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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10844",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Protected Area Management - Recent Advances",title:"Protected Area Management",subtitle:"Recent Advances",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Until recently, values and benefits from protected areas have often been underestimated as well as taken for granted. Protected Area Management - Recent Advances demonstrates that there are deep necessities in how the wider scientific, environmental, socioeconomic, and cultural values that these natural ecosystems provide should increasingly be recognized. The book highlights various approaches for managing and conserving protected areas to respond to some pressing global challenges such as climate change, demand for food and energy, overexploitation, and habitat change. It addresses these issues in five main sections that cover biodiversity and genetic resources; protected marine areas; community, ecotourism, and protected areas; and protected area conservation and monitoring.",isbn:"978-1-83969-813-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-812-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-814-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95152",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"protected-area-management-recent-advances",numberOfPages:368,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"7daa4d97e24204483c488a67fcd76a17",bookSignature:"Mohd Nazip Suratman",publishedDate:"March 16th 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10844.jpg",numberOfDownloads:2173,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:4,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 19th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 17th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 16th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 4th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 3rd 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"144417",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Nazip",middleName:null,surname:"Suratman",slug:"mohd-nazip-suratman",fullName:"Mohd Nazip Suratman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/144417/images/system/144417.jpg",biography:"Mohd Nazip Suratman is a Professor of Forestry at the Faculty of Applied Sciences, and a Principal Fellow at the Institute for Biodiversity and Sustainable Development, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Malaysia, He earned a B. Sc in Forestry from Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) and an M. S from the University of Nebraska-Lincoln (UNL), USA. He was then honored with a prestigious fellowship from the Canadian Commonwealth to pursue a Ph.D. degree at the University of British Columbia (UBC), Canada, where he worked on the application of remote sensing for forest resources management. He has been involved in numerous collaborative international research projects that led to publications in reputable journals. Altogether, he has published a total of 14 books and more than 200 research publications. His research interests cover several aspects of forestry, mainly forest modeling, forest ecology, and biodiversity. He received the UiTM’s Best Researcher and Top Talent Awards in 2015 and 2021, respectively. He served as the Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Research and Innovation) from 2018 to 2021.",institutionString:"Universiti Teknologi MARA",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Universiti Teknologi MARA",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"859",title:"Conservation",slug:"conservation"}],chapters:[{id:"80369",title:"Introductory Chapter: Tropical Biodiversity Research in Protected Area of Pahang National Park, Malaysia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102616",slug:"introductory-chapter-tropical-biodiversity-research-in-protected-area-of-pahang-national-park-malays",totalDownloads:26,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Mohd Nazip Suratman",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80369",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80369",authors:[{id:"144417",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Nazip",surname:"Suratman",slug:"mohd-nazip-suratman",fullName:"Mohd Nazip Suratman"}],corrections:null},{id:"80149",title:"Conservation Genetics for Managing Biodiversity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101872",slug:"conservation-genetics-for-managing-biodiversity",totalDownloads:175,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Conservation genetics is a field derived from a combination of evolution, ecology, behaviour, and genetics. It is an applied discipline of crisis-oriented science of biodiversity resource management that is highlighted when the world realizes the increasing anthropogenic impact and natural populations are declining towards species extinction. It helps to understand and explain the importance of evolutionary factors — mutations, non-random mating, gene flow, genetic drift, and natural selection — for the survival of populations/species that justify the need for prudent biodiversity management. The four justifications for maintaining prudent biodiversity are the economic value of bioresources, ecosystem services, esthetics, and rights of living organisms to exist ensure functioning community and ecosystem services. Hence, conservation genetics must be an essential part of policies and programs in wildlife and biodiversity management.",signatures:"Nurul Izza Ab Ghani, Wardah Arifin and Ahmad Ismail",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80149",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80149",authors:[{id:"416211",title:"Dr.",name:"Nurul Izza",surname:"Ab Ghani",slug:"nurul-izza-ab-ghani",fullName:"Nurul Izza Ab Ghani"},{id:"417358",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmad",surname:"Ismail",slug:"ahmad-ismail",fullName:"Ahmad Ismail"},{id:"417359",title:"BSc.",name:"Wardah",surname:"Arifin",slug:"wardah-arifin",fullName:"Wardah Arifin"}],corrections:null},{id:"79088",title:"Conserving Endemic Plant Species in Oceanic Island’s Protected Areas",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100571",slug:"conserving-endemic-plant-species-in-oceanic-island-s-protected-areas",totalDownloads:155,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Oceanic islands are known for their high levels of plant diversity, due to disjunct geographical distribution that leads to speciation. The main factors contributing to genetic speciation includes the creation of a barrier within a previously widely distributed taxon and the limited dispersal of seeds, which favours genetic differentiation and, thus, fosters rapid speciation. Plant survival and population fitness vary according to environmental factors and to human interference. This chapter depicts the importance of oceanic islands as biodiversity hotspots, discusses the threats to which endemic plants on islands are exposed, namely climate change, invasive alien species, urbanisation, touristic activities, fire, changes in agriculture practices and collecting pressure. The best practices worldwide to protect endemic plant species in protected areas are also addressed, namely the implementation of prevention and mitigation actions, the programs executed to protect endemic species, and management plans to avoid future threats.",signatures:"Teresa Mouga",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79088",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79088",authors:[{id:"305535",title:"Prof.",name:"Teresa",surname:"Mouga",slug:"teresa-mouga",fullName:"Teresa Mouga"}],corrections:null},{id:"78280",title:"Ecology of the Granular Spiny Frog Quasipaa verrucospinosa (Amphibia: Anura - Dicroglossidae) in Central Vietnam",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99656",slug:"ecology-of-the-granular-spiny-frog-em-quasipaa-verrucospinosa-em-amphibia-anura-dicroglossidae-in-ce",totalDownloads:28,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"We conducted a large-scale assessment at 35 primary forest sites and 42 secondary forest sites in Bach Ma National Park, central Vietnam, using the detection/non-detection data for each site over multiple visits, to quantify the site proportions that were occupied by granular spiny frogs (Quasipaa verrucospinosa). We additionally investigated the effect of site covariates (primary versus secondary forests) and sample covariates (temperature, humidity, and precipitation) to examine the environmental needs that may be incorporated for conserving rain forest amphibians in Vietnam. From the best model among all candidate models, We estimated a site occupancy probability of 0.632 that was higher than the naïve occupancy estimate of 0.403 and a 57% increase over the proportion of sites at which frogs were actually observed. The primary forest variable was an important determinant of site occupancy, whereas occupancy was not associated with the variable of secondary forest. In a combined AIC model weight, the detection model p (temperature, humidity, precipitation) included 90.9% of the total weight, providing clear evidence that environmental conditions were important sample covariates in modeling detection probabilities of granular spiny frogs. Our results substantiate the importance of incorporating occupancy and detection probabilities into studies of habitat relationships and suggest that the primary forest factor associated with environmental conditions influence the occupancy of granular spiny frogs.",signatures:"Binh V. Ngo and Ya-Fu Lee",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78280",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78280",authors:[{id:"416568",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Binh",surname:"V. Ngo",slug:"binh-v.-ngo",fullName:"Binh V. Ngo"},{id:"428625",title:"Dr.",name:"Ya-Fu",surname:"Lee",slug:"ya-fu-lee",fullName:"Ya-Fu Lee"}],corrections:null},{id:"78640",title:"Management and Sustainability of Greek Wetlands",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100003",slug:"management-and-sustainability-of-greek-wetlands",totalDownloads:161,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Greece has today about 400 large and small wetlands. Some of them are international importance and some are considered as national importance. Several of them are composite and form wetland mosaics or complexes. The most common wetland types in Greece are: rivers, estuaries, deltas, lagoons, shallow lakes, shallow marine formations, marshes. Their total area is still quite large (210,000 ha) in spite of the heavy losses that occurred during the last two generations Threats of degradation are drainage, dam construction, irrigation networks, alteration in river morphology such as diversion flow, clearing of natural vegetation which alter hydrological regime and affect wetland function. Sustainable agriculture in the hydrological basins of important wetlands should be considered because these systems are threaten most.",signatures:"Paraskevi E. Mpeza",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78640",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78640",authors:[{id:"419581",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Paraskevi",surname:"E. Mpeza",slug:"paraskevi-e.-mpeza",fullName:"Paraskevi E. Mpeza"}],corrections:null},{id:"78921",title:"The Role of Marine-Protected Areas as A Life Support for Fishery Communities: Indonesian Perspective",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100214",slug:"the-role-of-marine-protected-areas-as-a-life-support-for-fishery-communities-indonesian-perspective",totalDownloads:170,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter examines relevant literature on marine-protected areas (MPAs) development and their benefit to support fishery communities in Indonesia. The MPAs concepts experienced since Indonesia’s kingdoms eras, continuing the Dutch Colonial period, the next post-independence, and the period from 2000 to the present. One of the functions of MPAs is as a source of livelihood for fishery communities. The size of MPAs in the year 2000 was around 2.6 million hectares (ha) and significantly increased in 2021 up to 23.3 million ha. The size of MPAs is growing along with forming the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries. The Indonesian government targets MPAs of 32.5 million ha or 10% of the territorial sea of the archipelago. The involvement of stakeholders in the utilization and management of MPAs ensures the area’s sustainability and environmental safety. It improves the welfare of fishermen through the availability of fish resources. Therefore, in the purpose of protecting ecological assets, even though the literature sources were limited, our finding suggests that many MPAs involving local communities and traditional management can become the foundation of the fishery community’s livelihood.",signatures:"Djumanto, Muhammad Erdi Lazuardi, Imam Musthofa Zainudin and Sukma Ridarwati",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78921",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78921",authors:[{id:"317471",title:"Dr.",name:"Djumanto",surname:null,slug:"djumanto",fullName:"Djumanto null"},{id:"429296",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Erdi",surname:"Lazuardi",slug:"muhammad-erdi-lazuardi",fullName:"Muhammad Erdi Lazuardi"},{id:"429297",title:"Dr.",name:"Imam Musthofa",surname:"Zainudin",slug:"imam-musthofa-zainudin",fullName:"Imam Musthofa Zainudin"},{id:"429298",title:"Mrs.",name:"Sukma",surname:"Ridarwati",slug:"sukma-ridarwati",fullName:"Sukma Ridarwati"}],corrections:null},{id:"77519",title:"Measuring Marine Protected Areas’ Conservation Effort: A Different Look at Three Deeply-Rooted Illusions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98933",slug:"measuring-marine-protected-areas-conservation-effort-a-different-look-at-three-deeply-rooted-illusio",totalDownloads:130,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"As a major tool for policies to protect biodiversity, the current idea of Marine Protected Areas is based on a triptych (a status, a perimeter, and regulations) that is intended to ensure their effectiveness, with the conservation effort assessed by adding up the classified surface areas. Based on an international comparative analysis using 13 differentiated case studies, we take another look at three founding illusions according to which (a) the MPA status corresponds to protection (b) on the level of the classified perimeter, and (c) founded upon regulations laid down to be respected. Our analysis shows that the status is an activatable capital, whose activation may encounter various obstacles that we have listed; that we should distinguish between two levels and types of protection, active and passive, rather than stick to the classified perimeter; that the lack of specific regulations means nothing with regard to the lack of protection; and that MPAs with a legal arsenal at their disposal use these rules first and foremost as a medium for dialogue with stakeholders, with various aims. This analysis leads us to specify what MPAs actually are, and to suggest new means and indicators to assess the conservation efforts made.",signatures:"Jean-Eudes Beuret and Anne Cadoret",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77519",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77519",authors:[{id:"417926",title:"Prof.",name:"Jean-Eudes",surname:"Beuret",slug:"jean-eudes-beuret",fullName:"Jean-Eudes Beuret"},{id:"417931",title:"Dr.",name:"Anne",surname:"Cadoret",slug:"anne-cadoret",fullName:"Anne Cadoret"}],corrections:null},{id:"79933",title:"Galician Atlantic Islands National Park: Challenges for the Conservation and Management of a Maritime-Terrestrial Protected Area",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101844",slug:"galician-atlantic-islands-national-park-challenges-for-the-conservation-and-management-of-a-maritime",totalDownloads:86,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"At present, biodiversity conservation and management in Spanish National Parks in Spain must respond to a series of regulations at a European, national and regional level, also adapting to scientific-technical progress. The availability of increasingly precise data on the values to be conserved (ecosystems, habitats, species, geodiversity) in these protected areas enables more detailed management, but also requires more rigorous, powerful, and multidisciplinary tools. Maritime-terrestrial national parks are highly sensitive areas to public use, so their impact must be one of the most important factors to take into account when planning their management. This work evaluates the past and present challenges for conservation in Galician Atlantic Islands National Park (NW Spain), where biodiversity conservation and management has evolved over time in a significant way, providing a valid case study applicable to other national parks worldwide, as well as similar situations in other contexts and scenarios. Future challenges are arising in the National Park to improve the conservation status of natural habitats and wildlife, mainly through new European initiatives that may establish important synergies with other countries.",signatures:"Javier Ferreiro da Costa, Pablo Ramil-Rego, Manuel A. Rodríguez Guitián, Hugo López Castro, Carlos Oreiro Rey, Luis Gómez-Orellana and José Antonio Fernández Bouzas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79933",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79933",authors:[{id:"61861",title:"Mr.",name:"Pablo",surname:"Ramil-Rego",slug:"pablo-ramil-rego",fullName:"Pablo Ramil-Rego"},{id:"212065",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",surname:"Ferreiro da Costa",slug:"javier-ferreiro-da-costa",fullName:"Javier Ferreiro da Costa"},{id:"445212",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel A.",surname:"Rodríguez Guitián",slug:"manuel-a.-rodriguez-guitian",fullName:"Manuel A. Rodríguez Guitián"},{id:"445213",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",surname:"Gómez-Orellana",slug:"luis-gomez-orellana",fullName:"Luis Gómez-Orellana"},{id:"445214",title:"Mr.",name:"Hugo",surname:"López Castro",slug:"hugo-lopez-castro",fullName:"Hugo López Castro"},{id:"445216",title:"Mr.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Oreiro Rey",slug:"carlos-oreiro-rey",fullName:"Carlos Oreiro Rey"},{id:"445217",title:"Mr.",name:"José Antonio",surname:"Fernández Bouzas",slug:"jose-antonio-fernandez-bouzas",fullName:"José Antonio Fernández Bouzas"}],corrections:null},{id:"79844",title:"Towards Sustainable Community Conservation in Tropical Savanna Landscapes: A Management Intervention Framework for Ecotourism Projects in a Changing Global Climate",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101589",slug:"towards-sustainable-community-conservation-in-tropical-savanna-landscapes-a-management-intervention-",totalDownloads:62,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Community-based conservation embedded in the Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources, as exemplified by the Mahenye ecotourism project, faces numerous challenges due to climate change. It, therefore, becomes imperative to adopt community-based conservation models for the changing global climatic dynamics. The specific objectives of the research were to do the following: (i) identify the shocks emanating from climate change at Mahenye ecotourism project, (ii) indicate adaptations to make the ecotourism model at Mahenye more resilient in the face of shocks emanating from climate change, and (iii) develop a management intervention framework for ecotourism projects in a changing global climate. We approached the research from a qualitative perspective. The shocks emanating from climate change at the Mahenye ecotourism project included a shortage of water and forage for wild animals during drought years, flood-induced damage of buildings and roads due to increased incidence and severity of tropical cyclones, reduced bioclimatic comfort due to temperature rises, and increased theft of flora and fauna due to climate change-related socio-economic deprivation. The adaptations include recalibrating variables ranging from amenities, income streams, marketing, and linkages. The research results could inform environmental planners on strategies for ensuring the sustainability of community ecotourism in a changing climate.",signatures:"Boycen Mudzengi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79844",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79844",authors:[{id:"419240",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Boycen",surname:"Mudzengi",slug:"boycen-mudzengi",fullName:"Boycen Mudzengi"}],corrections:null},{id:"78505",title:"The Role of Community Reserved Forests in the Conservation of Anuran Amphibians in Meghalaya, North-East India",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99750",slug:"the-role-of-community-reserved-forests-in-the-conservation-of-anuran-amphibians-in-meghalaya-north-e",totalDownloads:179,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The state of Meghalaya is situated in the north-eastern India and it comprises three major regions, namely, the Khasi Hills, the Jaintia Hills and the Garo Hills inhabited by three main tribal groups, the Khasis, the Jaintias and the Garos respectively. The tribal communities of Meghalaya protect and nurture the forests located close to their habitation and consider them as sacred. These Community reserved forests are managed by the community for their benefits and they comprise almost about 90% of the total forest cover in Meghalaya. With the recent trends of development and construction in the state many habitats are getting destroyed at an alarming rate. These community reserve forests have been seen to provide the maximum number of existing and stable habitats for many amphibian (anuran) species. In addition, they served as suitable sites for the breeding activities and oviposition by anurans. Discovery of many new anuran species have also been reported from such reserved forests.",signatures:"Ronald Kupar Lyngdoh Tron, Duwaki Rangad, Wankitlang Shangpliang, Baiakmenlang Manners and Iasyllok Rynjah",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78505",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78505",authors:[{id:"420104",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Ronald Kupar",surname:"Lyngdoh Tron",slug:"ronald-kupar-lyngdoh-tron",fullName:"Ronald Kupar Lyngdoh Tron"},{id:"427126",title:"Dr.",name:"Duwaki",surname:"Rangad",slug:"duwaki-rangad",fullName:"Duwaki Rangad"},{id:"427127",title:"Mr.",name:"Wankitlang",surname:"Shangpliang",slug:"wankitlang-shangpliang",fullName:"Wankitlang Shangpliang"},{id:"427128",title:"Mrs.",name:"Baiakmenlang",surname:"Manners",slug:"baiakmenlang-manners",fullName:"Baiakmenlang Manners"},{id:"427130",title:"Ms.",name:"Iasyllok",surname:"Rynjah",slug:"iasyllok-rynjah",fullName:"Iasyllok Rynjah"}],corrections:null},{id:"78816",title:"Approaches toward Community Participation Enhancement in Ecotourism",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100295",slug:"approaches-toward-community-participation-enhancement-in-ecotourism",totalDownloads:200,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A vast majority of scholarship share a similar view that collective participation of different stakeholders serves as a prerequisite for ecotourism sustainable development. Local community participation is considered to be an important pillar of ecotourism development as local communities are capable of influencing success or failure of ecotourism development projects. Socio-economic and socio-cultural well-being of local communities are crucial ingredients for maintaining rapport amongst stakeholders and sustaining ecotourism development. Despite being promulgated as a central pillar of ecotourism development, literature reveals that local communities have not been actively participating in planning and decision-making processes regarding ecotourism development. Adoption of Western-centric oriented participation frameworks by numerous state authorities coupled with lacking necessary skills have been identified as the main factors that hinder active participation of local communities in ecotourism development initiatives. It has therefore, been suggested that ecotourism destinations need to adopt and implement participatory approaches that suit their specific contexts and promote bottom-up ecotourism development procedures. Based on its potential for influencing review and amendment of existing tourism-related policies, a local community participation improvement model has been developed. The model is aimed at facilitating inclusive and active participation of all stakeholders in ecotourism development processes.",signatures:"Thembinkosi Keith Gumede and Antonia Thandi Nzama",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78816",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78816",authors:[{id:"419547",title:"Dr.",name:"Thembinkosi",surname:"Keith Gumede",slug:"thembinkosi-keith-gumede",fullName:"Thembinkosi Keith Gumede"},{id:"429412",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonia Thandi",surname:"Nzama",slug:"antonia-thandi-nzama",fullName:"Antonia Thandi Nzama"}],corrections:null},{id:"79204",title:"The Management of Ecotourism as a Way of Contributing to the Development of Protected Areas of Cuando Cubango-Angola",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100333",slug:"the-management-of-ecotourism-as-a-way-of-contributing-to-the-development-of-protected-areas-of-cuand",totalDownloads:42,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The management of ecotourism in local communities and protected areas faces the challenge of contributing to the achievement of sustainable development indicators, based on a system that integrates political institutional coordination, coherent local participation, endogenous potential, ecotourism and multidimensional interpretations. The objective of the research is to design a procedure for the management of ecotourism that contributes to the development of the protected areas of Cuando Cubango, in Angola. Thus, a procedure was designed for the management of ecotourism, with 5 stages: preparation; diagnosis; the definition of key factors; the objectives and actions and the evaluation and monitoring, which are fed back. Scientific and empirical methods were used, as well as research instruments for data collection and processing. To assess the procedure, the criteria of experts who classified it as high were used. That is, it is relevant for decision-making in Cuando Cubango.",signatures:"José Eduardo Ezaquias",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79204",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79204",authors:[{id:"417196",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"José",surname:"Eduardo Ezaquias",slug:"jose-eduardo-ezaquias",fullName:"José Eduardo Ezaquias"}],corrections:null},{id:"78049",title:"The Importance of Partnerships for Effective Protected Area Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99595",slug:"the-importance-of-partnerships-for-effective-protected-area-management",totalDownloads:165,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Protected areas work in complex environments in which they have to liaise with governments, scientific and civil society organizations, volunteers, local stakeholders, visitors, and funders. This requires next to thematic expertise on conservation, among others legal, management, financial, administrative and communications skills and capacities. Especially the smaller protected areas struggle to efficiently operate in all these specialized fields and often lack enough in-house capacity and resources. This chapter highlights the lessons learned and evolvement of various forms of partnerships in different countries on different continents (collaborative arrangement in Laos and different formal and informal arrangements in the Western Balkans). Core to the success is to build sufficient capacity within the protected area management authorities so they understand the priorities and the resources needed to fund, manage and implement these priorities. Specialized skills and capacities needed for effective protected area management are limited in most countries and it is inefficient and too expensive to build this capacity in-house. Having a clear vision on what needs to be done and building a strong cooperation between partners through effective communication is the key to success to come to more effective protected area management either on a national, regional or transboundary level.",signatures:"Mirjam de Koning and Oliver Avramoski",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78049",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78049",authors:[{id:"418786",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Mirjam",surname:"de Koning",slug:"mirjam-de-koning",fullName:"Mirjam de Koning"},{id:"424027",title:"Dr.",name:"Oliver",surname:"Avramoski",slug:"oliver-avramoski",fullName:"Oliver Avramoski"}],corrections:null},{id:"78656",title:"Novel Technologies and Their Application for Protected Area Management: A Supporting Approach in Biodiversity Monitoring",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99889",slug:"novel-technologies-and-their-application-for-protected-area-management-a-supporting-approach-in-biod",totalDownloads:221,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"State-of-the-art tools are revolutionizing protected area (PA) manager approaches to biodiversity monitoring. Effective strategies are available for test site establishment, data collection, archiving, analysis, and presentation. In PAs, use of new technologies will support a shift from primarily expert-based to automated monitoring procedures, allowing increasingly efficient data collection and facilitating adherence to conservation requirements. Selection and application of appropriate tools increasingly improve options for adaptive management. In this chapter, modern biodiversity monitoring techniques are introduced and discussed in relation to previous standard approaches for their applicability in diverse habitats and for different groups of organisms. A review of some of today’s most exciting technologies is presented, including environmental DNA analysis for species identification; automated optical, olfactory, and auditory devices; remote sensing applications relaying site conditions in real-time; and uses of unmanned aerial systems technology for observation and mapping. An overview is given in the context of applicability of monitoring tools in different ecosystems, providing a theoretical basis from conceptualization to implementation of novel tools in a monitoring program. Practical examples from real-world PAs are provided.",signatures:"Daniel T. Dalton, Kathrin Pascher, Vanessa Berger, Klaus Steinbauer and Michael Jungmeier",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78656",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78656",authors:[{id:"417441",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Dalton",slug:"daniel-dalton",fullName:"Daniel Dalton"},{id:"417449",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",surname:"Jungmeier",slug:"michael-jungmeier",fullName:"Michael Jungmeier"},{id:"417450",title:"Dr.",name:"Kathrin",surname:"Pascher",slug:"kathrin-pascher",fullName:"Kathrin Pascher"},{id:"417452",title:"MSc.",name:"Vanessa",surname:"Berger",slug:"vanessa-berger",fullName:"Vanessa Berger"},{id:"417453",title:"MSc.",name:"Klaus",surname:"Steinbauer",slug:"klaus-steinbauer",fullName:"Klaus Steinbauer"}],corrections:null},{id:"80413",title:"Development of Eco-Tourism Vis-à-Vis Conservation Measures for Protecting the Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna: A Study on Bhitarkanika National Park and Wildlife Sanctuary, Odisha, India",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102502",slug:"development-of-eco-tourism-vis-vis-conservation-measures-for-protecting-the-endangered-species-of-fl",totalDownloads:74,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Bhitarkanika is the second largest mangrove ecosystem in India after the Sundarbans National Park and is situated in the state of Odisha. It is the home of diverse flora and fauna that are intricately linked with each other. Bhitarkanika comprises lots of endangered species of flora and fauna that needs immediate attention by different stakeholders especially the government and NGOs for conservation and preservation of these diverse resources. The present study is focused on identifying various eco-tourism resources available at this destination and also analyse various protection measures undertaken to conserve and preserve the flora and fauna inside the sanctuary. This study also examines the role of government for conservation and preservation of eco-tourism resources inside Bhitarkanika. The current study reveals that Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary have immense tourism potentials to become a perfect eco-tourism destination. However, in spite of that, this destination has not been extensively promoted and marketed as a perfect eco-tourism destination in this region. Since this area provides a huge employment opportunity for the local community, so there is an urgent need to conserve and preserve this sanctuary for a better eco-tourism destination in the years to come.",signatures:"Dillip Kumar Das",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80413",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80413",authors:[{id:"416512",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Dillip Kumar",surname:"Das",slug:"dillip-kumar-das",fullName:"Dillip Kumar Das"}],corrections:null},{id:"78776",title:"Use of Phytosociology and Remote Sensing to Classify and Map the Vegetation in Protected Areas, Botswana",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100178",slug:"use-of-phytosociology-and-remote-sensing-to-classify-and-map-the-vegetation-in-protected-areas-botsw",totalDownloads:49,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In a natural environment, the vegetation is organized into different plant communities. The vegetation maps produced through phytosociological and remote sensing techniques can be used in the conservation, management, and monitoring of wildlife habitats in protected areas. A desk study was conducted to review studies conducted by various peer-reviewed researchers that used phytosociology and remote sensing methods to classify and map the vegetation in Botswana’s protected areas from 2000 to 2021. Seven studies were carried out in the last two decades, and four out of these studies were conducted in Northern Botswana. Even though a variety of satellite imagery was used, Landsat was the most commonly used. Maximum-likelihood supervised classification and random forest were the most common classification methods used to classify and map the vegetation. Vegetation maps are crucial in knowing which plant species occur in which protected areas, and they are used to manage effectively the vegetation in protected areas. It is important to incorporate phytosociology and remote sensing technology with the management of protected areas to conserve effectively and monitor the vegetation in these areas.",signatures:"Tsholofelo Lori",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78776",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78776",authors:[{id:"416612",title:"Dr.",name:"Tsholofelo",surname:"Lori",slug:"tsholofelo-lori",fullName:"Tsholofelo Lori"}],corrections:null},{id:"77851",title:"Human Settlement Encroachment in Kainji Lake National Park, Nigeria",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99214",slug:"human-settlement-encroachment-in-kainji-lake-national-park-nigeria",totalDownloads:41,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Land encroachment is severely degrading and destroying many of Nigerian protected area as a result of high population pressure caused by high population growth and immigrations trends. Therefore, this study aimed at assessing human settlement encroachment in Kainji Lake National Park in order to established the extent to which this threat have been upheld and therefore call for park management to seek for proper approaches to deal with it. Data for this study were collected through the administration of questionnaire to the villages adjacent to Borgu sector of Kainji Lake National Park. Seven (7) randomly selected villages, namely Luma, Kuble, Audu Fari, Kali, Malale, Leshegbe and Gada Oli were surveyed. The result indicates gender of respondents where 65.09% of the responses were received from males while 34.91% from females suggesting that responses are the views from both gender parties who are mostly (33.96%) within the age range of 31–40 years and are predominantly farmer (43.42%). 88% of the respondents’ indicated that increased need of land for developments are the major causes of encroachment around the park while other human activities such as farming, deforestation and grazing of domesticated animals, by encroaching to protected areas have led into competition over natural resources. It is also established by 92% of the respondents agree that migration of people for livelihood support has led to increased competition between people and wildlife hence, this increase in population has consequently led to encroachment into the park as attested by a whopping 100% of the respondents. Kainji Lake National Park management need to do more in sensitizing the local communities on importance of wildlife conservation as most (54%) locals disagreed to awareness of conservation education and engages in intense vigilance against encroachment into the park land.",signatures:"Adelakun Kehinde Moruff, Shafiu Kilishi Halidu, Azeez Olalekan Ibrahim and Olorunfemi Boye Oyediran",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77851",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77851",authors:[{id:"416226",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Adelakun",surname:"Kehinde Moruff",slug:"adelakun-kehinde-moruff",fullName:"Adelakun Kehinde Moruff"},{id:"417681",title:"Dr.",name:"Shafiu Kilishi",surname:"Halidu",slug:"shafiu-kilishi-halidu",fullName:"Shafiu Kilishi Halidu"},{id:"417682",title:"Dr.",name:"Azeez Olalekan",surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"azeez-olalekan-ibrahim",fullName:"Azeez Olalekan Ibrahim"},{id:"417683",title:"Dr.",name:"Olorunfemi Boye",surname:"Oyediran",slug:"olorunfemi-boye-oyediran",fullName:"Olorunfemi Boye Oyediran"}],corrections:null},{id:"78437",title:"Polytrichum formosum and Vaccinium myrtillus as Phytoindicators of Pollutants from Long-Range Emissions of Environmentally Important Protected Areas (The Tatra National Park, the Central Western Carpathians, Poland)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99962",slug:"-em-polytrichum-formosum-em-and-em-vaccinium-myrtillus-em-as-phytoindicators-of-pollutants-from-long",totalDownloads:104,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The study determined the influence of altitude on the content of heavy metals in selected plant species of the Tatra National Park (TNP). The metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn) were identified in two species of plants, i.e., in the moss (Polytrichum formosum Hedw.) and in the blueberry leaves (Vaccinium myrtillus L.). Plant samples were collected in two test areas every 100 meters of altitude of the area, starting from 1,000 m above sea level in the Lake Morskie Oko test area and from 1,100 m above sea level in the Kasprowy Wierch test area, and ending at 1,400 m above sea level for Lake Morskie Oko and 1,550 m above sea level for Kasprowy Wierch. The two test areas are different from each other in terms of natural and physico-geographical conditions (geological structure, landform, climatic conditions, etc.). The conducted research shows that the content of heavy metals in the studied species of plants increases with the altitude above sea level. Both P. formosum Hedw and V. myrtillus L. can be good phytoindicators in mountainous areas. In the tested plant species, the contents of heavy metals were also found to be higher than the natural contents, which is most likely related to long-range emission. Long-distance transport of pollutants causes that important natural protected areas, such as the Tatra National Park, are exposed to excessive pollution, including the accumulation of heavy metals in plants.",signatures:"Joanna Korzeniowska",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78437",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78437",authors:[{id:"416822",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Joanna",surname:"Korzeniowska",slug:"joanna-korzeniowska",fullName:"Joanna Korzeniowska"}],corrections:null},{id:"78436",title:"Undesirable Neighbours: Eucalyptus and Protected Areas",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99831",slug:"undesirable-neighbours-eucalyptus-and-protected-areas",totalDownloads:106,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Eucalyptus is the common name of a set of exotic species present in the Brazilian territory. They have a strong invasive potential which is detrimental to the preservation of native floral formations, particularly in protected areas. This research seeks to (i) understand the stage of eucalyptus invasion in the Brasilia National Park; (ii) identify the main vectors of the invasive populations and (iii) verify the possible role of the adjoining Brasília National Forest in the invasion and (iv) consider possible conflicts between the roles of these two different categories of protected areas. A set of phytosociological sample areas were defined inside the park to pinpoint different eucalyptus populations. Findings indicate that eucalyptus populations inside the park behave invasively, having advanced 186.30 meters from their point of origin over the span of 45 years. Among the possible contamination vectors are a neighbouring nursery run by the local government and eucalyptus plantations in the adjoining Brasília National Forest. Results indicate the need for management actions to avoid continual seed dispersal by examined populations. They also indicate that the distinct conservation goals of national forests and national parks must be considered, especially when they are neighbours.",signatures:"Sandra Daniela Manzano Guzmán, Jose Augusto Drummond and Cristiane Gomes Barreto",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78436",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78436",authors:[{id:"280435",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Cristiane",surname:"Barreto",slug:"cristiane-barreto",fullName:"Cristiane Barreto"},{id:"280438",title:"MSc.",name:"Sandra Daniela",surname:"Manzano Guzmán",slug:"sandra-daniela-manzano-guzman",fullName:"Sandra Daniela Manzano Guzmán"},{id:"416207",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",surname:"Augusto Drummond",slug:"jose-augusto-drummond",fullName:"Jose Augusto Drummond"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6386",title:"National Parks",subtitle:"Management and Conservation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"78bb9f1f37bc8416f72ee2ad7b805c91",slug:"national-parks-management-and-conservation",bookSignature:"Mohd Nazip Suratman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6386.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144417",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Nazip",surname:"Suratman",slug:"mohd-nazip-suratman",fullName:"Mohd Nazip Suratman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7629",title:"Forest Degradation Around the World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"29f17114445c20431aaaa24f31c2ef99",slug:"forest-degradation-around-the-world",bookSignature:"Mohd Nazip Suratman, Zulkiflee Abd Latif, Gabriel De Oliveira, Nathaniel Brunsell, Yosio Shimabukuro and Carlos Antonio Costa Dos Santos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7629.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144417",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Nazip",surname:"Suratman",slug:"mohd-nazip-suratman",fullName:"Mohd Nazip Suratman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"865",title:"Perspectives on Nature Conservation",subtitle:"Patterns, Pressures and Prospects",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4a4d39cf2a0c2a9416049331b508aa88",slug:"perspectives-on-nature-conservation-patterns-pressures-and-prospects",bookSignature:"John Tiefenbacher",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/865.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"73876",title:"Dr.",name:"John P.",surname:"Tiefenbacher",slug:"john-p.-tiefenbacher",fullName:"John P. 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Rija",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6359.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"106119",title:"Prof.",name:"Jafari",surname:"Kideghesho",slug:"jafari-kideghesho",fullName:"Jafari Kideghesho"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8069",title:"Protected Areas, National Parks and Sustainable Future",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cbfa2f8e9e9e6d0383298f88b71b4108",slug:"protected-areas-national-parks-and-sustainable-future",bookSignature:"Ahmad Naqiyuddin Bakar and Mohd Nazip Suratman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8069.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"216294",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmad Naqiyuddin",surname:"Bakar",slug:"ahmad-naqiyuddin-bakar",fullName:"Ahmad Naqiyuddin Bakar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"79356",slug:"corrigendum-to-risk-assessment-and-health-safety-and-environmental-management-of-carbon-nanomaterial",title:"Corrigendum to: Risk Assessment and Health, Safety, and Environmental Management of Carbon Nanomaterials",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/80612.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80612",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80612",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/80612",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/80612",chapter:{id:"66689",slug:"risk-assessment-and-health-safety-and-environmental-management-of-carbon-nanomaterials",signatures:"Guilherme Lenz e Silva, Camila Viana, Danieli Domingues and Fernanda Vieira",dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:"February 26th 2019",datePrePublished:"April 11th 2019",datePublished:"February 19th 2020",book:{id:"8137",title:"Nanomaterials",subtitle:"Toxicity, Human Health and Environment",fullTitle:"Nanomaterials - Toxicity, Human Health and Environment",slug:"nanomaterials-toxicity-human-health-and-environment",publishedDate:"February 19th 2020",bookSignature:"Simona Clichici, Adriana Filip and Gustavo M. do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8137.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64160",title:"Prof.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Clichici",slug:"simona-clichici",fullName:"Simona Clichici"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"251730",title:"Dr.",name:"Guilherme",middleName:"Fredeico Bernardo",surname:"Lenz E Silva",fullName:"Guilherme Lenz E Silva",slug:"guilherme-lenz-e-silva",email:"guilhermelenz@usp.br",position:null,institution:null},{id:"286148",title:"Dr.",name:"Camila",middleName:null,surname:"Viana",fullName:"Camila Viana",slug:"camila-viana",email:"camilaoviana@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Centro de Desenvolvimento da Tecnologia Nuclear",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"286149",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Fernanda Vieira",slug:"fernanda-vieira",email:"fevieira2001@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Centro de Desenvolvimento da Tecnologia Nuclear",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"286151",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Danieli",middleName:"Silva",surname:"Domingues",fullName:"Danieli Domingues",slug:"danieli-domingues",email:"danielisilva@ymail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Centro de Desenvolvimento da Tecnologia Nuclear",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}},chapter:{id:"66689",slug:"risk-assessment-and-health-safety-and-environmental-management-of-carbon-nanomaterials",signatures:"Guilherme Lenz e Silva, Camila Viana, Danieli Domingues and Fernanda Vieira",dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:"February 26th 2019",datePrePublished:"April 11th 2019",datePublished:"February 19th 2020",book:{id:"8137",title:"Nanomaterials",subtitle:"Toxicity, Human Health and Environment",fullTitle:"Nanomaterials - Toxicity, Human Health and Environment",slug:"nanomaterials-toxicity-human-health-and-environment",publishedDate:"February 19th 2020",bookSignature:"Simona Clichici, Adriana Filip and Gustavo M. do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8137.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64160",title:"Prof.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Clichici",slug:"simona-clichici",fullName:"Simona Clichici"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"251730",title:"Dr.",name:"Guilherme",middleName:"Fredeico Bernardo",surname:"Lenz E Silva",fullName:"Guilherme Lenz E Silva",slug:"guilherme-lenz-e-silva",email:"guilhermelenz@usp.br",position:null,institution:null},{id:"286148",title:"Dr.",name:"Camila",middleName:null,surname:"Viana",fullName:"Camila Viana",slug:"camila-viana",email:"camilaoviana@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Centro de Desenvolvimento da Tecnologia Nuclear",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"286149",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Fernanda Vieira",slug:"fernanda-vieira",email:"fevieira2001@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Centro de Desenvolvimento da Tecnologia Nuclear",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"286151",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Danieli",middleName:"Silva",surname:"Domingues",fullName:"Danieli Domingues",slug:"danieli-domingues",email:"danielisilva@ymail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Centro de Desenvolvimento da Tecnologia Nuclear",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},book:{id:"8137",title:"Nanomaterials",subtitle:"Toxicity, Human Health and Environment",fullTitle:"Nanomaterials - Toxicity, Human Health and Environment",slug:"nanomaterials-toxicity-human-health-and-environment",publishedDate:"February 19th 2020",bookSignature:"Simona Clichici, Adriana Filip and Gustavo M. do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8137.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64160",title:"Prof.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Clichici",slug:"simona-clichici",fullName:"Simona Clichici"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11670",leadTitle:null,title:"Chitin-Chitosan - Isolation, Properties, and Applications",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tCurrently, numerous biomaterials-based studies are being conducted, including research into chitin and chitosan, the second most abundant polysaccharide after cellulose. Chitin is obtained at an industrial scale from a variety of natural sources including, crustacean and insect exoskeletons, fungi cell walls, squid pen, etc. Chitosan is biodegradable, biocompatible, non-toxic, water-soluble under acidic conditions, and linear cationic amino polysaccharide derived from the deacetylation of chitin. It contains free amino and hydroxyl groups that can be functionalized by binding with the cationic and anionic groups. It has numerous applications, especially in the environmental remediation, biomedical, pharmaceutical, agriculture, and food industries.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book will present an update of articles addressing isolation, properties, and certain applications of chitin and chitosan, including films, fibers, nanoparticles, composite materials, hydrogels, polymeric complexes, water purification, antimicrobials, textile, cosmetics, biosensors, nanoporous scaffolds, and membranes. We invite world-class researchers from around the world, industry, academia, government, and private research institutions are encouraged to publish research or review articles on chitin and chitosan.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-693-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-692-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-694-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"69f009be08998711eecfb200adc7deca",bookSignature:"Dr. Brajesh Kumar",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11670.jpg",keywords:"Solvent, Acidic, Microwave, Binding, Biodegradable, Biocompatible, FTIR, NMR, XRD, Fibers, Nanoparticles, Composite Materials",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 23rd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 26th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 25th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 13th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 12th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Brajesh Kumar is a pioneering researcher in nanoscience and green chemistry. He is a member of the American Chemical Society, Indian Society of Chemists and Biologists, Indian Science Congress Association, Dr. Kumar, and holder of two registered patents. Dr. Kumar is also included in the top 2% of the scientist list prepared by experts at Stanford University, USA.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"176093",title:"Dr.",name:"Brajesh",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"brajesh-kumar",fullName:"Brajesh Kumar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/176093/images/system/176093.JPG",biography:"Dr. Brajesh Kumar is currently working as an Assistant Professor and Head in the Post Graduate Department of Chemistry, TATA College, Chaibasa, India. He received a Ph.D. in Chemistry from the University of Delhi, India. His research interest is in the development of sustainable and eco-friendly techniques for (a) nanoparticles synthesis and their applications for environmental remediation, (b) active films of organic solar cells, (c) nanomedicine, (d) sensors, (e) natural product extraction, purification, and analysis,(f) natural polymers, (g) peptide chemistry, (h) microwave and ultrasound-assisted organic synthesis and (i) organic synthesis. Dr. Brajesh Kumar has been credited for different national and international fellowships and he has also worked as a faculty member in various universities of India, Ecuador, and South Korea. He has also published numerous SCI/ SCIE/ Scopus research articles (h index = 29, Citations 2917) and is also an active reviewer of more than 50 Journals. He is also included in the top 2% of the scientist list prepared by experts at Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"TATA College, Kolhan University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"6",title:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"278926",firstName:"Ivana",lastName:"Barac",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/278926/images/8058_n.jpg",email:"ivana.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10469",title:"Nanofibers",subtitle:"Synthesis, Properties and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"28dc655dde01b94399cab954663f8bff",slug:"nanofibers-synthesis-properties-and-applications",bookSignature:"Brajesh Kumar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10469.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"176093",title:"Dr.",name:"Brajesh",surname:"Kumar",slug:"brajesh-kumar",fullName:"Brajesh Kumar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10489",title:"Biocomposites",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c794533fcae9dcea38672f814ae182db",slug:"biocomposites",bookSignature:"Brajesh Kumar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10489.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"176093",title:"Dr.",name:"Brajesh",surname:"Kumar",slug:"brajesh-kumar",fullName:"Brajesh Kumar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6694",title:"New Trends in Ion Exchange Studies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3de8c8b090fd8faa7c11ec5b387c486a",slug:"new-trends-in-ion-exchange-studies",bookSignature:"Selcan Karakuş",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6694.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206110",title:"Dr.",name:"Selcan",surname:"Karakuş",slug:"selcan-karakus",fullName:"Selcan Karakuş"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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These proteins have been used to image cellular changes
In contrast to traditional staining or dye-injection techniques, labelling cells using a genetic approach enables the identification of specific cell types, sub-types, as well as the temporal and spatial aspects of genetic expression [1]. One of the most widely used reporter proteins is the bacterial β-galactosidase (βgal) enzyme, encoded by the
This
Given that βgal diffusion into the processes of a
The
Context fear conditioning is a model for learning, and training
Perhaps the most widely studied cellular marker protein is the Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP). First isolated from
\n\n
Recently, the Barth group studied the properties of GFP+ neurons in the cortex of unstimulated
Since its initial discovery, a number of GFP variants have been created, improving the efficiency and stability of the protein as well as altering its spectral properties [17]. In this way, different colours of emitted light can be produced. Red, yellow and cyan fluorescent proteins (RFP, YFP, and CFP, or XFPs collectively) have each been created, enabling experiments that label multiple cell types or expression profiles within the same biological sample [18]. The use of multiple XFPs is perhaps exemplified by the creation of the ‘Brainbow’ mouse, whereby individual neurons in the mouse brain express different ratios of the XFPs, enabling the distinctive tagging of individual neurons with at least 90 different fluorescent colours [19]. The Brainbow mouse enables the visualisation of the precise morphology of closely juxtaposed neurons, and has had major contributions to the study of neural connections in the brain [20].
\nSpecifically targeting the expression of XFPs to neurons is typically achieved by driving expression of the XFPs by the promoter for the thymocyte antigen protein Thy-1, a cell surface protein. Thy-1 is a known marker of axonal processes in mature neurons, thus Thy1-XFP transgenes specifically label neurons in the brain [21]. A large number of learning and memory studies that utilise the various XFPs have also used the Thy-1-XFP fusion transgene to fluorescently tag neurons and their processes. These neurons can then be visualised
In addition to the marker mice described above, it is also possible to conditionally regulate the gene which controls marker expression. Some of the conditional expression systems include Cre recombinase/lox site insertions, excisions and other modifications, and the tetracycline (tet) systems based on the tet-controlled transactivator (tTa) and reverse tet-on transactivator (rtTA) that allow downregulation or induction of gene expression [22]. A conditional transgenic mouse employing the tet system has been developed and used in studies of learning and memory [23]. This
A variant of this experiment involved the c
Genetic manipulation of the neurons involved in learning and memory has also been achieved using viral methods of transgene delivery, enabling targeting of specific brain regions. In one series of studies, the question of how neurons become involved in memory was addressed and if the transcriptional status of the neuron at the time of learning was important in this process. For this, the function of CREB was manipulated via delivery of a series of different CREB containing viruses to the lateral amygdala [25, 26]. Increasing CREB function in any lateral amygdala neuron appeared to increase the probability that this neuron was recruited into the fear memory trace, suggesting that CREB status is important in determining which neurons are involved in memory [25]. Further, ablation of these overexpressing CREB neurons after learning blocked the expression of the specific fear memory in which they were involved, establishing that these neurons were functionally required for that specific fear memory [26]. Broadly consistent results were found when the CREB viruses were targeted to the auditory thalamus [27].
\nTransgenic marker mice have been used very successfully to follow changes in neuron structure over time. In initial studies of this kind, individual neurons were imaged in developing hippocampus of rat brains expressing enhanced GFP, via infection with GFP encoding Sindbis virus [28]. Imaging of the neurons was done using two-photon laser scanning microscopy, which has the advantage of detecting the fluorescence signal with very low levels of photobleaching and phototoxicity. This allows for repeated high resolution imaging deep into living neural tissue with little effect on the imaged neurons. These studies demonstrated change in dendritic structure driven by high frequency synaptic stimulation, suggesting that synaptic activation during development could contribute to development of neural circuitry [28].
\nSubsequent studies have undertaken imaging of dendritic spines over time. Dendritic spines are protrusions from dendrites and are the postsynaptic sites of excitatory synapses. Thus imaging changes in dendritic spines over time is a very good approach to studying structural synaptic plasticity. Synaptic plasticity is thought to be a prime candidate mechanism underlying the processes involved in learning and memory. Two-photon imaging of dendritic spines was undertaken in hippocampal slices [29] using one of the lines of thy1-GFP expressing mice (line M) generated by Feng et al. [18]. Induction of LTP in these slices resulted in a transient increase in spine area of a small fraction of spines. Similar to LTP, this increase was dependent on NMDA receptor activation which is hypothesised to contribute to the synapse remodelling that occurs in LTP [29]. Similar results were obtained in experiments using hippocampal slices from non-transgenic rats [30].
\nIn further experiments using the thy1-GFP-M mice [18], two-photon microscopy was used to study relationships between spines following LTP [31]. Following induction of LTP at individual synapses of hippocampal pyramidal neurons, the response thresholds at closely neighbouring synapses on the same dendrite were found to be altered [31]. Thus, presentation of low level stimuli, which were normally too weak to induce LTP, resulted in robust LTP and spine enlargement at these neighbouring synapses. The reduction in this threshold for LTP was short lived (~10 minutes) and extended over 10 micron of dendrite length. It was proposed that these interactions between neighbouring synapses were consistent with clustered models of plasticity in memory storage as well as providing a mechanism for binding of behaviourally linked information within a small region of a dendrite [31].
\nThe two-photon imaging approach has been extended to studies of living animals to great effect. This is done by removing a small area of skull from the mice, which allows for repeated imaging of the exposed cortex using two-photon microscopy. The major advance in this approach is that single neurons can be studied in living mice over extended periods of time, up to many months. This allows for the mapping of spines on a particular dendrite and the tracking of the changes in spine number, morphology and lifetime of individual spines over this time. Thus, one can examine the effects of learning on spines, and accompanying studies can ask if the observed spine changes result in synaptic changes.
\nThe first studies to use this approach undertook imaging of spines in individual pyramidal neurons in visual cortex and barrel cortex over periods of a month to over a year [32, 33]. Using thy1-GFP-line H mice [18], they found that dendritic structure was essentially stable, and that spines appear and disappear. In barrel cortex, 50% of spines were stable for at least a month, with the other spines present for days or less [32]. These spine changes were shown to correlate with synaptic change. Further, sensory experience of the facial whiskers (the principle input for the barrel cortex) resulted in increased spine turnover [32]. In adult visual cortex, the great majority of spines were stable for at least one month [33]. However, in visual cortex of young mice during the critical period of visual cortical development, about 70% of spines were stable for at least one month, with most changes due to spine elimination [33]. These findings thus demonstrated spine turnover in cortex, and that developmental stage and sensory experience can alter that turnover. Further studies in different regions of the mouse cortex also confirmed that spine turnover varies across the cortex [34].
\nMost synapses which occur on dendritic spines are excitatory, and most of the changes described above probably represent changes in excitatory synapses. There is no obvious morphological hallmark for inhibitory synapses. Recently, genetic markers have been developed to allow the visualisation of both inhibitory synapses and dendritic spines on pyramidal neuron dendrites. The markers were a) teal fluorescent protein fused to gephyrin, a postsynaptic protein only expressed in inhibitory synapses, and b) YFP to label neuronal morphology [35]. Plasmids expressing these markers were inserted into the embryonic cortices of mice via electroporation. Using this combination of markers, it was found that inhibitory synapses and dendritic spines (as proxy for excitatory synapses) differed in their distribution pattern across the dendritic arbor [35]. However, remodelling of both inhibitory synapses and dendritic spines occurred within the same spatially clustered regions on the dendritic arbor and this clustering was influenced by sensory input. These findings suggested that both excitatory and inhibitory synapse rearrangement occurs and may be coordinated at the dendritic level [35].
\nWhereas dendritic structure is stable in pyramidal neurons, other classes of neurons in the cortex show dynamic changes in dendritic structure over time. Imaging of thy1-GFP-S mice [18] showed that GABA+ inhibitory interneurons extend and retract dendritic branches over periods of months and in a small proportion of neurons, new branch tips emerge [36]. In the visual cortex, visual deprivation stimulates this structural remodelling, affecting up to 16% of branch tips [37]. Visual deprivation induces branch retractions, which is accompanied by loss of inhibitory inputs to neighbouring pyramidal neurons and results in a decrease in inhibitory tone [37]. Further studies show that interneuron remodelling occurs across the major primary sensory cortex regions, but may differ in degree between primary and higher order sensory cortical areas [38]. These studies show that the dendritic arbor of inhibitory neurons changes over time, is influenced by sensory input, and that these changes correlate with functional changes in sensory cortex.
\nThe effects of learning have been directly studied using
Subsequent studies using the motor learning model showed that a third of the new spines formed during learning emerged as clusters, generally as pairs of spines [41]. These clustered spines were more likely to persist than newly formed single spines. The clusters were formed in succession, with later spines in the cluster formed during repetition of the motor task [41]. Thus, these new clusters are formed by repetitive activation of particular cortical circuits and correspond to the strength of the motor memory.
\nOther studies in learning and memory using two-photon imaging of YFP+ dendritic spines have provided somewhat counter-intuitive findings. Studies of fear conditioning by pairing an auditory cue with a foot-shock provide evidence that this results in an increase in the rate of spine elimination in frontal association cortex [42]. In contrast, extinguishing the fear memory by presenting the auditory cue without foot-shock, increased the rate of spine formation. Both of these changes in spine number were observed on the same dendrites and within the same region of the dendrite. Further reconditioning of the mice tended to result in elimination of the spines which were formed by extinction [42]. These findings suggest both that the fear memory trace is partly generated through reduction of particular synaptic contacts and that this is eliminated through opposing actions of extinction on these synapses.
\nCa2+ is one of the master second messengers for the cell, being involved in a vast array of cellular processes. Many studies have employed various chemical Ca2+ indicators to study Ca2+ flux in the cell. These chemical Ca2+ indicators are generally based on the Ca2+ chelator BAPTA (1,2-bis(o-aminophenoxy)ethane-N,N,N\',N\'-tetraacetic acid). A particular advantage of the Ca2+ indicators is the very high temporal resolution (millisecond scale) as these indicators are changing their fluorescence essentially in time with Ca2+ flux in the cell. In recent years, a new class of Ca2+ indicators has been developed; the genetically engineered Ca2+ indicators (GECI; 43-45). These indicators are formed by the fusion of genetically engineered fluorescent proteins with proteins which bind Ca2+. Upon binding of Ca2+ the confirmation of the GECI changes, which results in a change in its fluorescence properties. The principal advantages of the GECIs over the chemical Ca2+ indicators is that they can be targeted to specific functional subpopulations of neurons by the use of cell specific gene promoters to control their expression, they can be delivered to particular brain regions using viral injection, and expression is relatively stable for several months.
\nThe first GECIs were the Cameleons, which were fusions of blue- or cyan- variants of GFP with calmodulin, the calmodulin-binding peptide M13, and an enhanced green- or yellow-emitting GFP [45]. Binding of Ca2+ results in consequent binding of M13 with calmodulin and an increase in fluorescent resonance energy transfer between the two GFPs in the protein [45]. Another form of GECI is the GCaMP (GFP–Calmodulin–M13 Protein), which uses a circularly permuted GFP where the N- and C- termini of GFP are fused [46, 47]. Calmodulin and M13 are fused to this circularly permuted GFP, and on binding of Ca2+, the conformation of the fusion protein is altered which results in increased fluorescence of GFP [46, 47]. Other forms of GECIs use Troponin C instead of Calmodulin and M13 to induce binding of Ca2+ and conformational change in the fusion protein [48]. The different types of GECIs have different properties and particular advantages in Ca2+ imaging studies [43].
\nCa2+ influx and regulation of signalling plays a fundamental role in the molecular mechanisms underlying learning and memory. For example, the NMDA glutamate receptor is regarded as one of the most important neurotransmitter receptors in the initial acquisition process of learning and memory [49-51]. The NMDA receptors are highly permeable to Ca2+ ions, but this permeability only occurs during both membrane depolarisation and glutamate binding [52]. Such conditions are regarded as a requirement for memory acquisition. Inside the neuron, Ca2+ regulates many intracellular signalling processes involved in memory formation [50, 51, 53]. Thus the use of GECIs may be useful in learning and memory studies; for example in identifying neuronal populations undergoing changes in Ca2+ concentrations during learning and memory and in studying the temporal progression of such changes. However, there have been few studies to date which have used this approach in learning and memory research.
\nRecent studies have developed methods for the cellular imaging of neural activity in awake behaving mice and which can be suitable for analysis of cellular responses during learning and memory. For example, one study describes a method to visualise cellular imaging of neural activity in the visual cortex of awake head restrained mice during visual discrimination learning as well as passive viewing of visual stimuli [54]. Neural activity was measured using the yellow Cameleon 3.6 GECI, virally transfected into visual cortex. Another approach has been developed which enables imaging the activity of neurons in head restrained mice which can still perform spatial behaviours within a virtual reality system [55]. In the example given, the activity of neurons in the CA1 region of the hippocampus was imaged through the expression of the GCaMP3 GECI. Populations of place cells were thus identified based on their place specific activity within the virtual environment and correlated with their location within the local hippocampal circuit [55].
\nAn extension of the use of GECIs is the development of indicators which detect the Ca2+ activation of Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CaMKII; 56). These are GECIs using CaMKII as the Ca2+ binding protein and thus are specific for CaMKII activation. This indicator has been used to detect changes in CaMKII activity in individual spines of particular regions of cortex before and after visual deprivation [56]. Visual deprivation is a model of experience dependent plasticity and thus this approach could be used in the analysis of spine changes occurring during learning and memory formation.
\nOptogenetics is a technology currently sweeping through many areas of neuroscience. It relies on the targeted expression of light activated ion channels within any neuronal population one wishes to study [57-59]. The light activated channels belong to the family of microbial opsins. Two classes of these opsins are currently used: 1. Positive ion channels which upon light activation result in depolarisation and activation of the neuron (such as channelrhodopsins ChR1, ChR2, and VChR1), and 2. negative ion channels which upon light stimulation result in hyperpolarisation and inhibition of the neuron (such as
Optogenetic technology has been used to study a number of different types of learning and memory. These include classical conditioning to both rewarding and aversive stimuli, and spatial learning and the role of the hippocampus. Most of these studies have been done in mice, with one study undertaken in
These experiments involved conditioned place preference, which is passive behavioural conditioning. To look at the role of the dopaminergic neurons in operant conditioning, these neurons were optogenetically stimulated during an active food seeking operant task [64]. Phasic activation of the dopaminergic neurons enhanced the positive reinforcing actions (pressing a specific lever for a food reward) in this task. This enhancing effect was dependent on the presence of the food reward, in contrast to that seen in the passive conditioning task [64]. However, activation of the dopaminergic neurons alone was sufficient to reactivate a previously extinguished food seeking behaviour. These findings together suggested that activation of the dopaminergic neurons facilitates development of positive reinforcement during active reward seeking [64].
\nWithin the dopamine system, the firing rate of the dopamine neurons is increased for only a very short time following reward events (200 milliseconds) and it was unclear if this was sufficient to be involved in reward learning. To test for this, mice with expression of ChR2-EYFP targeted to the dopamine neurons of the VTA were placed in testing chambers with a port, which when investigated with a nose-poke, triggered a 200 millisecond optogenetic stimulation. This resulted in the mice rapidly learning to nose-poke the port and receive the brief optical stimulations [65]. This demonstrated that the brief time of dopamine neuron firing was sufficient to drive reward learning. Optogenetics has also been used to study the role of GABA neurons in the VTA and shown that these neurons negatively regulate consummatory behaviour and dopamine release from the VTA [66].
\nFurther experiments have looked at the role of other neurons in the putative reward circuit. The nucleus accumbens is strongly implicated in the reward pathway and its input from the basolateral amygdala (BLA) is thought to be involved in cue-triggered motivated behaviours. In order to investigate the function of the BLA to nucleus accumbens pathway during behaviour, the ChR2-EYFP virus was injected into the BLA, and the pathway to the accumbens was targeted for optogenetic stimulation [67]. Mice were then placed in the testing chambers which triggered optogenetic stimulation with a nose-poke. The mice rapidly learnt to receive optical stimulations [67]. To inhibit this pathway, the BLA was injected with a NpHR-EYFP virus, which results in hyperpolarisation upon light stimulation. Optically induced inhibition of the pathway reduced co-evoked intake of sucrose, demonstrating that this pathway controls naturally occurring reward related behaviour. These findings together show that the pathway from BLA to the nucleus accumbens promotes motivated behavioural responding in conjunction with the dopamine pathway from VTA [67].
\nThe striatum is another part of the reward circuit and has been implicated both in positive learning reinforcement as well as negative reinforcement. The striatum contains two populations of projection neurons, characterised by their expression of either dopamine receptor 1 (D1) or 2 (D2). To determine possible roles of these two populations of neurons, they were selectively targeted for optogenetic stimulation [68]. Optical stimulation of the D1 receptor–expressing neurons induced persistent reinforcement, whereas stimulating D2 receptor–expressing neurons induced transient negative reinforcement, indicating that activation of these different populations of neurons has opposite behavioural effects and can result in distinctly different learning outcomes.
\nThe amygdala is heavily implicated not only in reward but also in classical conditioning to aversive stimuli that occurs in fear conditioning paradigms. In particular the lateral amygdala is considered to be a site of plasticity underlying fear memory. In order to determine if stimulation of the principle neurons of the lateral amygdala could directly contribute to fear conditioning, mice were infected with the ChR2-EYFP virus to target these neurons [69]. The mice then received an auditory stimulus paired with optical stimulation of the LA neurons instead of being paired with a conventional aversive stimulus. It was found that pairing resulted in successful fear conditioning of the mice. These findings provided direct evidence that fear learning can be a consequence of a stimulus induced activation of the principle neurons of the lateral amygdala [69].
\nThe central amygdala is thought to be involved in transmitting the behavioural response signal to other parts of the brain. Recent information also implicates the central amygdala in fear learning. To investigate this possibility, a series of different approaches, including optogenetically targeted activation of subpopulations of neurons in central amygdala were employed [70]. Neuronal activity in the lateral division of the central amygdala was found to be required for fear memory formation, whereas optogenetic stimulation of neurons in the medial division of the central amygdala indicated that these neurons were involved in fear related (freezing) behavioural expression [70]. These findings suggested that a part of the fear memory is acquired in inhibitory neurons of the medial division, which project to the lateral division of the central amygdala to control their output fear signalling.
\nContextual fear conditioning is a form of fear conditioning which is dependent on the hippocampus. It was unclear if the hippocampal neurons which are activated during context fear learning contain enough information to drive fear behaviour when they are specifically re-activated. To test this, neurons which were activated during fear learning in the dentate gyrus of mice were targeted to express ChR2 [71], using a modified
Another important issue on the role of the hippocampus in learning and memory is the observation that contextual and explicit memories are first dependent on hippocampus but loss of hippocampus some period of time after acquisition of these memories does not result in loss of these memories [73]. Based on these observations, it has been thought that memories somehow transfer from hippocampus to the cortex over time. Optogenetic approaches were employed to examine the contribution of the hippocampus to long term memories in real-time [74]. Excitatory neurons in dorsal CA1 hippocampus were virally targeted to express the chloride channel, eNpHR3.1. Rapid optical stimulation to inhibit these neurons resulted in reversible abolition of short and long term context fear memory (up to 9 weeks old), indicating hippocampal involvement throughout the period of memory retention [74]. However, when inhibition was extended significantly, the context fear memory became hippocampal independent; suggesting long term memory normally involves hippocampus but can shift to alternate structures. The anterior cingulate cortex had previously been implicated in storage of long term memories, and optogenetically induced inhibition of this region of the cortex resulted in inhibition of long term but not recent context fear memories [74]. These findings thus indicate a permanent role for hippocampus in context memory, with additional roles for anterior cingulate cortex in long term memory.
\nAnother form of fear conditioning involves pairing the aversive stimulus to an auditory stimulus. This auditory fear conditioning is independent of hippocampus and probably involves auditory regions of the brain. Recent experiments indicate that auditory fear conditioning depends on recruitment of a disinhibitory microcircuit in the auditory cortex [75]. Disinhibition in auditory cortex is driven by foot-shock-mediated cholinergic activation of layer I interneurons, which generates inhibition of layer II/III parvalbumin-positive interneurons and subsequently leads to disinhibition of the layer II/III cortical pyramidal neurons. Importantly, optogenetic block of pyramidal neuron disinhibition abolishes fear learning [75]. These findings thus show the involvement of auditory cortex in associative fear learning, but also suggest that layer 1 disinhibition may be an important mechanism underlying different types of learning throughout the cortex.
\nWhere many studies have looked at the role of excitatory granule cells of the dentate gyrus in spatial learning, the function of the GABA-ergic inhibitory interneurons, which control the granule neuron activity, is unclear. To investigate the role of these neurons, their activity was inhibited via expression of targeted expression of eNpHR3.0 [76]. Optogenetic inhibition of these GABA-ergic interneurons impaired spatial learning and memory retrieval, without affecting memory retention, as determined in the Morris water maze, thus establishing a role for these neurons in spatial learning and retention [76].
\nSleep has been implicated in memory consolidation for many years. Sleep disruption results in memory deficits, which raises the question of whether the continuity of sleep is important for memory consolidation. However, it is difficult to disrupt one feature of sleep (i.e. sleep continuity) without disrupting other sleep features (such as duration and intensity). To introduce a precise way of disrupting sleep continuity, optogenetics was used to target hypocretin/orexin neurons, which play a key role in arousal [77]. Optogenetic activation of these neurons could fragment sleep without affecting total amount or intensity of sleep [77]. Fragmenting sleep this way disrupted performance of the mice in an object recognition task once the duration of sleep episodes decreased below 66% normal. These findings indicated that a minimum of uninterrupted sleep is required for memory consolidation [77].
\nThe employment of genetically encoded markers both in transgenic mice and in viral constructs has been a major technical advance for neuroscience and for whole animal biology generally. In studies of learning and memory, the use of this technology is leading to improved understanding in many aspects of this large and varied field of knowledge. The use of this approach is aiding in the identification of the neurons which are involved in learning and memory, in identifying the changes within those neurons which may underlie different parts of the learning process, in understanding potential mechanisms which specify which neurons are involved in learning and memory, and in describing ensembles of neurons which together code the contextual memory in the hippocampus. Two photon imaging using genetic markers in living animals is producing remarkable findings of what synaptic changes occur in learning and memory and how synaptic homeostasis is achieved. The use of Genetically engineered Calcium indicators is at an early stage in learning and memory, but it promises to inform us of real time changes in neuronal activation during learning and memory events.
\nOptogenetics, which relies on the ability to specifically activate or inhibit specific markers, is rapidly becoming a critical technique throughout neuroscience. Overall, optogenetics is delivering in its promise to enhance our understanding of learning and memory, through its ability to target specific populations of neurons and activate or inhibit them very rapidly and reversibly. This has helped to define the role of these neurons in behaviours associated with the learning and memory process, to ask if these neurons are involved in learning or memory
The petroleum industry provides most of the world’s energy needs and has been the world’s most important energy source since the mid-1950s because of its high energy density, easy transportability and relative abundance [1]. Due to rapid population growth, the consumption of fuels, energy, and petrochemical products has increased sharply [2]. At present, light crude oil reserves are the main source of energy that meets global energy demand due to high quality and low production costs. Nevertheless, light crude oil reserves are declining. Such a rapid decline in light crude oil reserves poses great challenges to meeting the world’s energy needs. Over the past few decades, renewable, nuclear and bioenergy have been developing rapidly; however, these resources are costly and insufficient in meeting energy demands, especially for transportation [3]. Therefore, refineries have to depend increasingly on unconventional feedstocks such as heavy oils, oil residues, and bitumen to supply the increasing demand for fuels [1]. The fundamental characteristics of heavy crude oil are low American Petroleum Institute gravity (API), low economic value, high viscosity, and high asphaltenes content which makes it more difficult to transport and process than conventional crude oil [4]. This fact leads to an emphasis on the upgrading of heavy and residual oil. The purpose of upgrading heavy oil and residues is to convert feedstock with high boiling point and low H/C ratio to low boiling point distillate fractions and higher H/C ratio and to eliminate hetero atoms such as sulphur, nitrogen, and metals to Environmentally acceptable levels. To achieve this goal, hydrocarbon molecules are exposed to thermal and catalytic cracking reactions during the upgrading processes [5]. According to the approaches to achieve higher H/C ratios, upgrading technologies can be divided into carbon rejection and hydrogen addition processes. Carbon rejection rejects the carbon into carbonaceous product (coke) to obtain lighter products (with a high H/C ratio) in these processes. On the other hand, hydrogen addition processes such as hydrocracking involve the reaction of raw materials with an external source of hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst, which leads to an overall increase in the H/C ratio [6]. Hydrogen addition processes have higher quality and yield of desired products. However, these processes require the participation of hydrogen and catalysts, which leads to higher investment and operating costs compared to carbon rejection processes. In contrast, carbon rejection processes are superior to hydrogen addition processes in terms of simplicity and operating costs, and therefore have many units in the world [7, 8]. Petroleum residues processing capacity indicates that the major portion (approximately 63 wt.%) of petroleum residues are upgraded by thermal processes such as visbreaking and delayed coking [2].
Carbon rejection technologies have been used by refineries since 1913 to upgrade various hydrocarbon feeds. These technologies include visbreaking, gasification, and coking processes. visbreaking and coking technologies can be generally applied to all residual feeds because they are not limited to constraints such as metal content and coke-forming tendencies as in the case of catalytic processes for upgrading. In a carbon rejection process, the feeds (larger molecules) are heated under inert atmospheric pressure to fracture them into smaller molecules [2, 9, 10].
Visbreaking remains the oldest and least costly of the upgrading option and is only used in areas where heavy fuel oil is used to generate electricity and fuel ships. Visbreaking is a process in which residues are slowly cracked to reduce viscosity, and its main product is fuel oil, which has a dwindling market and provides low margins. This is a very low conversion process, and 15–20 wt. % residues are converted into lighter fractions. The yield of gas and gasoline together is generally limited to a maximum of about 7 wt. % as the cracking reactions are arrested to prevent asphaltene flocculation. Current interest in visbreaking is in those areas where motor fuel demand is relatively low. Vacuum residue and atmospheric residue can be used as feedstock for the visbreaking process [2, 6, 8, 10].
The Texaco Gasification Process (TGP) was developed in the late 1940s. This process involves the complete cracking of residues into gaseous products, which has received less attention than other processes. Residual gasification is done at high temperatures (>1000°C) and synthetic gas (hydrogen and carbon monoxide), carbon black, and ash are the major products. It was modified in the 1950s for heavy oil feeds, in the 1970s for solid feeds such as coal and in the 1980s for petroleum coke. Almost from the beginning, this process has been attractive for hydrogen production. gasification can be used by refineries to produce hydrogen, increase the yield of high-value products, eliminate the production of high sulphur fuel oil, minimize the environmental effects of refineries (reduce the emission of NOx and SOx pollutants) and process a wider range of crude oil [2, 9, 11].
Coking is a process in which raw materials are thermally decomposed into products with lower boiling points. Different types of coking processes include delayed coking, fluid coking, and flexicoking. Delayed coking is the most common technology used in petroleum refineries to produce petroleum coke. More than 90% of petroleum coke is produced by this process. The main reasons are the relatively low investment cost and the claims of a better quality of liquid products compared with the fluid or flexicoking process [12].
In the delayed coking process, the general goal of such a technology is to maximise liquid product yield while minimising coke production. The inherent flexibility of the delayed coking process for handling various feedstocks gives the refinery a promising solution to the problem of decreasing residual fuel demand and takes advantage of the attractive economics of upgrading it to more valuable lighter products. A refinery with a delayed coker is called a ‘zero resid refinery’ that can convert various feedstocks to valuable engine fuels while eliminating unsold refinery flows that are environmentally unfriendly. Disadvantages of this technology can be the abundant production of coke, low yield of liquid products, and highly aromatic products which require post-treatment. Another disadvantage of delayed coking is that it is a more expensive process than solvent deasphalting. Environmental pollution from coke particles is also a concern. In this process, 20–30 wt.% coke is also produced as a by-product. Although coke is accepted as a by-product of coking processes, excessive coke formation is economically disadvantageous because the value of coke is much lower than that of distillates. Even considering these disadvantages, delayed coking is the most frequently preferred process for refiners to residue processing because of the low investment cost [2, 6, 8, 9, 10].
Delayed coking is a severe form of thermal cracking process that operates at low pressures, without the use of hydrogen and catalysts, and falls in the temperature range of 450–500°C. Delayed coking is highly efficient in rejecting mineral solids and metals as well as some organic nitrogen and sulphur in the coke. The name ‘delayed’ derives from the fact that cracking reactions are given enough time (long) to form coke in coke drums. The first commercial delayed coker was started in 1930 at Standard Oil’s Whiting refinery [12, 13].
The global trend of processing heavy raw materials in delayed cokers, in order to obtain maximum yield of liquid products, has led to the production of coke with fuel grade that contains large amounts of sulphur and metals. Fuel grade coke, once considered a by-product of waste, is now an important fuel for the cement industry and electricity generation [6].
A schematic flow diagram of the delayed coking is shown in Figure 1. The process includes a fractionator, furnace, two coke drums, and stripper. the feedstock is charged directly to the fractionator, where it is heated, and the lighter fractions are removed as middle distillates. The bottom of the fractionator is pumped to the coking furnace and then heated to the temperature range of 485–500°C. The heated feedstock (liquid−vapour mixture) enters one of the pairs of coking drums, where the cracking reactions continue. The energy obtained in the furnace passages is sufficient to perform the cracking reaction when the coking drum is filled. In the furnace, steam is injected to prevent the formation of premature coking. In addition, to prevent the formation of coke in the furnace, short residence time and high mass velocity in the furnace are required. Overhead stream in the coking drum; gases, naphtha, middle distillates and coker heavy gas oil are sent to the fractionator for separation, then separated and sent to downstream units for post-treatment and coke deposits on the inner surface. For continuous operation, two coke drums are used; while one is onstream, the other is decoking. The typical volume of a modern coke drum is about 1000 m3, with a size range of 5–9 meters in diameter and a height range of 20–45 meters. The temperature in the coke drum ranges from 415 to 465°C and the pressure varies between 2 and 6 bar. Coker heavy gas oil is recycled as a coker feed and combined with fresh preheated feed and fed to the furnace, or used in other refining processes such as hydrocracker or gas oil hydrotreater or as a catalytic fluid cracking feed. The Coke drum is usually onstream about 24 hours before filling with porous coke. Figure 2 shows a section of a coke drum and shows how coke forms during a delayed coking operation. The material at the bottom of the coke drum is fully carbonised, creating a porous structure through which gases and liquids can pass. The top layer is not fully carbonised until it is exposed to heat for a long time. Some foam forms on the top of the drum, so foam forming can be prevented by injecting anti-foam materials (silicone oil) into the coke drums during the last 5 or 6 hours of the coking cycle. It is important to prevent the carryover of foam into vapour lines. Level indicators are useful for detecting the position of liquid or foam in the drum. After steaming and cooling the coke drum, the coke is removed by drilling and cutting with high-pressure (up to 340 bar) water jets [6, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17].
Flow sheet of delayed coking [modified from
Coke formation in coke drum of a delayed coking unit [
Decoking operation of the drum (Figure 3) involves the following steps:
The coke deposit is cooled with water.
One of the heads of the coking drum is removed to make it possible to drilling of a hole through the deposit centre.
A hydraulic cutting machine, which uses multiple high-pressure water jets, is inserted into the hole and wet coke is removed from the drum [6].
Steps of decoking operation [
Most cokers were originally designed for a 20- to 24-hour coking cycle. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the coking cycle time was reduced to 16–20 hours. In the late 1990s, it dropped to 14 hours. A typical time cycle in delayed coking is shown in Table 1.
Delayed coking process variables include process operating variables, feedstock properties and engineering variables. Furnace outlet temperature, coke drum pressure and recycle ratios are the main operating variables that affect not only the coke yield but also its properties. Increasing the drum pressure leads to a higher coke yield and a slight increase in gas yield, because more molecules, even in the gas oil range, contribute to coke formation by remaining in the liquid phase. It also reduces the sulphur content of coke. However, refinery economics requires operating at minimal coke formation. As the temperature of the furnace and drum increases, due to the removal of more volatile matter, the yield of coke reduces and the higher quality and harder coke is produced. However, it can cause cutting problems during decoking. Lower temperatures produce more coke, but lower quality. Therefore, the temperature at the furnace outlet must be optimized to form a minimum amount of coke in the furnace coils. To reduce the formation of coke in furnace coils, steam is injected into the furnace before the critical decomposition zone. However, the coke produced by steam injection in this process is more isotropic, that is, of lower quality. The recycle ratio has the same pressure effect as in delayed coking units, which varies from 1.03 to 1.30. The highest values are used in commercial units that produce premium coke, while the lowest values are used in delayed coking units where the goal is to maximise distillate yields. In addition, reducing the recycle ratio causes low-quality coke because the concentration of asphaltenes in the reaction mixture is higher [6, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17].
Delayed coking units for processing vacuum residues are designed to operate under operating conditions that maximise liquid distillates yield and minimise coke production. These operating conditions include lower pressures, higher temperatures, and a lower recycle ratio. Feedstock variables are characterization factors and conradson carbon that affect product yields. Engineering variables also affect process performance, including mode of operation, capacity, and equipment used in coking and handling equipment. Operating variables have practical constraints that prevent further changes. Also, the constraints for each will be different with the type of feed consumed [14]. The effect of operating variables on coke yield and quality is shown in Table 2.
Variable | Effect on | |
---|---|---|
Coke yield | Coke quality | |
Increase drum pressure | Increase | Variable |
Increase drum temperature | Decrease | Improve |
Increase coker recycle ratio | Increase | Improve to maximum |
Thermal crack recycle | Increase | Improve |
Effect of operating variables on the yield and quality of coke [6].
The delayed coking process can be applied to all residues in general, as they are not limited to constraints such as metal, sulphur, and asphaltene content. Heavy residues such as atmospheric and vacuum residue usually enter the delayed cokers, however, there are many raw materials that have been used as delayed coker feedstock for years. These feedstocks include:
1 - Gilsonite.
2 - Lignite pitch.
3 - Crack components (visbroken tar, cycle oil, decant oil or thermal crack tar).
4 - Refinery hazardous wastes.
5 - Deasphalted residues (pitch).
6 - Coal oils.
7 - Used plastic materials (recycling).
8 - Topped bitumen.
In general, the products of the delayed coking process (based on vacuum residue feed) include gas (approximately 13 wt. %), naphtha (approximately 11 wt. %), middle distillate (approximately 45 wt. %), and green petroleum coke (approximately 31 wt. %).
The yield of products from delayed coking depends on the feed composition, in particular the amount of micro carbon residue (MCR) or Conradson carbon residue (CCR) content. Product yields can be estimated using the correlation based on the weight percentage of Conredson carbon residue (wt. % CCR) in the vacuum residue [14].
The gaseous compounds from the delayed coking process typically include methane, ethane, propane, butane, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, nitrogen, hydrogen sulphide and ammonia, the composition of which depends on the type of feed and the operating conditions.
Depending on the properties of feedstock and the operating conditions of the delayed coking process, different types of the coke can be produced. Coke can be distinguished by its morphology. Typically, coke can be divided into spherical shot coke (isotropic, amorphous, with almost no pores), sponge coke (semi-isotropic), and needle coke (anisotropic, regular crystalline structure, containing numerous fine pores and crystal sizes in the order of 4–7 nm). Either, according to its use, can be divided to fuel grade coke (cement industry and power generation), anode grade coke (aluminium production) or electrode grade coke (steel production). The differences between these types of coke are not always very clear. Due to the heterogeneity within the coke drum, one coke type may contain certain values of another coke type. Therefore, sponge coke may contain some shot coke and needle coke may contain some sponge coke [6, 15, 19]. Types of coke resulting from the delayed coking process with their optical structure are shown in Figure 4.
Delayed coke types and optical textures. a: Needle coke, b: sponge coke, c: shot coke [
Petroleum coke can be in two forms, green petroleum coke and calcined petroleum coke. Petroleum coke obtained without calcination is called green coke. Coke calcination is done in a furnace to remove remaining hydrocarbons by heating green coke to about 1300–1500°C. During calcination, the coke decomposes further, and the carbon to hydrogen ratio increases from about 20 in green coke to 1000 for calcined coke [18].
Typical properties for different types of coke are shown in Table 3:
Shot coke comprises dense low porosity spherical clusters with 2–10 mm diameters, frequently present as agglomerates up to the size of basketballs. These large agglomerates are fragile and can be broken easily; however, the small spheres are very hard. Shot coke is obtained from petroleum precursors with high resin and asphaltene and low API gravity, and it is less valuable than sponge coke. High velocities in the reactor are required to produce shot coke with spherical particles. Given that a very turbulent condition is required for the formation of shot coke, shot-coke production in the laboratory is difficult, because surface velocities are very low [14, 19].
The variables which impact coke structure are the quality of the feedstock and the operating variables including pressure, temperature, vapor velocity, and recycle ratio.
Feedstock quality:
Different authors agree that the feedstock properties associated with the production of shot coke are asphaltene content and Conradson carbon residue content. Researchers claim that the tendency to produce shot coke increases when the ratio between the asphaltene content and the Conradson carbon residue content approaches 0.5. Moreover, the characterisation of vacuum residues from different heavy oil sources shows that this ratio (asphaltene content/Conradson carbon content) is equal to or higher than 0.5; therefore, if the operating conditions are favourable, the formation of shot coke is likely when these feedstocks are processed.
Another fact that shows that the feedstock quality has an important impact on the coke structure is the use of decanted oil mixed with vacuum residue. Decanted oil is the residual product from the fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) process. This hydrocarbon stream is highly aromatic (more than 70% aromatics) and its incorporation into the coker with the feedstock (between 15% and 20% of the total feedstock) suppresses shot-coke formation. This suppressing action can be related to the solubility effect of the aromatics on the asphaltenes, although, this has not been shown experimentally [6, 14, 19].
Operating variables
Operating variables refer to the pressure, temperature, vapour velocity, and recycle ratio within the coker.
Pressure: Reduction of the coker pressure favours the formation of shot coke.
Temperature: Higher temperatures favour shot-coke formation, and temperature change of 5°C or less can either suppress or promote shot-coke formation. In a commercial delayed coking unit, the heater outlet temperature varies between 490 and 500°C. However, scaling down of these units is reached by operating the small-scale units at lower temperatures, which may vary between 417 and 450°C.
Vapour Velocity: The feedstock flow is not an important variable that affects product yields in delayed coking technology, but this variable is an important parameter for shot-coke formation because it impacts the vapour superficial velocity, which is thought to give a spherical shape to shot-coke particles. The vapour superficial velocities in commercial delayed coking units are between 0.12 and 0.21 m/s. These vapour velocities are so high that they are not achieved in laboratory-scale units.
Recycle Ratio: It is calculated with the following expression:
HF is the flow of the heater. After mixing the recycling flow with fresh feed at the bottom of the main fractionator, it is measured at the heater inlet. FF is the fresh feed stream that is measured before pumping the processed feedstock into the main fractionator. Both flows are measured in barrels per day.
The recycle ratio in delayed coking units varies from 1.03 to 1.30. The highest values are used in commercial units that produce needle coke, while the lowest values are used in delayed coke units where coke yields should be minimised [6, 14, 15, 18, 19].
Sponge coke is the most common form of green coke. Sponge coke is a friable solid material with pores on the surface and internal cavities connecting the pores, which is due to the evolution of gas from the liquid in the coke drum. The structure of this coke causes good drainage of water from the coke drums and easy cutting of the coke bed with water jets. This coke is typically derived from crude oil, which contains numerous cross-linkages. The diffusion of gas bubbles into the coke drum may also cause some spongy coke. In fact, sponge coke is a combination of sponge and shot structures. Most sponge coke is used to fuel boilers. Some low-sulphur, low-metal sponge coke can be used to make anodes used in aluminium production [6, 14].
Using the proper feedstocks, optimal design techniques, and operating parameters, delayed coking can be used to produce needle coke, a specialized and rare product in the refining and coke production industry.
Producing good quality needle coke is not easy, because the control of several parameters is necessary to control the production process. In other words, it is a control process of several parameters. Needle coke is a premium coke made from special petroleum feedstocks. The needle coke has a silvery-grey appearance that has a broken crystalline needle-like structure, highly ordered, microcrystalline, under a light microscope. The observed optical texture is called flow domain. Needle coke has anisotropic components such as fine fibrous and leaflet structure. This coke has long, thin cavities that result from the gas bubbles released by the solid coke itself. This high-quality coke can only be produced from feedstocks of high purity (low metals and sulphur) and with high aromatic compounds, such as cycle oil from the fluid catalytic cracking unit. In addition, a long filling time is required for the solid coke in the coke drum to react and release the gases. This type of coke cannot be produced from vacuum residue [6, 14, 15, 21].
Natural graphite is a limited source. It is estimated that 800 million tons can be mined worldwide. Only 10 to 15% of natural graphite is actually graphite carbon. Most of it is amorphous and contains minerals or silicate metals. In contrast, needle coke is continuously produced with high graphitizable content and low impurity concentration [12].
It was generally accepted that needle coke can be divided into two types according to the different feedstocks and named coal-based needle coke and petroleum-based needle coke. Excellent physical and chemical properties of needle coke such as high mechanical strength, high electrical conductivity (strong oxidation resistance), high thermal conductivity, high density as well as low thermal expansion coefficient (good abrasion resistance/heat shock resistance), low ash and sulphur content, low volatility, low energy consumption and easy graphitizable make needle coke an excellent raw material to obtain high-quality artificial graphite [12, 22].
There are two methods, basic oxygen furnace (BOF) and electric arc furnace (EAF), for steel production. Coal, iron, and limestone are used to produce steel in the BOF method. However, in the EAF method, an electric current passes through the graphite electrodes to convert the steel scrap into molten steel. Approximately 70% of world steel is produced by the BOF method and 30% by the EAF method. EAF has historically been the fastest growing sector of the global steel industry, with EAF steel production amounting to about 20 million tonnes per year in 1950, and EAF steel production expanded rapidly after 1950, and it exceeded 100 million tons in the 1970s. Needle coke, produced in the delayed coking process of petroleum oil refineries, was later developed in 1960 and commercialised in 1970. Finally, EAF steel production in 2020 reached about 550 million tons [12].
Inputs/initial costs of steel production through the EAF method include scrap steel, electricity, and graphite electrodes. There is no known alternative to graphite electrodes used in the EAF method of steel production. Needle coke is a major component in the production of graphite electrodes. The main application of needle coke is in the graphite electrode industry, and it can be purchased for 1500–3000 $/ton. In addition, needle coke is also used in the production of graphite cathodes in the aluminium industry. Electrodes made of needle coke need to withstand temperatures above 3000°C. Global steel production on the EAF is expected to grow. This has led to a similar increase in consumption of graphite electrodes. It is expected to eventually increase the consumption of needle coke [6, 12].
Needle coke is now widely used as a carbon filler for the production of graphite electrodes in the steel industry for smelting scrap metal for recycling in an electric arc furnace (EAF), cathodes required for smelting aluminium, anodes for commercial lithium-ion batteries, electric machines and some inherent parts of mobile phones, electrode materials for high energy density supercapacitors, anode materials for high-performance sodium-ion batteries, adsorbents, isotropic graphite, nuclear graphite, perovskite solar cell, carbon substitute super-activated carbon, graphene precursors, aerospace and other functional materials are used. Graphite electrodes have a low coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE), which is defined as an increase in length per unit temperature increase. Low CTE values indicate anisotropic needle coke, while high values indicate an isotropic shot coke [6, 12, 22, 23].
In terms of grade, needle coke is divided into an intermediate, premium, and super premium needle coke. As shown in Table 4, their difference is in the amount of thermal expansion coefficient and sulphur content.
Properties | Fuel-grade green coke | Anode-grade calcined coke | Calcined needle coke |
---|---|---|---|
Sulphur (wt. %) | 3–7.5 | 1.7–3.5 | <0.5 |
Ash (wt. %) | 0.1–0.3 | 0.1–0.4 | <0.5 |
Nickel (ppm) | — | 165–200 | 7 |
Vanadium (ppm) | 200–400 | 120–350 | — |
Volatile matter (wt. %) | 14 maximum | 0.5 | 0.5 |
Bulk density (g/cm3) | — | 0.87 | — |
Real density (g/cm3) | — | 2.05 | 2.1–2.14 |
Typical properties for different types of coke [12].
Property | Quality grade | ||
---|---|---|---|
Super premium | Premium | Intermediate | |
Coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE), *10−7/°C | <2.0 | 2.0–3.0 | 3.1–4.0 |
Sulphur content, wt.% | <0.5 | <0.6 | <0.8 |
Real density, gm/cc | >2.12 | >2.12 | >2.12 |
Ash content, wt.% | <0.1 | <0.2 | <0.2 |
H content, wt.% | <0.03 | 0.03–0.05 | 0.03–0.05 |
Precursors for needle coke production have historically been limited to available residues whose aromatic molecular composition naturally predisposes them to form highly anisotropic carbon during carbonisation. However, further requirements of the feedstock include:
Low ash content
Low quinoline insoluble (QI) content
Low asphaltene content
Reduced content of stable nitrogen or sulphur heterocyclics
Low oxygenate content
Low air and carboxy reactivity of the coke during calcination
Coal-based needle coke is made from Coal Tar Pitch, refined coal tar pitch, refined coal liquefied pitch, and coal extraction. Petroleum-based needle coke is usually obtained by delayed coking of residual oil, petroleum bitumen, oxidized petroleum bitumen, and Fluidised Catalytic Cracker Decant Oil [18].
The chemical and physical properties considered in choosing a proper feedstock for the production of needle coke are summarised as follows:
Feedstock should have high aromaticity with 60–85% aromatic carbon aromaticity;
Feedstock should be of high initial boiling point, over 250°C with not more than 25–30% of material boiling below 360°C;
Feedstock should have low API gravity;
Feedstock should have low sulphur content preferably below 1 wt. % due to the concern for product quality;
Feedstock should have low metal, asphaltenes, and CCR content [6].
Although the delayed coking process has been selected for large-scale operations, they are more attractive for processing the small volumes of residues due to the safety issues involved in decoking the drums at the end of each cycle. In addition, by reducing the retention time of cracked vapours, the yields of coking distillation products can be improved. To simplify the handling of the coke and to enhance product yields, Exxon developed a continuous process in the mid-1950s called fluidized bed coking (or fluid coking), in which the residence time was shorter, with more liquid and less coke. However, in this process, the products have lower quality. Fluid coking is a fluidized bed process developed by fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) technology, except that no catalysts are used and heavy feedstocks such as atmospheric and vacuum residues, residues of catalytic cracking units and oil sand bitumen turn into light products. In fluid coking, about 6% of the coke is burned to provide heat to the process, while the net coke yield is 70 to 75% of delayed coking. The yields of products resulting from fluid coking are determined by feed properties, fluidized bed temperature, and residence time in the bed [12, 14, 15, 16, 17].
An example of the material balance for fluid coking of Arab light vacuum residue is given in Table 5.
Feed | Products | Yield wt.% |
---|---|---|
Arab light Vaccum residue (22 wt.% CCR) | Reactor Gas, | 11 wt.% |
Coker Naphtha (C5–221°C) | 15–20 wt.% | |
LCGO1 (221–343°C) | 12–14 wt.% | |
HCGO2 (343–524°C) | 35–36 wt.% | |
Fuel gas | 0.02 FOEB3 bbl Feed | |
Net coke | 21 wt.% |
Yield of fluid coker process [14].
Light Coker Gas Oil.
Heavy Coker Gas Oil.
Fuel Oil Equivalent Barrels.
Fluid coking is a thermal cracking process consisting of a fluidized bed reactor and a fluidized bed burner. A flow diagram is shown in Figure 5. Vacuum residue is preheated and fed to a scrubber that operates at 370°C above the reactor for coke fine particle recovery. The heavy hydrocarbons in the feed are recycled with the fine particles to the reactor as slurry recycle. The heavy vacuum residue feed is injected through nozzles to a fluidized bed of coke particles. Cracking reactions take place in the reactor at a temperature of 500–550°C, and the feed is converted to vapour and lighter gases, which enter the scrubber after passing through the cyclones at the top of the reactor and go to the fractionator column. Steam enters from the bottom of the reactor to remove heavy hydrocarbons from the coke surface. The evolution of vapour from the cracking of the feed, and the addition of steam, gives intense mixing of the coke particles within the reactor. The coke formed in the reactor flows continuously to the burner, where it is heated to 593–677°C and burns with partial combustion of 15–30% of the coke by injecting air into the burner. Coke combustion produces flue gases with low heating value (20 BTU/SCF), which are rich in CO and H₂. Parts of the heated coke particles are returned to the reactor to provide energy for the endothermic cracking reactions and to maintain the reactor temperature. After cooling, the remaining coke is removed from the process as a stream of fine particles of ‘petroleum coke’ and is burned in power plants or cement industries. This coke is very isotropic, rich in ash and sulphur and therefore not used in the carbon and graphite industry [12, 16, 17].
Flow sheet of fluid coking [modified from
The lower limit on operating temperature for fluid coking is set by the behaviour of the fluidized coke particles. If the conversion to coke and light ends is too slow, then the coke particles become sticky and agglomerate within the reactor. This phenomenon occurs in localised zones of the reactor, likely near the nozzles that inject the (colder) liquid bitumen feed, giving rise to chunks of coke that fall to the bottom of the bed. For this reason, optimising the method for introducing feed into the reactor is crucial. In addition, excellent heat transfer in the fluidized bed helps to reduce hotspots, which allows the reactor to operate at a higher temperature to cause more cracking of volatile matters. These factors generally reduce coke yields and increase the yields of gas oil and olefins compared to the delayed coking process. One disadvantage of the fluid coking process is the high rate of coke accumulation inside the unit. The reactor operates in a fouling mode, so coke deposits continuously on the interior surfaces during operation. The reactor must be shut down for a month or more every 2 or 3 years to remove the accumulated coke, which can grow to be as thick as 1 meter on the interior walls of the coker. The second disadvantage is the emission of significant amounts of hydrogen sulphide and sulphur dioxide from the reactor burner [16, 17].
At first, it was thought that the fluid coking process would replace the delayed coking process in the market, but so far this has not happened.
The decline in coke markets derived from delayed coking and fluid coking due to constraints in sulphur emissions encouraged the development of flexicoking. Burning coke to generate process heat (Figure 6) liberates the sulphur in the coke as hydrogen sulphide and sulphur dioxide gases. The off-gas stream from the coke burner also contains CO, CO2 and N2. An alternate approach is to use a coke gasifier which can convert the carbonaceous solids to a mixture of CO, CO2 and H₂ without producing SO2. Flexicoking was designed by ExxonMobil as a fluid coking modifier that was introduced in 1976 in Japan. This process combines fluid coking with coke gasification, which, similar to fluid coking, is a fluidized bed process developed from catalytic fluid cracking technology. A fluidized bed is added to the process, which acts as a gasifier in which coke from the heater is reacted with steam and air in a fluid-bed gasifier to produce a gas of low heating value (20–40 BTU/sCF) and significantly reduces coke production. Yields of liquid products are the same for flexicoking and fluid coking because the coking reactor is unaltered, but up to 97% of the coke can be converted to gas by steam and air in a gasifier. Air is injected into the gasifier to maintain temperatures of 830–1000°C, but injected air is not enough to burn the entire coke. Under these conditions, the sulphur in the coke is converted to hydrogen sulphide, which can be scrubbed from the gas prior to combustion elsewhere. After removal of the hydrogen sulfide, a typical gas product contains 18% CO, 10% CO2, 15% H₂, 51% N2, 5% H2O and 1% CH4. Petroleum coke is removed, and economical fuel gas is available for use at the refinery. Due to the high initial investment and mechanical cost, only seven units were built worldwide. The main drawback of gasification is the requirement for a large additional reactor, especially if the high conversion of the coke is required [12, 14, 15, 16, 17].
Flow sheet of flexicoking [modified from 12].
In the process, the viscous feedstock enters the scrubber for direct-contact heat exchange with the overhead product vapours from the reactor. Lower-boiling overhead constituents in the scrubber go to a conventional fractionator and also to light ends recovery. The feedstock is thermally cracked in the reactor fluidized bed to a range of gas and liquid products and coke. The typical bed temperature is 510–540°C. Vapour products resulting from the conversion reactions in the bed pass through the cyclone separators, which remove most of the entrained coke and return it to the reactor bed. The cyclone outlets discharge the vapor product directly into a scrubber, where the heavy liquid is used to scrub out the remaining coke dust and condense unconverted high-boiling fractions. The dust-laden liquid is recycled as ‘a slurry cycle’ to the reactor with the feed. The scrubbed vapour is sent to the coker fractionator, where the stream is split into gas, naphtha, distillate and heavy gas oil streams. The heater is located between the reactor and the gasifier, and it serves to transfer heat between the two vessels. The heater temperature is controlled by the rate of coke circulation between the heater and the gasifier. Adjusting the air rate to the gasifier controls the unit inventory of coke, and the gasifier temperature is controlled by steam injection into the gasifier. Excess coke is converted to a low-heating value gas in a fluid-bed gasifier with steam and air. The air is supplied to the gasifier to maintain temperatures of 830–1000°C, but is insufficient to burn all the coke. The heater transfers heat from the gasifier overhead gas to coke, which in turn supplies the heat of reaction in the reactor. The heater bed temperature is approximately 610°C. Coke is continuously circulated between the three vessels to transfer heat and maintain vessel inventories. A typical gas product, after the removal of hydrogen sulfide, contains carbon monoxide (CO, 18%), carbon dioxide (CO2, 10%), hydrogen (H2, 15%), nitrogen (N2, 51%), water (H2O, 5%) and methane (CH4, 1%) [12, 14, 15, 16, 17].
In the oxidation zone of the gasifier, the following reactions take place very rapidly [14]:
In the reduction zone, the following reactions take place slowly:
Delayed coking is the most commonly used process among all commercial coking processes. More than 92% of petroleum coke is produced in the delayed coking process; About one-third of feed streams are produced in the form of petroleum coke. Due to the reaction conditions, net coke production from fluid cokers and flexicokers is only about 5–10 wt.% of the feed material. About 20–25% of 700 refineries worldwide are equipped with delayed cokers. Of the 140 US refineries in operation, 55 have delayed coker units. Most of the petroleum coke is produced in the United States, followed by China, South America, Canada, India, the Middle East and Western [6, 12].
Coke produced by delayed coker is a marketable product, while coke produced by fluid coker and flexicoker is burned to meet the reactor heat needs and feed preheat.
At present, light crude oil reserves are the main source of energy that meets global energy demand due to high quality and low production costs. Decline in light crude oil reserves poses great challenges to meeting the world’s energy needs. Heavy oil and oil residues have become a suitable alternative source to meet global energy demand. According to the approaches to achieving higher H/C ratios, upgrading technologies can be divided into carbon rejection and hydrogen addition processes. However, the cost of hydrogen addition processes is much higher than carbon rejection processes, because the production of hydrogen and the catalysts used in hydrogen addition processes are very expensive. Carbon rejection technologies have been used by refineries since 1913 to upgrade various hydrocarbon feeds. In a carbon rejection process, raw materials are heated to high temperatures to crack large hydrocarbons into smaller ones. Coking (delayed, fluid and flexi) is one of the types of carbon rejection processes. Delayed coking has been chosen by many refineries as an upgrading process due to its low investment cost and the inherent flexibility of the process to process any residuals. In this process, 20–30 wt.% coke is produced as a by-product. Depending on the properties of the raw materials and the operating conditions of the delayed coking process, different types of the coke can be produced. Typically, coke can be divided into spherical shot coke, sponge coke, and needle coke. Using the proper feedstocks, optimal design techniques, and operating parameters, delayed coking can be used to produce needle coke, a specialized and rare product in the refining and coke production industry. Needle coke is a premium coke made from special petroleum feedstocks. There are two methods, BOF and EAF, for steel production. Coal, iron, and limestone are used to produce steel in the BOF method. However, in the EAF method, an electric current passes through the graphite electrodes to convert the steel scrap into molten steel. There is no known alternative to graphite electrodes used in the EAF method of steel production. Needle coke is a major component in the production of graphite electrodes. The main application of needle coke is in the graphite electrode industry. Global steel production on the EAF is expected to grow. This has led to a similar increase in consumption of graphite electrodes. It is expected to eventually increase the consumption of needle coke.
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\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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It is a leading cause of disability in children. Congenitally infected neonates often appear asymptomatic at birth or have nonspecific symptoms. An early diagnosis and subsequent early antiviral therapy associated to nonpharmacological therapy (e.g., hearing rehabilitation, speech-language therapy, and cochlear implants) can reduce long-term disability. Much research has been done in this field, but further studies are still necessary. Looking back at the most recent papers, we will draw a review on this topic trying to answer to the question: could universal CMV screening be a useful and cost-effective diagnostic tool?",book:{id:"8728",slug:"update-on-critical-issues-on-infant-and-neonatal-care",title:"Update on Critical Issues on Infant and Neonatal Care",fullTitle:"Update on Critical Issues on Infant and Neonatal Care"},signatures:"Sara Lunardi, Francesca Lorenzoni and Paolo Ghirri",authors:null},{id:"44446",doi:"10.5772/54310",title:"Neonatal Pneumonia",slug:"neonatal-pneumonia",totalDownloads:14797,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"2990",slug:"neonatal-bacterial-infection",title:"Neonatal Bacterial Infection",fullTitle:"Neonatal Bacterial Infection"},signatures:"Friedrich Reiterer",authors:[{id:"152025",title:"Prof.",name:"Friedrich",middleName:null,surname:"Reiterer",slug:"friedrich-reiterer",fullName:"Friedrich Reiterer"}]},{id:"68113",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86715",title:"Platelets in the Newborn",slug:"platelets-in-the-newborn",totalDownloads:957,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Platelets were first described in the mid-nineteenth century. Since then, their roles were identified in hemostasis and thrombosis, inflammation, leukocyte interactions, angiogenesis, and cancer growth. But there is little information about such platelet functions in the newborn. Several studies highlighted some platelet differences between newborns and adults. Yet, in spite of these differences, healthy newborns appear to be adequately protected. A number of factors, however, were reported to negatively affect neonatal platelets. These include maternal hypertensive disorders or infections, neonatal asphyxia or respiratory distress, therapies such as ampicillin or indomethacin, and treatment modalities such as ventilators, nitric oxide, or extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO). Their effects on newborn platelets are usually transitory, lasting from several hours to a few days or weeks. If these effects are well characterized, they could serve as reporters for diagnosis and monitoring during therapy. Careful studies of neonatal platelets are needed to improve the understanding of basic physiology and pathophysiology in this cohort and to identify possible targets for intervention and therapy.",book:{id:"7527",slug:"neonatal-medicine",title:"Neonatal Medicine",fullTitle:"Neonatal Medicine"},signatures:"Ijeoma Esiaba, Iman Mousselli, Giulia M. Faison, Danilyn M. Angeles and Danilo S. Boskovic",authors:[{id:"255308",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Danilo",middleName:null,surname:"Boskovic",slug:"danilo-boskovic",fullName:"Danilo Boskovic"},{id:"274914",title:"Prof.",name:"Ijeoma",middleName:null,surname:"Esiaba",slug:"ijeoma-esiaba",fullName:"Ijeoma Esiaba"},{id:"274915",title:"Prof.",name:"Danilyn",middleName:null,surname:"Angeles",slug:"danilyn-angeles",fullName:"Danilyn Angeles"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"44446",title:"Neonatal Pneumonia",slug:"neonatal-pneumonia",totalDownloads:14796,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"2990",slug:"neonatal-bacterial-infection",title:"Neonatal Bacterial Infection",fullTitle:"Neonatal Bacterial Infection"},signatures:"Friedrich Reiterer",authors:[{id:"152025",title:"Prof.",name:"Friedrich",middleName:null,surname:"Reiterer",slug:"friedrich-reiterer",fullName:"Friedrich Reiterer"}]},{id:"53683",title:"Pre and Postoperative Management of Pediatric Patients with Congenital Heart Diseases",slug:"pre-and-postoperative-management-of-pediatric-patients-with-congenital-heart-diseases",totalDownloads:4931,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Stabilization during preoperative cardiac surgery especially in neonates has an important role to predict outcome for pediatric congenital heart surgery. We tried to elaborate general guidelines on how to diagnose and some anticipations for emergency treatments tailored by the type of congenital heart disease in neonates. Stabilization consists of medical treatment including emergent prostaglandin institution in some types of duct dependent lesion. The role of interventional catheterization such as patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) stent, balloon pulmonary valvotomy, etc. as modalities for stabilization before surgery was also elaborated. Some general and specific guidelines based on the type of surgeries for postoperative management were also discussed.",book:{id:"5473",slug:"pediatric-and-neonatal-surgery",title:"Pediatric and Neonatal Surgery",fullTitle:"Pediatric and Neonatal Surgery"},signatures:"Eva Miranda Marwali, Beatrice Heineking and Nikolaus A. 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It is more common during the neonatal period than at any other age with the estimated incidence of 0.25 per 1000 live births. The absence of specific clinical presentation makes diagnosis of meningitis more difficult in neonates than in older children. Culture of cerebrospinal fluid is the traditional gold standard for diagnosis of bacterial meningitis, so all newborn infants with proven or suspected sepsis should undergo lumbar puncture. However, deciding when to perform lumbar puncture and interpretation of the results are challenging. Although the pathophysiology of neonatal meningitis is complex and not fully understood, researches on diagnostic and prognostic tools are ongoing. Prevention of neonatal sepsis, early recognition of infants at risk, development of novel, rapid diagnostics and adjunctive therapies, and appropriate and aggressive antimicrobial treatment to sterilize cerebrospinal fluid as soon as possible may prevent the lifelong squeal of bacterial meningitis in newborn infants.",book:{id:"7527",slug:"neonatal-medicine",title:"Neonatal Medicine",fullTitle:"Neonatal Medicine"},signatures:"Mehmet Şah İpek",authors:[{id:"267903",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mehmet Şah",middleName:null,surname:"İpek",slug:"mehmet-sah-ipek",fullName:"Mehmet Şah İpek"}]},{id:"71427",title:"Factors Influencing Maternal Decision-Making on Infant Feeding Practices",slug:"factors-influencing-maternal-decision-making-on-infant-feeding-practices",totalDownloads:1014,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The decision to formula feed or breastfeed a child typically begins with an established prenatal intention. This chapter will examine the multiple dimensions influencing maternal decision-making in regards to the feeding practices of infants including 1) individual maternal characteristics, 2) organizational factors, 3) hospital/provider recommendations, and 4) systematic/policy factors. The chapter will also examine the impact of infant feeding practices on early infant and childhood health outcomes. Research has demonstrated the benefits of breastfeeding on infants and early childhood which includes but is not limited to protection against common illnesses and infections, improved IQ , and even increased school attendance. Moreover, the World Health Assembly global nutrition objectives focus on encouraging breastfeeding support across all sectors in addition to implementing tailored community-based approaches, limiting the excessive marketing of infant formula, and enforcing supportive breastfeeding legislation. The aim of this chapter is to provide an overview of the dynamic interplay between individual, interpersonal, community, and societal factors, such as policies that impact breastfeeding rates and more specifically the health of infants.",book:{id:"9805",slug:"infant-feeding-breast-versus-formula",title:"Infant Feeding",fullTitle:"Infant Feeding - Breast versus Formula"},signatures:"Whitney N. Hamilton",authors:[{id:"313554",title:"Dr.",name:"Whitney",middleName:null,surname:"Hamilton",slug:"whitney-hamilton",fullName:"Whitney Hamilton"}]},{id:"73181",title:"Introductory Chapter: Impact of First 1000 Days Nutrition on Child Development and General Health",slug:"introductory-chapter-impact-of-first-1000-days-nutrition-on-child-development-and-general-health",totalDownloads:830,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"9805",slug:"infant-feeding-breast-versus-formula",title:"Infant Feeding",fullTitle:"Infant Feeding - Breast versus Formula"},signatures:"Isam Jaber AL-Zwaini, Zaid Rasheed AL-Ani and Walter Hurley",authors:[{id:"30993",title:"Prof.",name:"Isam Jaber",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Zwaini",slug:"isam-jaber-al-zwaini",fullName:"Isam Jaber Al-Zwaini"},{id:"136109",title:"Dr.",name:"Walter",middleName:null,surname:"Hurley",slug:"walter-hurley",fullName:"Walter Hurley"},{id:"317690",title:"Dr.",name:"Zaid Rasheed",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Ani",slug:"zaid-rasheed-al-ani",fullName:"Zaid Rasheed Al-Ani"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1108",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81682",title:"‘Complete Coverage & Covering Completely’ for Breastfeeding with Able, Bold, & Confident Mothers, for Sustainable Development, & Medical Education Excellence",slug:"-complete-coverage-covering-completely-for-breastfeeding-with-able-bold-confident-mothers-for-sustai",totalDownloads:9,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104297",abstract:"Complete coverage of all infants, everywhere with wonderful evidence, and covering completely with first six months of exclusive breastfeeding and thereafter proper weaning while continuing breastfeeding up to 2 years of age or beyond is desirable. Reaching all rightly and robustly is required. All this will contribute greatly towards the growth & development of infants and grandly towards the Sustainable Development Goals. We propose the “ABC mothers” plan. Progress for required practices for results possible with making mothers—“Able for practices advantageous, bold with pertinent awareness, and confident with propitious attitude”. Strong efforts on sound footing are necessary for health of all our infants and happiness all around with sustainable development. Scientific infant feeding will contribute to advance the attainment of this. Medical education teaching best beneficial practices is for excellence. One promoting breastfeeding is the best. The US Surgeon General’s Implementation Strategies elaborate “Education content”, “Enabling competency”, & “Education continuing”. Competency-based curriculum for Indian Medical Graduates includes “to promote and support optimal breast feeding”. Need for inclusion in teaching curriculum across US, UK, & internationally has been documented. Given all the evidence for breastfeeding benefits, it should be a consistent essential component of training in all medical schools worldwide.",book:{id:"11308",title:"Selected Topics on Infant Feeding",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11308.jpg"},signatures:"Sunil Jain, Arvind Singh Kushwaha and Vishal Marwaha"},{id:"81544",title:"Infant and Young Child Feeding in the Developed and Developing Countries",slug:"infant-and-young-child-feeding-in-the-developed-and-developing-countries",totalDownloads:33,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103012",abstract:"Infant feeding challenges continue to manifest in developed and developing countries. Worldwide, more than 80% of babies are breastfed in the first few weeks of birth. However, about 37%, 25%, and less than 1% are exclusively breastfed at 6 months of age in Africa, the United States of America, and the United Kingdom, respectively. These statistics are far below the World Health Organization targets of 50% and 70% by 2025 and 2030, respectively. Complementary feeding practices are varied as well due to nonadherence to Infant and Young Child Feeding (IYCF) guidelines among parents. This accounts for the current trends in malnutrition in children under−5 years of age, adolescents, and the youth, and leads to intergeneration malnutrition. In this chapter we have included sections on appropriate infant feeding; including how to initiate breastfeeding in the first hour of birth, how to exclusively breastfeed infants until 6 months of age, how to complement breastfeeding after 6 months of infant’s age as well as continuing to breastfeed until 24 months of age and even beyond. Furthermore, we have included a description of how mothers who are unable to breastfeed can feed their infants on expressed breastmilk or replace breastmilk with appropriate homemade or commercial formula. This chapter as well covers infant feeding in prematurity.",book:{id:"11308",title:"Selected Topics on Infant Feeding",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11308.jpg"},signatures:"Enos Mirembe Masereka, Clement Munguiko, Alex Tumusiime and Linda Grace Alanyo"},{id:"81207",title:"Breastfeeding during COVID Pandemic",slug:"breastfeeding-during-covid-pandemic",totalDownloads:25,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104604",abstract:"As new mothers are understandably concerned about COVID-19 and its high rate of infection, they are often unsure if they should breastfeed their infants. In general, hospitals do not allow direct breastfeeding by mothers with an active infection of SARS-CoV-2. Some neonatal units in Hong Kong maintain safe practices by isolating infants and mothers for at least 7 to 14 days, even if the infant remains SARS-CoV-2 negative. During isolation, mothers encourage the expression of milk to maintain milk duct patency and to prepare for lactation when they and their infants are discharged. Infants are fed formula milk by cup feeding with added supplements based on the recommended daily feeding volume for neonates and their appetite during hospitalization. At present, data that indicates COVID-19 could be transmitted from mother to infant postnatally through breastfeeding are insufficient. Major organizations recommend that mothers should breastfeed exclusively for the first 6 months, and thereafter continue to provide their infants with breast milk up until the age of two or beyond. With new findings arising from research, updated information is important to reassure mothers that breastfeeding at home during the COVID-19 pandemic is safe and recommended for both the mother and the infant.",book:{id:"11308",title:"Selected Topics on Infant Feeding",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11308.jpg"},signatures:"Ka-Huen Yip, Mei-Kuen Chow, Yuk-Chiu Yip and Wai-King Tsui"},{id:"81129",title:"Research of Fat Component Safety and Pre-Clinical Evaluation of Infant Adapted Dry Milk Mixtures Physiological Effect",slug:"research-of-fat-component-safety-and-pre-clinical-evaluation-of-infant-adapted-dry-milk-mixtures-phy",totalDownloads:16,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103069",abstract:"The aim of the study deals with determination of fat component safety and quality key indicators of adapted infant dry milk formulas provided by various manufacturers. The most popular in Russia adapted infant dry milk formulas were selected as study objects. It was found that the qualitative composition of the fat component of dry milk mixtures corresponds to the information placed on the package. However none of the samples under study in terms of the average composition of the prevailing fatty acids fully corresponds to human breast milk. The regulation documents of the Customs Union (TR CU 021/2011, TR CU 024/2011, TR CU 033/2013) establish only the organoleptic evaluation of the adapted breast milk formulas quality indicators. Among the fat component safety indicators only the determination of the peroxide value characterizing the accumulation of primary fat oxidation products. It was also found that the peroxide values of the studied mixtures do not exceed the regulated values. Meanwhile the samples of infant milk food made from dry milk mixtures almost all have unsatisfactory organoleptic characteristics. Defects of taste and smell are associated with the accumulation in the original adapted milk mixtures of a significant amount of secondary products of fat oxidation, which in a biological experiment on animals lead to a decrease in the content of leukocytes and a change of its blood count.",book:{id:"11308",title:"Selected Topics on Infant Feeding",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11308.jpg"},signatures:"Ekaterina Yurievna Volf, Inna Vladimirovna Simakova, Andrey Anatolyevich Terentyev, Aleksandr Sergeevich Fedonnikov, Nina Viktorovna Bolotova, Gloria Vladimirovna Guzeeva and Viktor Veniaminovich Zakrevsky"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:4},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. 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For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. 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His fields of interest are anterior segment disease, keratoconus, glaucoma, corneal dystrophies, and cataracts. His research topics include\nintraocular lens power calculation, eye modification induced by refractive surgery, glaucoma progression, and validation of new diagnostic devices in ophthalmology. \nHe has published more than 100 papers in international and Italian scientific journals, more than 60 in journals with impact factors, and chapters in international and Italian books. He has also edited two international books and authored more than 150 communications or posters for the most important international and Italian ophthalmology conferences.",institutionString:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institution:{name:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7560",title:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods",subtitle:"Image Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7560.jpg",slug:"non-invasive-diagnostic-methods-image-processing",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mariusz Marzec and Robert Koprowski",hash:"d92fd8cf5a90a47f2b8a310837a5600e",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods - Image Processing",editors:[{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. 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