Process flow chart for fufu
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7751",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Fault Detection, Diagnosis and Prognosis",title:"Fault Detection, Diagnosis and Prognosis",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book presents the main concepts, state of the art, advances, and case studies of fault detection, diagnosis, and prognosis. This topic is a critical variable in industry to reach and maintain competitiveness. Therefore, proper management of the corrective, predictive, and preventive politics in any industry is required. This book complements other subdisciplines such as economics, finance, marketing, decision and risk analysis, engineering, etc. The book presents real case studies in multiple disciplines. It considers the main topics using prognostic and subdiscipline techniques. It is essential to link these topics with the areas of finance, scheduling, resources, downtime, etc. to increase productivity, profitability, maintainability, reliability, safety, and availability, and reduce costs and downtime. Advances in mathematics, modeling, computational techniques, dynamic analysis, etc. are employed analytically. Computational techniques, dynamic analysis, probabilistic methods, and mathematical optimization techniques are expertly blended to support the analysis of prognostic problems with defined constraints and requirements. The book is intended for graduate students and professionals in industrial engineering, business administration, industrial organization, operations management, applied microeconomics, and the decisions sciences, either studying maintenance or needing to solve large, specific, and complex maintenance management problems as part of their jobs. The work will also be of interest to researches from academia.",isbn:"978-1-78984-214-2",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-213-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-661-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77564",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"fault-detection-diagnosis-and-prognosis",numberOfPages:176,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"d54796f7da58f58fa679b94a2b83af00",bookSignature:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez",publishedDate:"February 5th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7751.jpg",numberOfDownloads:9476,numberOfWosCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitations:12,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:22,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:39,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 20th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 19th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 18th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 8th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 7th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/22844/images/system/22844.png",biography:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez is a full professor at the University of Castilla–La Mancha (UCLM), Spain, an honorary senior\nresearch fellow at Birmingham University, UK, and a lecturer\nat the Postgraduate European Institute. In 2013/2014, he was\na senior manager at Accenture. He obtained his European\nPh.D. with maximum distinction. He is the recipient of several\nawards from various organizations, including the International\nSociety of Management Science and Engineering Management (ICMSEM). He\nhas published more than 170 journal papers and authored and edited 40 books,\n90 book chapters, and 6 patents. He is an editor for five international journals and\na committee member of more than sixty conferences. He has been the Principal\nInvestigator of more than 150 projects both national and international. His main\ninterests include artificial intelligence, maintenance, management, renewable\nenergy, transport, advanced analytics, and data science",institutionString:"University of Castile-La Mancha",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"12",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"12",institution:{name:"University of Castile-La Mancha",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"968",title:"Mathematical Modeling",slug:"applied-mathematics-mathematical-modeling"}],chapters:[{id:"67579",title:"Introductory Chapter: Prognostics - An Overview",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86894",slug:"introductory-chapter-prognostics-an-overview",totalDownloads:667,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67579",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67579",authors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],corrections:null},{id:"65747",title:"Prognostics 102: Efficient Bayesian-Based Prognostics Algorithm in MATLAB",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82781",slug:"prognostics-102-efficient-bayesian-based-prognostics-algorithm-in-matlab",totalDownloads:1359,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"An efficient Bayesian-based algorithm is presented for physics-based prognostics, which combines a physical model with observed health monitoring data. Unknown model parameters are estimated using the observed data, from which the remaining useful life (RUL) of the system is predicted. This paper focuses on the Bayesian method for parameter estimation of a damage degradation model where epistemic uncertainty in model parameters is reduced with the observed data. Markov-chain Monte Carlo sampling is used to generate samples from the posterior distribution, which are then propagated through the physical model to estimate the distribution of the RUL. A MATLAB script of 76 lines is included in this paper with detailed explanations. A battery degradation model and crack growth model are used to explain the process of parameter estimation, the evolution of degradation and RUL prediction. The code presented in this paper can easily be altered for different applications. This code may help beginners to understand and use Bayesian method-based prognostics.",signatures:"Ting Dong, Dawn An and Nam H. Kim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65747",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65747",authors:[{id:"278745",title:"Prof.",name:"Nam-Ho",surname:"Kim",slug:"nam-ho-kim",fullName:"Nam-Ho Kim"},{id:"285438",title:"Ms.",name:"Ting",surname:"Dong",slug:"ting-dong",fullName:"Ting Dong"},{id:"285439",title:"Dr.",name:"Dawn",surname:"An",slug:"dawn-an",fullName:"Dawn An"}],corrections:null},{id:"65362",title:"Predicting Sets of Automata: Architecture, Evolution, Examples of Prognosis, and Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83807",slug:"predicting-sets-of-automata-architecture-evolution-examples-of-prognosis-and-applications",totalDownloads:742,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter describes the sets of interacting automata constructed on the cascades of wavelet coefficients of input signal. The basic principles of the evolution of automata during the processing of incoming cascades and the vector of processes consisting of segments of cascades of constant length are described. The main principles of constructing the family of automata are determined from the internal symmetry of incoming cascades and the definition of symmetry groups of vector processes and their isotropy groups. The trajectories of states are defined on nontrivial topological spaces, the so-called degeneration spaces of the characteristic functional. The family of evolving automata with tunable communications architecture is designed to predict the state of engineering objects and identify predictors, early predictors, and hidden predictors of failure. This chapter provides examples of the work of predictive automata in various fields of engineering and medicine. It demonstrates the operation of the automaton in spaces with a nontrivial topology of input cascades, algorithms of the predictor search, and estimations. The family of evolving automata with reconstructing architecture of connections is designed to predict the state of engineering objects and medicine and identify predictors, early predictors, and hidden predictors of failure. The architecture and functional properties of automata are determined from the results and main conclusions.",signatures:"Sergey Kirillov, Aleksandr Kirillov, Vitalii Iakimkin, Michael Pecht and Yuri Kaganovich",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65362",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65362",authors:[{id:"4148",title:"Prof.",name:"Michael",surname:"Pecht",slug:"michael-pecht",fullName:"Michael Pecht"},{id:"234788",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Kirillov",slug:"sergey-kirillov",fullName:"Sergey Kirillov"},{id:"235391",title:"Dr.",name:"Aleksandr",surname:"Kirillov",slug:"aleksandr-kirillov",fullName:"Aleksandr Kirillov"},{id:"247701",title:"Dr.",name:"Vitalii",surname:"Yakimkin",slug:"vitalii-yakimkin",fullName:"Vitalii Yakimkin"},{id:"279379",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuri",surname:"Kaganovich",slug:"yuri-kaganovich",fullName:"Yuri Kaganovich"}],corrections:null},{id:"65244",title:"Fault Diagnosis Techniques for a Wind Turbine System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83810",slug:"fault-diagnosis-techniques-for-a-wind-turbine-system",totalDownloads:1283,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The fault diagnosis and prognosis of wind turbine systems represent a challenging issue, thus justifying the research topics developed in this work with application to safety-critical systems. Therefore, this chapter addresses these research issues and demonstrates viable techniques of fault diagnosis and condition monitoring. To this aim, the design of the so-called fault detector relies on its estimate, which involves data-driven methods, as they result effective methods for managing partial information of the system dynamics, together with errors, model-reality mismatch and disturbance effects. In particular, the considered data-driven strategies use fuzzy systems and neural networks, which are employed to establish non-linear dynamic links between measurements and faults. The selected prototypes are based on non-linear autoregressive with exogenous input descriptions, since they are able to approximate non-linear dynamic functions with arbitrary degree of accuracy. The capabilities of the designed fault diagnosis schemes are verified via a high-fidelity simulator, which describes the normal and the faulty behaviour of a wind turbine plant. Finally, the robustness and the reliability features of the proposed methods are validated in the presence of uncertainty and disturbance implemented in the wind turbine simulator.",signatures:"Silvio Simani and Paolo Castaldi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65244",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65244",authors:[{id:"209626",title:"Prof.",name:"Silvio",surname:"Simani",slug:"silvio-simani",fullName:"Silvio Simani"},{id:"209627",title:"Dr.",name:"Paolo",surname:"Castaldi",slug:"paolo-castaldi",fullName:"Paolo Castaldi"}],corrections:null},{id:"70067",title:"Analytic Prognostic in the Linear Damage Case Applied to Buried Petrochemical Pipelines and the Complex Probability Paradigm",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90157",slug:"analytic-prognostic-in-the-linear-damage-case-applied-to-buried-petrochemical-pipelines-and-the-comp",totalDownloads:2879,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"In 1933, Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov established the system of five axioms that define the concept of mathematical probability. This system can be developed to include the set of imaginary numbers by adding a supplementary three original axioms. Therefore, any experiment can be performed in the set \n\nC\n\n of complex probabilities which is the summation of the set \n\nR\n\n of real probabilities and the set \n\nM\n\n of imaginary probabilities. The purpose here is to include additional imaginary dimensions to the experiment taking place in the “real” laboratory in \n\nR\n\n and hence to evaluate all the probabilities. Consequently, the probability in the entire set \n\nC\n=\nR\n+\nM\n\n is permanently equal to one no matter what the stochastic distribution of the input random variable in \n\nR\n\n is; therefore the outcome of the probabilistic experiment in \n\nC\n\n can be determined perfectly. This is due to the fact that the probability in \n\nC\n\n is calculated after subtracting from the degree of our knowledge the chaotic factor of the random experiment. Consequently, the purpose in this chapter is to join my complex probability paradigm to the analytic prognostic of buried petrochemical pipelines in the case of linear damage accumulation. Accordingly, after the calculation of the novel prognostic model parameters, we will be able to evaluate the degree of knowledge, the magnitude of the chaotic factor, the complex probability, the probabilities of the system failure and survival, and the probability of the remaining useful lifetime; after that a pressure time t has been applied to the pipeline, which are all functions of the system degradation subject to random and stochastic influences.",signatures:"Abdo Abou Jaoude",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70067",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70067",authors:[{id:"248271",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdo",surname:"Abou Jaoudé",slug:"abdo-abou-jaoude",fullName:"Abdo Abou Jaoudé"}],corrections:null},{id:"68233",title:"Fault Detection of Single and Interval Valued Data Using Statistical Process Monitoring Techniques",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88217",slug:"fault-detection-of-single-and-interval-valued-data-using-statistical-process-monitoring-techniques",totalDownloads:730,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Principal component analysis (PCA) is a linear data analysis technique widely used for fault detection and isolation, data modeling, and noise filtration. PCA may be combined with statistical hypothesis testing methods, such as the generalized likelihood ratio (GLR) technique in order to detect faults. GLR functions by using the concept of maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) in order to maximize the detection rate for a fixed false alarm rate. The benchmark Tennessee Eastman Process (TEP) is used to examine the performance of the different techniques, and the results show that for processes that experience both shifts in the mean and/or variance, the best performance is achieved by independently monitoring the mean and variance using two separate GLR charts, rather than simultaneously monitoring them using a single chart. Moreover, single-valued data can be aggregated into interval form in order to provide a more robust model with improved fault detection performance using PCA and GLR. The TEP example is used once more in order to demonstrate the effectiveness of using of interval-valued data over single-valued data.",signatures:"Mohammed Ziyan Sheriff, Nour Basha, Muhammad Nazmul Karim, Hazem Nounou and Mohamed Nounou",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68233",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68233",authors:[{id:"21281",title:"Prof.",name:"Hazem",surname:"Nounou",slug:"hazem-nounou",fullName:"Hazem Nounou"},{id:"21282",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed N.",surname:"Nounou",slug:"mohamed-n.-nounou",fullName:"Mohamed N. Nounou"},{id:"191340",title:"Mr.",name:"M. Ziyan",surname:"Sheriff",slug:"m.-ziyan-sheriff",fullName:"M. Ziyan Sheriff"},{id:"191345",title:"Prof.",name:"M. Nazmul",surname:"Karim",slug:"m.-nazmul-karim",fullName:"M. Nazmul Karim"},{id:"253580",title:"Mr.",name:"Nour",surname:"Basha",slug:"nour-basha",fullName:"Nour Basha"}],corrections:null},{id:"70649",title:"Real-Time Fault Detection and Diagnosis Using Intelligent Monitoring and Supervision Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90158",slug:"real-time-fault-detection-and-diagnosis-using-intelligent-monitoring-and-supervision-systems",totalDownloads:1116,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In monitoring and supervision schemes, fault detection and diagnosis characterize high efficiency and quality production systems. To achieve such properties, these structures are based on techniques that allow detection and diagnosis of failures in real time. Detection signals faults and diagnostics provide the root cause and location. Fault detection is based on signal and process mathematical models, while fault diagnosis is focused on systems theory and process modeling. Monitoring and supervision complement each other in fault management, thus enabling normal and continuous operation. Its application avoids stopping productive processes by early detection of failures and by applying real-time actions to eliminate them, such as predictive and proactive maintenance based on process conditions. The integration of all these methodologies enables intelligent monitoring and supervision systems, enabling real-time fault detection and diagnosis. Their high performance is associated with statistical decision-making techniques, expert systems, artificial neural networks, fuzzy logic and computational procedures, making them efficient and fully autonomous in making decisions in the real-time operation of a production system.",signatures:"Gustavo Pérez Alvarez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70649",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70649",authors:[{id:"216192",title:"Dr.",name:"Gustavo",surname:"Alvarez",slug:"gustavo-alvarez",fullName:"Gustavo Alvarez"}],corrections:null},{id:"68879",title:"An Approach to Optimize the Management of Information Security in Public Organizations of Ecuador",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88931",slug:"an-approach-to-optimize-the-management-of-information-security-in-public-organizations-of-ecuador",totalDownloads:705,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The problems of information security in public organizations in Ecuador are evident, which, as a result, have led to corruptions that are present at all levels of operational, tactical and strategic management. The objective of this chapter is to analyze the available information found in different media, written, spoken, among others. The deductive method was used for the collection of information and observation techniques. It turned out the improve in the administrative processes, prototype diagram of sequence of access of users and services, prototype of integration of technologies of security of the information for public organizations of Ecuador. It was concluded that to avoid corruption in a country change should happen at all levels: the way of thinking and culture of the inhabitants, laws, penalties to politicians without parliamentary immunity, application of information and communications technologies (ICT) in an appropriate manner, and complying with international standards in information security. To improve information security, administrative policies on information security must be changed, and technologies related to immutable security algorithms, Ledger, Hyperledger, etc., must be used.",signatures:"Segundo Moisés Toapanta Toapanta and Luis Enrique Mafla Gallegos",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68879",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68879",authors:[{id:"272865",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Moisés",surname:"Toapanta",slug:"moises-toapanta",fullName:"Moisés Toapanta"},{id:"294086",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis Enrique",surname:"Mafla Gallegos",slug:"luis-enrique-mafla-gallegos",fullName:"Luis Enrique Mafla Gallegos"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:[{id:"65",label:"highly cited contributor"}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"120",title:"Digital Filters",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"10692f498575728ddac136b0b327a83d",slug:"digital-filters",bookSignature:"Fausto 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Mayorkinos Papaelias",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6086.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9332",title:"Application of Decision Science in Business and Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"72ccbc5aab28621bad2e810c4bd5bd53",slug:"application-of-decision-science-in-business-and-management",bookSignature:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9332.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García 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Kaffas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7300.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37707",title:"Prof.",name:"Vlassios",middleName:null,surname:"Hrissanthou",slug:"vlassios-hrissanthou",fullName:"Vlassios Hrissanthou"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11495",leadTitle:null,title:"Fundamentals and Application of Femtosecond Optics",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tSince the introduction of the first sub-picosecond lasers in the 1990s, the interest in femtosecond optics has grown rapidly. A femtosecond pulse is an electromagnetic pulse with a time duration of one femtosecond (10-15 seconds) or less. Understanding the behavior of the ultrashort light pulses makes it possible to develop ultra-fast lasers with a wide range of applications in such areas as micro-machining, chemical analysis, material processing, spectroscopy, and medical imaging.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book will be a compilation of works presenting recent advances and progress in femtosecond optics. It aims to focus on developing femtosecond laser systems, the study of the interaction of femtosecond light pulses with the matter, application of ultrafast nonlinear optics, and manipulation of ultrashort pulses to fill the need for a thorough and detailed account of femtosecond optics. We hope this book will be useful for engineers and managers, for professors and students, and for those who are interested in laser science and technologies. The rise of robotic technology continues in the new century, taking firm steps towards becoming a part of humanity day by day. Robots have become a part of both industrial production and human life, increasingly taking their place in factories, hospitals, schools, the military system, streets, and homes. As a result of this rapid involvement of robotic structures in modern life, scientists are accelerating both theoretical and applied studies on robotic manipulators. This book focuses on the latest developments in kinematics, dynamics, control, simulation tools, optimization, and structural design of serial, parallel, and hybrid robot manipulators. I would like to thank all the authors who will contribute to the book with their novel ideas in advance. During the last years, there was intense research on Ankylosing Spondylitis (AS) and related disorders, which were found to have a strong association with the HLA-B27 allele. Further studies showed that 92% of the population variance is due to genetic factors, and only a fraction of AS genetics can be explained by the influence of HLA-B27. Updated information on the genomic and auto-immune knowledge on AS is an important component of this book, calling attention to markers of disease activity, possible pathways, and the interaction with the gut microbiome, which are a step forward in the knowledge of the pathophysiology of AS, providing markers which are targets for the more recent biologic therapies.
\r\n\r\n\tAn update on clinical manifestations, their assessment, monitoring, and imagiology, including peripheral arthritis, enthesopathy, and extra-articular findings, and, the differential diagnosis with other diseases which evolves with axial and peripheral calcifications will be provided.
\r\n\tAn important component of this book must be dedicated to the more recent treatments namely with biologic therapies but focusing also on new small molecule inhibitors and experimental therapies.
The deliberate fermentation of foods by man predates written history and is possibly the oldest method of preserving perishable foods. Evidence suggests that fermented foods were consumed 7,000 years ago in Babylon (Battcock and Aza-Ali, 1998). Scientist speculates that our ancestors possibly discovered fermentation by accident and continued to use the process out of preference or necessity. Preserving by fermentation not only made foods available for future use, but more digestible and flavourful. The nutritional value produced by fermenting is another benefit of fermenting.
Fermented foods are generally produced using plant or animal ingredients in combination with fungi or bacteria which are either sourced from the environment, or carefully kept in cultures maintained by humans. Just as living organisms cover the surface of the earth, fermentation microbes cover the surface of the organisms. Wild yeasts are found living on grapes (Chamberlain et al. 1997), and bacteria line the human digestive tract.
Fermented foods, whether from plant or animal origin, are an intricate part of the diet of people in all parts of the world. Fermented food plays a very important role in the socio-economics of developing countries. Each nation has its own types of fermented food, representing the staple diet and the raw ingredients available in that particular place. It makes major contributions to the protein requirements of the rural population. The preparation of many indigenous or “traditional” fermented foods and beverages remains a household art today.
The primary benefit of fermentation is the conversion of sugars and other carbohydrates to usable end products. According to Steinkraus (1995), the traditional fermentation of foods serves several functions, which includes: enhancement of diet through development of flavour, aroma, and texture in food substrates, preservation and shelf-life extension through lactic acid, alcohol, acetic acid and alkaline fermentation, enhancement of food quality with protein, essential amino acids, essential fatty acids and vitamins, improving digestibility and nutrient availability, detoxification of anti-nutrient through food fermentation processes, and a decrease in cooking time and fuel requirement.
Fermentation can produce important nutrients or eliminate anti- nutrients. Food can be preserved by fermentation, since fermentation uses up food energy and creates conditions unsuitable for spoilage microorganisms. For instance, in pickling, the acid produced by the dominant organism inhibits the growth of all other microorganisms.
Fermenting makes foods more edible by changing chemical compounds, or predigesting, the foods for us. There are extreme examples of poisonous plants like cassava that are converted to edible products by fermenting. Some coffee beans are hulled by a wet fermenting process, as opposed to a dry process (Battcock and Aza-Ali, 1998).
Reduction in anti-nutritional and toxic components in plant foods by fermentation was observed in a research which showed " Cereals, legumes, and tubers that are used for the production of fermented foods may contain significant amounts of antinutritional or toxic components such as phytates, tannins, cyanogenic glycosides, oxalates, saponins, lectins, and inhibitors of enzymes such as alpha-amylase, trypsin, and chymotrypsin.
These substances reduce the nutritional value of foods by interfering with the mineral bioavailability and digestibility of proteins and carbohydrates. In natural or pure mixed-culture fermentations of plant foods by yeasts, molds, and bacteria, antinutritional components (e.g. phytate in whole wheat breads) can be reduced by up to 50%; toxic components, such as lectins in tempe and other fermented foods made from beans, can be reduced up to 95%.(Larsson and Sandberg, 1991)
Fermentation increases nutritional values of foods, and allows us to live healthier lives. Here are a few examples:
The sprouting of grains, seeds, and nuts, multiplies the amino acid, vitamin, and mineral content and antioxidant qualities of the starting product (Wigmore, 1986).
Fermented beans are easier for the bodies to digest, like the proteins found in soy beans that are nearly indigestible until fermented (Katz, 2003).
Fermented dairy products, like, cheese, yogurt, and kifir, can be consumed by those not able to digest the raw milk, and aid the digestion and well-being for those with lactose intolerance and autism.
Porridge made from grains allowed to ferment increases the nutritional values so much that it reduces the risk of disease in children (Battcock and Aza-Ali, 1998).
Probotic supplements (beneficial bacterial cultures for microbial balance in the body) are capable of fighting cancer and other diseases.
Vinegar is used to leach out certain flavours and compounds from plant materials to make healthy and tasty additions to the meals.
Fermented food, enjoyed across the globe, conveys health benefits through lactic acid fermentation. The fermentation process can transform the flavour of food from the plain and mundane to a mouth-puckering sourness enlivened by colonies of beneficial bacteria and enhanced micronutrients.
Studies have revealed that
All lactic acid producing bacteria (E.g
Over 200 species of bacteria live in gut of humans. These microbes help break down food in the intestines, aid in the digestion process, help fight off disease, and boost the immune system. A good balance of intestinal flora is very important to the overall health. If we eat nothing but overly processed and hard to digest foods, then the fermentation process occurs within the GIT resulting into gas, bloating, diarrhoea, and constipation might possibly lead to other diseases like cancer. However, providing the body with predigested foods such as fermented foods will help the existing microbes within to do the job they need to do.
Fermentation is not only a way to preserve certain foods, in some cases it actually adds to the nutrient value of it. Fermented vegetables contain more vitamin C and fermented milk products have ample amounts of B vitamins. The bioavailability of these vitamins also increases with fermentation. Probiotics, or "good bacteria" are also formed through the process of fermentation. Fermented soy products contain more vitamin B12(Chung et al, 2010)
The desirable bacteria cause less deterioration of the food by inhibiting the growth of the spoiling types of bacteria. Some fermenting processes lower the pH of foods preventing harmful microorganisms to live with too acidic an environment. Controlled fermentation processes encourage the growth of good bacteria which starves, or fights off, the bad microbes.
The fermentation process can be stopped by other means of preserving, such as, canning (heating), drying, or freezing. Heat (pasteurization, 63°C), and low temperatures (freezing, 0°C or below) stops the fermenting process by slowing, or killing, the preferred microorganisms, and other bacteria. A few undesirable bacteria are not killed by either means, and continue to grow. When the beneficial bacteria are gone, the unfavorable bacteria take over, growing exponentially! This causes rotting, disease, illness, and inedible foods. When the good guys are present and happy, the food remains edible.
Phytates (phytic acid) are the storage form of phosphorus [a mineral] bound to inositol [a B vitamin] in foods high in fiber (all plant foods), and particularly the fiber of raw whole grains, legumes, seeds, and nuts. Although these foods have high phosphorus content, the phosphates in phytates are not released by human digestion. Phytates, particularly in such raw foods as bran, are a concern because they can bind a portion of the iron, zinc, and calcium in foods, making the minerals unavailable for absorption. When bread is leavened (fermented) by yeast, enzymes degrade phytic acid, and phytates pose no problem. Enzymes, called phytases, destroy phytates during fermentation processes such as: the yeast-raising of dough, Even a small amount of phytates in food can reduce iron absorption by half (by 50%), but the effect is less marked if a meal is supplemented with ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) which also helps the absorption of zinc and calcium.
Fermented food, enjoyed across the globe, conveys health benefits through lactic acid fermentation. The fermentation process can transform the flavor of food from the plain and mundane to a mouth-puckering sourness enlivened by colonies of beneficial bacteria and enhanced micronutrients. While fermented food like yogurt, sauerkraut and kefir are well-known many other lesser-known foods also benefit from the lactic acid fermentation process. Indeed, virtually every food with a complex or simple sugar content can be successfully fermented.
Born of both necessity and practicality, lactic acid fermentation proved to be not only an efficient method of preserving food for our ancestors, but also a critical one. Indeed, fermented food like sauerkraut, cheese, wine, kvass, soured grain porridge and breads often sustained tribes and villages during harsh winters when fresh food simply wasn’t available let alone plentiful.
In many societies including our own where yogurt has been heralded as a health food since the 19th century, fermented food has gained a reputation for its beneficial effects on immunity, intestinal health and general well-being. Modern researchers are just beginning to understand what the sages of old were tuned in to: fermented food conveys clear and calculable health benefits to the human diet. Lactic acid fermentation in and of itself enhances the micronutrient profile of several foods.
Detoxification of anti-nutrients through food fermentation processes. The renewal of anti-nutrient from the Nigerian fermented food is an important step in ensuring that the fermented food is safe to eat. Many fermentation foods contain naturally accruing toxins and anti-nutritional compounds. These can be removed or detoxified by the action of micro-organism during fermentation for instance, the fermentation process that produces the Sudanese product, kawal, removes the toxins from the leaves of
These include mainly cassava and yam used in the production of foods such as garri, fufu, lafun and elubo etc.
Nigeria is one of the leading producers of cassava in the world with an annual production of 35-40 million metric tons. Over 40 varieties of cassava are grown in Nigeria and cassava is the most important dietary staple in the country accounting for over 209 of all food crops consumed in Nigeria (IITA,2004). Cassava tubers are rich in starch [20-30%] and with possible exception of sugar cane; cassava is considered the highest producer of carbohydrates among crop plants. Despite its vast potentials, the presence of the two gynogenic glycosides, lineman calculating for 93% of total content (Okafor et al., 1984) and lotaustralin or methyl linamarin, hydrolysis by the enzymes linamarase to release toxic HCN, is the most important problem limiting cassava utilization. Generally cassava contains 10-500 mg HCN/KG of root depending on the variety, although much higher levels, exceeding 1000 mg HCN/kg, may be present in unusual cases. Cassava varieties are frequently described as sweet or bitter. Sweet cassava varieties are low in cyanogens with most of the cyanogens present in the peels. Bitter cassava varieties are high in cyanogens that tend to be evenly distributed throughout the roots. Environmental (soil, moisture, temperature) and other factors also influence the cyanide content of cassava. Low rainfall or drought increase cyanide level in cassava tools due to water stress on plant. Apart from acute toxicity that may result in death, consumption of sub-lethal dose of cyanide from cassava production over a long period of time results in chronic cyanide toxicity. That increases the prevalence of goiter and cretinism in iodine deficient area. Symptoms of cyanide poisoning from consumption of cassava with high level of cyanogens include vomiting, stomach pains, dizziness, headache, weakness and charkha. Chronic cyanide toxicity is also associated with several pathological conditions including konzo, an irresistible paralysis of the legs reported in eastern, central and southern Africa. And tropical ataxic neuropathy, reported in west Africa, characterized by lesion of the skin, mucous membranes, optics and auditory nerves, spinal cord and peripheral nerves and other symptoms. Without the benefits of modem science, a process for detoxifying cassava roots by canvassing potentially toxic roots into garriand fufu was developed, presumably empirically in West Africa.
Rough-sour gari which is preferred for soaking with sugar and sometimes roasted peanut or coconut.
Medium gari is usually cooked by adding to boiling water and stirred. This is usually eaten with stew or soup.
Smooth gari which could be mixed with pepper and other spicy ingredients. A small amount of warm water and palm oil is added and mixed with the hand to soften. This type of gari is served with fried fish.
Fufu is a fermented white paste made from cassava it is ranked next to gari as an indigenous food of most Nigerians in the South. Fufu is made by sleeping whole or cut peeled cassava roots in water to ferment for maximum of three days, during the steeping, fermentation decrease the pH, softens the roots and help to reduces the potentially toxic cyanogenic compound(Agbor-Egbe and Lape Mbome, 2006)
Lafun
Lafun is a fibrous powdery form of cassava similar to fufu in Nigeria. The method of producing lafun is different from that of fufu in the traditional preparation; fresh cassava roots are cut into chucks and steeped for 3-4 days or until the roots become soft. The fermented roots are peeled, broken up into small pieces and sun dried on mats, flat rocks, cineol flours, or the roots of houses. The dried pieces are milled into flour. Alternatively, chips are made directly from fresh roots, cut into chucks and sun dried. Drying takes 2-4 days, depending on weather. Unlike fufu, the fiber is the related root for lafun are dried along with the mash and later sieved out. The flour is made into dough with boiling water before consumption. When properly stored, it has a shelf life of six months or more.
Process flow chart for Gari
Matured cassava roots without rot ↓ Peel and remove skin ↓ Wash in clean water to remove sand ↓ Soak roots in water in a bowl for 48-72 hours. ↓ Fufu mash is allowed to be concentrated before decaling ↓ Fermented paste is filled into polypropylene sacks and placed in a jerk press. ↓ Motorized grater is used to pulverize cake into smaller particle and increases surface area for easy drying. ↓ Dry, using rotary dryer (1840C, 450kg/day) ↓ Cool at room temperature ↓ Mill to obtain powder and pack in polyether bags ↓ Store in a cool, dry place |
Process flow chart for fufu
Fresh cassava roots without rots ↓ Peel Cassava roots by hand and remove the woody tips ↓ Cut into chunks of tiny pieces ↓ Wash chunks in clean water in a bowl ↓ Soak Cassava chunks in a bowl of water for 3-4 days at room temperature ↓ Crush soaked chunks by hand ↓ Fill fermented parse into hessian or polypropylene sacs and place in a hydrated jack press |
Process flowchart for the production of lafun.
Cereals which include maize (
Maize, millet, rice and sorghum cereals provide mainly carbohydrates and low quality protein. The generation and fermentation of cereals enhance the availability of elemental iron, the deficiency of which is responsible for the high incidence of anaemia in tropical countries. It is estimated that about 50% of perishable food commodities including fruits, vegetables, roots and tubers and about 30% of food commodities including maize, sorghum millet, rice and cowpeas are lost after harvest in Nigeria. Nigerian in fact experience a slower growth rate and weight gain during the weaning period than during breastfeeding, due primarily to the poor nutritional qualities of traditional Nigerian complementary food such as “Ogi” which are mainly produced from cereal fermentation. Apart from their poor nutritional qualities, traditional Nigerian cereal based gruels used as complementary foods have high paste viscosity and require considerable dilution before feeding; a factor that further reduces energy and nutrient density.
Although nutritious and safe complementary foods produced by food multinationals are available in Nigeria, they are far, too expensive for most families. The economic situation in these country necessitate the adoption of simple, inexpressive processing techniques that result in quality improvement and that can be carried out at household and community levels for the production of nutritious, safe and affordable complementary foods which is the leading cause of protein-energy malnutrition in infants and preschool children in Nigeria.
This is an example of traditional fermented food, it is a staple cereal of Yorubas of Nigeria and is the first native food given to babies at wearing. It is produced generally by soaking corn grains in warm water for one to two days followed by wet milling and sieving through a screen mesh. The sieved material is allowed to sediment and fermented, and is marketed as wet cake wrapped in leaves. Various food dishes are made from the fermented cakes or ogi. During the steeping corn,
In Nigeria, the first weaning food is called pap, akamu, ogi, or koko and it is made from maize (zea mays), millet (
Maize, millet or sorghum ↓ Wash ↓ Sleep/ferment for 24-72 hours ↓ Drain ↓ Wet mill ↓ Ferment further for 24-72 hours (optional). ↓ Decant ↓ Ogi slurry ↓ Boil ↓ Ogi porridge |
Process flow chart for ogi
Masa (waina) is a fermented puff batter of rice, millet, maize, or sorghum cooked in a pan with individual cup like depressions. It resembles the Indian idli in shape and dosa in test. Masa is consumed in various forms by all groups in the northern States of Nigeria and other North African countries (Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger and Chad.) It is the principal ingredients of a variety of cereal-based foods and is a good source of income for the women who prepare the traditional product for sale. Though, masa is as popular as a Nigeria ogi, it has received very little attention. The problem of masa, apart from the short shelf keeping quality, is that of low protein content and inconsistence in the use of varied cereals and spices has resulted in variation in the quality of the products.
The addition of cowpea, groundnut or soybeans flour into masa during preparations improves the nutritional quality of masa. Groundnut-maize enriched masa could be a source of protein to the consumer particularly in developing countries like Nigeria where cost of feeding on animal sourced protein is unaffordable. The high calorie content of groundnut-maize masa could be due to the high fat content of the added paste. The decrease in the weight of masa with addition of groundnut paste could be due to increase in the oil content in the paste which has been proofed to be relatively lighter. Masa formulation containing millet or rice blended with cowpea or groundnut was prepared and sodium concentrations were high. Significant improvements in lysine (9-75%), threonine (16-25%) and Isoleucine(10-28%) were observed from masa samples. The biological value (81-93%), apparent digestibility (82-88%) and net protein utilization (74-79%) of all masa samples showed improved nutritional qualities.Supplementedmasa was nutritionally better than masa made from millet or rice alone.
Maize (dehulled) / rice (used directly). ↓ Wash and steep for twelve hours. ↓ Dry and mill (disc attrition mill) ↓ The ground maize / rice millet is sieved to produce flour and grits. ↓ The grifts are added to the boiling water and cooked to gelatinization and allowed to cool before mixing with raw flour in the ratio of 1:4. ↓ The resulting batter is inoculated with baker’s yeast and allowed to ferment overnight. ↓ Salt and sugar are added to the inoculums. ↓ The fairly thick batter is then diluted with 5% potash solution and the batter is stirred. ↓ The batter is fried in a cup-like depression in which oil has been added to masa. |
Process flow chart for the production of masa.
Pito is the traditional beverage drink of the Benins in the Mid- West part of Nigeria. It is however popularly consumed throughout Nigeria owing to its refreshing nature and low price. Pito is also widely consumed in Ghana. The preparation of pito involves soaking the cereal grains (maize, sorghum, or combinations of both) in water for two days, followed by malting and allowing them to sit for five days in basket lined with moistened banana leaves. The malted grains are ground mixed with water and boiled. The resulting mash is allowed to cool and later filtered through a fine mash, allowed to cool and later filtered through a fine mesh basket. The filterate thus obtained is allowed to stand overnight or until it assumes a slightly sour flavour, following which it is boiled to concentrate.
A starter from the previous brew is added to the cool concentrate which is again allowed to ferment overnight. Pito, the product obtained thus is dark brown liquid which varies in taste from sweat to bitter. It contains lactic acid, sugars and amino acids and has an alcoholic content of about 3%. Organisms responsible for souring include
Maize grains are soaked for 2 days. ↓ Malt (germinate) for five days and grind. ↓ Mix mash with cold water and boil for twelve hours. ↓ Filter and cool. ↓ Ferment overnight ( mixed natural inoculum). ↓ Cool concentrate and add starter ( sediment from previous brew). ↓ Ferment for twelve to twenty four hours. ↓ Pito. |
Process flowchart for production of pito.
Burukutu
This is a popular alcoholic beverage of vinegar-like flavour, consumed in Northern Guinea Savannah region of Nigeria, in the republic of Benin and Ghana. The preparation of burukutu involves steeping sorghum grains in water overnight, following which excess water drained. The grains are then spread out onto a mat or tray, covered with banana leave and allowed to germinate. During the germination processes, the grains were watered on alternate days and turned over at intervals. Germination continues for four to five days until the plumule attain a certain length. The malted grains are spread out in the sun to dry for one to two days, following which the dried malt is ground to powder. Garri (a farinaecious fermented cassava product) is added to the mixture of the ground malt and six parts water. The resulting mixture is allowed to ferment for two days, following which it is boiled for two days. The resulting product is cloudy alcoholic beverage.
The pH of the fermenting mixture decreases from about 6.4 to 4.2 within 24 hours of fermentation and decreases further to 3.7 after 48 hours. At the termination of the 2-days maturing period,
Maize and sorghum. ↓ Soak for two days ↓ Malt( germinate) for five days. ↓ Grind or sun- dry and hold until used. ↓ Adjunct (gari) is added. ↓ Mix mash with cold water and boil for six to twelve hours ↓ Filter through a fine marsh. ↓ Cool filter. ↓ Ferment overnight (mixed natural inoculum). ↓ Boil for twelve hours. ↓ Cool concentrate and add starter (sediment from previous brew). ↓ Ferment for twelve to twenty four hours. ↓ Burukutu |
Process flowchart for production of burukutu.
Kunun-zaki.
Kunun-zaki is a non-alcoholic fermented beverage widely consumed in Northern part of Nigeria. This beverage is however becoming more widely consumed in southern Nigeria,owing to its refreshing qualities. Kunun-zaki is consumed anytime of the day by both adult and children as breakfast drink, food supplement. It is a refreshing drink usually used to entertain visitors, appetizers and is commonly used / served at social gathering. Although, there are various types of kunun processed and consumed in Nigeria which include; kunun-zaki, kunun-gyada, kunun-jiko, and amshau and kunun-gayamba. However, kunun-zaki is mostely consumed. The traditional process for the manufacture of kunun-zaki involves the steeping of millet grains, wet milling with spices ( ginger,cloves and pepper),wet sieving and partial gelatinization of the slurry, followed by the addition of sugar and bottling.
The fermentation which occurs briefly during steeping of the grains in water for 8 to 48 hours period involves mainly lactic acid bacteria and yeast. Storage studies revealed that the product has a shelf-life of about 24hours at ambient temperature, which was extended to 8 days by pasteurization at 60 OC for 1 hour and stored under refrigeration conditions.
Cereal (millet) ↓ Cleaning and washing. ↓ Steep in water. ↓ Draining. ↓ Spread on a layer of sack. ↓ Germinate for 3 to 4 days at 25 to 30 degrees centigrade with intermittent sprinkling of water. ↓ Paste milling. ↓ Uncooked past + malted paste. ↓ Fermentation for appropriate time. ↓ Sieve using cheese cloth. ↓ Kunun-zaki. |
Flowchart for the traditional processes of kunun-zaki.
Ogiri
This is a condiments gotten from the fermentation of castor oil seeds. The raw castor oil seed are boiled for two hours until the seed changes colour to brown. The seeds are dehaulled, rinsed in clean water. The boiled seeds are boiled again for one more hour. It is then cooled and wrapped with enough banana leaves, which is then packed in a clean container with cover to ferment at room temperature.
Castor oil seed. ↓ Boil for two to three hours. ↓ Dehaul ↓ Rinse in clean water. ↓ Boil for one hour. ↓ Allow to cool. ↓ Wrap with enough banana leaves. ↓ Pack in clean containers, ferment for four days. ↓ Ogiri |
Flow chart for the production of ogiri
Dadawa/Iru
This is one of the most important food condiments in Nigeria and many countries of West and Central Africa. It is used in much the same way as bouillon cubes are used in the Western world as nutritious flavouring additives along with cereal grains sauce and may serve as meat substitute. Dadawa (Iru) is prepared from the seeds of African locust beans, thus are rich in fat (39 to 40%) and protein (31 to 40%)(Achi,2005) and contributes significantly to the energy intake, protein and vitamins, especially riboflavin, in many countries of West and Central Africa. Dadawa or iru is made from locust-bean (
Dadawa fermentation is very similar to that of okpehe prepared from the seeds of
African locust beans. ↓ Boil for two hours. ↓ Allow to cool. ↓ Dehaul ↓ Boil for another two hours. ↓ Spread on a sack bag to cool. ↓ Wrap with enough banana leaves. ↓ Pack in a clean container, ferment for five days in warm place. ↓ Dadawa |
A Flow chart for the production processes of dadawa
Other biochemical changes that occur during dadawa fermentation include the hydrolysis of indigestible oligosaccharide present in African locust beans notably stachyose and raffinose, to simple sugars by alpha and beta galactosidase, the synthesis of B-vitamins(thiamin and riboflavin),vitamin C and the reduction of anti-nutritional factors(oxalates and phytates). An improved process for industrial production of dadawa involves dehaulling African locust bean with ball(disc) mill, cooking in a pressure retort for one hour inoculating with
Fermented African Oil bean seed, (
It is gotten traditionally from the fermentation of oil bean seed. It contains up to 44% protein, which comprise of at least 17 of the 20 amino and protein digestibility and utilization increases with fermentation (Okechukwu et al, 2012). The oil bean seeds are boiled for three hours, dehaulled and cooked, the cooked seeds are then sliced (0.5 to 1mm thickness) and boiled again for two hours, drained, rinsed thrice in water and steeped in cold water for four hours so as to eliminate the bitter taste. The sliced beans are wrapped with enough banana leaves (
African oil bean seed. ↓ Allow to cool. ↓ Dehaull the seeds. ↓ Discard seed coats. ↓ Slice the cotyledon. ↓ Boil for two hours. ↓ Drain and rinse thrice with water. ↓ Steep in water for four hours. ↓ Drain ↓ Wrap with enough banana leaves. ↓ Pack in a clean container and ferment for three or four days in warm place(30 degrees). ↓ Ugba |
A flow chart for the production process of ugba
Afiyo (Okpehe)
Afiyo as is called by the Hausas or Okpehe as known by the Idomas in Benue state is a fermented food flavouring condiment most popular in the middle belt of Nigeria. It is produced from
Various fermented foods have been recorded and these are highly placed condiments while some serve as main meals. Of the thousands of legumes, less than twenty are used extensively in use. Those in common use include peanuts, soy beans, locust beans, oil beans, cowpea and lentils etc.
Prosopis Africana seeds. ↓ Boil for one to two days ( on a kerosene stove ) ↓ Dehaull by pressing with fingertips or pounding in the mortar with a pestle ↓ Wash seed coats removed ↓ Wrap Cotyledon with pawpaw leaves traditionally ↓ Packwrapped cotyledon in nylon. ↓ Ferment for five to six days. ↓ Afiyo( okpehe) |
Flow chart for the traditional preparation of okpehe.
Generally, the concentration of amino acids increases during the production of condiments (dadawa, ogiri, ugba) as the fermentation day increases, and it reaches a peak at day four, day three, and day two respectively. This progressive increase in concentration of amino acids in condiments is due to the decrease in total protein as fermentation progresses, which may be attributed to the effect of protease enzymes which result in the hydrolysis of protein molecules to small molecules such as amino acids, such protease activities in the fermenting oil seed increases digestibility than the seed.
Reducing sugar concentration increases with days of fermentation and reaches a peak at the day five, day four, day three for African locust bean, African oil bean seed and castor oil seed respectively. The increase in reducing sugar is due to the hydrolysis of carbohydrates in the presence of certain enzymes such as amylases and galactase. This phenomenon is expected since microbial amylase hydrolyses higher carbohydrates (polysaccharides and disaccharides) to reducing sugars which are then readily digestible by humans. Similarly, galactose softens the texture of the seeds and liberates sugar for digestion. The reduction in the amino acids and the reducing sugar concentration may be due to the presence of some micro-organism that feed on amino acids and reducing sugars.
Nono is a fermented food drink derivatives gotten from cow milk. As a general practice among Fulani Herdsmen, the milking is done between the third and sixth months of lactation. Until the third month, the calves are left to consume milk. Cows are only milked at night and since no milking is possible during the day calves roam with the dam. Milk, if left untreated, spoils within a short time due to microbial activity; thus, processing of milk improves its storage and diversifies its use.
Traditionally, nono is prepared by inoculating freshly drawn cow milk with a little of the leftover as starter and then is allowed to ferment for twenty four hours at room temperature. During fermentation, some of the lactose is converted to the lactic acid. At the end of the fermentation period, the milk butter is removed by churning for further use and the remaining sour milk, nono is a delicious and refreshing beverage. Most of the organisms involved in the fermentation process are usually of three main groups; bacteria, yeast, and mould. Of these,
Nono has yoghurt-like taste (sharp acid taste), and is therefore usually taken with sugar, and fura which is made up of millet flour compressed in balls and cooked for about twenty to forty minutes. The cooked fura is crumbled in a bowl of nono (now called fura de nunu). Nono is an excellent source of protein, rich in essential amino acids and a good source of calcium, phosphorus and vitamin A, B, C, E and B complex. However, like other milk products, it is poor in ascorbic acid and iron. Wives of pastorialist usually process fresh milk into various traditional milk product. These include nono,(sour milk), kindirimo(sour yoghurt), maishanu ( local butter ), cuku (Fulani cheese ) and wara (Yoruba cheese ). These products are usually hawked around the local markets in certain towns. These products are usually only available within the walking distance of Fulani settlement. For the same reason, these products are also more readily available in the northern states of the country.
Production of kilishi and other processed meats of interest.
Suya (esire or balangu), banda (kundi) and kilishi are the most important traditional processed meats in Nigeria and other West African countries including Chad, Niger and Mali.
Banda is a salted, smoke-dried meat product made from chunks of cheap, low quality meat from various types of livestock including donkeys, horses, camel, buffallo and wild life. The meat chunk is pre-cooked before smoking/ kiln drying or sun-drying. The traditional smoking/ kiln for banda, usually an open top. Fifty-gallon of oil drum fitted with layers of wire mesh that hold the product, and fired from the bottom. Banda is a poor product,stone-hard and dark I and n colour. Unlike banda, suya, and kilishi are made by roasting, spiced, salted, slices,/ strips of meat(usually beef).
Kilishiis is different from suya in that a two stage sun-drying process proceeds to roasting. Consequently, kilishi has a low moisture content (6-14%) than suya (25-35%) and a longer shelf- life. A variety of spices and other dried ingredients are used in kilishi processing including ginger(
The summary of micro organism associated with Nigerian fermented foods is shown in table 1
SUBSTRATE | MICROORGANISM | PRODUCT |
Cassava Yam African locust beans Parkia filicoida Castor seed Ricinus communis Fluted pumpkin seeds Telferia ocidentalis African oil beans Pentaclethra macrophylla Soya bean African yam beans Stenophylis stenocarpa Melon seed Citrulus vulgaris Cereals: maize, sorghum, millet Milk Grain flour Cereals (Millet, sorghum, maize, rice) | Diplococcium spicatum Streptococcus sp. Articulospora inflate Lactobacillus sp. Aspergillus niger Listeria sp. Aspergillus rapens Aspergillus flavus Lemonniera aquatic Lactobacillus sp. Rhizopus stolonifer Streptococcus sp. Aspergillus fumigatus Pediococcus sp. Triscelophorus monosporus Bacillus sp., Coryneform bacteria Bacillus spp., Pseudomonas spp. Micrococcuss spp., Streptococcus Bacillus spp., E. coli, Staphylococcus Spp., Pseudomonas Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus spp., Micrococcus spp., Corynebacterium spp. B. subtilis, B. Iicheniformis, B.megaterium, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Micrococcus spp. Bacillius subtilis, B. licheniformis, B. pumilis, Staphylococcus sp. Bacillus subtilis, B. megateruim, B. firmus E.coli,. Proteus, Pediococcus, Alcaligenes spp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Lactobacillus spp., Fusarium spp. Lactobacillus spp. Lactococcus spp. Streptococcus spp. Pediococcus spp. Leuconostoc spp. Propionibacter spp. Saccaromyces cerevisiae Lactobacillius plantarum, L. fermentum and Lactococcus lactis | Gari Elubo-isu Iru Ogiri-igbo Ogiri ugu Ugba / Ukpaka Okpiye/Okphehe Owoh Ogiri-egusi Ogi Agidi Wara (Nigerian cheese) Bread Kunun-zaki |
Role of fermented food in detoxification
Food and feeds are often contaminated with a number of toxins either naturally or through infestation by micro-organisms such as moulds, bacteria and virus. Certain moulds often produce secondary toxic metabolites called mycotoxins. These include fumonisins, ochratoxins A, zearalenone and aflatoxins. Several methods are available for degrading toxins from contaminated food. For example, using alkaline ammonia treatment to remove mycotoxins from food. However, these methods are harsh to food as they involve the use of chemicals which are potentially harmful to health or may impair or reduce the nutritional value of foods. Cooking foods does not remove mycotoxins either as most of them are heat stable. Detoxification of mycotoxins in foods through LAB fermentation has been demonstrated over the years (Biernasiak et.al., 2006). Using LAB fermentation for detoxification is more advantageous in that it is a milder method, which preserve the nutritive value and flavour of de-contaminated food. In addition to this, LAB fermentation irreversibly degrades mycotoxins without leaving any toxic residues. The detoxifying effect is believed to be through toxin binding effect.
In mycotoxin detoxification, LAB fermentation has also been successfully used to detoxify cassava toxins (cyanogens) following fermentation of cassava food product. In addition to cyanogens detoxification, cassava fermentation contributes to the preservation and improvement of flavour and aroma of cassava ferment. Although cooking has been used as a method of cyanogens detoxification, it has a number of problems as it leaves residual cyanogens in processed cassava, which exist as glucosides, cyanohydrins or free cyanide which are equally toxic as their parent compounds in uncooked food.
In a review, Bankole and Adebanjo (2003), found that the level of aflatoxin B1, B2 and
G1 were significantly higher in corn from the high incidence area for human hepatocellular carcinoma and the average daily intake of aflatoxin B1 from the high risk area was 184.1 g/kg aflatoxin. Udoh et al (2000) reported 33% of maize sample from ecological zones of Nigeria contaminated with aflatoxins.
Fermented maize (Ogi) is a staple cereal in Nigeria and it is a popular weaning food in most rural communities in Nigeria. Oluwafemi and Ikeowa (2005) have reported that in fermenting maize to ogi, aflatoxin B1 was reduced by about 50% after 72hours of fermentation. Maize as well as other Nigerian cereals are also important raw materials for both local and commercial beer brewing. Oluwafemi and Taiwo (2003) have shown that the role of
Processing of cassava roots improves palatability, reduces or eliminates potential toxicity, transforms raw cassava into other preservable forms which are more beneficial to man. Fermentation is by far the most common method of processing the cassava crop in Africa (Okafor et al., 1984). The rate of detoxification of cyanide by traditional fermentation is shown in figure 13. Fermentation is a very effective way for detoxification of cyanide in cassava with r2 of 98%.
Effect of fermatation on %HCN
Loop fermentation is achieved by using starter culture from already fermented product to inoculate a fresh barge of fermentation process. Ohenhen and Ikenebomeh(2007) have shown that that loop fermentation can prolong the shelf-life of ogi from about 40days, obtained by traditional fermentation method to well over 60days. We have observed in our laboratory that by using loop fermentation technique in gari processing, fermentation was completed in three days as against five days by the conventional traditional fermentation. Cyanide content also reduced to about 3% with loop fermentation. With a second loop (double loop) ie using products of a first loop fermentation to inoculate a fresh process, fermentation in gari production was completed in 2day with only about 2.6% cyanide remaining. The explanation is that the organisms are “trained” to better utilize the compounds in the fermenting substrate When the fermenting substrate in the double loop was acidified by squeezing some limes ( citrus) juice into it before inoculating, cyanide content was 0% after 3days. The summary is shown in Fig. 14.
The anti-nutrients including Phytates, tannins and oxalates interferes with mineral absorption and palatability of the cereals so detoxification is vital to enhance their nutrient value and organoleptic properties. Several detoxification methods are available, including decortication, malting, fermentation and alkali treatment (Osuntogun et al., 1989; Banda-Nyirenda and Vohra, 1990). Yeast fermentationhas proved very effective in the detoxification of antinutrients. The table below summarizes the effectiveness of yeast in detoxification of different anti-nutrient.
Effect of fermentation loop on Percentage residual HCN
Onyesom et al(2008) have also shown that fermentation of cassava to fufu with lemon grass reduces cyanide to less than 1% after 5days.
Phytic acid is well documented to block absorption of not only of phosphorus, but also other minerals such as calcium, magnesium, iron and zinc. It also negatively affects the absorption of lipids and protein. One reason this is true is because phytic acid also inhibits enzymes that are needed to digest foods such as pepsin (which helps break down protein), amylases (convert starch into sugar for digestion) and trypsin (also used in protein digestion). While whole grains have a much higher mineral content than processed grains, the full benefit of that nutrition is lost if phytic acid blocks the nutrients from being absorbed. It is well known that most cereals and legumes contain high levels of these ant-nutrients. It is also common knowledge that most of the Nigerian staples as in other developing countries constitute mainly cereals and legumes. It is therefore important that these foods staples are fermented as well as improve on the traditional fermentation techniques.
Biodegradation of phytate | Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Saccharomyces kluyveri, Schwanniomyces castellii, Debaryomyces castellii, Arxula adeninivorans, Pichia anomala, Pichia rhodanensis, Pichia spartinae, Cryptococcus laurentii, Rhodotorula gracilis, Torulaspora delbrueckii, Kluyveromyces lactis Candida krusei (Issatchenkia orientalis) and Candida spp. | Nutritional importance, i.e., bioavailability of divalent minerals such as iron, zink, calcium and magnesium |
Folate biofortification | S. cerevisiae Saccharomyces bayanus, Saccharomyces paradoxus, Saccharomyces pastorianus, Metschnikowia lochheadii, Debaryomyces melissophilus, Debaryomyces vanrijiae var. vanrijiae, Debaryomyces hansenii, Pichia philogaea, Kodamaea anthophila, Wickerhamiella lipophilia, Candida cleridarum and Candida drosophilae Candida milleri and T. delbrueckii Saccharomyces exiguous and Candida lambica P. anomala and Candida glabrata Kluyveromyces marxianus and C. krusei (I. orientalis) | Prevention of neural tube defects in the foetus, megaloblastic anaemia and reduction of the risk for cardiovascular disease, cancer and Alzheimer\'s disease |
Degradation of mycotoxins | . cerevisiae spp Phaffia rhodozyma and Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous | Antitoxic in some degree |
Overview of yeasts activities in degradation of anti-nutrients
Developing countries like Nigeria require food processing technologies that are appropriate, suitable for tropical regions and affordable to rural and urban economies. Fermentation techniques are one of such technologies that have been developed indigenously for a wide range of food products. These include root crops, cereals, legumes, fruit and vegetables, dairy, fish and meat. As a unit operation in food processing, fermentation offers various advantages, including, improved food safety, improved nutritional values, enhance flavour and acceptability, reduction in anti-nutrients, detoxification of toxigenic compounds, enhanced shelf-life and improved functional properties.
The present review has shown that Nigerian fermented food and food products can be developed into medium or large scale level for standard commercial products. However, there is the need to further optimize the processes.
This chapter describes the desirable quality of goat meat (also known as chevon) over the other products, i.e., chicken, beef, and pork. Meat is considered as complete food having a different variety of nutrients required by the individual. Protein is one of the macronutrients necessary in a large amount that serves as a building block of the body, components of blood biochemical and enzymes taking part in the metabolic reactions. A single animal protein found in meat can be more satisfactory than a single protein present in plants; therefore, a person may require to ingest a variety of plants to meet the body requirements. Most people in the West are not exposed to the goat meat industry and are not aware of the same health benefits. Meanwhile, the reasons for less consumption of goat meat could be the availability of other meat types like poultry, fish, beef, and pork [1, 2]. A study conducted by [3] showed that the rising prices of sheep and goat meat lead to a decline in its demand. Another reason for less consumption of goat meat could be unfamiliarity and the intense flavor [4]. Despite that, people from developing countries have more likeness towards goat meat. Investigations of [5] suggested that migrants from such developing nations towards West, prefer goat meat which may be one of the reasons of increased goat meat demand in concerned areas. It is a noticeable point that Boer, Kiko and Black Bengal goat breeds are known for their high quality meat production among other breeds [6].
Unanimously buyers have become more well-being cognizant and are currently mindful and more prepared with relevant data regarding the food’s impact, including meat they burn-through. The expanded purchaser mindfulness has brought about the rise of a consumer class that requests restorative nourishments. Chevon has more or less the same concentration of protein; however, contrasted with other red meats like beef and sheep, it has lower fat (especially the saturated fat) and cholesterol content [7, 8] yet, a higher polyunsaturated unsaturated fat (PUFA) [9, 10]. The composition, regarding the fat substance and unsaturated fat profile, makes chevon more restorative meat than other red meats. Subsequently, chevon can fill in a unique market specialty. As an immediate outcome of its leanness and a desirable unsaturated fat profile, chevon’s recognition of the worldwide meat market is expanding as well-being cognizant buyers favor less fatty and more interested in the lean meat product [6, 7]. Humans’ global population is likely to develop to nine billion by 2050 [11, 12]. The need for expanded population necessity is a requirement for supportable and efficient meat and its related products. This prediction of populace intervened increment in animal inferred protein’s interest for human utilization makes a massive opening for goat meat to enter a supply chain of meat and other protein items [13].
The producer has to look for the consumer’s demand and awareness of the health risk of consuming different kinds of meat. Numerous customers need information and introduction to goat meat items and their health benefits. This unawareness of the goat meat has led to lower consumption, which is further an obstacle faced by the business [14]. Studies propose that customer interest in purchasing the products builds up when they know the product’s nutritional supply and health benefits [15, 16]. Research done by [3] in the United States reported that the family spends a 1.6 CHF (Confoederatio Helvetica Franc) more on sheep and goat meat when the head of the family has a university degree, which indicated that education has a positive impact on goat meat consumptions. Educational achievement is a principle determinant in food utilization decisions and is connected emphatically with substantial nutritional intake [17].
Sheep and goat raised under general conditions on regular fields produced healthy meat over other red meat [18, 19]. Since goats are mostly reared on a natural niche, they can cope with the harsh conditions; therefore, they receive less medication and are not usually fed with feed additives and other chemicals as promoters. The meat we get could be considered organic in comparison to other meat items. Furthermore, farmers are seen to make use of mixed lots of sheep and goats for better utilization of available environmental resources [5]. Goats may well proliferate under low concentrate supply which lessens competition for food grains to other farm animals [20]. As instruction emphatically corresponds with the consciousness of these perspectives related to food utilization [21, 22], family units with a well-educated family head will, in general, have more appeal and demand for sheep and goat meat.
Most of the literature findings for this chapter was done by referring reputed and reliable sources. A thorough search was made to find suitable articles from various search engines. Furthermore, it is essential to know the general and a specific protocol followed by scientific work. Due to the differences in the protocol and the concentration of chemicals involved in the analysis, the readingobtainedfrom one method could be different from the reading attained with another technique. Knowing the procedure monitored would help the readers understand the work better and help make a scientific comparison. A protocol developed by the Association of Official Analytical Chemists [23] is generally followed to estimate the major nutrients present in the sample. However, it is vital to know the appropriateprocedure depending on the nature of the sample. When meat samples are concerned, the animal body’s water content may range from 50 to 95%. Therefore, it is crucial to know the moisture level in the meat sample ever since the moisture concentration is inversely proportional to the sample’s dry matter concentration. The crude protein level in the sample is assessed indirectly by determining the nitrogen content, which is then multiplied by the factor 6.25, considering that protein contains about 16% nitrogen.
The fat content of the animal body is variable, and fat increases with age. The fat concentration in the sample can be estimated by solvent extraction method [24]. The extracted total fats can be further esterified and saponified following the technique of AOCS [25]. The chloroform-methanol method can also extract the total lipid concentration in the sample [26]. The meat sample’s fatty acid concentrations can be measured using gas chromatography directly by synthesizing fatty acid methyl ester. Nevertheless, there are few more techniques available for the estimation of fatty acid in the sample. The total ash is estimated following the AOAC method, where a sample is ignited at 600°C in a muffle furnace for about 4 hours. Major minerals like calcium and phosphorous concentration in the sample are estimated following the titrimetric method by AOAC and Talapatra
The moisture content of goat meat ranges from 62.13 to 78.3%; protein, 15.31–24.83%; fat, 0.80–21.24% (Table 1). The protein content could vary from the portion of sampling from the carcass and the age of animals at slaughter. The ash content is in the range of 0.43 and 3.51%. Overall, the compositions of chevon (goat meat) and mutton (sheep meat) are comparable concerning moisture, protein, and ash contents [45].
Breed | Meat slice | Moisture (%) | Protein (%) | Fat (%) | Ash (%) | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Desert goat | 75.04 | 20.8 | 2.8 | 1.23 | [29] | |
Saanen × Angora | Loin | 71.43 M 70.32 F | 20.71 M 20.68F | 6.79 M 8.0F | 0.98 M 0.96F | [30] |
Saanen × Angora | Leg | 74.24 M 73.93F | 20.77 M 20.76F | 4.02 M 4.33F | 1.03 M 1.02F | [30] |
Saanen × Angora | Remainder | 72.67 M 71.90F | 20.32 M 20.16F | 6.07 M 6.97F | 0.95 M 0.95F | [30] |
Nubian × Florida native | Loin | 75.4 | 21.5 | 2.1 | [31] | |
Spanish × Florida native | Loin | 75.2 | 21.8 | 2.2 | [31] | |
Florida native. | Loin | 74.1 | 21.8 | 3.1 | [31] | |
Castrated Boer | 76.21 | 19.74 | 1.51 | 0.93 | [32] | |
Boer bucks | 77.54 | 19.31 | 0.80 | 0.94 | [32] | |
Castrated feral bucks | 74.90 | 20.13 | 1.36 | 0.99 | [32] | |
Feral bucks | 75.98 | 19.07 | 1.33 | 1.07 | [32] | |
Non-descriptive | neck, forequarter, hind quarter, back, and flunk | 74.37 | 21.52 | 3.29 | 1.23 | [33] |
White Improved breed | m. adductor | 76.47 | 20.21 | 2.28 | 1.13 | [34] |
Pure Boer | 72.35 | 24.53 | 3.06 | 0.98 | [35] | |
¾ Boer + ¼ SPRD | 72.01 | 25.22 | 2.76 | 0.98 | [35] | |
½ Boer + ½ SPRD | 72.48 | 24.40 | 2.73 | 0.97 | [35] | |
½ Anglo + ½ SPRD | 72.79 | 24.18 | 2.44 | 0.99 | [35] | |
Black Bengal | Mixed muscle | 72.79 | 21.90 | 3.72 | 1.15 | [36] |
Crossbred | Mixed muscle | 73.46 | 20.85 | 4.51 | 1.08 | [37] |
Non descriptive (<7 m, age) | Mixed muscle | 78.3 | 15.31 | 1.77 | 1.2 | [37] |
Non descriptive (8–10 m, age) | Mixed muscle | 75.7 | 18.43 | 2.71 | 1.31 | [37] |
Non descriptive (>11 m, age) | Mixed muscle | 73.8 | 20.3 | 3.07 | 1.63 | [37] |
Egyptian Baladi goat kids. | 75.32 | 19.97 | 3.28 | 1.13 | [38] | |
Black Bengal | 75.1 | 20.9 | 2.54 | 1.09 | [39] | |
Black Bengal | 74.5 | 21.2 | 2.95 | 1.07 | [40] | |
Non-descriptive | Mixed muscle | 75.55 | 20.32 | 1.66 | 0.43 | [41] |
Black Bengal | Meat and fat minced | 76.66 | 24.54 | 4.14 | 0.95 | [42] |
Crossbred | Longissimuslumborum muscle | 75.2 | 19.7 | 1.57 | 3.51 | [43] |
Black Bengal | 73.70 | 19.25 | 2.82 | 1.04 | [44] | |
Black Bengal | 71.22 | 21.82 | 3.08 | 1.10 | [44] | |
Black Bengal | 70.76 | 23.20 | 3.54 | 1.08 | [44] | |
Black Bengal | 73.25 | 18.95 | 2.32 | 1.05 | [44] |
Proximate composition of goat meat.
The major minerals Ca and P, and other minor minerals concentration in chevon are given in Table 2 and are inconstant. Chevon is a good source of calcium (Ca), phosphorous (P), potassium (K) and has a fair amount of iron (Fe), iodine (I), sodium (Na), zinc (Zn), magnesium. Chevon has a low calorie, low fat and low cholesterol item than chicken, pork, beef, and mutton (Table 3).
Minerals | Boer goat with low energy diet (LE, 9·9 MJ/kg DM) for 56d | Boer goat with high energy diet (HE, 12·1 MJ/kg DM) for 56d | (mg/100 g) of LD muscle of Egypt Baladi goat kids | Black Bengal goats | Black Bengal goats | Black Bengal goats | Black Bengal goats |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ca | 880·84 | 946·55 | 12.35 | ||||
I | 41·68 | 43·38 | |||||
K | 141·57 | 130·88 | 240.22 | ||||
Mg | 32·51 | 35·36 | 21.41 | 0.51 ± .025a | 0.62 ± .009 | 0.73 ± .010 | 0.42 ± .010 |
Na | 56·73 | 49·83 | 69.17 | ||||
P | 631·97 | 653·69 | |||||
Cu | 0·20 | 0·14 | 8.37 ± .064a | 7.57 ± .022 | 6.95 ± .017 | 5.15 ± .028 | |
Fe | 1·19 | 1·78 | 2.97 | ||||
Pb | 0·013 | 0·016 | |||||
Zn | 90.9 ± .881a | 83.1 ± .369 | 80.8 ± .860 | 67.6 ± .294 | |||
Mn | 8.6 ± .147a | 7.3 ± .129 | 7.2 ± .108 | 5.5 ± .108 | |||
[46] | [46] | [38] | [44] | [44] | [44] | [44] |
Minerals concentration in chevon.
Cooked meat (85 g each) | Calories | Fat (g) | Saturated fat (g) | Cholesterol (mg) | Protein (g) | Iron (mg) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Chevon | 122 | 2.8 | 0.79 | 63.8 | 23 | 3.2 |
Chicken | 162 | 6.3 | 1.7 | 76.0 | 25 | 1.5 |
Beef | 179 | 7.9 | 3.0 | 73.1 | 25 | 2.9 |
Pork | 180 | 8.2 | 2.9 | 73.2 | 25 | 2.7 |
Lamb | 175 | 8.1 | 2.9 | 78.2 | 24 | 1.4 |
Nutritional value of meat from different species [29].
The fatty acids and their fraction in meat can vary, and it can be altered by the inclusion of good quality fats as a supplement in the animal ration. High animal fat consumption, especially from red meat, could raise overall blood cholesterol, especially LDL cholesterol levels. Nutritional profession and therapists often encouraged lower consumption of red meat than lean meats to control blood cholesterol levels and, consequently, diminished the danger of illness. Considering its high dietary benefit and its more prominent unsaturated to saturated fat proportion, chevon can conceivably improve the well-being of human populaces against unhealthiness with a much-decreased danger of causing stoutness and its related metabolic illnesses, for example, insulin resistance, type II diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular diseases and metabolic disorder [46, 47]. Therefore, the chevon business can exploit the developing interest in accepted food [48]. This interest in natural nutrition is mostly roused by the purchasers’ well-being concerns [49]. Natural food can be characterized as ordinary food things liberated from engineered synthetic compounds, such as anti-microbials, fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides, and genetically adjusted living organisms [50]. Moreover, goat meat and meat products can give food security to the expanding total populace while limiting adverse effects on the climate and well-being since the advancement of natural food creation is generally determined by the possibility of supportability and ecological concerns [30].
Plant-based proteins are frequently low in SFA, and therefore, they are endorsed as an option for animal-origin proteins. Be that as it may, the caloric expenditure of around one day’s protein consumption from a plant-origin is multiple times higher than if derived from lean meat. Studies intended to advance and keep up weight reduction in overweight grown-ups demonstrate that proteins from lean red meat, poultry, or fish all help substantial bodyweight. Momentum research further proposes that protein-based diets are all the more satisfying contrasted with carbohydrate-based food sources. This demonstrates that taking macronutrient blend to support a higher level of calories from protein is related to higher satiation and lean mass. Higher protein intake for overweight people has likewise been appeared to support weight reduction more successfully than carbohydrate-rich eating regimens [29].
The protein composition, i.e., amino acids make up of chevon, is given in Table 4. Goat meat is a good source of arginine, leucine, isoleucine, methionine, lysine, and threonine. It also has a fair amount of aspartic acids and glutamic acids among others amino acids.
Amino acids fractions | Boer goat with high energy diet for 56d | g/100 g of M. longissimuslumborum muscle of South African indigeneous kids | g/100 g of M. longissimuslumborum muscle of South African indigeneous castrates | (g/16gN) of LD muscle of Egyptian Baladi goat kids |
---|---|---|---|---|
Aspartic acid | 2·03 | 7.65 | 8.01 | 5.58 |
Threonine | 0·9 | 4.64 | 4.67 | 4.65 |
Serine | 0·58 | 3.76 | 3.89 | 4.15 |
Glutamic acid | 3·16 | 13.43 | 13.80 | 16.89 |
Proline | 0·74 | 3.15 | 3.32 | 4.11 |
Glycine | 1·68 | 3.76 | 3.93 | 5.28 |
Alanine | 1·28 | 4.83 | 5.03 | 6.53 |
Valine | 1·19 | 3.97 | 4.06 | 4.58 |
Methionine | 0·49 | 2.22 | 2.29 | 3.04 |
Isoleucine | 0·49 | 3.93 | 3.86 | 4.36 |
Leucine | 1·75 | 7.03 | 7.10 | 8.52 |
Tyrosine | 0·63 | 3.07 | 3.24 | 2.42 |
Phenylalanine | 0·91 | 3.63 | 3.43 | 4.29 |
Histidine | 0·63 | 2.26 | 2.48 | 2.68 |
Lysine | 1·76 | 8.36 | 7.52 | 8.94 |
Arginine | 1·44 | 5.53 | 5.67 | 5.80 |
Cystine | 0·30 | 0.92 | 0.92 | 1.07 |
Tryptophan | 0·22 | 0.99 | 0.79 | Not determined |
[46] | [47] | [47] | [38] |
Amino acids composition of chevon.
Despite of remarkable role of goats in livelihood of developing country’s households, channels of marketing for goat are mostly informal unlike in other livestock species [51]. Other meat animals production and marketing channels have been improved with progress of time much more than goat production and marketing [52]. Most of the goat meat produced and consumed locally in developing nations and major production never meets global trade [6]. Thus, lack of organized production, marketing and consumption pattern may be considered as the major reasons for poor goat meat familiarity in Western world. Nevertheless, high nutritional value of chevon makes it stand out from the list of other red meats. Goat meat has the value to capture the increasing organic food market [48]. An improved marketing strategy of highlighting the value of goat meat, its role to build the households of developing nations along with better utilization of “green resources” might help in upgrading trade of goat meat in Western world. In addition to that, standardizing the farming procedures, quality assurance, and quality products supply in channelized markets are expected to boost goat meat industry (Figure 1) in folds in upcoming era of more health concerned consumers.
Goat meat promotion factors. Source: Photo by authors.
Animal protein demand has risen due to the increased human population. Adequate protein is useful in developing a lean body as it is more satisfying than carbohydrate origin food. Animal protein also controls food craving as it is bulky and satiating for the body. Goat meat can be one of the critical sources of animal protein. It has protein as good as other animal meat and meat products. Additionally, it has good amount of health promoting PUFA and other vital nutrients for humans.
Spreading awareness about constructive and beneficial effects of goat meat in direct or indirect ways may be considered as the first stepping stone towards enhancing quality meat supply to the Western world. Nevertheless, consumer preference has gradually shifted towards quality products than merely opting quantity as they became aware of ill effects of consuming more calories per gram of protein as in the case of vegetable origin proteins.
Better husbandry practices, trade policies, rationalized cost of chevon through enhanced distribution channels, graded goat meats, and friendly marketing policies will bring substantial changes in goat meat availability and preference in different parts of the world, especially in Western world.
Intro
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Jansen",authors:[{id:"25232",title:"Prof.",name:"Sukumaran",middleName:null,surname:"Anil",slug:"sukumaran-anil",fullName:"Sukumaran Anil"},{id:"28373",title:"Prof.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Jansen",slug:"john-jansen",fullName:"John Jansen"},{id:"77058",title:"Dr.",name:"Seham",middleName:null,surname:"Alyafei",slug:"seham-alyafei",fullName:"Seham Alyafei"},{id:"82073",title:"Dr.",name:"Subhash",middleName:null,surname:"Narayanan",slug:"subhash-narayanan",fullName:"Subhash Narayanan"}]},{id:"18415",doi:"10.5772/16936",title:"Osseointegration and Bioscience of Implant Surfaces - Current Concepts at Bone-Implant Interface",slug:"osseointegration-and-bioscience-of-implant-surfaces-current-concepts-at-bone-implant-interface",totalDownloads:12531,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:42,abstract:null,book:{id:"179",slug:"implant-dentistry-a-rapidly-evolving-practice",title:"Implant Dentistry",fullTitle:"Implant Dentistry - A Rapidly Evolving Practice"},signatures:"Mustafa Ramazanoglu and Yoshiki Oshida",authors:[{id:"26726",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoshiki",middleName:null,surname:"Oshida",slug:"yoshiki-oshida",fullName:"Yoshiki Oshida"},{id:"29841",title:"Prof.",name:"Mustafa",middleName:null,surname:"Ramazanoglu",slug:"mustafa-ramazanoglu",fullName:"Mustafa Ramazanoglu"}]},{id:"48165",doi:"10.5772/60010",title:"3D Scanning, Imaging, and Printing in Orthodontics",slug:"3d-scanning-imaging-and-printing-in-orthodontics",totalDownloads:6556,totalCrossrefCites:23,totalDimensionsCites:40,abstract:null,book:{id:"4574",slug:"issues-in-contemporary-orthodontics",title:"Issues in Contemporary Orthodontics",fullTitle:"Issues in Contemporary Orthodontics"},signatures:"Emilia Taneva, Budi Kusnoto and Carla A. Evans",authors:[{id:"96409",title:"Prof.",name:"Carla",middleName:null,surname:"Evans",slug:"carla-evans",fullName:"Carla Evans"},{id:"96472",title:"Prof.",name:"Budi",middleName:null,surname:"Kusnoto",slug:"budi-kusnoto",fullName:"Budi Kusnoto"},{id:"172854",title:"Dr.",name:"Emilia Taneva",middleName:null,surname:"Taneva",slug:"emilia-taneva-taneva",fullName:"Emilia Taneva Taneva"}]},{id:"18426",doi:"10.5772/18746",title:"Factors Affecting the Success of Dental Implants",slug:"factors-affecting-the-success-of-dental-implants",totalDownloads:17495,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:35,abstract:null,book:{id:"179",slug:"implant-dentistry-a-rapidly-evolving-practice",title:"Implant Dentistry",fullTitle:"Implant Dentistry - A Rapidly Evolving Practice"},signatures:"Carlos Nelson Elias",authors:[{id:"32438",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Elias",slug:"carlos-elias",fullName:"Carlos Elias"}]},{id:"32161",doi:"10.5772/38059",title:"Caries Through Time: An Anthropological Overview",slug:"caries-archaeological-and-historical-record",totalDownloads:6543,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:33,abstract:null,book:{id:"1742",slug:"contemporary-approach-to-dental-caries",title:"Contemporary Approach to Dental Caries",fullTitle:"Contemporary Approach to Dental Caries"},signatures:"Luis Pezo Lanfranco and Sabine Eggers",authors:[{id:"115399",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Pezo-Lanfranco",slug:"luis-pezo-lanfranco",fullName:"Luis Pezo-Lanfranco"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"61046",title:"Optical Diagnostics to Improve Periodontal Diagnosis and Treatment",slug:"optical-diagnostics-to-improve-periodontal-diagnosis-and-treatment",totalDownloads:7339,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The performance of clinicians undertaking periodontal assessment or periodontal therapy can be improved by using optical methods as adjuncts to visual inspection and periodontal probing. Subtle changes that occur over time in periodontal tissues that are below the detection limit of visual examination or periodontal probing can be found and tracked accurately over time using 3D imaging, fluorescence spectroscopy, and optical coherence tomography. During debridement of teeth and dental implants, the effective removal of subgingival microbial biofilms and dental calculus deposits can be enhanced using magnifying loupes and operating microscopes and by novel methods based on the interactions of light with bacterial deposits, such as differential reflectometry and light-induced fluorescence. While such techniques can also be used using initial case assessment, their primary purpose is for checking debridement procedures, since the point when bacterial deposits are no longer present represents an endpoint for treatment. The concept of real-time feedback has been developed, using fluorescence readings to control the removal of deposits. Overall, optical methods can support traditional periodontal diagnosis and improve treatment planning and clinical periodontal care.",book:{id:"7244",slug:"periodontology-and-dental-implantology",title:"Periodontology and Dental Implantology",fullTitle:"Periodontology and Dental Implantology"},signatures:"Fardad Shakibaie and Laurence Walsh",authors:[{id:"179467",title:"Prof.",name:"Laurence",middleName:null,surname:"Walsh",slug:"laurence-walsh",fullName:"Laurence Walsh"},{id:"235443",title:"Dr.",name:"Fardad",middleName:null,surname:"Shakibaie",slug:"fardad-shakibaie",fullName:"Fardad Shakibaie"}]},{id:"24363",title:"Biomechanics of Tooth-Movement: Current Look at Orthodontic Fundamental",slug:"biomechanics-of-tooth-movement-current-look-at-orthodontic-fundamental",totalDownloads:26816,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"277",slug:"principles-in-contemporary-orthodontics",title:"Principles in Contemporary Orthodontics",fullTitle:"Principles in Contemporary Orthodontics"},signatures:"Joanna Antoszewska and Nazan Küçükkeles",authors:[{id:"50158",title:"Prof.",name:"Joanna",middleName:null,surname:"Antoszewska",slug:"joanna-antoszewska",fullName:"Joanna Antoszewska"}]},{id:"71271",title:"Flap Techniques in Dentoalveolar Surgery",slug:"flap-techniques-in-dentoalveolar-surgery",totalDownloads:2628,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Most dentoalveolar procedures involve the reflection of mucosal flaps. This step is crucial for exposure or removal of impacted teeth, implant bed preparation, exposure of the alveolar bone for augmentation, periodontal surgeries, and repair of mucosal soft tissue defects, such as oroantral fistula. Because of the rich vascularity of the oral mucosa, great freedom is allowed for flap design, but it tends to result in carelessness and lack of thoughtful planning, which may lead to uneventful outcomes or/and complications. In this chapter, we review oral anatomy, classification, indications, and complications of common oral flap techniques; common flap designs are illustrated, and their fundamental principles are highlighted. The review has covered various flap designs based on their indications. Yet the common flap’s principles are fundamental for all types of flaps regardless of their application, namely, it should provide wide exposure, clear vision, good access, and assure rich vascularity and good final aesthetic outcome.",book:{id:"9387",slug:"oral-diseases",title:"Oral Diseases",fullTitle:"Oral Diseases"},signatures:"Randa Abdulmoein AlFotawi",authors:[{id:"308701",title:"Dr.",name:"Randa",middleName:"Abdulmoein",surname:"Alfotawi",slug:"randa-alfotawi",fullName:"Randa Alfotawi"}]},{id:"65088",title:"Evaluation and Management of Mandibular Fracture",slug:"evaluation-and-management-of-mandibular-fracture",totalDownloads:2903,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The mandibular bone is an important component of the facial bone, which has a unique role in digestive system, speech, and facial esthetics. For these important functions of mandibular bone, it is vital that surgeons should not only treat function but also consider the esthetics together. Mandibular fractures are among the most common traumatic injuries of the maxillofacial region. Even though treatment modalities are well established and being practiced for a long time, untreated and postoperative complications still decrease the patient’s quality of life. This chapter aims to describe the cause, clinical presentations, diagnoses, and current treatment methods on the basis of resent literature.",book:{id:"7572",slug:"trauma-in-dentistry",title:"Trauma in Dentistry",fullTitle:"Trauma in Dentistry"},signatures:"Guhan Dergin, Yusuf Emes and Buket Aybar",authors:[{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin"},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes"},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar"}]},{id:"56461",title:"Permanent Maxillary and Mandibular Incisors",slug:"permanent-maxillary-and-mandibular-incisors",totalDownloads:2715,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The permanent incisors are the front teeth that erupt between 6 and 8 years of age. They are eight in number, four upper and four lower, two centrals and two laterals. They have sharp biting surfaces designed for shearing and cutting of food materials into small chewable pieces. They are the teeth most visible to the others during eating, smiling and talking, and thus, they have high aesthetic value for the individuals. The unique characteristics, arch position, function, development and chronological age of each tooth will be highlighted. In addition, the different aspects with their geometric outlines, outlines and surface anatomy of these teeth will be described. A brief explanation about the pulp cavity, tooth socket and normal occlusion for each tooth will be included.",book:{id:"5814",slug:"dental-anatomy",title:"Dental Anatomy",fullTitle:"Dental Anatomy"},signatures:"Mohammed E. Grawish, Lamyaa M. Grawish and Hala M. Grawish",authors:[{id:"82989",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:"E",surname:"Grawish",slug:"mohammed-grawish",fullName:"Mohammed Grawish"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"174",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"80964",title:"Upper Airway Expansion in Disabled Children",slug:"upper-airway-expansion-in-disabled-children",totalDownloads:43,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102830",abstract:"Breathing is essential for life in all of its stages. Cellular, mitochondrial respiration requires an adequate supply of oxygen, provided by the air we breathe, after airway conduction, treatment by the lungs, and transport to tissues. At different stages of life, pediatric dentists and orthodontists can intervene in the upper airway, expanding it, which helps with ventilation. The greater airway space, if used, contributes in different ways to the child’s development and the recovery of respiratory problems and should always be present as a weapon that physicians and the population should know. The value of the techniques becomes even more important when applied to children and young people with disabilities who can significantly improve their development and performance. Rapid Maxillary Expansion and Extraoral Traction Appliances are two important pediatric resources to treat these children. Clinical practice of the authors, is discussed, emphasizing the importance of early intervention and the need for multi and interdisciplinary collaboration in the follow-up of disabled people.",book:{id:"10827",title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg"},signatures:"David Andrade, Joana Andrade, Maria-João Palha, Cristina Areias, Paula Macedo, Ana Norton, Miguel Palha, Lurdes Morais, Dóris Rocha Ruiz and Sônia Groisman"},{id:"80963",title:"Pain Perception in Patients Treated with Ligating/Self-Ligating Brackets versus Patients Treated with Aligners",slug:"pain-perception-in-patients-treated-with-ligating-self-ligating-brackets-versus-patients-treated-wit",totalDownloads:32,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102796",abstract:"This study compared the perception of pain experienced by patients undergoing orthodontic treatment with conventional, self-ligating brackets and aligners, and investigated the impact that pain had on their daily lives. 346 consecutive patients were included in the study: 115 patients treated with conventional brackets, 112 Patients treated with self-ligating brackets, and 119 patients treated with aligners. The quantitative aspect of pain was assessed using the Visual Analogue Scale, while the qualitative aspect of pain was evaluated using the Moroccan Short Form of McGILL Pain questionnaire. In all three groups experienced pain after activation tended to decrease in the following week. This pain was greater in patients with conventional braces and less in patients with aligners. Using the M-SF-MPQ to describe the qualitative aspect of the pain revealed that the “cramping مزير,” “aching تيألم ” aspect was most accentuated in the 3 groups. Medication intake was correlated with the intensity of pain experienced in all 3 systems. As for the impact of pain on daily activities, patients in groups of conventional and self-ligating braces showed more pain than those in the aligners group. Overall, aligners were less painful than conventional and self-ligating appliances. Patients did not suffer from an alteration in their quality of life due to orthodontic treatment.",book:{id:"10780",title:"Current Trends in Orthodontics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10780.jpg"},signatures:"Farid Bourzgui, Rania Fastani, Salwa Khairat, Samir Diouny, Mohamed El Had, Zineb Serhier and Mohamed Bennani Othmani"},{id:"80839",title:"Herbs and Oral Health",slug:"herbs-and-oral-health",totalDownloads:69,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103715",abstract:"Herbal medicine has long been used to prevent and control disease, and it can minimize the potential side effects of chemical products. However, side effects from herbs do exist. Most of the challenges with herbal medicine revolves around inadequate information about the effect of herbs in the oral cavity, the mechanism of action, and potential side effects. There are several herbs described in this chapter have anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial, anti-viral, anti-fungal in oral micro-organisms. It includes aloe vera, ginger, clove, cinnamon, garlic, neem, miswak, turmeric, tulsi, green tea, chamomile, fenugreek, anise plant, peppermint, bloodroot, caraway, eucalyptus, phyllanthus emblica, black seed, myrrh, rosemary, sage, and thyme; some may act as an alternative management option to current treatments for oral conditions such as caries prevention, gingivitis, periodontitis, oral burn, ulcers and inflammation, after extraction, dry mouth, pain reduction, anesthesia, intracanal medications, ill-fitting dentures, peri-implant mucositis and peri-implantitis. It can be used in several forms such as mouthwashes, toothpastes, topical agents or local drug delivery devices. However, more research is needed to understand their mechanisms and potential side effects.",book:{id:"10827",title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg"},signatures:"Zuhair S. Natto"},{id:"80441",title:"Periodontitis and Heart Disease: Current Perspectives on the Associative Relationships and Preventive Impact",slug:"periodontitis-and-heart-disease-current-perspectives-on-the-associative-relationships-and-preventive",totalDownloads:65,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102669",abstract:"Due to the important advancement and the accumulation of new evidence on the periodontitis-cardiovascular disease (CVD) relationship as well as the major medical, economic and social burden caused by both diseases this chapter aims to review existing epidemiological and pathogenetic links related to this topic. Also, this chapter aims to highlight the impact of the periodontitis-CVD relationships on clinical practice and on the preventive approaches targeting to decrease the impact of periodontitis on CVD. Periodontitis is an infectious disease eliciting local and general inflammation, which leads to periodontal destruction and systemic involvement. Several pathways could explain the link between periodontitis and CVD such as bacteraemia, chronic persistent systemic inflammation and oxidative stress. The first step in the treatment of periodontitis addresses the elimination of microbial components, which lead to a decrease in local and systemic inflammation. Periodontal therapy seems to positively impact CVD. Specialists should inform patients with CVD on the negative impact of periodontitis on their systemic status and refer patients to the periodontist for an extensive examination as routine management of CVD. Some possible risks of periodontal therapy should be considered in patients undergoing antithrombotic medication.",book:{id:"10827",title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg"},signatures:"Alexandra Roman, Andrada Soancă, Bogdan Caloian, Alexandru Bucur, Gabriela Valentina Caracostea, Andreia Paraschiva Preda, Dora Maria Popescu, Iulia Cristina Micu, Petra Șurlin, Andreea Ciurea, Diana Oneț, Mircea Viorel Ciurea, Dragoș Alexandru Țermure and Marius Negucioiu"},{id:"79498",title:"Oral Aspects and Dental Management of Special Needs Patient",slug:"oral-aspects-and-dental-management-of-special-needs-patient",totalDownloads:108,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101067",abstract:"Individuals with special needs are the most underserved regarding healthcare needs in almost all populations. Special needs patients with intellectual disability have muscle coordination disorder, impaired oral motor function, drooling, weak muscles that cause chewing and swallowing problems. Also, soft diet consumption makes this population more prone to dental disease. They have more caries, missing teeth, orthodontic and periodontal problems. Besides more difficulties obtaining professional dental care than other segments of the population. Though many countries developed community-based systems to improve oral health for people with special needs, providing good oral health mainly depends on the effort of the families. Therefore the education of the caregiver about oral hygiene provision is also critical for the special needs patient to enjoy a lifetime of oral health the same as other members of the society.",book:{id:"10827",title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg"},signatures:"Pinar Kiymet Karataban"},{id:"79699",title:"Metabolomics Distinction of Cigarette Smokers from Non-Smokers Using Non-Stationary Benchtop Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Analysis of Human Saliva",slug:"metabolomics-distinction-of-cigarette-smokers-from-non-smokers-using-non-stationary-benchtop-nuclear",totalDownloads:56,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101414",abstract:"Implementations of high-field nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) facilities into metabolomics studies are unfortunately restricted by their large dimensions, high costings, and specialist technical staff requirements. Therefore, here the application and practical advantages offered by low-field (60 MHz), compact NMR spectrometers for probing the metabolic profiles of human saliva was explored, as was their value in salivary metabolomics studies. Saliva samples were collected from cigarette smoking (n = 11) and non-smoking (n = 31) human participants. 1H NMR spectra were acquired on both low-field (60 MHz) and medium-field (400 MHz) spectrometers. Metabolomics analyses were employed to evaluate the consistencies of salivary metabolite levels determined, and their abilities to distinguish between smokers and non-smokers. Low-field 1H NMR analysis detected up to 15, albeit permitted the reliable quantification of 5, potentially key diagnostic biomolecules simultaneously (LLOQ values 250–400 μmol/L), although these were limited to those with the most prominent resonances. Such low-field profiles were also found to be suitable for salivary metabolomics investigations, which confirmed the successful discrimination between smoking and non-smoking participant sample donors. Differences observed between these groups were largely ascribable to upregulated salivary levels of methanol, and its metabolite formate, in the smoking group, but higher smoking-mediated concentrations of acetate, propionate and glycine may arise from a diminished salivary flow-rate in these participants. In conclusion, determination of salivary biomolecules using low-field, benchtop 1H NMR analysis techniques were found to be valuable for bioanalytical and metabolomics investigations. Future perspectives for the applications of this non-stationary NMR technique, for example for the on-site ‘point-of-care’ testing of saliva samples for diagnostic oral disease screening purposes at dental surgeries and community pharmacies, are considered.",book:{id:"10827",title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg"},signatures:"Benita C. 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Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:302,paginationItems:[{id:"280338",title:"Dr.",name:"Yutaka",middleName:null,surname:"Tsutsumi",slug:"yutaka-tsutsumi",fullName:"Yutaka Tsutsumi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280338/images/7961_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fujita Health University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116250/images/system/116250.jpg",biography:"Professor Nima Rezaei obtained an MD from Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran. He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"3",type:"subseries",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Antibiotics, Biofilm, Antibiotic Resistance, Host-microbiota Relationship, Treatment, Diagnostic Tools",scope:"