino that produced the electromagnetic effect of the Cherenkov cone, information about the phenomena in the Universe that generated this neutrino is discovered. In the saline environment, neutrinos with very high energies can be determined. These neutrinos provide information about the phenomena in the Universe that occurred at great distances from Earth. These distances are much larger than the distances at which the most efficient telescopes can work, so that the information obtained from neutrinos will increase the horizon of knowledge and contribute to the improvement of information about the Universe. Thus, we can say that this information makes a significant contribution in the field of astrophysics and astronomy.
The study of cosmic radiation began between 1911 and 1913. During this period, the Austrian Physicist Victor Hess, following balloon flights, measured the variation of ionization present in the air with the altitude [1]. The neutrinos carried by cosmic radiation have very high energies of the order (1015 ÷ 1023) eV, those with energy between (1015 ÷ 1021) eV can be detected in saline environment and those with energies greater than 1021 eV cross the terra.
The investigation of the interactions of high-energy neutrinos of cosmic origin in a dense environment (natural salt) will lead to the construction of a cosmic radiation observer in this environment. The phenomenon by which particles charged with high energies are detected due to the interaction with the environment is called the Askaryan effect and consists in the coherent emission of Cherenkov radiations in the radio frequency domain, through an excessive electrical charge that occurs during the development of an electron cascade in that environment. Cherenkov radiation occurs in the case of particles moving through an environment at a speed greater than the speed of light through that environment [2].
An avalanche of relativistic particles [3] represents the interaction between a very high-energy neutrino and a dense and dielectric environment (salt block). For neutrinos with energy greater than 1015 eV, only about 20% of it appears as a hadronic particles cascade, and this cascade has an electromagnetic component [3]. The electromagnetic cascade consists of electrically charged particles (about 70% of the particles) [4]. These particles contribute to the generation of the total electromagnetic energy of the cascade [4]. Particles with a speed of travel greater than the speed of light through a transparent and dense environment (the salt block) will produce the Cherenkov radiation effect (in our electromagnetic case) in this environment [2].
The phenomenon, by which the interaction with the environment can detect particles charged with high energies, is called the Askaryan effect and consists in the emission of Cherenkov radiation (in the case of particles moving through an environment at a speed greater than the speed of light through that environment) coherent in the radio frequency domain by the excess load that appears during the development of a cascade in that environment [2]. Determination of neutrinos with energies greater than 1012 eV can lead to the discovery of new astrophysical systems and new physical processes [3]. The direction, from which these very high energy neutrinos come from, is a direct indicator of the source that generates them, thus a cosmic radiation observer from a saline will have to fulfill this goal [3]. The result of the interaction of a very high energy neutrino with a dielectric, transparent and dense environment (salt block), is an avalanche of relativistic particles [3] which by Cherenkov effect will cause the information obtained to generate new aspects about astro-particles and they create the premises for a deeper understanding of the cosmic phenomena of high energy in the Universe [3]. These particles contribute to the generation of total electromagnetic energy in the form of a Cherenkov cone [4]. Knowing the effects related to the propagation of electromagnetic waves in dielectric environments with impurities (saline environment) [5], then, by eliminating the influences of the parameters of the propagation environment (saline environment), one can deduce the basic parameters of the flexible transmitting and receiving antennas. By performing a sufficient number of measurements, these basic parameters of the flexible transmitting and receiving antennas can be determined. Knowing these parameters, the detection of the electromagnetic radiation of the Cherenkov cone (which is known to be perpendicular to the generator of the cone) can be performed with much greater accuracy. Then it will be possible to determine the direction and energy level of the neutrinos generating the Cherenkov cone with the same precision level. Considering these aspects, the special importance of designing and realizing a complex system for determining the electrical parameters of the antennas for the detection of Cherenkov cone of electromagnetic radiation in saline environment, is deduced. The determination of the electrical parameters of the antennas for the detection of the Cherenkov cone of electromagnetic radiation in saline environment will be thought out so that it can determine these parameters in such environments. The basic parameters of the antennas [6, 7] will be determined: the radiation diagram, the directivity, the gain, the polarization, the input impedance, the frequency band, the effective surface, and the effective height.
In order to determine the Cherenkov cone in saline environment (the noise does not influence the energy measurement because the maximum noise level measured in saline environment is −115 dBm [8]), it is necessary to make a Cherenkov detector in this environment. The implementation of a Cherenkov detector in saline environment involves the design and construction of a very large number of detection elements together with the related devices and a very large number of cascade amplifiers as well [5]. Under these conditions the price of a Cherenkov detector in saline environment is very high. Another necessary condition (it is of particular importance since it can reduce the costs of producing a Cherenkov detector in saline environment) is the accurate knowledge and distribution of the dielectric parameters of the saline environment in the salt volume in which a Cherenkov detector will be made. The realization of a map of the distribution of the dielectric parameters of the saline environment in the entire volume of a salt rock implies the elaboration of a complex system for determining the dielectric parameters of the saline environment for the detection of the Cherenkov cone of cosmic radiation in this environment. With this system, measurements can be made in saline (on-site) environment in order to make this map. The use of this system in the measurements will increase the possibility to implement a Cherenkov detector in saline environment. Until now, this system has not been used in saline environment for the detection of cosmic radiation, which brings a novelty in the field. The novelty in the field of cosmic radiation detection in saline environment has led to patent applications A/00959/05.12.2016 [9], A/00404/07.06.2018 [10] and A/00354/12.06.2019 [11].
So far, a number of studies were carried out in different environments in order to perform a Cherenkov cosmic radiation detector. The studies were conducted in environments such as: air, ice, salt rock [12, 13], limestone rock, etc. For saline environment the SalSA detector is known, under water (ANTARES, Baikal, NEMO, NESTOR, AUTEC etc.), under ice (AMANDA, ICECUBE and RICE), for atmosphere (ASHRA, AUGER, EUSO and OWR), between soil and air (GLUE, Forte’NuTel and ANITA) [14]. The “Salt Sensor Array” (SalSA) detector has as reference parameters, 10 x 10 rows of square surfaces, placed 250 m horizontally between them for a depth of 2000 m and placed at 182 m vertically between them, with 12 knots per row and for each row 12 detection elements, resulting in 14,400 detection elements. In the SalSA (saline environment) project, a 250 m attenuation length of the electromagnetic waves was obtained for a frequency band of 100 MHz ÷ 300 MHz using antennas with horizontal and vertical polarity [15]. Cherenkov 3D type detector with a geometry 20 × 20 × 20 where the number of sub-bands is 1 and the number of antennas with the same polarization type is 2 has a size of 500 m3, uses 32,000 detection elements and a number of 400 wells in the salt block and it uses the neutron electron cosmic radiation detection system [5, 9]. In these studies, there was no question to determine the dielectric parameters of the environments, in which the measurements were performed.
In saline environment, two projects were carried that studied the way of detecting the Cherenkov cone of electromagnetic radiation in saline environment, but in these projects, there was no search for flexibility and adaptability of the antennas for the most accurate detection of the Cherenkov cone of electromagnetic radiation in saline medium.
The study of the detection of cosmic neutrinos began almost 20 years ago. Several specific telescopes have been developed that have attempted to identify these particles. The results were not the ones expected. On 23-02-1987, a radiation source of cosmic neutrinos was identified for the first time. This was called “Supernova 1987A” and opened a new stage in the theory of cosmos evolution. For ice detectors (ANITA) [16] with an SNR > 1 allowance, all events occurring in the frequency band (100 ÷ 1000) MHz can be considered detectable. In another paper dealing with the detection of cosmic radiation at the ice surface in Antarctica [17], it is mentioned that if SNR = 1 is considered, then the number of events can be estimated. Nor does this work address the reflections, attenuations, and characteristic of the antennas. Another paper dealing with the interaction of neutrinos (UHE) [18] and referring to a constant detector volume, does not take into account the effects related to the signal-to-noise ratio, antennas, propagation through the study environment, aspects that we want to achieve in this project. Due to an inhomogeneous distribution of impurities in the saline environment, a theoretical approach to the propagation phenomenon of electromagnetic waves in this environment cannot be realized [19, 20].
In order to obtain the most accurate dielectric parameters of the saline environment, it is necessary to improve the system of measurement and the determination of these parameters. In order to reach the proposed objective it is necessary to minimize the errors introduced by adapting the detection elements (transmission and reception antennas) to the saline environment (the electrical parameters of the antennas: the working impedances, the directional characteristics in horizontal and vertical plane, the gain, etc. of the transmitting and receiving antennas that are affected by the saline environment), it is necessary to make a band-pass filter with the lowest insertion attenuation resulting in a uniform bandwidth and it is also necessary to make an amplifier with the amplification as much as possible constant in the working band (central frequency 187.5 MHz, amplification band at 3 dB greater than the bandwidth filter by at least 10% and the amplification can compensate for the losses introduced by the connection cables).
The determination of the Cherenkov cone in saline environment presents as a result the determination of the energy, the direction and the sense that the neutrinos, which interact with a saline environment, possess. These neutrinos provide information about the phenomena in the Universe that occurred at great distances from Earth. These distances are much larger than the distances at which the most efficient telescopes can work, so that information obtained from neutrinos will increase the horizon of knowledge and will contribute to the improvement of information about the Universe. Thus, we can say that this information makes a significant contribution in the field of astrophysics and astronomy.
The generation of radiation pulses that arise from the interaction between high energy neutrinos (Ultra High Energy, UHE) and a dense dielectric medium has been studied first by Askaryan [21], who also presented the first results based on laboratory tests.
Askaryan also identified several natural materials that can be used as neutrinos detectors: the salt blocks present in saline mines, the ice from polar region, and the soil of moon [22, 23]. It was proven that a solid block of salt is a very good candidate for such detectors, since it suffers important changes of its electrical properties, based on which, the neutrinos that pass through the block can be detected.
Based on the Askaryan effect [24, 25, 26] the radiation that passes through a dense dielectric generates a cone of coherent radiation in the radio or microwave frequency domain, known as Cherenkov radiation [27, 28, 29]. In order to detect this radiation, one has to determine the frequency domain in which those radio impulses have maximum intensity and the parameters of an antenna that can be used in a conventional receiver.
In an experimental setup with a particular configuration of transmitter and receiver antennas, one can measure the level and the range of the radiation generated and, based on those results, can evaluate the neutrinos energy. The system proposed in this paper consists in an Anritsu MS2690A signal analyzer, with an incorporated signal generator, coupled to the transmitting and receiving antennas [30].
With this system, the dielectric parameters of the saline environment are determined first and, by knowing these parameters, the distance of attenuation of the propagation of electromagnetic waves through the saline environment can be determined (the distance at which the module of the electromagnetic field decreases to 1/e). Thus, it is possible to determine, following a package of measurements for the vertical plane [8], and for the horizontal plane [31], the distribution of the attenuation of the electromagnetic waves through the saline environment (the map of the distribution of the electromagnetic waves in the saline environment leading to the determination of the optimal position of placement in a saline environment of a Cherenkov detector), the determination of the minimum number of detection elements, and the optimal position of their placement in saline environment [10]. Based on the use of dedicated software, one can determine the extreme situations of the generation of the Cherenkov cone outside the volume of the Cherenkov detector [11].
In order to determine the dielectric parameters of the saline environment, two methods were studied, a direct and an indirect one.
According to IEEE standard no. 145–1983 [32], which states that “the antenna is a means of transmitting or receiving radio waves”, i.e. the antenna is that part of a radio equipment that, by means of electromagnetic exchange of power with the environment, ensures communication between at least two telecommunication equipments. The antenna can also be regarded as an element that adapts between the environment and the receiver or transmitter. It actually performs a transformation of the power of the electromagnetic field into a signal received as electrical power. Also, the antenna transforms the electric emission power into the power of the radiant electromagnetic field [6, 33].
The transmitting and receiving antennas, from a constructive point of view, are identical. The basic parameters of the antennas are [6, 7]:
radiation diagram,
directivity,
gain,
polarization,
the input impedance,
the frequency band,
the actual area,
the effective height.
We can define the radiation diagram of an antenna if we take into account the electric component module E for the electromagnetic field radiated by the antenna. The other parameters and their definitions are kept. A decrease in 3 dB of the electric field module represents a decrease of its times (1/√2 ≈ 0.707) [6, 7].
The maximum radiation intensity is given by:
and the relative radiation intensity is given by:
where:
From these equations, the radiation pattern of the antenna can be determined.
where: and represents the angular openings (in degrees) at 3 dB in the planes of vectors
The frequency band is defined as “the frequency range, in which the antenna performance associated with a predetermined parameter, is maintained in a specified range” [6, 7].
The actual surface area of an antenna, for a given direction, is represented by the ratio of the power available at the antenna terminals, being considered as the receiving antenna and the power density for the plane wave incident in that direction. The electromagnetic wave and the antenna are considered to be adapted from each other in terms of polarization. If no specific direction is indicated, then the maximum antenna radiation direction is taken by default [6, 7].
The effective height of an antenna, with a linear polarization and receiving a plane wave from a given direction, represents the ratio between the voltage determined with the open circuit at the antenna terminals and the intensity of the electric field determined by the antenna polarization direction.
An issue that interests us is the input resistance of the dipole antenna. This antenna will be calculated to work in a saline environment. In order to determine the parameters of the antenna in saline environment, we must know the input resistance of the dipole antenna in the free space. In order to determine the input resistance of the dipole antenna, we will start from the cylindrical dipole, which is a direct materialization of the concept of thin wire antenna. The parameters of the cylindrical dipole are slightly different from those provided by a theoretical analysis. This fact is given by the condition imposed on the length of the dipole, which must be much larger than the diameter. But this condition is not strictly fulfilled.
Considering that the dipole radiates in the free space, we will have approximate formulas for calculating the input resistance. If we make the notation G = nπ, then [6, 7]:
The behavior of the dipole antenna in dielectric mediums for propagating the electromagnetic waves is similar to the behavior in vacuum or air, except that the impedance and the calculation of the antenna arm lengths change according to the relative permittivity of the environment, in which the antenna is located. If a group of antennas is inserted into a salt block, then the input resistance and the length of the dipole antenna in λ/2 will be changed with the real value of the permittivity of the salt (
The antenna parameters are influenced when the antenna passes from work in vacuum or air to work in environment with different permittivity of vacuum. Therefore, in calculating the antennas working in environments with different permittivity than the vacuum (generally higher), the permissibility of the environment, in which the antenna works is taken into account. Averages such as salt constitute an unconventional environment for antennas and therefore the dielectric parameters of the salt, for a frequency range between 100 MHz and 5 GHz, must be known.
The direct method is performed by a system of generation and analysis of radio signals in saline environment and it is made from an emission antenna, a receiving antenna, and a signal analyzer. Two pairs of antennas are used for two working frequencies f1 and f2, in order to determine the dielectric parameters of the salt, in order to determine the transfer of electromagnetic waves through the salt block, and in order to determine the electrical parameters of the radiofrequency antennas in saline environment.
The system is made of two identical antennas of the dipole type in
The system of generation and analysis of radio signals in saline environment.
The indirect method involves the determination of the electrical parameters of the radio frequency antennas in saline environment, knowing the electrical parameters of these radio frequency antennas in air and measuring their parameters introduced in a saline environment when the dielectric parameters of the saline environment are known. This method involves performing a measurement installation of the electrical parameters of the radio frequency antennas in the air and repeating the measurements in a saline environment with the same installation. For this, dielectric parameters of the saline environment must be known.
Knowing the conclusions of the measurements in a saline environment, we can determine the electrical parameters of the radiofrequency antennas in such an environment. Numerous measurements have been made in massive salt blocks by RADAR penetration technology (GPR) [34]. From the conclusions of the measurements, we mention:
the propagation of radio waves through a saline environment is not affected by scattering phenomena;
no depolarization phenomena were observed;
no significant dispersion phenomena were observed for the frequency range (0.1 ÷ 1) GHz.
Other empirical properties of salt blocks are [35]:
a decrease in the tangent of the loss angle with frequency;
the attenuation length is dependent on the percentage of impurities the salt block contains;
no significant phenomena of double salt refraction were reported.
To perform the indirect method, the behavior of the antenna, introduced in a saline environment, will be analyzed when we have an interleaved element (air) between the antenna and the medium. By analyzing the following figure, we can determine the influence of the electrical parameters of the radio frequency antennas in saline environment when there is no perfect contact with this environment.
Figure 2 shows a cavity in a dielectric medium (salt), in which an emission or reception antenna (dipole antenna in λ/2) is introduced.
Cavity in a dielectric medium (saline medium), in which a dipole antenna is inserted in λ/2.
If we analyze the Figure 1 where the cavity is cylindrical with the length L and the radius of the base of r = b and considering the continuity of the tangential component of the electric field (
where:
and
If we use the last two formulas, then we can deduce the relative dielectric permittivity for the salt measurements:
The loss angle tangent is related to the attenuation coefficient of the field (
where:
or an approximate value:
where:
For the study of the propagation of electromagnetic waves through saline environment it is necessary to know the dielectric parameters of the medium, through which they propagate (of the saline environment).
For this we will consider the propagation equation in linear, homogeneous, and isotropic environments for the electromagnetic waves [37, 38, 39]:
and we consider the dissipative (absorbing) environment in which
We can assume that, if the environment contains free electric charge (
We can determine the intensity of the wave at a certain depth
or otherwise:
where:
The salt from the mines of North America showed dielectric constants in the 5–7 range and the loss angle tangent between 0.015 and 0.030 at 300 MHz [40].
An important problem is to determine the penetration length of electromagnetic waves in saline environment (attenuation length.) Thus we will define the depth of penetration of the wave into the environment. We will note the distance d as representing this depth. This depth is the decrease of the intensity of the field e times from the initial one. Then the intensity of the wave at depth d becomes:
where:
We will consider the case of an almost dielectric environment (
which means that the electromagnetic wave has the same propagation speed for whatever its frequency is. This means that there is no dispersion (this is the case for salt).
Then the depth of penetration will be given by the relation:
where:
In most practical cases tan
Illustration of the penetration of electromagnetic waves in a dielectric environment [
The 36.79% percentage represents a 1/e decrease of the electromagnetic field in the dielectric environment (the incident field from which the reflected field is subtracted is taken into account).
The two methods do not differ much from each other. The difference is that, in the indirect method, there will be two packages of measurements. Starting from the package of measurements in air, continuing with the measurements in saline environment and knowing the dielectric and attenuation parameters of the electromagnetic waves of the saline environment, the electrical parameters of the radiofrequency antennas in saline environment can be determined by calculations. Taking into account these considerations, the indirect method can generate errors, because the determination of the electrical parameters of the radio frequency antennas in saline environment is based on the measurements of these parameters in the air (where small errors can occur), then measurements of these parameters are made in saline environment (where there also can occur small errors) and following the calculations, the errors can be added, which means a greater error. Thus, the indirect method involves high degree errors in determining the electrical parameters of radio frequency antennas in saline environment.
For the direct method, a system for measuring the electrical parameters of radio frequency antennas in saline environment will be used. The measurements being direct, we deduce that the errors are given only by these measurements (by the measurement system, analyzer – the generator part and the analyzer part). No additional calculations are required. So, the direct method is a method with smaller errors, although a measurement system, adapted to the saline environment is needed, compared to the indirect method that uses the same system of measurement in the air and in the saline environment.
In order to be able to collect the data from the saline environment, we will use the system presented in Figure 1. An important problem is the design of the antennas to work in the saline environment. The first problem, that arises, is the determination of the antenna length for working in saline environment.
Calculation of antennas [8]:
And it represents the antenna length in
Antenna dimensions.
The antennas are made of Copper pipe with
300 | 400 | 500 | 600 | 700 | 800 | 900 | 1000 | |
0.204 | 0.153 | 0.122 | 0.102 | 0.087 | 0.077 | 0.068 | 0.061 |
The dimensions of the transmitting and receiving antennas at different frequencies for working in saline environment.
A second problem that arises is the determination of the radiation resistance of the antennas in saline environment. As shown in Figure 4, the antenna is a dipole antenna in
where:
Then the radiation resistance is about 29.853 Ω. Following the analysis of Table 1, it is found that the antenna length is much smaller than λ and then we can say that the antennas are of Hertzian type and the radiation resistance of the antennas will be calculated with the formula:
Then, for salt work, a radiation resistance of about 13.5 Ω will be obtained. In these conditions, it is necessary to adapt the radiation resistance of the antennas to the characteristic impedance of the Anritsu MS2690A 50 Ω analyzer. For the frequencies
The frequency, at which the best propagation of electromagnetic waves, was determined in saline environment (Cantacuzino Mine from Slănic Prahova), is 187.5 MHz. The noise level in saline environment (Mina Cantacuzino from Slănic Prahova) is −115 dBm and at an impedance of 13.5 Ω, a noise level of 0.20662 μV is obtained. Figure 5 shows the graph determined theoretically according to the distance of the variation of the radio frequency voltage level at the receiving antenna level. An electromagnetic emission event of a neutrino with the energy of 1018 eV that generated a Cherenkov cone in saline environment was taken into account in this graph.
The graph of the variation of the radio frequency voltage level at the receiving antenna level.
Analyzing the graph in Figure 5, we determine that for a neutrino with the energy of 1018 eV that generated a Cherenkov cone in saline environment, a radio frequency signal at the terminals of a receiving antenna comparable to the noise level measured in saline environment will be produced as an effect at a distance of 50 m. So, for longer distances it is necessary that the energy of the neutrino be greater than 1018 eV (1023 eV).
Thus, a “Hardware system for detecting cosmic radiation of electron neutron type in salt” was designed [9]. This system is used to measure the level of attenuation of the electromagnetic waves introduced by the saline environment. Also with this system, the dielectric parameters of the saline environment can be determined in order to create a map with the distribution of the attenuations introduced by the saline environment. This system is, in fact, a radio detection station [5],
Block diagram of the system for receiving, local processing and wireless transmission of the measured data to the computing system.
For the correct analysis of the data it is necessary that the temporal relation and the absolute value of the electric field be known, that is to say, all the instrumental errors must be corrected before working with the involved physical quantities. This implies a correction of the delays, which occur in the system, and a calibration of the amplitude.
For the correction of these events it is necessary that a well-known signal be present in all data and that it will provide us the necessary temporal information. There is no need for an absolute time scale, as the measurements are not compared to external events. For this reason, only the relative temporal delays between the antennas should be known.
It is necessary to determine the attenuations introduced by the connection cables.
We used two types of cables:
type CFD400-E (blue) with a length of 5 m.
type R-6763, O400 (black) with a length of 21 m.
The measured attenuations are presented in Table 2.
Cable CFD400-E | Cable R-6763, O400 | |
---|---|---|
450 MHz | −0.31 dBm | −3.05 dBm |
750 MHz | −0.6 dBm | −4.22 dBm |
The attenuations measured on the connection cables used in the measurements in saline environment.
Following the measurements, the graph of variation of the power of a signal with a constant level measured at a fixed point at a distance of 20 m from the emission antenna was determined (Figure 7). The transmitting and receiving antennas were introduced in saline at a depth of 1 m from level 0.
The power received at a fixed point 20 m from the transmitting antenna for various frequencies emitted.
Following the analysis of this graph, it is deduced that the attenuation of the electromagnetic waves is great for frequencies greater than 500 MHz, but it has a variation of about 20 dBm for a spectrum of 600 MHz. These attenuations fall for lengths of approximately 20 m. For the same signal levels introduced in the broadcast antenna placed at a depth of 1 m from level 0 and received with an identical antenna placed at the same depth, attenuations of about 50 m are obtained for the frequency of 187.5 MHz.
At the output of the system, the signal is processed by
The analog-numeric converter ADC083000 produced by National Semiconductor is an 8-bit converter that has a working power consumption of 1.9 W at a supply voltage of
It also offers a bit error rate of the order of 10−18.
Following the laboratory tests, it was found that the actual number of bits used by RD143 for quantization, around 187.5 MHz (the signal value from the CAN input – analog-to-digital converter) is 7.3 bits, which means that the noise introduced by the CAN is very small. In fact, this noise increases as the frequency of the signal processed by CAN increases.
Another important feature, determined by laboratory measurements, of this CAN is the low power consumption, reaching a consumption of 1.9 W at the maximum sampling frequency (3 GHz). Moreover, a linear characteristic of the power consumption, characteristic between 1.4 and 1.9 W. is observed. The signal processed by RD143 is on a frequency of 187.5 MHz.
The dipole antenna of the system was found to pick up the radio signal generated by the USRP (Universal Software Radio Peripheral). The signal reached in the signal processing unit (e.g. laptop) is a distorted sinusoidal signal with the fundamental on 187.49 MHz and the amplitude 66.23db (the input signal was −50 dB), which means an amplification of 116.23 dB (a close amplification of the theoretical one) (Figure 8).
The signal at the input of the RD143 digital processing system.
Distortions due to the existence of 3rd and 4th harmonics offer a distortion factor of 10%. The receiver design was performed for saline environment, medium with relative permeability different from that of the air. This could be one of the causes of a fairly large distortion factor. Figure 9 shows the spectrum of the radio signal generated by the USRP and processed with the proposed experimental model.
The system shown in
Following the studies and articles published so far, it can be deduced that in order to make a Cherenkov detector in saline environment, many detecting elements and correspondingly many holes in saline environment, many chains of amplifiers (to bring the level detected by the workable TTL level detection (transistor-transistor logic), to compensate for losses on connection cables, etc.), many radio stations (
To optimize a Cherenkov detector, it is necessary to carry out a study in order to achieve the objective. Following the study it was concluded that the optimization of a Cherenkov detector in saline environment is necessary in order to determine the optimal positions by placing the detection elements for to obtain the maximum information. Thus, it is necessary to know the attenuation of electromagnetic waves in saline environment. This aspect involves a large number of measurements in the volume of the entire salt block in which the future Cherenkov detector will be placed. Because of the attenuation of the electromagnetic waves (the product of the interaction of a neutron with sufficiently high energy with a saline environment that generates the Cherenkov cone) is given by the dielectric permittivity of the saline environment, it is necessary to create a map with the distribution of the dielectric parameters of the saline environment. Knowing this map will determine the optimal positions of the detection elements and their number as well.
In these conditions, two patents have been proposed, which deal with the methods of determining the Cherenkov detector inside and outside the volume of the Cherenkov detector [10, 11].
Determination of the Cherenkov cone inside the volume of the Cherenkov detector involves the design of a method to optimize the Cherenkov detector of electromagnetic radiation in the saline environment by determining the optimal points of placement of the detection elements and the Cherenkov detector in the saline environment, in order to minimize the number of measurement points and number of electromagnetic radiation sensing elements generated to reduce costs and simplify the measurement chain.
The first problem that occurs is the creation of a map with the distribution of the dielectric parameters of the saline environment. For this, a sufficiently large number of measurements of the dielectric parameters of the saline environment will be executed in order to interpolate and extrapolate the measurement results.
The problem solved by the optimization method of the Cherenkov detector of electromagnetic radiation in the saline environment removes the disadvantages of the Cherenkov detectors in the saline environment that have been proposed so far.
Thus the method minimizes the number of detection elements and implicitly of the measurement chain, being also an economical and much faster method, characterized in the fact that it determines the optimal points of placement of the detection elements for the determined volume of the Cherenkov detector in saline environment through iterations.
An iteration formula is used to obtain the optimal volume of the future Cherenkov detector placed in saline environment:
where
This results in a Cherenkov detector consisting of at least two or more cube-shaped detectors in the cube and it also determines the optimal position of the future Cherenkov electromagnetic radiation detector in saline environment (Figure 10).
An example of optimal placement of the detection elements of a Cherenkov detector for two iterations.
The method of optimization of the Cherenkov detector of electromagnetic radiation in the saline environment has, as first stage, the determination of the imprint of the saline environment, in which the future Cherenkov detector is placed, which is realized by measurements in order to determine the dielectric parameters of the environment and its attenuation length at the frequency of work set (187.5 MHz). In order to reach the first stage, measurements will be made to determine the propagation of the electromagnetic waves at different points of the volume of the environment in a vertical and horizontal plane [8, 31] and function of the measurement results, the measurements can be resumed or multiplied for to determine entirely the real distribution of the environmental attenuation for the propagation of the electromagnetic waves. These measurements will be performed using antennas whose electrical parameters (directivity characteristic, radiation resistance, loss resistance, antenna efficiency, front-to-rear ratio) are very well known to work in saline environment. These measurements will be performed horizontally and vertically, storing the data in a database, which from their processing they will lead to drawing a map with the distribution of the attenuation lengths of the electromagnetic waves. The second step consists in configuring the electrical parameters of the detection elements at this frequency (187.5 MHz), by determining the directivity characteristics, radiation resistance, loss resistance, efficiency and front-to-back ratio, for the horizontal and vertical plane. This data will be stored in another database, which represents the information regarding the detection elements of the Cherenkov detector. The determination of the electrical parameters of the detection elements of the Cherenkov detector will be carried out by resuming or multiplying the measurements so that the actual values of the electrical parameters for the detection elements can be determined as accurately as possible. The two databases (the environmental footprint and the electrical parameters of the detection elements) and the use of a dedicated software will determine the optimal placement points of the detection elements for the volume determined by each iteration. Thus, the minimum number of iterations can be determined to optimize the Cherenkov detector.
This method has the following advantages:
Determination of the optimal positioning of the Cherenkov detector in the total volume of the saline environment;
Determination of the optimal placement points of the detection elements for the volume determined by each iteration;
Minimization of the number of detection elements and the measuring chain, which implies very low labor and material prices compared to the known methods and minimization of the number of wells necessary for the detector;
Software processing time is short compared to other methods;
Determination of Cherenkov Cone under real conditions.
This method determines the positions of the optimum measurement points, which lead to the minimization of the number of measurements, the number of electromagnetic radiation detection elements and implicitly of the measurement chain and it also determines the optimal position of the future Cherenkov detector in the total volume of the saline environment. All these aspects lead to cost reduction. In order to determine the Cherenkov cone in saline environment, the method requires the use of a dedicated software that uses a database containing the footprint of the saline environment for which a cosmic radiation detector is desired.
The determination of the Cherenkov cone of electromagnetic radiation in the saline environment outside the volume of the Cherenkov detector is determined by placing at optimum points some detection elements outside its volume in all the x, y, z and positive and negative directions knowing the attenuation fingerprint in the electromagnetic wave field of the saline environment in order to determine the possible Cherenkov Cones that could form outside the detector volume depending on the energy determined by the detection elements in the vicinity of the detector.
So far, no method for the determination of a Cherenkov Cone outside the detector volume is known, even though some of the energy emitted by the cone reaches the detector elements of the detector.
This method determines the Cherenkov cone regardless of the position in which it is generated outside the detector volume, being an economical and predictable method, because outside the detector there are a minimum number of detection elements placed in optimal positions determined by their placement surfaces (planes) and obtained by using the formula:
where:
An example of determination of the spatial positions of the placement plans of the detection elements external to the volume of the Cherenkov detector for a higher iteration of the determination of the volume of the Cherenkov detector in saline environment.
The method is based on the determination of the attenuation fingerprint of the saline environment (the map of the spatial distribution of the electromagnetic waves attenuation in the saline environment) in the field of the electromagnetic waves and it leads to the increased probability to determine the generation of the Cherenkov Cone from outside the detector volume by determining the energy levels measured by the external detection elements providing that they are higher than the energy levels measured by the detection elements inside the Cherenkov detector.
The determination of the Cherenkov cone in saline environment outside the volume of the Cherenkov detector consists in determining the optimal position of placement of the external detection elements, using a dedicated software.
For this, a minimum number of detection elements are placed outside the detector volume, which have very well established positions on the external surfaces of the detector, calculated by a higher iteration ratio than the detector volume calculation in all positive, negative
Then the attenuation of the saline environment (the map/fingerprint of the attenuation of the electromagnetic waves in the saline environment) will be calculated in the field of the electromagnetic waves [5, 8, 10, 31] as a result of measurements made outside the Cherenkov detector volume. In order to determine the Cherenkov cone outside the Cherenkov detector volume, the energy levels given by the sensing elements located outside the detector volume will be measured and if the energy measured by the external sensing elements is greater than the energy measured by the internal elements of the Cherenkov detector, then it is decided that a real Cherenkov cone outside the volume of the Cherenkov detector was generated. Thus we obtain the position in space of the Cherenkov Cone generated outside the detector in real situations using the dedicated software.
The method has the following advantages:
determination of the Cherenkov cone generated outside the Cherenkov detector volume;
determination of the optimal positioning of the detection elements outside the volume of the Cherenkov detector in the saline environment by using a dedicated software;
it establishes the plans (surfaces) for placing the detection elements outside the Cherenkov detector volume obtained by an iteration higher than the detector volume determination;
it minimizes the number of external detection elements and it optimizes the measurement chain, which implies very low labour and material prices and it minimizes the number of wells required outside the detector;
it minimizes the data processing time with the help of the dedicated software;
it determines the Cherenkov cone generated outside the detector under real conditions;
this method can be used for any type of environment as long as the environmental mitigation footprint in the field in which the Cherenkov detector works in the respective environment does not change during the determination period.
The application of the method for the determination of the Cherenkov cone in saline environment outside the volume of the Cherenkov detector requires three steps prior to the method.
The first step consists in determining the dielectric parameters of the saline environment in which the detection elements from outside the volume of the Cherenkov detector are to be located and it represents precisely the footprint of the respective saline environment.
In the second stage, for the working frequency of the detection elements in the saline environment (187.5 MHz), the directivity characteristics, the radiation resistance, the loss resistance, the efficiency, and the front-to-back ratio are determined.
The third stage consists in processing the real data obtained when a Cherenkov cone is generated as a result of an interaction of cosmic radiation of the neutron nature with the saline environment in which the whole system (the Cherenkov detector and its external sensing elements) is located together with the two databases from the previous stages and depending on the energy levels measured by the external and internal elements the spatial position, in which the Cherenkov Cone was generated, is deduced. If the energy measured by the external sensing elements is greater than the energy measured by the internal elements then the Cherenkov Cone was generated outside the detector volume.
The information, “decoded” from the analysis of the electromagnetic energy generated by the Cherenkov cone (which is in a directly determined relation by the energy of the neutrino, which produced the Cherenkov phenomenon), are transmitted by the nuclear phenomena (fusion, fission, nuclear diffusion), which took place in the Universe at astronomic distanced (much larger than the detection possibilities known so far). This information brings an important contribution to the knowledge of the Universe.
The determination of the Cherenkov cone in salt spray (in salt spray the neutrinos with energies of the order 1012 ÷ 1023 eV are determined, which represent phenomena in the Universe that are generated by solar, galaxies, quasars, pulsars etc. systems), implies the implementation of a system, which measures the distribution of the density of the environment dielectric permittivity, which occurs in order to reduce the electromagnetic waves generated following the interaction between the environment with a neutrino. Thus a map, of the distribution of the “attenuation lengths” of the electromagnetic waves in the environment in which the measurement were done, is carried out.
The maximum distance between the detection elements placed in salt spray at Slănic Prahova is given by the noise level, which was measured here (−115 dBm) and it is of 50 m (0.2 μV, the graph from Figure 5). The detection of this level requires amplifications of about 129.5 dB on the frequency 187.5 Mhz (120 dB + 9.5 dB or an amplification of 3 × 106) in order to bring the signal at digital processing level with a DAC system (digital-analog converter). Thus we deduce that the attenuation length of the saline spray determines the placement points of the detection elements of a Cherenkov detector.
In order to minimize the costs of implementation of a Cherenkov detector for the determination and detection of the Cherenkov cone in saline spray (and in other environments where a map of the distribution of the spatial density of the dielectric permittivity in the volume of the entire environment, can be carried out), we need two stages: - the implementation of the map of the spatial density distribution of the dielectric permittivity in the volume of the entire salt spray and the determination of the optimum number of detection elements of the future Cherenkov detector and their optimum spatial placement position. In this regards, two methods for the determination and detection of the Cherenkov cone in salt spray are noticed: - inside and outside the volume of the detector.
The Cherenkov cone in salt spray is generated following the interaction of a UHE neutrino (Ultra High Energy, 1012 ÷ 1023 eV) with the saline environment. The detection of the information generated by the Cherenkov cone in salt spray implies knowing the energy, the direction, and the direction of travel of the neutrino, which interacted with this environment. The generation of UHE neutrinos may be due to some nuclear-related phenomena, which have a very high energy and give these neutrinos energies equivalent to the phenomena and provide information about these violent phenomena in the Universe. Thus, we can determine the nuclear phenomena in the Universe.
This work has been carried out on the Core Programme of the Romanian Ministry of Education and Research, National Authority for Scientific Research, PN-19-18 (18N/08. 02. 2019).
We thank the Professors from the Faculty of Electronics, Telecommunications, and Information Technology at the Polytechnic University of Bucharest, Romania: Octavian Fratu, Alina Mihaela Bădescu, Alexandru Vulpe, and Răzvan Crăciunescu for the support and the materials made available.
The main issues which various industries are facing are the accumulation of undesired substances or materials dissolved or presented as a suspension in the fluid on the heat transfer surfaces [1]. This phenomenon which is called as fouling affects the equipment operation by reducing their thermal effectiveness. This causes a significant economic loss due to the installations of regular cleaning [2, 3].
\nFouling in heat transfer process is often inevitable and reduces energy efficiency and plant operability. Mitigation of fouling, and effective cleaning strategies, both require understanding the mechanisms involved in deposition and cleaning [4]. Many researches on fouling in heat transfer processes are dealt with, by reducing the efficiency of heat transfer and limiting productivity [5]. Phosphoric acid fouling in concentration process preheat exchangers is a persistent operational problem that compromises energy recovery in these process. Progress is hampered by the lack of quantitative knowledge of the dynamic effects of fouling on heat transfer exchanger [6]. Generally, phosphoric acid, which is the cold fluid, flows through the tube side while steam, which is the hot stream, flow through the shell side in heat exchangers [7]. The solution of concentrated phosphoric acid is supersaturated with calcium sulfate, resulting in the deposition on the contact material [8]. Given that the thermal conductivity of these scales is low, even a thin layer of scale can drastically reduce the overall heat transfer coefficient [9]. Furthermore, fluorosilicate and fluoroaluminate deposits on the acid ducts of clarifier tanks and evaporators can be imbedded in gypsum scale, which reduces pipe diameter and flow rate. In spite of considerable research efforts at the phosphoric acid type scale, no viable commercial solution has been found [10, 11, 12]. Behbahani et al. [13] have done a high number of fouling experiments in a side-stream of a phosphoric acid plant for various flow velocities, surface temperatures and concentrations in order to determine the mechanisms which control the deposition process. After identifying the effects of operational parameters on the deposition process, a fouling kinetic model by crystallization has been developed in Behbahani et al. [8]. A mathematical model has been elaborated to predict the fouling resistance in concentrating phosphoric acid [14]. The predicted fouling resistances were compared with the experimental data. Majority engineering calculations on heat transfer use the experimental heat transfer coefficients [15].
\nIn this survey, we will examine the fouling phenomenon of the heat exchanger tubes for the preheat circuit of the phosphoric acid. The heat exchanger used for heating phosphoric acid is exposed to the fouling problem at the tube side of heat exchangers. In this context an experimental determination of the thermal fouling resistance by measuring the inlet and outlet temperatures of phosphoric acid, the temperature of steam, suction and discharge pressure of the pump and acid density measurement, the overall heat transfer coefficient has been determined. The determination of the overall heat transfer coefficient for the heat exchanger with clean and fouled surfaces makes it possible to calculate the fouling resistance.
\nFouling can be divided into a number of distinct mechanisms. In general, many of these fouling mechanisms occur at the same time and each requires a different prevention technique. Among these different mechanisms, some represent different stages of the fouling process. The main mechanisms or stages of fouling include:
Period of initiation or delay. This is the clean surface period before dirt accumulation. This accumulation of relatively small deposits can even improve heat transfer over a clean surface and give the appearance of a “negative” fouling rate and a total negative fouling amount.
Particle fouling and formation, aggregation and flocculation.
Mass transport and migration of fouling agents to fouling sites.
Separation and deposition phase involving nucleation or initiation of fouling sites and attachment leading to deposit formation.
Growth, aging and hardening and increase of deposit resistance or auto-retardation, erosion and elimination.
Fouling is defined as a phenomenon that occurs with or without a temperature gradient in many natural, domestic and industrial processes. A surface is “dirty” when unwanted material accumulates there.
\nThe fouling rate is normally defined as the average deposit surface loading per unit of surface area in a unit of time. Depending on the fouling mechanism and conditions, the fouling rate may be linear, falling, asymptotic or saw-tooth, as the case may be. Figures 1 and 2 shows the different types of fouling rate.
Linear fouling is the type of fouling where the rate of fouling can be stable over time with the increase of fouling resistance and deposit thickness. It usually occurs when the temperature of the deposition in contact with the flowing fluid remains constant.
Fouling curves.
Practical fouling curve.
Ebert and Panchal [16] presented a fouling model expressing the average (linear) fouling rate under given conditions following two competing terms, namely a deposit term and an attenuated term.
\nwhere
Falling fouling is the type of fouling where the fouling rate decreases with time, and the deposit thickness does not reach a constant value, although the fouling rate never drops below a certain minimum value. In general falling fouling is due to an increase of removal rate with time. Its progress can often be described by two numbers: the initial fouling rate and the fouling rate after a long period of time.
Asymptotic fouling rate is where rate decreases with time until it becomes negligible after a period of time when the deposition rate becomes equal to the deposit removal rate and the deposit thickness remains constant. This type of fouling generally occurs where the tube surface temperature remains constant while the temperature of the flowing fluid drops as a result of increased resistance of fouling material to heat transfer. Asymptotic fouling may also result from soft or poorly adherent suspended solid deposits upon heat transfer surfaces in areas of fast flow where they do not adhere strongly to the surface with the result that the thicker the deposit becomes, the more likely it is to wash off in patches and thus achieve some average asymptotic value over a period of time. The asymptotic fouling resistance increases with increasing particle concentration and decreasing fluid bulk temperature, flow velocity, and particle diameter. The asymptotic fouling model was first described by Kern and Seaton [17]. In this model, the competing fouling mechanisms result in asymptotic fouling resistance beyond which any additional increase in fouling does not happen.
Saw-tooth fouling occurs where part of the deposit is detached after a critical residence time or once a critical deposit thickness has been reached. The fouling layer then builds up and breaks off again. This periodic variation could be due to pressure pulses, scaling, trapping of air inside the surface deposits during shutdowns or other reasons. It often corresponds to the moments of system shutdowns, startups or other transients during operation.
The fouling resistances can be measured experimentally or analytically. The main measurement methods include:
Direct weighing: the simplest method for assessing the extent of deposition on laboratory test surfaces is to weigh directly. The method requires an exact balance in order to be able to detect relatively small changes in the mass of deposits. It may be necessary to use thin walled tube to reduce the tare mass in order to increase the accuracy of the method.
Thickness measurement: in many examples of fouling the thickness of the deposit is relatively small, perhaps less than 50 μm, so that a direct measurement is not easy to obtain. A relatively simple technique provided there is reasonable access to the deposit, consists in measuring the thickness. By using a removable coupon or plate, the thickness of a hard deposit such as a scale, can be obtained using a micrometer or traveling microscope. For a deformable deposit containing a large proportion of water, e.g., a biofilm it is possible to use an electrical conductivity technique.
Heat transfer measurements: in this method, the fouling resistance can be determined according to the changes in heat transfer during the deposition process. The equation for the following operations will be Eq. (11). The data can be reported in terms of changes in overall heat transfer coefficient. A major hypothesis of this method is that the presence of the deposit does not affect the hydrodynamics of the flowing fluid. However, during the first stages of deposition, the surface of the deposit is generally rougher than the metal surface so that the turbulence in the fluid is greater than when it is flowing on a smooth surface. As a result the fouling resistance calculated from the data will be lower than if the increased turbulence level had been taken into account. It is possible that the increased turbulence offsets the thermal resistance of the deposit and negative values of thermal resistance will be calculated.
Pressure drop: as an alternative to direct heat transfer measurements it is possible to use changes in pressure drop caused by the presence of the deposit. The pressure drop is increased for a given flow rate due to the reduced flow area in the fouled condition and the roughness of the deposit. The shape of the curve relating pressure drop with time will generally, follow an asymptotic shape so that the time to achieve asymptotic fouling resistance can be determined. The method is often associated with the direct measurement of thickness of the deposit layer. Friction factor changes can also be used to indicate fouling of a flow channel.
Other techniques for assessing fouling: with regard to their effect on heat exchanger performance the measurement of heat transfer reduction or increase in pressure drop provide a direct indication. The simple methods of measuring deposit thickness described above are useful, but in general they require that the experiment be completed in order to allow access to the test sections. Ideally non-intrusive techniques would allow further deposition while maintaining experimental conditions without disturbance. Such techniques include the use of radioactive tracers and optical methods. Laser techniques can be used to study the accumulation and removal of deposits. In addition, infra-red systems are used to study the development and removal of biofilms from tubular test sections. Microscopic examination of deposits may provide further evidence of the mechanisms of fouling, but this is usually a “backup” system rather than providing quantitative data.
As noted above, fouling has the effect of forming on the heat transfer surface a substantially solid deposit of low thermal conductivity, through which heat is to be transferred by conduction. But as the thermal conductivity of the fouling layer and its thickness are not generally known, the only possible solution to the heat transfer problem is to introduce a fouling factor to take into account the additional resistance to heat transfer and possible calculation of the overall coefficient of heat transfer. A fouling coefficient is also sometimes specified, it is the reciprocal value of the fouling factor. When carrying out heat transfer calculations, the selection of fouling factors must be made with caution, especially when the fouling resistances completely dominate the thermal design.
\nThe influence of inherent uncertainties in fouling factors is generally greater than that of uncertainties in other design parameters such as fluid properties, flow rates and temperatures [18]. An important fouling factor is sometimes adopted as a safety margin to cover uncertainties on the properties of fluids and even in the knowledge of the process, but the use of an excessively large fouling factor will result in an oversized heat exchanger with two or three times more area than is necessary. Although many tabulations based on the experiment are available and provide typical fouling factors such as the TEMA RGP-T-2.4 table [19], an acceptable assessment of the effects of fouling needs to be judged and evaluated for each particular application. Such tabulations can, however, serve as a guide in the absence of more specific information.
\nA number of semi empirical models have been proposed over the years for the prediction of the rate of fouling in heat exchangers or for estimating a fouling factor to be used in heat transfer calculations.
\nThe first work on this subject began in the late 1950s with Kern and Seaton [17].
\nThe modeling resulting from this work is based on the assumption that two processes act simultaneously. The first process is that of particle deposition characterized by a deposition flux that is constant if the concentration is also constant. The second process is that of the re-entrainment of particles characterized by a re-entrain flow
\n
The deposition process is designed as the serialization of particle transport and adhesion mechanisms. The following assumptions are made:
consideration of a single type of fouling;
homogeneity of the deposit;
not taken into account of the phase of initiation of the deposit and the state of surface;
constancy of the properties and thermo-physical characteristics of the fluid and the deposit.
The particle wall transport phase controls the deposition process while the shear stress controls the re-entrain phase of the particles. Thus, considering the proportionality of
Or
\n\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Equation (2) thus becomes:
\nThe solution of Eq. (5) is thus:
\nAssuming that τ= \n
We can thus express the equation as follows:
\nConsidering that the initial fouling flow is equal to the deposition flow and that the thermo physical properties of the deposit (conductivity and density) are constant, it is thus possible to express Eq. (7) in the form of a thermal fouling resistance:
\nWith
The Kern and Seaton [17] model therefore provides a mathematical description of the concept of simple fouling. This equation verifies the asymptotic behavior of the formation of a particulate deposit on the exchange surface of a heat exchanger. All models and theory of fouling are based on this model.
\nAn apparent weakness of the Kern and Seaton [17] model is that the re-entrain flow depends on the thickness of the deposition layer. As a result, it is only once a significant deposit thickness has accumulated that the role of the re-entrain term becomes significant [20]. In the case of high speed flow, the deposit would be completely removed.
\nWe also note that this model requires to go back on the values of
However, we note various works that make it possible to know the impact of the flow velocity (
Different authors thus propose a relationship of proportionality of type:
\nWith regard to the tube exchangers: for Kern and Seaton [17] the value of
As far as plate heat exchangers are concerned, Muller-Steinhagen [24] has in its study demonstrated a relation of proportionality between the asymptotic resistance of fouling
In the same context, Grandgeorge [25] proposes an empirical relation resulting from several experiments on different industrial size plate heat exchangers. In this context, Grandgeorge [25] established that the use of the initial pressure drop in the heat exchanger (Δ
Based on these observations, this model has been revised and modified by various researchers with various descriptions of the term deposition and re-entrain: Only empirical parameters were added and derived solely from the experimental study [20, 25].
\nThe phosphoric acid concentration loop is allowed to concentrate—by evaporation—the phosphoric acid from 28 to 54% P2O5 in a forced-circulation evaporator closed loop, functioning under vacuum feeded by a barometric condenser. The system used for concentration composed of a stainless steel tubular heat exchanger, a centrifugal pump, a boiler or expansion chamber, a barometric condenser and a basket filter [26].
\nThe inclusion of the dilute acid is done at the basket filter where it mixes with the circulating acid in order to protect the pump from abrasion and to limit the heat exchanger fouling, which reduces the stop frequency for washing. The circulation pump then aspirates the mixture formed and sends it to the inlet of the heat exchanger at a temperature in the order of 70°C. The heat exchanger allows heating the phosphoric acid at a temperature in the order of 80°C. The steam undergoes a condensation at a temperature of around 120°C at the level of the exchanger. The condensate will be sent to a storage tank before being returned to the utility center.
\nThe overheated mixture of the acid outgoing the exchanger then passes into the boiler where an amount of water evaporates and the production of concentrated acid is done by overflow in inner tube of the boiler and the rest will be recycled. The condenser also ensures the re-entrain of incondensable outgoing of the boiler by the effect of water tube created by the waterfall. At the foot of the barometric guard, the seawater is gathered in a guard tank before being rejected to the sea (Figure 3).
\nSimplified diagram of the phosphoric acid concentration unit.
Our experimental study is based on the following hypotheses.
The flow of two fluids (Phosphoric acid and steam) is at counter current.
Values of the thermo-physical properties of the fluids were considered constant.
The thermal losses were neglected.
The inlet and outlet temperatures of the two fluids are determined at the extremities of the heat exchanger.
Pump suction and discharge pressure measurements are taken at the extremities of the circulation pump.
The experimental data was collected out during 1 year. The method that we used to follow the fouling evolution consists in carrying out a heat balance at the boundaries of the heat exchanger by the intermediary of measurements of the inlet and outlet temperatures pump suction and discharge pressure measurements and acid density measurement (Figure 4). The latter was taken each 2 h during all the day.
\nThe measurement method at the boundaries of the heat exchanger.
This method, albeit indirect, makes it possible to detect the necessary moment to shut down the installation for cleaning. In the current study, the temporal evolution of the fouling resistance of the phosphoric acid was studied.
\nThe calculation of the fouling resistance was done using the following relation:
\nThe overall heat transfer coefficient at the dirty state was given in the time course, via the expression:
\nThis relation is taken by the evaluation of energy on the heat exchanger by supposing the isolated system and the physical properties of the two fluids, as well as, the heat transfer coefficients stay constant along the exchanger.
\nIn the phosphoric acid concentration unit, the operating conditions at the limits of the heat exchanger unstable, it is necessary to disclose the heat exchange coefficients in the proper conditions
The evolution of the fouling resistance in the phosphoric acid concentration process heat exchanger was followed for a study period quoted previously. This heat exchanger is already in service for 100 days before the be-ginning of the present study. However, it has carried out a stop that lasted 12 hours then its return to service. This stop is for the heat exchangers cleaning.
\nAll the results from the fouling resistance are presented on Figure 5.
\nVariation of the fouling resistance as a function of time for the stainless-steel-tubular heat exchanger.
According to the values of these resistances, which are the majority higher than zero, this experimental data presents a fouling state. This is evident since, as mentioned before, this exchanger is in service for more than 3 months. The curves presented show that the temporal evolution of the fouling resistance, seems to follow an asymptotic evolution, which conforms to the model of Kern and Seaton [17], with the absence of the induction period. That can be explained to the rapid evolution of this phenomenon associated in particular with the characteristics of the treated phosphoric acid. As it appears clearly as the fouling resistance increases with the time until reaching a maximum value varied from 1.38 * 10−4 to 1.61 * 10−4 m2.K.W−1.
\nThe series functioned for more than 5 days, a sufficient period so that the resistance asymptotic value is reached. The fluctuation observed on these curves are due to the variation of flow, which, acting on the shear stress to the wall, causes re-entrain deposit particles or their deposition according to the sent flow value.
\nFrom Eq. (11), we notice that the overall heat transfer coefficient is inversely proportional to the fouling resistance.
\nThe fouling resistance increases over time, which leads to a decrease in the flow of heat exchanged between the phosphoric acid and the steam, and subsequently the decrease in the overall heat transfer coefficient. As it appears clearly on Figures 5 and 6, when the fouling resistance increases with the time, the overall heat transfer coefficient decreases until reaching a minimum value varied from 1821 to 2078 W.m−2.K−1.
\nVariation of the overall heat transfer coefficient as a function of time for the stainless-steel-tubular heat exchanger.
One of the earliest correlative models for the characterization of the asymptotic kinetics of fouling, we distinguish Kern and Seaton [17], whose general expression is as follows:
\nThis model gives rather satisfactory results, provided that the asymptotic value of the thermal resistance
The analysis of the experimental data which makes it possible to carry out the plots of Figure 7 gives us the results of the two greatness
Kinetics of fouling of the stainless-steel-tubular heat exchanger.
Rf* [m2.K.W−1] | \nτ [h] | \nR2\n | \n
---|---|---|
1.72*10−4\n | \n40.32 | \n0.975 | \n
Values of the asymptotic fouling resistance, the time constant and the determination coefficient for the stainless-steel tubular heat exchanger.
The monitoring of heat exchangers provides the sound knowledge of the fouling evolution in the specific conditions of the process. Deposit formation is a thermal resistance which leads important economic penalties.
\nThe aim of this work was the study of the heat exchanger fouling phenomenon in the concentration phosphoric acid process. Secondly, the study concerned the temporal evolution of the fouling resistance and the overall heat transfer coefficient.
\nThe results achieved revealed an asymptotic evolution of the fouling resistance, compliant with the model of Kern and Seaton with the lack of the induction period, which is explained by the consequence of an improper cleaning, or a deviation between the present study and the beginning of the heat exchangers functioning after the last stop.
\n\n area, m2\n specific heat capacity, J.Kg−1.K−1\n correction factor (=1 for a steam condenser) mass flow rate, kg.s−1\n pressure, bar thermal power, W fouling resistance, m2.K.W−1\n temperature, K time, h overall heat transfer coefficient, W.m−2.K−1\n difference of greatness between two points time required to reach 63.2% of Rf*, h acid circulation exchange input logarithmic mean clean output clean state dirty state steam asymptotic value
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Integrity - We are consistent and dependable, always striving for precision and accuracy in the true spirit of science.
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This discussion can shift the focus of research—currently centered on learning modes—to a focus on leadership practices for skills development and the consequent career progression of subordinates.",book:{id:"6781",slug:"leadership",title:"Leadership",fullTitle:"Leadership"},signatures:"Luciana Mourão",authors:[{id:"239876",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Luciana",middleName:null,surname:"Mourão",slug:"luciana-mourao",fullName:"Luciana Mourão"}]},{id:"55244",title:"Corporate Governance and Fraud: Evolution and Considerations",slug:"corporate-governance-and-fraud-evolution-and-considerations",totalDownloads:3031,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"There are many definitions of Corporate Governance, as a structure, as process, as policies, as mechanisms, but despite their differences of focus, they mainly addressed the sustainable economic growth and protection of shareholders and other stakeholder’s rights. The purpose here is to present the evolution of the main principles and frameworks as corporate and financial environment changes and set new challenges. Some important scandals that revealed the weaknesses of corporate governance frameworks are described to complement the comprehension of the object of it. It is detached the aspects simulated or ignored and the subsequent enforcement and monitoring response. Discussion about the new challenges, what corporate governance is supposed to provide and what it can promote, closes this chapter.",book:{id:"5968",slug:"corporate-governance-and-strategic-decision-making",title:"Corporate Governance and Strategic Decision Making",fullTitle:"Corporate Governance and Strategic Decision Making"},signatures:"Ana Paula Paulino da Costa",authors:[{id:"201677",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Paula P.",middleName:null,surname:"Costa",slug:"ana-paula-p.-costa",fullName:"Ana Paula P. Costa"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"63",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81262",title:"The Innovative Business Model for Family-Owned Firms in the era of Digital Entrepreneurship: Evidence from Emerging Economy",slug:"the-innovative-business-model-for-family-owned-firms-in-the-era-of-digital-entrepreneurship-evidence",totalDownloads:31,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102459",abstract:"The current Covid-19 pandemic has been changed the businesses plans. High uncertainty can compel the organization to change the business plan according to the market demand. In the current era of digitalization, organizations are needed to modify the existing business plan and innovate it through technologies. Modifying existing resources according to the market demand is challenging for the organization; employers face many challenges and obstacles. Businesses plan to develop a long-term business model to validate the attractiveness, reduce the avoidable investment of scarce resources, and structure the business process. In the current era of digitalization, businesses, specifically, SMEs cannot compete with the competitors who can adopt digitalization systems. Therefore, the current chapter is trying to find out the challenges faced by SMEs in developing economies during the adoption of the digital business model. In the current chapter, researchers focus on three different kinds of digital technologies that must be part of the business model during the era of digitalization, such as adopting digital technologies (artificial intelligence, Internet of Thing, and virtual reality and to create a new business model following the current era issue, these are the main block to resist of these market uncertainties in a new venture of family firms.",book:{id:"11258",title:"Innovation, Research and Development and Capital Evaluation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11258.jpg"},signatures:"Rizwan Ullah Khan, Munir A. Abbasi, Azlan Amran and Arshad Fawad"},{id:"81059",title:"New Product Development Strategies and Methods: Implications for the Indian Readymade Apparel Sector",slug:"new-product-development-strategies-and-methods-implications-for-the-indian-readymade-apparel-sector",totalDownloads:18,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103128",abstract:"Today, the intense global competition in the textile and apparel industry made the firms worldwide to be more innovative and competitive by heavily investing into the New Product Development Strategies and Methods. In this context, the present study attempts to (i) understand New Product Development Approaches and Strategies adopted by key global and domestic brands operating in the Indian market and (ii) derive lessons for the development of future models of New Product Development in the Indian Textile and Apparel Industry. The brands have been selected on the basis of their popularity and positioning in the Indian Textile markets.",book:{id:"11258",title:"Innovation, Research and Development and Capital Evaluation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11258.jpg"},signatures:"Mitali Gupta"},{id:"81010",title:"Formality and Innovation in French-Speaking Sub-Saharan African SME: Cases of Cameroon and Senegal",slug:"formality-and-innovation-in-french-speaking-sub-saharan-african-sme-cases-of-cameroon-and-senegal",totalDownloads:16,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101738",abstract:"Despite the importance of public policies in favor of the formalization of enterprises in French-speaking Sub-Saharan Africa, the productive fabric remains marked by a strong predominance of informal enterprises whose weight tends to limit the propensity of enterprises to innovate. In this context, becoming formal for an enterprise can improve the innovation capacity of enterprises. This article aims to analyze the role of formality on product, process, organizational and commercial innovations in Cameroon and Senegal. The results obtained using a sample of 1369 firms from data collected by the International Development Research Centre (IDRC) and logistic regression show that formal firms have a better innovation capacity. But the role of formality on innovation tends to be less important for Cameroonian firms. These results show that the Cameroonian authorities must intensify measures in favor of the formalization of enterprises to boost the potential for innovation within enterprises.",book:{id:"11258",title:"Innovation, Research and Development and Capital Evaluation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11258.jpg"},signatures:"Martin Ndzana and Gregory Mvogo"},{id:"80595",title:"The “Lateral Transshipment” is a Cooperative Tool for Optimizing the Profitability of a Distribution System",slug:"the-lateral-transshipment-is-a-cooperative-tool-for-optimizing-the-profitability-of-a-distribution-s",totalDownloads:37,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101992",abstract:"In this chapter, we discuss a network consisting of a distribution center (or central depot) and two retailers who serve customers. D1 andD2 represent, respectively, the demands of retailer 1 and 2. We assume that the demandDi (i = 1, 2) at retailer i follows a normal distribution with mean μi and standard deviationσi (known). This analysis makes it possible to assess the effect of emergency transshipment both at the level of the Average Global Profit and of the Average Global Desservice Rate. In this chapter, we consider a centralized one-echelon supply chain with two-retailers selling products and facing stochastic demand.",book:{id:"11258",title:"Innovation, Research and Development and Capital Evaluation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11258.jpg"},signatures:"Elleuch Fadoi"},{id:"80382",title:"Innovation and Entrepreneurial Ecosystems",slug:"innovation-and-entrepreneurial-ecosystems",totalDownloads:103,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102344",abstract:"Nowadays special attention is paid to ecosystem conditions that encourage innovation and entrepreneurship. This chapter provides a critical review and expands the understanding of the concepts of the innovation ecosystem and entrepreneurial ecosystem. The entrepreneurial ecosystem represents a collection of actors that interact within a geographically bound entrepreneurial environment and factors, which contribute to the development of productive entrepreneurship. Innovation ecosystems represent communities of interacting actors that support innovation processes and create technologies and innovations. The focus of the innovation ecosystem is on value creation through the creation of innovations, while the focus of the entrepreneurship ecosystem is on the development of entrepreneurship. There are differences between the two concepts, but also the relationships and interactions, which are revealed in the chapter. Also, there are highlighted the framework, components and features of both entrepreneurial and innovation ecosystems.",book:{id:"11258",title:"Innovation, Research and Development and Capital Evaluation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11258.jpg"},signatures:"Alina Ianioglo"},{id:"80138",title:"Valuation and Capital Return as Inverse Problems",slug:"valuation-and-capital-return-as-inverse-problems",totalDownloads:63,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101943",abstract:"The capital return rate is the relative time change rate of value. Correspondingly, the current value can be produced in terms of value change rate divided by capital return rate. There is a variety of ways to approximate the expected capital return rate. These are briefly discussed. The approximation of the value change rate is still more variant, depending on the type of businesses discussed. A variety of businesses may appear within a firm, in which case the value change rates must be integrated. An example is provided of a real estate firm benefiting from the growth of multiannual plants of varying age. It is found that the application of a duration-dependent reference capital return rate increases the value increment rate of juvenile stands and decreases that of mature stands, however increasing the valuation result of both.",book:{id:"11258",title:"Innovation, Research and Development and Capital Evaluation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11258.jpg"},signatures:"Petri P. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 18th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"13633",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelhamid",middleName:null,surname:"Mellouk",slug:"abdelhamid-mellouk",fullName:"Abdelhamid Mellouk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13633/images/1567_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Paris 12 Val de Marne University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"109268",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Ataby",slug:"ali-al-ataby",fullName:"Ali Al-Ataby",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109268/images/7410_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Liverpool",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"3807",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmelo",middleName:"Jose Albanez",surname:"Bastos-Filho",slug:"carmelo-bastos-filho",fullName:"Carmelo Bastos-Filho",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/3807/images/624_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Pernambuco",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"38850",title:"Dr.",name:"Efren",middleName:null,surname:"Gorrostieta Hurtado",slug:"efren-gorrostieta-hurtado",fullName:"Efren Gorrostieta 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learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"13818",title:"Dr.",name:"Asim",middleName:null,surname:"Bhatti",slug:"asim-bhatti",fullName:"Asim Bhatti",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13818/images/system/13818.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Deakin University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"151889",title:"Dr.",name:"Joao Luis Garcia",middleName:null,surname:"Rosa",slug:"joao-luis-garcia-rosa",fullName:"Joao Luis Garcia Rosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/151889/images/4861_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"1177",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:"J. 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Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. 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