\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5866",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Indigenous People",title:"Indigenous People",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Indigenous peoples are the native ethnic groups, who are descended from and identified with the original inhabitants of a region, in contrast to groups that have settled, occupied, or colonized the area more recently. This book entitled Indigenous People is an attempt to bring out the analysis of indigenous environment, indigenous technical knowledge, indigenous resource governance, and indigenous entrepreneurship and empowerment. This book contains selected chapters from renowned personalities from across the globe who have rich knowledge on sovereignty, economic well-being, and resource access of the indigenous people, on which their cultures depend. This book will certainly be an asset or a boon, not only to the extension fraternity but also to all those who are really thirsty of information and knowledge on indigenous people.",isbn:"978-953-51-3482-4",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3481-7",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4666-7",doi:"10.5772/65629",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"indigenous-people",numberOfPages:198,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"855fd54af0a1f830ea8d0ee1519387dc",bookSignature:"Purushothaman Venkatesan",publishedDate:"September 6th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5866.jpg",numberOfDownloads:16456,numberOfWosCitations:10,numberOfCrossrefCitations:12,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:15,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:37,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 13th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 3rd 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 27th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 19th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 31st 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"198936",title:"Dr.",name:"Purushothaman",middleName:null,surname:"Venkatesan",slug:"purushothaman-venkatesan",fullName:"Purushothaman Venkatesan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/198936/images/6038_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. P. Venkatesan is currently working as a senior scientist in the Division of Extension Systems Management of ICAR-National Academy of Agricultural Research Management (NAARM). He specialized in agricultural extension and has 15 years of experience as a developmental scientist and 3 years as a core scientist. He joined NAARM in May 2014. He specialized in the area of indigenous technical knowledge, participatory technology development, participatory impact monitoring and assessment, tribal development, technology assessment, and refinement of socioeconomic and environmental impact assessment. He has published several research papers, books, manuals, and policy papers. To his credit, he has guided a number of research scholars in rural development and management. He is a recipient of four national and two international awards.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Indian Council of Agricultural Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1330",title:"Ethnic Studies",slug:"ethnic-studies"}],chapters:[{id:"55689",title:"Usages and Customs of the Indigenous Communities in Favour of the Reduction of the Digital Divide: A Case Study of the Ñuu Savi People",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69172",slug:"usages-and-customs-of-the-indigenous-communities-in-favour-of-the-reduction-of-the-digital-divide-a-",totalDownloads:1285,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This research is of ethnographic nature, focusing on the study of the Ñuu Savi people (people of the rain), also called the Mixtec people, of pre-Columbian origin belonging to the Mixteca Region of the state of Oaxaca, Mexico. On the basis of sociocultural theory and the theory of the diffusion and adoption of technological innovations, the study on the cultural identity of the ethnolinguistic group, whose social platform is the “uses and customs,” is carried out. As a result of this research, the descriptive analysis is presented, detailing the effect of information and communication technologies (ICTs) on the situation of the vulnerable and disadvantaged group. Likewise, cultural elements have been identified that allow the formulation of a model for the development and inclusion of the ethnic minority. An educational strategy is designed and implemented through the model. However, in the process of implementing the educational strategy, it was observed that the Ñuu Savi people experience a conjunctural stage where technological adoption coexists with some beliefs, aptitudes, and attitudes, characteristic of its form of government of “uses and customs,” which create sociocultural barriers that make social and digital inclusion difficult.",signatures:"Olivia Allende-Hernández and Jesús Salinas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55689",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55689",authors:[{id:"198235",title:"Dr.",name:"Olivia",surname:"Allende-Hernández",slug:"olivia-allende-hernandez",fullName:"Olivia Allende-Hernández"},{id:"201435",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesús",surname:"Salinas",slug:"jesus-salinas",fullName:"Jesús Salinas"}],corrections:null},{id:"55687",title:"The Indigenous School: A Space of Ruptures and Tensions within Local Culture",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69178",slug:"the-indigenous-school-a-space-of-ruptures-and-tensions-within-local-culture",totalDownloads:1184,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The study analyzes tensions and ruptures within indigenous community practices, school devices, and subjectivities that are built among their actors, based on the significance of their experience as educational agents in the school environment. The work is interpretive, carried out through interviews applied to students, teachers, and school principals of two schools in San Andrés Larráinzar, in Chiapas, Mexico. The information obtained was analyzed through the understanding of the records, their integration into categories, delimitation, and interpretation. The results include six thematic content units: space and context; expression and resistance, dynamics of the culture; disruption of culture order; students outside the norm: alcohol, graffiti, and pornography; courtship and its reconfiguration; and school supports, peer tutoring, and teacher criticism, in which the realization of the school formation process becomes a complex phenomenon, full of tension and conflict between the demands of the school institution and the local culture.",signatures:"Germán Alejandro García Lara and Oscar Cruz Pérez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55687",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55687",authors:[{id:"199063",title:"Dr.",name:"Germán Alejandro",surname:"García Lara",slug:"german-alejandro-garcia-lara",fullName:"Germán Alejandro García Lara"},{id:"200333",title:"Dr.",name:"Oscar",surname:"Cruz Pérez",slug:"oscar-cruz-perez",fullName:"Oscar Cruz Pérez"}],corrections:null},{id:"56031",title:"Landscape of Resistance: The Fronts of Economic Expansion and the Xavante Indigenous People—Brazil",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69179",slug:"landscape-of-resistance-the-fronts-of-economic-expansion-and-the-xavante-indigenous-people-brazil",totalDownloads:1133,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This article has the objective of identifying and reflecting upon the sociocultural strategies that allowed the Xavante Indians, after centuries of cultural spoliation and territory expropriation, the development of different adaptive mechanisms that guaranteed their reproduction. Here, the attempt is to show that those sociocultural strategies and mechanisms were decisive in the maintenance of its territory, social cohesion, and relative cultural autonomy. Likewise, as a specific objective of this article, one intends to identify which of those cultural changes are perceived in the landscape, seeking a deeper comprehension of the appropriation mechanisms developed by those people in the interface with the Brazilian contemporary society. The proposed methodology to reach the said objectives has been built upon extensive multidisciplinary bibliographical surveys, interviews, and field observations that made feasible, among other things, a more refined construction of the Xavante historiography and a more precise understanding of the social organization variation of those people. Finally, it is proposed here to view the Xavante people as the main subject of their decisions, capable of offering resistance to the progress of capitalist expansion fronts upon their territory and, above all, capable of maintaining their sociocultural cohesion deciding on the course of their own development.",signatures:"Renan A.S. de Oliveira and Luciene C. Risso",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56031",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56031",authors:[{id:"198184",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Luciene",surname:"Risso",slug:"luciene-risso",fullName:"Luciene Risso"},{id:"202062",title:"Prof.",name:"Renan",surname:"Andreosi",slug:"renan-andreosi",fullName:"Renan Andreosi"}],corrections:null},{id:"56225",title:"Analysing Environment-Development Interventions Through the Lens of Indigenous People in Cameroon",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69885",slug:"analysing-environment-development-interventions-through-the-lens-of-indigenous-people-in-cameroon",totalDownloads:1110,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Ideally, both eenvironmental protection and human development policies should improve human well-being through the conservation of ecosystems that provide valuable services,. However, in practicallye, this rarely happen rarely. Settings for environment-development interactions are complex because they consist of diverse ecological systems as well as and human engineered knowledge systems. Using the pathways approach analytical framework to sustainability, this paper analysed how actors’ understandings and scale of knowledge in environment-development interventions influence sustainable management. Data for this study used mix methods, includeing interviews, questionnaires, policy document texts and field observations. The main findings suggested that the diverse views and scales of knowledge mobilised by different actors in conservation-development interventions is a major challenge in producing sustainable outcomes. The inability of conservation practitioners to conveniently reconcile different narratives held by different actors leads to the domination of powerful actors narrations, on which policies are based. The major setback in attaining sustainable forest management does not necessarily lie in the conflicting interests of actors, but also in the social processes that guided the negotiation of these conflicting interests. This study argues that local people and traditional structures have the potential to contribute sustainable forest management processes if offered the space. Given that lLocal people are often not directly engaged in forest management planning, their actions are directly or indirectly influenced by other actors (elites). This makes it more complicated to achieve processes that might lead to sustainable forest management. There is a need to create Convenient space is needed to that enables conservation practitioners to sees and promotes conservation through the lens of the local people.",signatures:"Mbunya Francis Nkemnyi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56225",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56225",authors:[{id:"200156",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Mbunya Francis",surname:"Nkemnyi",slug:"mbunya-francis-nkemnyi",fullName:"Mbunya Francis Nkemnyi"}],corrections:null},{id:"56426",title:"Indigenous Resource Management Practices and the Local Social-Cultural Context: An Insight towards Self-Directed Resource Management by People who ‘Coexist’ with Supernatural Agents",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70104",slug:"indigenous-resource-management-practices-and-the-local-social-cultural-context-an-insight-towards-se",totalDownloads:1782,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In recent arguments in the governance of natural resource management, effectiveness and desirability of collaborative management among various stakeholder including indigenous people has been recognized. In the context of Indonesia, the reformation movement has stimulated the growth of a new perception of indigenous people’s rights to their land in the country. This recent transition presents a growing opportunity for indigenous people who live in nature-rich areas (national parks, etc.) to collaborate with ‘outside stakeholders’ such as governmental agencies, scholars and environmental NGOs in natural resource management. In such situations, it is necessary to deeply understand the value of indigenous resource management (IRM) practices to promote self-directed and effective resource management. This chapter focuses on local forest resource management and its suitability in the local social-cultural context in central Seram, east Indonesia. First, I describe how the well-structured forest resource use is constructed and maintained through the indigenous resource management practices based on ‘supernatural enforce mechanism’. After that, I investigate what social-ecological roles the IRM in Amanioho has, and how IRM practices relate to the social-cultural context of an upland community in central Seram. Then, I discuss the possible future applications for achieving self-directed resource management by people who ‘coexist’ with supernatural agents.",signatures:"Masatoshi Sasaoka",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56426",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56426",authors:[{id:"198898",title:"Dr.",name:"Masatoshi",surname:"Sasaoka",slug:"masatoshi-sasaoka",fullName:"Masatoshi Sasaoka"}],corrections:null},{id:"56296",title:"Empowering Namibian Indigenous People through Entrepreneurship: The Case from the Nama People",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69886",slug:"empowering-namibian-indigenous-people-through-entrepreneurship-the-case-from-the-nama-people",totalDownloads:1609,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The challenge emanating from the colonial and apartheid regimes on the Nama people of Namibia have not only resulted in them losing nearly half of its population, but they also appeared to have lost their social identity. To that end we continually find convergences and divergences in clothing and accessories, food, traditional dances, homes, and traditional beauty cosmetics, between the past and present. This chapter seeks to explore whether the Nama people have always used money to acquire the aforementioned past? If not, what have they done right in the past to acquire all these items? These are one of the few questions this chapter seeks to explore and understand, and the role Nama entrepreneurial activities play for their own socio-economic advancement. Critical discourse can lead to a better understanding and appreciation of entrepreneurship among indigenous people in Namibia. This will in turn result in an enhanced understanding of the role entrepreneurship and culture can play in both a local and international context. After a brief introduction to Namibia and the Nama people, the cultural values and entrepreneurial initiatives of the Nama people are discussed, followed by discussions, recommendations and conclusions. Research methods employed were in-depth interviews and participant observation.",signatures:"Wilfred Isak April, Daniel Ileni Itenge, Josef Petrus Van der\nWesthuizen and Lazarus Shimwaningi Emvula",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56296",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56296",authors:[{id:"110034",title:"Dr.",name:"Wilfred",surname:"April",slug:"wilfred-april",fullName:"Wilfred April"},{id:"204208",title:"Mr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Itenge",slug:"daniel-itenge",fullName:"Daniel Itenge"},{id:"204209",title:"Mr.",name:"Lazarus",surname:"Emvula",slug:"lazarus-emvula",fullName:"Lazarus Emvula"},{id:"204916",title:"Mr.",name:"Josef",surname:"Van Der Westhuizen",slug:"josef-van-der-westhuizen",fullName:"Josef Van Der Westhuizen"}],corrections:null},{id:"56259",title:"Indigenous Knowledge Systems for Appropriate Technology Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69889",slug:"indigenous-knowledge-systems-for-appropriate-technology-development",totalDownloads:4102,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) comprises knowledge developed within indigenous societies, independent of, and prior to, the advent of the modern scientific knowledge system (MSKS). Examples of IKS such as Ayurveda from India and Acupuncture from China are well known. IK covers diverse areas of importance for society, spanning issues concerned with the quality of life - from agriculture and water to health. The IK resident in India and China have high relevance to rural life, especially given the level of engagement with agricultural and health technologies. The goal is to establish a heuristic whereby IK can be reviewed and evaluated within particular contexts to determine if the IKS can lead to the development of appropriate technology (AT) addressing that need sustainably. Although much work on cataloguing and documenting IKS has been completed in these two countries, a paucity of attention has been paid to the scientific rationale and technological content of these IKS. Evaluation of many indigenous technologies reveal that many of these technologies can be classified as ‘appropriate’, focused on basic needs of water, sanitation and agriculture, and many have origins in IKS that survived. Thus, IKS must be validated, exploited and integrated into AT innovation and development.",signatures:"John Tharakan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56259",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56259",authors:[{id:"198534",title:"Prof.",name:"John",surname:"Tharakan",slug:"john-tharakan",fullName:"John Tharakan"}],corrections:null},{id:"56601",title:"Revisiting Indigenous Biotic and Abiotic Weather Forecasting for Possible Integration with Scientific Weather Prediction: A Case from the Borana People of South Ethiopia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69887",slug:"revisiting-indigenous-biotic-and-abiotic-weather-forecasting-for-possible-integration-with-scientifi",totalDownloads:1658,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This study assesses how Borana herders make weather forecast using abiotic and biotic indicators. Survey questionnaire, observations, focus group discussions, and key informant interview were employed to obtain data. Field data were analyzed and interpreted using appropriate analytical tools and procedures. The result revealed that the Borana herders have time-tested weather forecasting experience of using astrological, intestinal, plant, and animal body language indicators. Astrological and intestinal readings that need special training and local expertise are known as Urgii Elaltus and Uchuu, respectively. Forecast information is disseminated using the Borana sociocultural institutions. Based on the disseminated forecast information, the Borana herders take measures such as strengthening enclosure, storing hay, migrating with animals, destocking, and changing schedules of social and cultural festivities such as wedding. The precision and credibility of traditional weather forecast steadily declined and led to repeated faulty predictions. Poor documentation and knowledge transfer system, influence of religion and modern education, premature death of forecast experts, and expansion of alcoholism were identified as causes undermining the vitality of Borana indigenous weather forecast. It is high time that the tenets of indigenous weather forecasting be assessed scientifically and be integrated into the modern science of weather forecasting before they vanish.",signatures:"Desalegn Yayeh Ayal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56601",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56601",authors:[{id:"198164",title:"Dr.",name:"Desalegn",surname:"Ayal",slug:"desalegn-ayal",fullName:"Desalegn Ayal"}],corrections:null},{id:"56510",title:"Role of Traditional Ethnobotanical Knowledge and Indigenous Institutions in Sustainable Land Management in Western Highlands of Kenya",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69890",slug:"role-of-traditional-ethnobotanical-knowledge-and-indigenous-institutions-in-sustainable-land-managem",totalDownloads:2594,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The objective of this chapter is to elucidate the relevance of indigenous knowledge and institutions in natural resource management using western highlands of Kenya as a case study. The research design was a mixed method, combining qualitative and quantitative methods. A total of 350 individuals (comprising farmers, herbalists and charcoal burners) from households were interviewed using a structured questionnaire, 50 in-depth interviews and 35 focus group discussions. The results show that indigenous knowledge and institutions play a significant role in conserving natural resources in the study area. There was gender differentiation in knowledge attitude and practice (KAP) of indigenous knowledge as applied to sustainable land management. It is recommended that deliberate efforts should be put in place by the County Governments to scale up the roles of indigenous institutions in managing natural resources in the study area.",signatures:"Chris A. 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Primary aldosteronism (PA) is regarded by most practicing physicians as a ‘needle in the haystack’ [1], notwithstanding compelling evidences supporting the opposite view that is quite common. At the dawn of this millennium, based on small single-centre retrospective studies, the prevalence rate of PA was estimated to range from 1.4–32% (median 8.8%), i.e. so widely that no firm conclusions could be drawn on how common PA was, likely because of differences in the selection of the patient’s cohorts and heterogeneous diagnostic criteria used in the various studies [2].
In 2006, the PA Prevalence in Hypertensives (PAPY) study, a prospective survey of consecutive newly diagnosed hypertensive patients referred to specialized hypertension centres, exploited for the first time use of a predefined protocol and standardized diagnostic criteria to diagnose PA [3]. This seminal study provided solid evidences that among referred hypertensive patients the prevalence of PA was high, i.e. 11.2% [3]. Moreover, by calling attention to the fact that the only subtype of PA that could be diagnosed with certainty is aldosterone-producing adenoma (APA), this study introduced the ‘four-corners criteria’ to diagnose PA due to APA, a concept thereafter adopted in the PASO criteria [4] and recently revised to take into consideration the availability, thanks to Gomez-Sanchez’s laboratory, of a monoclonal antibody for human aldosterone synthase (CYP11B2) that allowed the immunohistochemical demonstration of aldosterone biosynthesis in adrenocortical nodule(s) of excised adrenals [5, 6].
It should be acknowledged, though, that estimates of the prevalence of PA are meaningless figures without specification of the cohort of hypertensive patients that are being considered. For example, in a general population survey in Japan, Ito et al. reported a prevalence of PA of 6.8% in prehypertensive subjects and 3.3% and 3.2%, respectively, in stage I and II hypertensive patients [7]. In the Bussolengo study, which involved hypertensive patients seen in general practice in Verona province in Italy, 34% were found to have an elevated aldosterone-to-renin ratio (ARR) suggesting PA [8]. Although the actual rate of those with confirmed PA remained uncertain, because no further tests could be undertaken, those findings suggested a high prevalence of PA among such unselected hypertensive patients. In line with this suggestion, in a similar study involving general practitioners in Torino (Italy), 5.9% of the patients were found to have PA [9]. Altogether these results led to the proposal that the screening for PA should be wider [10] than a screening only in selected categories of patients recommended by current guidelines [11].
Undoubtedly, screening should be exploited in patients with drug-resistant hypertension, which represent the cohort at the highest cardiovascular risk, not only because of the uncontrolled blood pressure (BP) values, but also because of the common concurrence of hypertension-mediated organ damage (HMOD) [9, 11, 12, 13, 14]. In a single-centre study carefully carried out in Greece by Douma et al. in drug-resistant hypertension patients, who were studied after wash-out from interfering drugs, 20.6% were found to have a high ARR [15]. The rate fell to about 11% when the authors used the BP-lowering response to spironolactone to confirm their diagnosis. They considered this rate to be not as high as they expected [15]. However, yet unpublished data from the AVIS-2 study, the largest registry of patients submitted to adrenal vein sampling (AVS) for the subtyping of PA worldwide, indicated that between 20.1 and 49.5% of PA patients, depending on the criteria used to define this condition, have drug-resistant hypertension. Hence, resistant hypertension is a common presentation of PA. On the whole, these results showed that, at least among referred hypertensives who are carefully investigated, more than 11% have PA, with a rate that increases together with the stage of hypertension.
Hence, besides supporting the original contention of Conn [16], these findings showed that PA is by no means an exceptionally rare cause of human hypertension. Therefore, they have implications of paramount importance for the implementation of screening strategies in the hypertensive patients as the diagnostic gain of a diagnostic test is maximized when the prevalence of the disease that is sought for is between 10 and 30% (Figure 1).
Prevalence of a disease affects positive and negative predictive values. Furthermore, the diagnostic gain of a test is maximized when the prevalence of the disease is between 10 and 30%. Since primary aldosteronism (PA) was found to involve 11.2% in the hypertensive patients referred to the specialized centres for hypertension, and to be even more prevalent in the ‘resistant’ hypertensives, implementation of the screening strategies for PA furnishes an unambiguous gain in these categories, besides being of crucial relevance for identifying the patients who can benefit of the targeted treatment.
In spite of the fact that compelling evidences support the notion that PA is a common curable form of secondary hypertension, this condition remains markedly underdiagnosed for a number of reasons. The first is the misbelief that it is rare and therefore it is not worth of a search. The second entails the fact that hypokalaemia, which for decades has been considered the hallmark of PA, occurs only in less than half of the hypertensive patients, with APA and in less than 20% of those with bilateral adrenal hyperplasia (BAH, also known as idiopathic hyperaldosteronism, IHA) [3]. The third reason is a general phenomenon in medicine: the time lag occurring between publication of scientific data, their incorporation into practice guidelines and implementation of guidelines’ recommendations in clinical practice. A survey of general practitioners in Italy and Germany documented that this is true also for PA: only 1 and 2%, respectively, in these countries were ever screened for PA by their general practitioners [17]. The fourth major reasons for the underscreening and consequent underdiagnosis of PA relate, in our view, to the fact that the diagnostic workup of patients for PA is perceived by practicing physicians as too complex to undertake and interpret. The recommended measure to prepare the hypertensive patients pharmacologically with a complete wash-out from drugs, which is totally unjustified, or better a switch to non-interfering drugs before undertaking the screening tests, is perceived as risky, even though evidence supporting the safety of a transient withdrawal of antihypertensive treatment exists [18, 19]. Uses of different assays to measure renin and aldosterone and of different units of measure are further factors undoubtedly confusing the interpretation of the screening test, which led us to develop an app that has been made freely available to address these difficulties [20] (https://siia.it/attivita-ricerca/iniziative/una-app-per-calcolare-l-arr/).
As a result of the under diagnosis, far too many PA patients are misdiagnosed as (low-renin) essential hypertension and remain exposed to the nefarious consequences of long-term exposure to hyperaldosteronism [21, 22], which are described in the next section.
Patients with PA have higher cardiovascular morbidity and mortality than age-, sex- and BP-matched patients with essential hypertension [9, 13, 14, 23, 24]. This is because aldosterone excess, in the presence of a normal-to-high salt intake, has deleterious effects on the cardiovascular system that aggravate those of high BP, as convincingly demonstrated in both experimental and clinical studies [25, 26, 27, 28].
In 1991, Karl Weber’s and Richardo Rocha’s laboratories provided unambiguous evidences that uni-nephrectomized salt-fed rats infused with aldosterone developed prominent inflammation and fibrosis in the heart and kidneys. Moreover, they showed that these changes could be prevented by pretreatment with mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists, as spironolactone, even at sub-antihypertensive doses, suggesting that aldosterone can cause fibrosis independently of its pressor effects [25, 29]. Moreover, in animal models, aldosterone infusion was shown to cause endothelial dysfunction via reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation; increased expression of NADPH oxidase subunits p22phox, gp91phox and p47phox; formation of peroxynitrite; oxidation of the NOS cofactor BH4 (5,6,7,8-tetrahydrobiopterin); and decreased G6PD (glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase) [30, 31].
In 1996, at a time when PA was still regarded as a ‘benign’ form of arterial hypertension, we reported that PA patients developed more left ventricular (LV) hypertrophy (LVH) than age-, sex- and BP-matched essential hypertensive patients, [32] and that this was particularly evident in those who showed more florid PA phenotypes due to an APA [13]. These findings were thereafter extended to show that they are more prone to develop fibrosis, atrial fibrillation [33], vascular remodeling [34], endothelial dysfunction [35, 36], increased carotid intima-media thickness and femoral pulse wave velocity, more frequently than those with essential hypertension [13, 14, 32, 37].
Moreover, the occurrence of LVH, LV fibrosis, impaired diastolic function, atrial dilatation and electric remodeling in PA (rev in [38]) explains why these patients were found to have a 12-fold higher risk of developing atrial fibrillation, the most common arrhythmia worldwide, than essential hypertensive patients in a French retrospective study [39]. Accordingly, adrenalectomy was found to lower the risk of atrial fibrillation in PA patients in the long-term longitudinal phase of the PAPY study [33]. Collectively these evidences support the concept that aldosterone favors atrial fibrillation [38] and that PA patients are more susceptible to heart failure with onset of atrial fibrillation [13, 40] because of a ‘stiffer’ LV causing LV diastolic dysfunction and fibrosis, which lead to a greater dependency of the LV on the atrial kick for its filling.
PA patients also develop more renal damage with development of proteinuria and/or chronic kidney disease. In 1988, Danforth et al. first reported moderate to severe renal parenchymal damage in renal biopsies of patients with PA [41], a finding confirmed two decades later by Nishimura et al. [42] and, in 2006, by the PAPY study, which reported higher albumin excretion rate in PA patients than in matched essential hypertensives [14].
The important notion to be considered in this context is that most of the hypertension-mediated organ damage associated with PA can be prevented and even regressed, at least partially, with a timely diagnosis. For example, in a long-term observational study, long-term regression of LVH and a decrease incidence of AF were documented [43]. Moreover, in the longitudinal phase of the PAPY study, we found that incident AF was significantly decreased by adrenalectomy, but not by long-term medical treatment [33]. In line with such findings Hundemer et al. [40] reported that PA patients with persistently suppressed renin despite treatment with mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists had a higher risk of AF than essential hypertensives, or patients on treatment with mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists and increased renin (suggesting optimal mineralocorticoid receptor blockade), or adrenalectomized PA patients
A long-term follow-up study by Sechi et al. [44] showed that in PA renal damage could be reversed by target treatment, a finding thereafter supported by Hundemer et al. [45], who showed that glomerular filtration rate declined more in PA patients treated with mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists than in essential hypertension patients and in PA cured with adrenalectomy. Rapid regression of microalbuminuria in PA suggests that urinary albumin excretion is, at least in part, due to functional rather than structural renal changes, i.e. glomerular hyperfiltration and decreased intrarenal vascular resistance. Elegant studies by Hall et al. in dogs exposed to hyperaldosteronism while renal perfusion pressure was maintained constant support this contention [46].
Thus, early screening and identification of PA patients who need surgery is needed to prevent/regress morbid events caused by hyperaldosteronism.
The diagnosis of PA requires demonstration of an excessive aldosterone secretion autonomous of the renin-angiotensin system [11]. This implies concomitant measurement of plasma aldosterone and renin levels, Na+ and K+ in serum and 24-hour urine, followed by calculation of the aldosterone-to-renin ratio (ARR) [11]. Nowadays, the measurement of direct renin concentration has replaced plasma renin activity (PRA) in many laboratories because it is simpler, quicker and more accurate in the low range typically seen in PA [47]. However, the optimal cutoff value of the ARR is still a matter of debate and for optimal use they should be determined at each centre. Based on a prospective validation using a solid diagnosis of PA due to APA diagnosed as previously mentioned, we use 2.06 ng/dl/mUI/L (=20.6 ng/mUI) if renin is estimated by DRC or 26 ng/dl/ng/ml/h if renin was measured as PRA [47]. The aforementioned ARR-App can render the interpretation of results straightforward for practicing physicians and avoids the errors that might occur with unit conversion and calculations [20].
Confirmatory tests are still used in most centres, even though there is clear-cut evidence that at the prevalence rate of PA seen in referral centres, i.e. between 11 and 30%, their negative predictive value largely exceeds their positive predictive value [48], and, therefore, these tests function as ‘exclusion tests’. These tests stand on the unproven hypothesis that aldosterone secretion is unresponsive to maneuvers that perturbate renin. By such premise, they will identify only the subset of PA cases that are unresponsive to salt or volume suppression of aldosterone secretion, notably a minority of the cases of PA [6, 49].
Therefore, as discussed in depth elsewhere, this is a highly controversial issue [49]. Most studies supporting the use of these tests did not follow the STARD recommendations [50]: they attempted to validate the confirmatory tests not against a gold reference standard, as the diagnosis of APA, but against another confirmatory test, also based on the presumed autonomy of aldosterone secretion from the renin-angiotensin system [49]. Therefore, they were affected by a tautology bias. The only demonstration of CYP11B2-positive nodules at pathology, besides biochemical cure of PA after adrenalectomy, provides, in our view, a conclusive diagnosis of PA, which can be an APA or unilateral multinodular adrenocortical hyperplasia [5]. Given the availability of monoclonal antibodies for human CYP11B2, we recently amended the ‘four corners’ with the addition of immunohistochemical detection of CYP11B2 in the resected adrenal for the diagnosis of APA [3]. Likely considering the complexity and the intrinsic inaccuracy of the confirmatory tests, the last Endocrine Society guidelines for the first time foresaw the possibility of skipping these tests in patients with a florid PA phenotype and to proceed directly to subtyping (see later) [11].
In a recent large-size study comprising an exploratory and validation cohort, we investigated the accuracy of one such ‘confirmatory’ tests, the captopril challenge. This study provided unambiguous evidence that when a solid diagnosis of APA was used as reference index, the quantitative information conveyed by the ARR was accurate enough to avoid use of any confirmatory tests and to skip confirmatory tests [51]. In fact, neither the fall of plasma aldosterone concentration after captopril administration nor the fall of the ARR value furnished any diagnostic gain over baseline ARR values in these two very large cohorts of patients [51]. These results call for a simplification of the diagnostic algorithm as depicted in Figure 2. This strategy decreases the complexity, costs and time of the diagnostic workup for PA and therefore could extend the screening to most hypertensive patients, even in municipalities with low levels of access to specialized medical care.
The flow-chart describes a simplified diagnostic algorithm for the work-up of primary aldosteronism (PA). The work up is schematically divided into screening, which is based on measurement of plasma aldosterone and renin and levels and calculation of the aldosterone-to-renin ratio (ARR), and subtyping that requires adrenal vein sampling (AVS). In the screening, given the important information conveyed by the quantitative value of the ARR, this test should not be regarded as positive or negative. Instead its actual value should be used to stratify the patients for probability of PA. The ARR value must be assessed in the context of 24-hr Na+ urinary excretion and serum K+. See text for explanation. Given the unreliable results of the so called “confirmatory tests”, the authors do not recommend their use. A clear-cut advantage of this algorithm is its simplicity with ensuing cutting costs and, moreover, its being feasible in most centres. AVS is key for subtyping of primary aldosteronism (PA), which is indicated only in patients wishing to accomplish long-term cure. Adrenal imaging by CT should be performed preliminarily to AVS for two main reasons: to exclude malignant neoplasms (adrenocortical carcinoma, ACC) and to assess the anatomy of adrenal veins which can guide interventionists in performing AVS.
The most common forms of PA are unilateral causes of PA, mostly APA and rarely unilateral multinodular hyperplasia, and bilateral forms (BAH or IHA). As unilateral PA is best treated with unilateral laparoscopic adrenalectomy, while bilateral forms require lifelong mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists, the distinction between APA and IHA is crucial for choosing the appropriate treatment [11, 52].
There are at last 10 key reasons why AVS should be used to reliably discriminate between unilateral and bilateral PA, as reviewed in depth elsewhere [53]. AVS, albeit minimally invasive and safe [54], is technically difficult and expensive and potentially affected by several factors [55, 56]. For these reasons it should be performed only in properly selected patients and in centres with a skilled multidisciplinary team that has extensive expertise [11]. As a preliminary test for adrenalectomy, it should be reserved for patients seeking long-term cure of PA with surgery, who are reasonable candidates for general anesthesia and adrenalectomy. Importantly, AVS should be performed after correction of hypokalaemia, if present, and adjustment of antihypertensive medications to allow correct interpretation of the AVS results [11]. Patients with genetically confirmed familial forms of PA [57] usually have bilateral forms of PA and therefore should not be submitted to this test unless they have a CT detectable node.
The Endocrine Society guidelines [11] state that a lateralized aldosterone secretion should be demonstrated before undertaking surgery in patients who are candidates for general anesthesia and wish to achieve long-term cure. Laparoscopic adrenalectomy is currently the best treatment that it can be performed during a short hospital stay at a very low operative risk [58].
Overall, surgery cured PA in 33–72% of patients and resulted in marked improvements in 40–50% of patients [54]. This wide variation of results is explained by the fact that at some centres adrenalectomy is performed on the basis of imaging alone that can be misleading in a substantial proportion of patients [54]. When performed after demonstration of lateralized aldosterone, excess adrenalectomy cured or determined a marked improvement of hypertension in ~82% of the patients, while practically all were biochemically cured from the hyperaldosteronism [54]. Even when antihypertensive treatment cannot be withdrawn after adrenalectomy, the number and/or the doses of antihypertensive drugs could be markedly decreased, and/or resistant hypertension was resolved at long term [54]. Adrenalectomy can also lead to a considerable improvement in several indexes of quality of life.
The outcome for blood pressure was found to be predicted by the duration of hypertension and vascular remodeling, both of which are associated with delayed diagnosis (28). Overall available evidence supports the concept that the sooner the diagnosis is made and adrenalectomy performed, the better the outcome [54]. Failure to achieve cure of PA can be the result of concurrent essential hypertension or an inaccurate diagnosis (AVS not performed or results incorrectly interpreted). In fact, both the PASO study [4] and the larger AVIS-2 study (manuscript submitted) showed a huge variability in AVS success even at major referral centres. Due to the high prevalence of both PA and primary (essential) hypertension, up to one third of patients with PA would be expected to have concurrent primary hypertension. Adrenalectomy can cure only PA, but not hypertension, in these patients.
For patients who are not candidates for surgery or do not show lateralized aldosterone excess, a treatment based on mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists, such as spironolactone, canrenone, potassium canrenoate and eplerenone (which is more selective but also more expensive, weaker and shorter acting than the other antagonists and is not generally available), is a reasonable alternative to adrenalectomy. Spironolactone was found to regress LVH even at doses (37 mg daily) that did not completely normalize BP in both PA and low-renin hypertension, supporting a role of aldosterone in LVH development [59]. The occurrence of gynaecomastia and impotence, the more annoying side effects of the mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists, is dose-dependent, which suggests the use of reduced doses in combination, if necessary, with other agents, such as long-acting calcium channel blockers, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers. Amiloride and triamterene have been also proposed in addition to the first-line treatment with mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists if BP control is not optimal [60], but these drugs are not available as single agent in some counties, and, moreover, the combined therapy needs monitoring of serum potassium and creatinine
Mutations in the selectivity filter of potassium channels of the KCNJ5 type and other genes involved in the regulation of cytosolic calcium in adrenocortical cells [57, 63] play an important role in upregulating aldosterone secretion. Few germline mutations associated with bilateral adrenal hyperplasia and severe PA have been identified, thus allowing identification of further forms of familial hyperaldosteronism (6). These discoveries have triggered enormous investigative efforts, whose results, which are difficult to anticipate at this time, might lead to change our understanding and our diagnostic and therapeutic approach to PA. For the time being, following a few simple rules and a streamlined approach (Figure 2), physicians can successfully and cost-effectively identify and treat many patients with the so-called ‘essential’ hypertension whose high blood pressure is instead caused by hyperaldosteronism. In these patients the clue to PA is a low plasma renin, which responds little nothing to stimulatory maneuvers. Identification of PA is particularly beneficial when hypertension is severe and/or resistant to treatment, because specific treatment can bring blood pressure under control despite withdrawal or a prominent reduction in the number and dosage of antihypertensive medications.
This publication is based upon the work from the EU COST Action ADMIRE BM1301 in Aldosterone and Mineralocorticoid Receptor Physiology and Pathophysiology www.admirecosteu.com. The authors’ work herein reviewed was supported by research grants from FORICA (the Foundation for advanced Research in Hypertension and Cardiovascular diseases), the Società Italiana dell’Ipertensione Arteriosa and grants from the Ministry of University and Scientific Research (MIUR) and The University of Padova.
Both authors have read and approved the manuscript. There is no conflict of interest and financial disclosure.
A goat-centered approach to farming can help shift rural agrarian households and communities toward gender-inclusive climate change adaptation in agriculture to enhance food security and nutrition in sub-Saharan Africa. Goat rearing is a potential sustainable and holistic approach to addressing the triple challenges of gender inequality, climate change, and food insecurity in rural communities of this region. These challenges are deeply intertwined and are among the most defining socioeconomic and environmental concerns in rural communities’ livelihoods. Since these challenges are interdependent, it is imperative to develop a sustainable holistic approach that integrates economic, social, and environmental variables to address them.
This chapter discusses the potential of goat farming as a sustainable and holistic approach to addressing the aforementioned challenges. Agriculture (crop and livestock) is a key livelihood activity, but it is vulnerable to climate change [1]. In recent decades, global awareness of the need to adapt agricultural systems and rural resource-poor livelihoods to the stressors emanating from climate change and variability has intensified [2]. In addition, gender, as a socioeconomic–cultural factor, has been applied to assess the roles, responsibilities, constraints, opportunities, and incentives of people involved in agriculture [3, 4]. Similarly, the awareness of integrating gender aspects into climate change action in the agricultural sector to enhance food security has been recognized. The disregard of gender-specific differences in adaptive and mitigative capacity allows climate change to worsen the existing gender inequalities in agriculture and beyond [5].
The question in this context is “How do goats fit into this matrix?” The frame of reference is that goat rearing is an integral component of a climate-smart livestock production strategy, acting also an entry point for gender equality [6]. The multifactorial role of goat “power” in sub-Saharan Africa first acts as an entry point for gender equality [7] and second as an agroecological zone-specific, climate-resilient, thermotolerant animal species that can sustain productivity [8] and enhance food and nutrition security. The inherent small size of goats is beneficial for socioeconomic, managerial, biological, survival, productivity, and food security reasons [9].
Goats in rural areas have been deeply embedded in the socioeconomic and environmental fabric as a major livestock species that is rapidly increasing in number and is unlikely to change significantly in the foreseeable future [9, 10]. The unquestionable potential of smallholder livestock systems to sustain livelihood to billions of rural food producers and reduce vulnerabilities in rural resource-poor economies [11] renders goats an attractive option for pro-poor agricultural development agendas and enhancement of food and nutrition security. The diverse range of agroecological zones and management systems in sub-Saharan Africa where goats are reared despite the harsh environmental conditions is a testimony to their adaptability, and the assumption is that they will preserve their productivity and thus enhance the food and nutrition situation in rural areas. Most goats are kept in rural resource-poor agricultural systems, and their relative distribution is immense because of their comparative adaptive advantages over other animal species in most agroecological zones in sub-Saharan Africa. These systems, because of climate change, are never static but are constantly evolving with changing internal and external factors. Despite this, goats have continued to play a significant role in the food chain and overall livelihoods of rural households, which are largely the property of women and their children.
The inherent proficiency to rear, reproduce, and produce goats in adverse climate conditions is ascribable to their adaptive traits, as they proffer multiple products and services and benefit rural economies greatly [12]. This chapter presents an overview of the potential of goat rearing as a sustainable and holistic approach to addressing the triple challenges of gender inequality, climate change, and food insecurity in rural communities of Sub-Saharan Africa.
For this study, we conducted research using scientific papers, books, and statistical data from the United Nations to examine the interconnectedness of goat production, gender, climate change, and food security in rural economies in sub-Saharan Africa. The concept is based on the realization that the multifactorial role of goat “power” in this region acts as an entry point for gender equality and that goats are an agroecological zone-specific, climate-resilient, thermotolerant animal species capable of sustaining productivity and enhancing food and nutrition security in resource-poor rural areas.
In 2019, the estimated population of sub-Saharan Africa was 1.1 billion [13]. This number is expected to increase to 2–2.5 billion by 2050, which will drive the population density to 80 people per square km. It should be noted that the larger proportion of the population in the region dwells in rural areas and is mainly dependent on agriculture. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that there will be more people to feed and thus there will be more pressure on natural resources. As such, there is a need to strategize a plan for enhancing food and nutrition security. According to [14], the projection in the Sub-Saharan African population increment is that it will double by 2050. The increase in the sub-Saharan population and the need to provide food for a growing population, compounded by novel consumption patterns, will put a burden on livestock production systems and products [15, 16, 17]. This scenario is more compelling due to the advent of climate change, which obviously reduces agricultural production in general, especially in rural areas. As shown in Figure 1, it has been projected that sub-Saharan Africa will outpace other regions in population growth. Figure 2 illustrates that the doubling of the human population as projected will likely pose a greater challenge to the rural population, as it makes up the greater proportion of the population in sub-Saharan Africa [14]. Similarly, Figure 3 shows that population growth in rural areas outpaces that of urban dwellers in developing countries because of pressure on natural resources.
Evolution of the world human population between 1950 and 2100 [
Human population in sub-Saharan Africa (2000–2030) [
Urban and rural populations in developing countries, 1960–2030 [
Livestock systems, as agricultural subsectors, are the major users of natural resources, which has a bearing on the relationship between agricultural production and resource use efficiency. Therefore, strengthening the role of livestock in rural areas is deemed a noble cause of sustaining the sub-Saharan rural food economies. In this respect, the socioeconomic and environmental merits of livestock systems and how they contribute significantly to the livelihoods of at least 1.3 billion people in rural areas have been the focus of substantial public debate [10, 21]. Figure 4 illustrates the increasing disparity between population growth and food production in sub-Saharan Africa.
Trends in human population growth and food production in sub-Saharan Africa [
Unless constraints on greater agricultural productivity are addressed, one-third of the population in this region will not have sufficient food by 2050. This indicates that regional poverty (Figure 5) and undernutrition (Figure 6) are rife in sub-Saharan Africa.
Regional poverty [
Nutrition status in sub-Saharan Africa [
Figure 7 shows that the goat population worldwide increased steadily between 1994 and 2014. Figure 8 illustrates the wider proliferation of goats in all the key agroecological zones of sub-Saharan Africa. In terms of world production, the share of goats produced by continental Africa is the second largest after Asia. This is an indication of the value of promoting goat production on the continent. Africa’s goat population increased by 75% between 1980 and 2005 and constitutes 30% of the world goat population immensely contributed to the livelihoods of millions of rural economies [27]. [28] approximated that the tropics and subtropics are home to 94% of the world’s goat population. The reported livestock population of sub-Saharan Africa in 1999 comprised 182.1 million goats, [29] with approximately 64% located in rural arid (38%) and semiarid (26%) agroecological zones; more than 90% of goats in these zones are indigenous.
Goat world population trends, 1994–2014 [
African livestock and their agroecological zone in sub-Saharan Africa [
Despite these healthy statistics, sub-Saharan Africa has the second largest number of poor livestock farmers in the world. Poverty is rife on the continent (Figure 5), as are food insecurity and malnutrition (Figure 6). In sub-Saharan Africa, a greater proportion of the population remains undernourished, whereas Asia, the world’s most populous continent, has a hunger ranking, as it is home to more than 526 million people [18]. Climate variability and extreme weather events are among the key drivers of the recent increase in global hunger and some of the leading causes of other socioeconomic and environmental challenges.
Figure 8 shows the adaptive potential of goats, which is clarified by the diverse.
worldwide proliferation across all key agroecological zones of sub-Saharan Africa from the tropical highlands to the humid regions and environmental interface.
Figure 9 shows that Africa is home to 33.1% of the world’s goat population, and a greater proportion of livestock are reared by poor farmers (Figure 10). Goats in Africa account for approximately 36% of the total world population of grazing animals and are vital for the development of rain-fed, less-favored areas [7]. These systems, due to the effects of climate change, are never static but are constantly evolving with changing internal and external climatic factors.
Production of share of goats by continent [
Number of poor livestock farmers [
The poor resource farmers in sub-Saharan Africa are highly vulnerable to climatic and environmental hazards, as their choices for resource diversification are limited. In some cases, vulnerability due to climate change has worsened due to disparities in engendered climate change impacts and response knowledge in agriculture. This solicit for clear response strategies from the point of view of mitigation and adaptation to address the threats posed by climate change.
In this regard, the proposition of goat-centered mitigation and adaptation strategies that take into account gender relations but also curtailed the adverse effects of climate change variability and food security is called for.
Agriculture is the backbone of rural economies in sub-Saharan Africa and makes a significant contribution to households’ food and nutrition security. However, despite agriculture sustaining livelihoods in rural, resource-poor farming sectors, it is one of the most climate-sensitive activities. Hence, it is imperative that mechanisms are put in place that protect the agriculture sector from the adverse impacts of climate change. At the same time, agriculture must mitigate its contributions to climate change (13.5 percent of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions come from agricultural activity) [31]. As a result, mitigation strategies that are not only effective but also sustainable are needed. It is clear now that climate variability and change impact both crop and livestock productivity as well as people’s livelihoods [32]. The influence of adverse effects of climate variability and change on rural agrarian households are anticipated to worsen in the future. The provision of coping strategies at agrarian households in addition to formulating appropriate agricultural-related policies will minimize these adverse effects.
Climate change is debatably one of the key challenges affecting sub-Saharan African countries, primarily because of the region’s greater reliance on climate-sensitive sectors such as agriculture and inability to adapt to the changing climate [33]. Thus, there is a growing interest in devising strategies to cope with climate change effects on agricultural systems to avoid compromising agricultural productivity and enhance food security. In this context, we propose that goat production is a potential strategy to mitigate climate change effects in rural economies in sub-Saharan Africa. The practicability of this undertaking is based on the fact that the socioeconomic role of goat rearing has expanded during the last decades, especially in developing countries that are routinely exposed to adverse environmental conditions [34]. In addition, goats are an integral part of resource-poor animal production systems because of their short gestation period, high prolificacy, rapid growth rate, high feed conversion efficiency, high disease resistance capacity, and easy marketability.
The impact of climate change on goat production can be assessed by considering the direct or indirect effects of climate change on agriculture and food security. The direct consequences of climate change on agricultural systems and food security incorporate goats’ structural, functional, and feeding behavior and their interaction with environmental conditions, as well as issues such as the optimal use of feeding resources, which is one of the major components that has been greatly affected by climate change. The elevation in ambient temperatures across continents due to climate change increases the vulnerability of rural agrarian households and communities due to perennial drought and food and nutrition insecurity. Figure 11 shows the world average temperature variation from 1850 to 1900, and Figure 12 illustrates the mean temperature increment for the past 100 years in Africa. The trends provide evidence of the reality of climate change, which in turn has a bearing on agricultural production.
Global mean temperatures 1850–1900 [
Mean temperature anomalies in Africa (source UNEP, 2002).
Similarly, climate change’s distortion of rainfall patterns consistently poses a threat to food and nutrition. It is common knowledge that rising temperatures and changes in rainfall patterns have a direct effect on agricultural productivity and food and nutrition security. However, the influence of these factors differs among various animal species, not to mention annual and perennial crops and agroecological regions of the world. Goat rearing as a sustainable and holistic approach to mitigating climate change and gender inequality is based on the notion that goats are relatively adaptable to the harshest agroecological regions and have the advantage of numbers. The largest share of goats is reared in rural agrarian systems, and their numerical distribution is vast because of their comparative advantages over other animal species in most agroecological zones in sub-Saharan Africa.
Climate change and variability are detrimental to general livestock production because they negatively affect the quality of feed crops and forage, water availability, animal and milk production, animal reproduction, and biodiversity, as well as lead to livestock diseases and parasites [36]. Despite all this, goats have emerged as an animal species of choice because of their ability to adapt to extreme and harsh climatic, geographical, and environmental conditions [37, 38]. Horst noted that goats have exceptional capacity to recover from drought because of their efficient reproductive behavior and variable body size [39].
One of the adverse effects of climate change on livestock rearing is grazing quality and quantity [40]. Under most rangelands where goats survive, forage has diminished over the years due to adverse climatic effects; therefore, the feeding behavior of animals has become critical. In this case, ruminants’ energy requirements and digestive efficiency are vital criteria for selecting the most appropriate animal to rear in particular circumstances [41]. Aziz [42] observed that goats survive in differing ecological conditions, subsisting on different nutritional regimes under which they evolved and consequently sustaining their productivity. Principally, goat feeding behavior is intermediate and fixed, which favors both grazing and browsing, utilizing grasses in addition to shrubs [43]. In this venture, goats are extremely useful and effective in combating undesirable bush encroachment [44], which may be a dominant feature in most rural and poor communities.
Indigenous small stocks, such as goats, are much better adapted to local conditions than exotic stocks and require far fewer inputs for survival [45]. Of significance, goats have a greater capacity than other farm-reared ruminants to efficaciously convert poor feed resources into animal products such as milk and meat. The inherent complexity of goat structural, functional, and feeding behavior advantages has helped goat production under climate change-induced extreme environmental conditions. Principally, the structural, functional, and feeding behaviors of goats play a critical role in enhancing production, reproduction, and survival in adverse conditions.
Multiple environmental stressors are a frequent occurrence in most rural agriculture systems in sub-Saharan Africa and will presumably increase due to climate change variability, which may depress agricultural productivity and food security [9]. In the ranks of climatic change stressors, heat stress emerges as the primary component that adversely influences livestock production. In this regard, goat rearing becomes vital to sustain livestock production and enhance food security. This does not coincide with the proliferation of approximately 41.5% of the goat population existing in harsh semiarid/arid areas in tandem with the continued syndrome of poverty adaptation-fragile livelihoods [7], which explains the ability of goats to sustain their production under climate change-induced extreme environmental conditions.
The concentration of goat populations in the harsh tropical and subtropical agroecological regions of the world demonstrates that they are more heat tolerant than other ruminant animal species [46]. In most cases, black goats are prone to minimizing energy disbursement in winter; nevertheless, they experience a greater solar heat load in hot conditions. Therefore, there is a need for breeding lighter coats in goats, as ambient conditions might progressively become hotter and drier because of climate change variability.
Goats, through alterations in behavioral, morphological, or physiological responses to changing environments, have managed to survive in various agroecological zones. As such, goat adaptation mechanisms in response to climate change are important because they open the possibility of finding a solution to animal adaptability to climate change and addressing agricultural productivity and food insecurity.
It is important to note that the survival of animal species is dependent on the species’ ability to cope with or adapt to prevailing harsh climate conditions. To preserve animal productivity levels in an environment impaired by climate change, it is necessary for animal species to be genetically adapted with the ability to survive in diversified, harsh environmental conditions. Goats are among the animal species that can adapt to environmental heat stress by virtue of a composite of physiological, morphological, behavioral, and genetic characteristics. Their inherent physiological mechanisms allow goats to evolve in extreme temperatures with limited water resources [47]. Goats can repress the effect of high thermal stress by stirring behavioral responses, namely, feeding, water intake, shade seeking, and increased frequency of drinking.
Ambient temperature is a determinant of the feeding behavior of goats; hence, nocturnal feeding has been observed in goats, enabling them to avoid high temperatures during the day. In a related study [48], goats that were both heat stressed and water deprived actually preserved their milk production for 48 hours, notwithstanding a 20% decrease in body weight. This observation concurred with [49], who reported that despite elevated temperatures, goats never displayed physiological stress, and the mean values of magnitude reported were at the level of the limits of tolerance to heat stress. This is the likely reason goats maintained milk production.
Desert goats reared in accordance with traditional resource-poor systems were watered only once every 3–6 days, when water was scarce [50], and did not show much physiological stress. Studies of water deprivation in goats and other animal species in harsh environments are numerous and indicate that goats in West Africa, [51] East Africa, [52] and Southern Africa are more tolerant to water deprivation [53]. Feed intake was less influenced by water deprivation in adapted pygmy goats than in non-adapted breeds [54]. A report from [55] explained that goat tolerance to water deprivation was ascribable to their ability to limit urine and fecal water excretion at high ambient temperatures. It is important to note that drinking behavior in animals is influenced by water restriction; in this case, there is a tendency of water deprivation in goats, predisposing animals to drink large volumes of water in one bout upon watering. This behavior is more distinct in goats than in sheep [56]. Such physiological behavior in goats will be critical in the advent of variability in temperatures due to climate change where temperature is expected to rise. This implies that to mitigate the effects of an increase in ambient temperatures due to climate change, promoting animal species with an efficient physiological response to heat stress is recommended. In this case, goats are inclined to tolerate heat stress better than sheep [57]. The tendency of most goats to have loose skin and floppy ears makes them more heat tolerant than other animals [58].
The morphological mechanisms that goats possess to minimize the effects of heat stress relate to their body shape and size, light hair color, lightly pigmented skin, and small amount of subcutaneous fat. Physiological means include increased respiration rate, increased sweating rate, reduced metabolic rate, and change in endocrine function [59]. This emphasizes the choice and use of adaptive animal species such as goats that preserve their production and are able to produce and reproduce in climatic-stressed environments. Hence, understanding how to confront climate change while protecting vulnerable rural communities through sustained agricultural production using adaptive species is essential to meet food requirements at the household level. This can only be attained through promoting adapted animals, and this is where the goat emerges as an ideal candidate.
An efficient reproductive system coupled with a small body size can easily adjust the flock size to correspond to scarce feed resources and water. It is important to note that it is easy to facilitate the integration or promotion of goats’ rural communities because they are already embedded in the socioeconomic rural fabric. They can also be reared in limited space in addition to being popular with disadvantaged groups such as women.
Global climate change is primarily caused by GHG emissions that result in warming of the atmosphere [60]. The livestock sector contributes 14.5% of global GHG emissions; however, in ranking, goat production is known to emit relatively less methane than other domestic ruminants. Within animal production, the largest emissions are from beef followed by dairy and largely dominated by the methane produced during cattle digestion. The next largest portion of livestock GHG emissions is from methane produced during enteric fermentation in ruminants, a natural part of ruminant digestion where microbes in the first of four stomachs, the rumen, break down feed and produce methane as a byproduct. Methane is released primarily through belching. The status of goats relative to global GHG emissions will relatively address the challenge of maintaining a balance between productivity, household food security, and environmental preservation [61] in rural economies in sub-Saharan Africa. Indirect effects consider limitations on goat production from socioeconomic and environmental perspectives, which are mainly intended for decreasing GHG emissions, hence goat rearing has merits for rural economies’ adaptation to climate change and addressing the pertinent issue of food insecurity.
Arguably, regarding mitigation, the improvement of animal nutrition and genetics is essential because enteric fermentation is a major GHG emitter in livestock production. Climate models predict that without substantial reductions in GHG emissions, global temperatures will continue to increase, causing major changes in our weather patterns, environment, and way of life. Therefore, in this case, selection of adaptable animal species such as goats that maximize feed efficiency, increase fertility, and improve overall flock health within the confines of adverse effects of climate change is recommended [59].
Worldwide, considerable efforts have been made by international organizations and governments to battle climate change and ensure food for needy populations [61]. The present discussion offers an overview of the impact of climate change on the livelihoods of rural farm households and the adaptation strategies used to cope with the effects of climate change on agricultural production and food security. To thoroughly explain the interlinkage between climate change and agriculture is a hypothetical matrix (Figure 11) where notable consideration has been paid to gender dynamics and climate change; the focus is to try and explain how gender issues and adaptation strategies are interrelated in rural households that are exposed to climate-related adversities that impinge on agricultural production and food security and nutrition. The discussion exposes a visible linkage between gender relations and climate change adaptation in rural agrarian communities.
Women are more vulnerable to the harmful effects of climate change than men, which has compromised agriculture and food and nutrition security. This is because women are the major players in rural agrarian agriculture. This trend is worsened by social norms and customary laws that promote gender inequality in rural agrarian households. The discussion proposes that goat rearing is an entry point for gender equality while protecting women from the effects of climate change on agricultural production and food and nutrition security. The discussion uses a hypothetical conceptual matrix, focusing on the interplay between gender relations and climate change adaptation as a subsector of the matrix. The overview concludes that adaptive capacity can be enhanced through the advancement of gender equality and women’s empowerment through climate change knowledge and the promotion of goat rearing.
Poor resource livestock production systems, due to their reliance on specific climatic conditions, will in turn translate to the overall climate change effects impinging on productivity and food security. In this case, goats’ adaptive features will provide an effective solution to livestock production systems as a way to mitigate climate change. As climate change emerges as pivotal in shaping future livestock rearing systems and their performance, it will have more influence on what livestock species to raise. In this case, the choice of agroecological zone-specific, climate-resilient, thermotolerant species to sustain livestock production and enhance food security is imperative in sub-Saharan Africa. This is based on the premise that the choice or selection of adapted livestock species such as goats will be part of a strategy to offset the adverse effects of climate change on livestock production while preserving animal productivity, which in the short or long term sustains food security. The development and promotion of goat rearing is a viable option in the context of climate change mitigation where other animal species seem to be relatively vulnerable.
There is the possibility that as adverse climate effects continue impinging on rural livestock production, goat rearing will assume a critical role due to goats’ numerical strength and adaptive features such as feeding behavior and disease and heat tolerance, which gives them a comparative advantage for survival in harsh environmental conditions. In this regard, goats, due to their plethora of adaptive traits, emerge as a key facet in offsetting the destabilizing factors related to the uncertainties of climate change effects. Their ability to survive, reproduce, and produce in harsh environmental conditions is sufficient evidence for goats’ capacity for sustainable utilization in resource-poor farming communities. As indicated by their numerical proliferation in sub-Saharan African’s differentiated agroecological zones, goats have irrefutably proven that there are resilient livestock genetic resources that can be utilized to offset the effects of climate change and promote livestock production for increased food resources. Due to water scarcity, goats have the capacity to walk considerable distances in search of water and forage and make use of poor forage for their production and survival.
In view of this, rural, resource-poor production systems could be sustainable only in the long run if adaptive animal genetic resource species such as goats are promoted to offset adverse environmental effects and preserve performance levels. Goats’ adaptation characteristics are embedded in their genetics, which implies that they are inheritable and favor the survival of goat populations in harsh environmental conditions. It is important to note that the climate resilient potential of goats is influenced by both phenotypic and genotypic characteristics, and there are several candidate genes that are highly associated with the adaptation of small ruminants to heat stress. Therefore, species and/or breed selection focusing on resilience is a worthwhile tool for sustaining animal production in an increasingly challenging environment [62]. Of interest is that some animal species tolerate heat better than others, which may be critical in the choice of species to raise in the harsh climatic conditions of rural economies. Goats are less susceptible to environmental stress than other domesticated ruminant species [57].
Food and nutrition insecurity is a socioeconomic, environmental, and political subject; nevertheless, first and foremost, it is a gender issue that has resulted as a major cause and an outcome of compromised food production, food insecurity, and nutrition. Closing inequality gaps between females and males in food production systems will enhance women’s ability to make themselves heard and direct the course of their own lives [63]. There is overwhelming evidence that indicates a strong correlation between gender inequality, agriculture, and food and nutrition insecurity [11]. Social and economic inequalities between men and women undermine food security and hold back economic growth and advances in agriculture [28]. It has been acknowledged that livestock production is one of the core sectors to address perpetual food scarcity and to bring future food stability to sub-Saharan Africa [64]. Microlivestock such as goats have emerged as integral livestock subsectors, apart from their adaptability to harsh environmental conditions induced by climate change, and have enormous potential for enhancing animal production, consequently enhancing food security in rural communities [65].
Goat rearing emerges as an appropriate conduit for enhancing food security and rural livelihoods, in addition to acting as an entry point for gender equality and the empowerment of rural women [63]. Turner [66] supported that women play major roles in rearing sheep and goats; hence, any developmental projects in this area will empower women in food production and nutrition. It has been noted that failure to identify agricultural subsectors where women are effectively engaged, such as goat production, has been the major reason for the unsuccessful nature of most of the development initiatives on food production and security in rural economies [67]. In the same study, it was observed that livestock development projects fail partially because the roles of women are neglected in the planning process.
The goat is the animal of choice for purposes that are within the domain of women’s participation and responsibilities; hence, any goat-centered approach in rural development will consequently improve the lives of women in addition to enhancing food production overall. In most cases, due to increasing populations, the capacity for large ruminant animals, for example, cattle and buffaloes, has decreased; in this regard, shifting focus to micro livestock, such as goats, which are prolific and easy to manage, is recommended. Goat rearing in rural communities is one of the major components of livestock production systems in which women can be empowered and improve household agriculture, food, and nutrition. Goats have continued to play a significant role in the food chain and overall livelihoods of rural households, where they are largely the property of women and their children [45].
Goat rearing acts as an avenue to improve women’s capacity to develop as productive members of society while elevating their economic empowerment. In this case, goat rearing acts as a gender-transformative intervention that is decisive in building resilience and coping mechanisms among women and helps reduce vulnerability and improve food security and nutrition [67]. Quinsumbing et al. [68] observed that a reduction in the gap between men and women with respect to ownership of resources, decision making, and control is necessary for attaining food security. Women’s lack of participation in agricultural activities and general engagement with other community activities is symptomatic of entrenched norms and broader gender inequities. The shift in policy that acknowledges women’s critical role in food production and nutrition security has resulted in increasing women’s productive and economic capacity. However, there is a need to further examine the root cause of the entrenched gender inequalities that prevent women from fully participating, in agriculture and food production.
Gender inequalities in rural communities are prevalent and will persist because of a range of intertwined social, economic, and political factors that need to be addressed holistically. There is a proliferation of engendered development studies claiming the merits of focusing agricultural investments at women, especially in sub-Saharan Africa [69]. The argument is that increasing women’s empowerment will translate into an overall increase in agricultural productivity, hence reducing poverty and food insecurity. This notion is based on the premise that addressing food security requires more than the initiation of opportunities for individuals to earn sustainable livelihoods; it also demands the creation of a conducive environment for men and women to acquire those opportunities.
Achieving gender equality and women’s empowerment is critical to the success of addressing food insecurity. It has been proven that gender inequality has translated into a loss of opportunities or potential gains in livestock production and food security. Goat production, as a subsector of agricultural production, helps poor households increase their food security, reduce their vulnerability, and start a process that will move them out of poverty [70]. Regarding gender-cognizant perceptions of food security, it has been debated that gender-blind diagnoses of the challenges of food insecurity result in inadequate policy responses, which culminate in the perpetuation of food insecurity. Effective and promising strategies to address food insecurity need to be gender-just and environmentally sustainable in the long term.
Studies have proven that gender inequalities do not merely compromise not merely the capacity to produce and acquire food for good measurement of the nutritional security of that food, which is so central to household welfare [71]. Gender mainstreaming in agriculture has been proposed as an indispensable strategy for attaining gender equality and food security. However, this takes into account that agricultural growth is a key pathway toward addressing development issues such as food and nutrition insecurity and poverty, all of which climate change is already exacerbating [72]. There is conclusive evidence that when women are granted broader opportunities to participate in agricultural activity, the benefits expand far beyond themselves as individuals to their families and communities to societies and economies at large [28].
The development and promotion of goat production directs an ambitious path toward enhancing opportunities for women because it is critical to individual household welfare and socioeconomic development. Goat rearing as a strategy in addressing gender inequality builds on solid evidence that long-standing gaps between men and women impose real and significant disparities that need to be addressed. Since goat rearing is an important agricultural activity in rural economies of sub-Saharan Africa, its development and promotion is a promising intervention that can achieve tangible community results that can reorganize rural economies and positively address gender inequality.
There is overwhelming evidence that the provision of opportunities to women to partake in agricultural-related activities has positive effects on their families and communities in the form of improved household health, nutrition, and disposable income [63]. Advancing women’s participation and control over micro livestock, which includes goats, supported by training in husbandry and animal health, in addition to increasing access to education, veterinary, and financial services, is essential to improving households’ food security and nutrition.
Figure 13 models the interconnectedness of goat production and gender, climate.
Goat, gender, climate change, and food and nutrition security matrix. Source: Author.
change, and food security in rural economies in sub-Saharan Africa. Responses to climate change tend to focus on scientific and economic solutions, disregarding the critical importance of human and gender dimensions. Gender relations are still largely absent from debates on climate change and animal production-related issues. Generally, all inequalities often contribute to environmental change, and transforming them is therefore an indispensable part of a more effective and sustainable strategy to build resilience. This implies that addressing gender differentiation in livestock production and disparities in climate change and response knowledge will facilitate sustainable community resilience.
This sustainable and broad-based approach to gender, climate, and food and nutrition security takes into account the complexity of social, economic, and ecological aspects of rural agrarian communities through adequately acknowledging the interrelationship of these factors. This understanding has a provision of the development of gender-sensitive goat production policies that fit with complex livestock livelihood strategies, especially for resource-poor livestock keepers’ households. The matrix applies a gender perspective for understanding how goat production can be a pathway to food security possible through scrutiny of other elements such climate change and its impact on food security. Matrices are being modeled to explore different aspects of goat production, such as goat adaptability to adverse climatic conditions and less exposure to goat parasites, which makes goats an appropriate candidate for climate change mitigation strategies.
The two assumed goat production pathways out of food insecurity, climate change, and food security are (1) understanding disparities in livestock resource allocation and equal participation of men and women in goat productivity to address gender inequality and enhance food security, and (2) manipulating impact and response knowledge to reduce community vulnerability to climate change effects, thus increasing and sustaining goat productivity to address food insecurity and gender inequality. A general phenomenon is for men to own large livestock and particularly work animals, while women own micro livestock.
Strategies meant to enhance women’s access to and control over agricultural resources or other assets have resulted in the enhancement of food security as well as the wellbeing of women themselves [65, 68, 73]. Men and women often manage different types of animals and are responsible for different aspects of animal care. Given women’s traditional responsibility for household food security, their level of control over decisions about whether to sell or consume the family’s animal products, as well as how to use any income obtained from the sale of animal foods, could greatly determine the nutritional wellbeing of household members.
For each pathway, the findings are organized around key questions about the role of women and lessons about interventions targeting women. Assembling this information is a first step toward identifying some of the main gaps in our evidence base as well as some of the kinds of research and development interventions made in which species and value chains are most likely to benefit poor women and their families. Women play an important role in livestock management, processing, and marketing, acting as care providers, feed gatherers, and birth attendants. Despite their considerable involvement and contribution, women’s role in livestock production has often been underestimated, if not ignored.
There are potential effects of a goat-centered approach in shifting rural farm households toward gender-inclusive climate change adaptation to enhance food security and nutrition in sub-Saharan Africa. Regarding the matrix (Figure 11), the dependent factors of gender, climate change, and food security are deeply intertwined; hence, placing goat production as a redress factor, the matrix becomes an engendered livestock-based food security model that takes into account the adverse effects of climate change. The matrix is a departure from numerous previous hypothesized discussions that have focused on addressing gender inequality, food insecurity, and climate change adversity variables as isolated entities. This has posed challenges because these aspects of the socioeconomic and environmental nature of communities are interdependent, hence the need to establish a holistic approach in addressing these adversities. The matrix (Figure 11) is based on the understanding that goat rearing in rural economies will simultaneously curtail the risks of food insecurity and gender inequality and capitalize on the opportunities to offset adversities posed by climate change.
Gender differences in livestock production and disparities in climate change impact knowledge, and responses are the underlying root causes of vulnerability and food insecurity in rural communities in sub-Saharan Africa. Agriculture is a key livelihood activity, but it is vulnerable to climate change [1]. There is overwhelming documentation that climate change has a serious adverse impact on agricultural production and the livelihoods of millions of farmers, which has changed the lifestyle of rural people worldwide [74]. In recent decades, global awareness of the need to adapt agricultural systems and rural resource-poor livelihoods to the stressors emanating from climate change and variability has intensified. In tandem with this awareness, the importance of integrating gender aspects in climate change action in the agricultural sector has been recognized. Therefore, climate change discussion should afford adequate attention to gender-differentiated roles and vulnerability, in view of the fact that the impact of climate change has different implications for men and women. Lambrou and Piana [75] reported that women and men experience climate change impacts differently due to their socially constructed roles and responsibilities. Hence, it is imperative to design interventions that consider gender roles and guarantee protecting both men and women from the negative effects of climate change. This is based on the understanding that both men and women have a critical function to play in agriculture; hence, acknowledging gender distinctions facilitates appropriate, targeted interventions that offset vulnerability to climate change and contribute to gender equality and food security [74].
Assessment of adaptation, vulnerability, and resilience of communities against climate change and variability in rural communities can be applied using gender as a socioeconomic variable [76]. In most cases, there is a missing link to the scientific assessment of climate change impact through a gender integration approach to effectively mitigate and adapt to its impact. Consideration of the gender dimension in climate change is anticipated to culminate in effective interventions assisting both men and women in dealing with the impacts of climate change and bringing about resilient and comprehensive food security systems. Men and women can be effective agents of change with regard to environmental mitigation and adaptation only if they have equal access to information on climate change response. This implies that empowering men and women with climate change response knowledge can effectively advance sustainable agricultural production in rural communities as a result of offsetting the impact of climate change and enhancing food security. The provision of men and women with extensive theoretical and practical knowledge of climate change effects on agriculture should be given high regard. Broadening their role as agents of change in climate mitigation should be an integral part of the intervention strategy, and this aspect needs to be sufficiently exploited. However, the impact and response knowledge should be accurate and available to the general populace to accommodate anticipated changes.
Climate change is recognized as a global crisis, but responses tend to focus on scientific and economic solutions rather than addressing the vitally significant human and gender dimensions. Because of gendered social roles, women are in the front line of climate change impacts, such as droughts, floods, and other extreme weather events, yet they are the least responsible for environmental destruction. How then do we move toward more people-centered, gender-aware climate change policies and processes? How do we both respond to the different needs and concerns of women and men and challenge the gender inequalities that mean women are more likely to lose out than men in the face of climate change? The matrix helps to intervene through engendered climate change and food security perspectives to address the wider issues of voice, representation, and participation in general livestock production and decision making in rural communities.
The three pillars of this matrix are based on the acknowledgment of social, environment, and economic dimensions that influence rural communities, which are critical in discussions of gender inequality, food insecurity, and climate change vulnerability. The triple challenges seem to pose high social, environmental, and economic costs and lead to immense food insecurity in rural economies. The adoption of a goat-centered approach assumes that goat production is a predominant agricultural activity for livelihoods of rural communities in sub-Saharan Africa. The matrix provides avenues for pairwise analysis between subsectors such as gender and climate, gender and food security, and climate change and food security. Therefore, it is imperative that explicit attention be given to these relationships and how these dovetails affect goat production. An attempt to proffer a holistic approach that integrates scientific, technical, and economic aspects of goat farming with social and human dimensions is the major aim of this matrix.
Goats are deeply embedded in almost every sub-Saharan African rural economy and are a major agricultural subsector for most resource-poor farmers that can be exploited in addressing gender inequality, food insecurity, and climate change. However, it is important to note that the holistic perspective on these challenges is difficult to write about because of their direct and indirect connectedness. The matrix attempts to illustrate this phenomenon of the interconnection of gender, climate change, and food security.
The numerical status of goat species and composition in rural communities are critical to acknowledging trends in livestock ownership in rural economies and their impact on the vulnerability of resource-poor households to climate change and food insecurity. However, this matrix takes a holistic approach that is more difficult to achieve due to a variety of factors. Thus, it is imperative to improve our understanding of how the interaction of gender and climate change affects food security, particularly in resource-poor rural communities. It is also important to understand the pairwise relationships of different components of the framework. The understanding of gender differentiation in livestock production and disparities in climate change impact and response knowledge will lead to a more complete understanding of the influence of gender differentials in livestock production and disparities in climate change.
A goat-centered farming approach can help shift rural agrarian households and communities toward gender-inclusive climate change adaptation in agriculture to enhance food security and nutrition in sub-Saharan Africa. Gender inequality and climate change effects are compounding socioeconomic and environmental determinants that grossly compromise the stability of food production and food and nutrition security. Gender, climate change, agriculture, and food security are interrelated, and their dynamics are heterogeneous, complex, and rooted in social, economic, and institutional factors. The proposition in this chapter is that goat rearing can be a sustainable and holistic approach to addressing the triple challenges of gender inequality, climate change, and food and nutrition insecurity in rural communities of sub-Saharan Africa. This is grounded in the fact that goat rearing is an embedded integral component of a climate-smart livestock production strategy to increase rural agrarian resilience to climate change while improving food security and promoting gender equality. Apart from goats acting as an entry point for gender equality, they are a usable agro ecological, zone-specific, climate-resilient, thermotolerant animal species to sustain livestock production and enhance food and nutrition security. It is hypothesized that livestock production’s susceptibility to the vagaries of climate change can be mitigated by promoting adapted livestock species such as goats, which possess an ample degree of adaptation traits in terms of physiological, functional, and adaptive feeding behavior. This is based on the premise that climate change-induced variables continuously impinge on livestock productivity, which in most cases is the major cause of food and nutrition insecurity in rural agrarian households. Over the decades, goats have inherently acquired distinctive diverse physiological, morphological, and reproductive attributes that comparatively advance their survival and proliferation in unfavorable harsh heterogeneous agroecological niches of sub-Saharan Africa. In this regard, goats, due to their plethora of adaptive traits, emerge as a key facet in offsetting the destabilizing factors related to the uncertainties of climate change effects, in addition to goats being women’s animals. However, there is a need to develop mechanisms and promote the viability of goat production through various operational and institutional strategies. The challenge is that most sub-Saharan African countries do not provide adequate policy for, nor do they prioritize, goat productivity in rural communities. In conclusion, there is still significant prejudice and ignorance about the critical socioeconomic and environmental role of goats in farming. Despite the overwhelming evidence that goat rearing is hugely beneficial for resource-poor rural communities in sub-Saharan Africa.
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Their solution leads to the problem of eigenvalues. Because of that, problem of eigenvalues occupies an important place in linear algebra. In this caption we will consider the problem of eigenvalues, and to linear and quadratic problems of eigenvalues. During the studying of linear problem of eigenvalues, we put emphasis on QR algorithm for unsymmetrical case and on minmax characterization of symmetric case. During the studying of quadratic problems of eingenvalue, we consider the linearization and variational characterization. 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Cramer’s rules for special cases when two equations are one-sided, namely the system of the equations A1X=C1, XB2=C2, and the system of the equations A1X=C1, A2X=C2 are studied as well. Since the Moore-Penrose inverse is a necessary tool to solve matrix equations, we use its determinantal representations previously obtained by the author in terms of row-column determinants as well.",book:{id:"6526",slug:"matrix-theory-applications-and-theorems",title:"Matrix Theory",fullTitle:"Matrix Theory - Applications and Theorems"},signatures:"Ivan I. 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We also investigate relations of zeros between q-tangent polynomials and classical tangent polynomials.",book:{id:"8599",slug:"polynomials-theory-and-application",title:"Polynomials",fullTitle:"Polynomials - Theory and Application"},signatures:"Jung Yoog Kang and Cheon Seoung Ryoo",authors:null},{id:"59479",title:"Matrices Which are Discrete Versions of Linear Operations",slug:"matrices-which-are-discrete-versions-of-linear-operations",totalDownloads:968,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"We introduce and study a matrix which has the exponential function as one of its eigenvectors. We realize that this matrix represents a set of finite differences derivation of vectors on a partition. This matrix leads to new expressions for finite differences derivatives which are exact for the exponential function. We find some properties of this matrix, the induced derivatives and of its inverse. We provide an expression for the derivative of a product, of a ratio, of the inverse of vectors, and we also find the equivalent of the summation by parts theorem of continuous functions. This matrix could be of interest to discrete quantum mechanics theory.",book:{id:"6526",slug:"matrix-theory-applications-and-theorems",title:"Matrix Theory",fullTitle:"Matrix Theory - Applications and Theorems"},signatures:"Armando Martínez Pérez and Gabino Torres Vega",authors:[{id:"93519",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabino",middleName:null,surname:"Torres-Vega",slug:"gabino-torres-vega",fullName:"Gabino Torres-Vega"},{id:"219225",title:"MSc.",name:"Armando",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Pérez",slug:"armando-martinez-perez",fullName:"Armando Martínez-Pérez"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"161",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 11th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. 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He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. 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Nutrition",value:20,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",value:28,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Animal Science",value:19,count:5}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:1},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:229,paginationItems:[{id:"318170",title:"Dr.",name:"Aneesa",middleName:null,surname:"Moolla",slug:"aneesa-moolla",fullName:"Aneesa Moolla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/318170/images/system/318170.png",biography:"Dr. Aneesa Moolla has extensive experience in the diverse fields of health care having previously worked in dental private practice, at the Red Cross Flying Doctors association, and in healthcare corporate settings. She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. 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Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). 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Dr. Şentürk currently works as an professor of Biochemistry in the Department of Basic Pharmacy Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ağri Ibrahim Cecen University, Turkey. \nDr. Şentürk published over 120 scientific papers, reviews, and book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists. \nHis research interests span enzyme inhibitor or activator, protein expression, purification and characterization, drug design and synthesis, toxicology, and pharmacology. \nHis research work has focused on neurodegenerative diseases and cancer treatment. Dr. Şentürk serves as the editorial board member of several international journals.",institutionString:"Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}],selectedSeries:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry"},selectedSubseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry"}}},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/252185",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"252185"},fullPath:"/profiles/252185",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()