\r\n\tIn the maintenance and conservation of our planet's biodiversity, knowledge of current biogeographical patterns, speciation or invasion processes, flora, fauna, natural history, and ecology have outstanding importance. Many areas of biodiversity are still completely undiscovered nowadays. The ecological impacts of global climate change, urbanization, overpopulation, environmental pollution, deforestation, land cover and land-use changes also have a significant impact on biodiversity, flora, and fauna, through biogeographical patterns. \r\n\tThe management tools, methods and processes (as applied ecological aspects) of Protected Areas and National Parks are a very important part of conservation policy. I am sure that this book will be very useful for everybody who would like to get some insight into the recent problems of biodiversity research, ecology and conservation biology also from practical or theoretical viewpoints.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"6ff1661b4f38a8de841d53771c3d83cd",bookSignature:"Dr. Levente Hufnagel",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12045.jpg",keywords:"Terrestrial Ecosystems, Freshwater Ecosystems, Marine Ecosystems, Tropics, Biodiversity, Population Biology, Community Ecology, Ecosystem Ecology, Endangered Species, Endangered Habitats, Endangered Ecosystems, Global Problems",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 8th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 6th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 4th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 23rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 22nd 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"13 hours",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher in applied ecology, sustainability, conservation ecology, biogeography, and eco-theology, head of Research Institute of Multidisciplinary Ecotheology of John Wesley Theological College, editor-in-chief of the Applied Ecology and Environmental Research. He has more than 300 scientific publications and more than 1100 independent citations. Dr. Hufnagel has significant experience in multidisciplinary collaborations (with more than 200 coauthors in different publications).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"10864",title:"Dr.",name:"Levente",middleName:null,surname:"Hufnagel",slug:"levente-hufnagel",fullName:"Levente Hufnagel",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/10864/images/system/10864.JPG",biography:"Dr. Levente Hufnagel is an associate professor and the head of the Research Institute of Multidisciplinary Ecotheology, John Wesley Theological College, Budapest, Hungary, working on ecology, biogeography, ecological research methodology, and sustainability. He has more than 20 years of experience in leading Hungarian academic institutions teaching Ph.D., MSc, and BSc students from various social and cultural backgrounds. He has more than 300 scientific publications (in both aquatic and terrestrial ecological aspects of plants, animals, and microbes at both the community and population levels) and more than 1100 independent citations to his credit. As a participant in several big ecological research and development projects, Dr. Hufnagel has significant experience in multidisciplinary collaborations (with more than 200 coauthors in different publications). He has supervised several Ph.D., BSc, and MSc theses, and served as editor in chief of an international scientific journal. Dr. Hufnagel graduated from Eötvös Lorand University with a master’s degree in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology and a Ph.D. in Hydrobiology. 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1. Introduction
From the beginning of human civilization, communications had basic importance for human society in recent years’ human used electromagnetic spectrum beyond of visible area for telematics communication through radio waves radio antenna is a basic part of a radio system. A radio antenna is a tool that provides the possibility of radiation or receiving radio waves. As we know, one of the biggest human sources is electromagnetic spectrum and antennas played a basic role in using this natural source. Despite several antennas in techs many of limitations have been solved in sending and receiving in some areas. The first practical cellular network which used analog systems arose in 1982 as a first generation in 1991 the analog system had been improved to the digital one or internet-based generation named as second generation this technology also added cellular data in format of General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) and Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE). Approximately 10 years later, the third generation had been introduced to improve data rate further. After a decade, the current LTE networks had emerged which commonly named fourth generation. A new generation of network tech has been used the fifth generation of network or 5G like previous generation mutation will improve in cases like a speed velocity fifth generation. Some believe that new generation of mobile networks received new frequencies bands braid band received wide spectrum in each frequencies channel. Some believe that the new mobile generations usually provide new and wider frequency bands compared to the first, second, third and fourth generations, which provide up to 30 kHz, 200 kHz, 5 MHz and 20 MHz, respectively. The higher frequency band may interfere with K band which is specified for satellite communications. From user’s perspectives, the former mobile generation (4G) provides a significant peak rate bit up to 1Gbps. Therefore, for the 5G to be different, it should support more data rate speed, so that makes it possible to connect different devices, simultaneously along with higher spectrum efficiency (more data rate per unit), low battery usage, lower delay, and disconnection. Moreover, lower cost for establishment of infrastructures, flexibility, higher scalability, and reliability should be taken into consideration. The existing problem is that higher radio frequencies cannot perform well in long distances or cross the walls between them and mobile devices. Thus to solve the aforementioned problems, service providers must focus on the new communication antenna technologies. Antennas with high input and output capacities will be able to transmit parallel radio waves which accordingly define a signal beam and eventually the radio signal energy directs toward a specific path, which the user is situated. Since antennas are key elements of wireless communication systems, an expert design can meet the demands of systems and consequently improve system performance. Antenna role in the communication systems is similar to the eyes and glasses for a human. Antennas scope of activities is extensive and dynamic so that during the past six decades, antenna technology has had an undeniable evolution in the communication arena. Most of the important improvements in this field are currently used by public users. However, today we face more challenges since the system efficiencies have been noticed. Most of these improvements in antenna technology have been evolved since 1970.
2. Antenna in 5G application
The initial research in the field of fifth generation has been started since 2012. With the standardization procedure of this generation of the mobile telecommunication networks, beginning since 2015, it is anticipated that first experimental samples will be set up in 2018. Based on the most forecasts, commercialization of these networks will be postponed to the next 2 or 3 years. Many investigations have been done in this field in the past few years so that some researchers have worked on antennas to improve their impedance bandwidth. In some cases, unidirectional pattern concentration with high gain or pattern rotating has been tried. Recently due to the tremendous increase in the number of devices connected to the wireless communication systems and accordingly a significant increase in demands for new and high-quality applications, antennas with wider impedance bandwidth, high gain and rotatable radiation pattern especially in higher frequencies are required.
2.1. Antennas below 15 GHz or accordingly antennas with a wavelength less than 1/20
Radio frequency has a set of physical properties. One of those is the wavelength of the signal. At 2.4 GHz this is approximately 12.5 cm (4.92 inches) and 5–6 cm (2–2.3 inches) at 5 GHz as well as 2.5–3 cm (1–1.15 inches) at 10 GHz. The difference and approximation are due to the fact that the wavelength is the result of the direct correlation of the exact frequency (2.400–2.483.5 GHz in the 2.4 GHz range and 5.250–5.725 GHz in the 5 GHz range). To optimize sending and receiving the signal, the antenna is designed around those physical properties. The elements inside the antennas will vary in size to match the wavelength (or more commonly 1/4 or 1/8 or 1/16th the size of the wavelength). So first and the foremost difference in between is the size of the antennas. The 2.4 GHz antennas are bigger than the 5 GHz antennas. Mind that the same size antenna enclosure may be used for various reasons, two biggest ones being the cost of development and production and also overall esthetics. There are many antenna types available: dipole omni antennas, patch, and Yagi antennas, just to name a few. There are many subtypes, too many to name all of them here. Different antenna type will provide different radiation pattern. Starting with Dipole-Omni antenna that will provide 360° coverage in vertical setup (point of the antenna facing straight up or down) to focus, narrow beamwidth antennas used for Point to Point communication and everything in between. The RF focus will result in the higher gain of the antenna as it directs all the available energy into a certain direction [1, 2, 3].
2.1.1. Antenna based on SIW structure for 5G application
A Substrate Integrated Magneto-Electric Dipole antenna has been introduced for 5G Wi-Fi applications in [1]. A new technique is used to reduce the height of the ME dipole antenna by utilizing the tapered H-shape ground plane. As the conventional approach of folding parallel walls is hard to fabricate and also challenging, a pair of open slots has been cut on the ground plane. Hence surface current path is folded along the x-axis. The proposed configuration consists of four layers as shown in Figure 1. The antenna is fed by a Г-shaped probe located between the two arms of the Bowtie dipole. The simulated and measured results shown in Figure 2 reveal that the proposed structure provides an impedance bandwidth of 18.74% between 4.98 and 6.01 GHz and gains of about 6.8 and 7.2 dBi, respectively.
Figure 1.
Geometry of the substrate integrated ME-dipole [1].
Figure 2.
Simulated and measured VSWR and gains versus frequency [1].
With the outstanding features with respect to the conventional ones, including wide impedance bandwidth, symmetric patterns, low back radiation and at the same time more than 80% efficiency, the proposed multilayer configuration with a novel technique to reduce the height of the ME dipole antenna is a suitable candidate for 5G Wi-Fi application.
A new configuration based on substrate integrated waveguide concept has been investigated for 10 GHz frequency band in [2]. In order to enhance the antenna gain, different structures with two and four grooves have been proposed. The aperture-coupled antenna consists of a rectangular patch in which the power is coupled through the cavity and hence into free space. The cavity dimensions are optimized so that they can determine resonance frequency and radiation pattern of the antenna. The geometry of the designed configurations with two and four grooves and their corresponding simulated results are shown in Figure 3. Via based cavity structure has a remarkable impact on cavity performance in SIW patterns and it is demanding to adjust its resonance frequency due to abrupt changes of current distributions near walls. Therefore, the rectangular cavity’s edges are created by drilling out the two L-shapes in the middle substrate. Despite of drilling out the shapes, the corners have been left to keep the substrate inside the cavity in place. Thereafter, the walls of the cavity are metallized as a PCB manufacturing process.
Figure 3.
Configuration of proposed aperture antenna (a) with two grooves, (b) with four grooves, (c) reflection coefficient of the proposed antenna without/with grooves [2].
The simulated reflection coefficient reveals that adding the grooves have approximately no effect on the S11 if the distance between patch and grooves are accurately determined. Moreover, this distance changes the directionality of the antenna, as depicted in Figure 4.
Figure 4.
Radiation pattern of the proposed antenna with two grooves for different distance between patch and grooves for center frequency [2].
2.2. Antenna in mid-frequency (15 and 30 GHz) for 5G application
Due to the steep increase in the number of electronic devices and accordingly high data traffic, wireless communication technology is required to use higher frequency bands to overcome the shortcomings existed in the existing networks. Fifth generation (5G) mobile networks have been extremely noted to overcome the existing networks problems such as bandwidth shortage caused as a result of the exponentially growth in the number of electronic devices and users connected to wireless systems, since it can provide a peak data rate of at least 100 Mb/s in urban areas, 10 Gbps for static users and 1 Gbps for mobile users. Two of the important bands specified for testing 5G cellular communication systems are 28 and 39 GHz in the US and Europe, respectively. These frequency ranges extend from 24.5 to 29.5 GHz and 37.0 to 43.5 GHz with center frequencies of 28 and 39 GHz, respectively. Improved data rates of up to 2.5 Gbps with multiple connections are among important characteristics of 5G cellular communications [4]. The US Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has recommended frequency bands of 28 and 37–39 GHz for the ongoing wireless networks (5G), as well as 33 GHz, which was specified for satellite and navigation applications. The Ka-band (at 28/38GHz) can be suitable for frequency division multiplexing (FDD), in which single antennas providing dual-band performance is preferred. The significantly increased path loss at very high-frequencies has to be compensated by higher antenna gains, which is made possible by increasing the number of antennas at the base station [5]. Compared to the current 1–2 GHz cellular bands, the spectrum at 28 GHz has less free space path loss. In fact, oxygen loss (due to oxygen molecule absorption in atmosphere) and rain attenuation will have less impact on the 28 GHz spectrum, hence providing better propagation conditions when compared to the existing cellular networks. It should be noted that the 28/38 GHz signals will not be going to penetrate a car’s windows or roof. Therefore, these kinds of devices will be important for these frequency bands in direct communication with a user device. For future 5G applications, it has been indicated in [6] that, a high gain antenna (>12 dB) is required, which has the capability to be directed in certain directions. One introduced technology to overcome the existing deficiencies and to meet the aforementioned goals is the massive MIMO, which means extending MIMO concept to hundreds of antennas at the base station as a promising solution to increase data rate and network capacity by allowing beamformed data [7]. Another introduced technology to obtain an efficient beam steering characteristic is to use phased array antennas, which are one of the key parts in 5G wireless systems, since smaller antennas can be employed as arrays to improve performance [8]. It should be noted that the capability of beam steering in antennas is not compatible with most of the previous generations (2G, 3G and 4G), since they usually broadcast signals in wide beams, hence dissipating energy in unwanted directions. The importance of utilizing phased array antennas is that they can direct and accordingly focus the signal beams to a desired direction toward the receiving antenna. As an example, the IBM and Ericsson has designed a phased array, which supports beam steering of less than 1.4° for focusing the beam toward users. There have been some techniques to design multiband antennas, among which is the slotted-SIW structures. The slotted SIW is a good option for designing the directional multi-band antennas. By utilizing different slot configurations in these antennas more directional radiation patterns can be obtained. This can be explained such that in the SIW structures usually one of the layers contains the ground and the other has the radiating apertures. The surface current is disturbed by the engraved slots to accurately radiate electromagnetic waves. This method can also be used for the incoming wireless network. As the modern wireless systems require low profile and easy to integrate devices providing high gain and efficiency, microstrip patch antennas are highly recommended. Therefore, small antennas with dual-band or multiband properties are preferred for applications operating in Ka-band for the futuristic 5G technology.
A microstrip array antenna designed in [9] provides an impedance bandwidth (S11 < −10 dB) of about 7 GHz from 23.9 to 31 GHz and 12.5 dB gain at 29 GHz, but poor radiation efficiency due to the lossy FR-4 substrate has been observed. Since the scanning angle of more than 45° is required for mobile antennas, a planar array with beam switching capability is proposed in [10], which provides 1 GHz impedance bandwidth relative to the center frequency of 28.05 GHz and an average of 10 dBi gain. Another 28 GHz multilayer FR-4 PCB antenna array is presented in [11]. The structure consists of 16-element shows a fan-beam like radiation pattern. Results indicate that nearly 11 dB gain and more than 3 GHz impedance bandwidth has been obtained. The presented array is a complicated and expensive structure due to the multilayer technology. Some recently published configuration to achieve the acceptable performance for these important frequencies will be discussed in detail. Three different oriented microstrip inset fed patches are designed in [12]. In the first design, two patches are placed side by side while in the other two configurations opposite feeding structures are used. The geometry of all structures and their corresponding reflection coefficients are presented in Figures 5 and 6, respectively. It can be seen in all three configurations, S11 is the same and about 1.5 GHz, which is due to the symmetrical structures of the antennas. The simulated and measure mutual coupling for structure 3 is shown in Figure 6. As it is obvious because of the small size of the antenna S12 < −20 dB at 28 GHz has been obtained.
Figure 5.
Three different configurations of patch array antennas designed. (a) Antenna 1; (b) antenna 2; (c) antenna 3 [9].
Figure 6.
Measured and simulated: (a) return loss for designed antennas 1–3 and (b) mutual coupling for the proposed antenna [9].
A compact, broadband printed-dipole antenna, and its’ corresponding 8-element array antenna have been investigated in [10] to work at 28/38 GHz, which are the key frequency band for ongoing 5G. The single element design consists of microstrip feed line on the top layer of the substrate and the dipole along with the ground plane on the other layer. An integrated balun including a 45° folded microstrip and a rectangular slot has been employed and optimally adjusted to improve impedance matching. The bandwidth of about 36% in the frequency range of 26.5–38 GHz and 4.5–5.8 dBi gain has been obtained. The simulated and measured results for the single element proposed antenna are shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7.
(a) Geometry of the printed-dipole antenna, (b) the simulation and measurement gain and S11 of the single element [10].
2.3. Higher frequency antennas or millimeter-wave antennas which are desired for 60 GHz
With recent ongoing advances in new generations of telecommunications, the research on 60 GHz antenna design has become progressive, since their ability to provide high data rate services for fifth-generation (5G) applications. As a matter of fact, the implantation of 5G networks requires wide bandwidth which satisfies the demand to have real-time video streaming, machine to machine communications and IOT. For the sake of aforesaid, providing broadband infrastructure is a noticeable challenge in 60 GHz technology as it is an alternative of fiber optics. Thereby, the design of antenna with a low profile, high gain, and high radiation efficiency is necessary. Hitherto, some efforts have been conducted to alleviate these requirements [13].
2.3.1. Wideband linearly polarized transmitarray antenna for 60 GHz
In this section, a transmitarray antenna for backhauling at V-band is discussed. Such high capacity is of interest for operators to have multihop in the ranges of hundreds of meters to 1 km. for this purpose, three different frequency bands (28 GHz, V-band, and E-band) are dedicated to millimeter wave backhauling. According to the substrate integrated waveguide-based planar array have been undertaken. Contrary to microstrip based arrays in which high insertion loss hampers the performance, the employment of spatial feeding illumination in transmitarray antenna has drawn considerable research interest. While one or more focal sources illuminate, each unit cell of the transmitarray as a concept have been made of Rx antenna coupled to Tx antenna. Realizing the transmission phase shifting can be obtained by connecting two antennas through a phase shifter. Several studies have been conducted on the transmitarray antenna in last decades, typically with the focus on implementing such patterns in the structures. Recent years, such topological patterns have been demonstrated. One of these is illustrated in Figure 8 [14].
Figure 8.
Perspective view of the complete transmitarray antenna [14].
The proposed structure uses 3-b phase optimization including 0°, 45°, 90°, 135°, 180°, 225°, 270° and 315° over the whole 57–66 GHz. The arrangement of this 3-b is according to two different patterns. The first one is composed of the simple patch which is described in [15]. The second one utilized a capacitive fed patch in the structure. From Figure 9, it can be seen that the profiled skirt protecting the antenna from its surrounding, is roughly more complex than standard pyramidal horn structures. Thereupon, a radome is included to protect the array from the environment. The optimization of the unit cell’s phase distribution is outperformed using in-house software [16] to gain the radiation pattern [17].
Figure 9.
Unit cell cross sectional, detailed pattern and electromagnetic simulation setup with random [14].
2.3.1.1. Unit-cell design and frequency response
As shown in Figure 9, the two types (1 and 2) are demonstrated for the pattern in order to obtain a 3-b phase resolution. Thereafter, using eight unit cell configuration architectures have offered a 45° relative phase shift between each phase state. The unit cell size is optimized to 0.51λ0 × 0.51λ0 at 61.5 GHz. The structure is composed of two patch antenna separated with a 508 μm thick dielectric substrate with εr = 2.5 and tanδ = 0.0017. The via hole has been utilized to ensures the coupling between patches. The configuration of the design is as follows. The unit cell type 1 is designed to reveal the phase state 0° and 45°. It should be noted that the 45° phase shift is derived by resizing the 0° phase state unit cell [18]. In the same way, the unit cell type 2 is used to generate 90° and 135° phase shift.
Figure 10 indicates that the coefficients are lower −9.65 dB over the whole 58–66 GHz. Hence, the ripple inside the presented tapered focal source could be reduced through minimizing the losses of the transmitarray reflection coefficient. Furthermore, the simulated transmission coefficient in Figure 10(b) remains approximately better than −1 dB for each unit cell. At last, the transmission phase is presented in Figure 10(c) which illustrates the phase shift of 45° between each unit cell phase resulting in a 3-b phase quantization. As a matter of fact, the transmission coefficient and phases are roughly stabled up to 40° under oblique incident wave as well as investigation in [18, 19].
Figure 10.
Amplitude of the (a) reflection, (b) transmission coefficient and (c) transmission phase of the unit cell [14].
2.3.1.2. Design and characterization
The simulated frequency response of the transmitarray structure is shown in Figure 11 for three different array diameters (D). Obviously, it can be found that by reducing the diameter, the maximum gain is reduced, as well. In addition, the transmitarray frequency response is approximately flattened across a stabled gain over the bandwidth of 57–66 GHz. The stabled frequency response can be justified through discussing the phase shift behavior of the unit cell and calculated phase compensation at central frequency 61.5 GHz. In fact, the phase error which is defined as the difference between the calculated phase compensation at a central frequency and at a frequency different from the optimization one increases and a reduction in gain is generated. According to the gain reduction, the true-time-delay technique can be performed which is demonstrated in [20].
Figure 11.
Transmitarray frequency response as a function of the array diameter using the method described in [19].
2.3.1.3. Fabricated transmit array and experimental results
Figure 12 presents the fabricated 100 mm diameter linearly polarized transmitarray antenna. In order to verify the simulation procedure, Figure 13(a) shows the maximum gain in the broadside direction. It can be found that a maximum gain of 32.5 dBi has been obtained with a bandwidth of 15.4% (57–66.5 GHz) through an aperture efficiency of 42.7%. The results of the simulation and measurement are roughly the same, but there are some differences, which have been undertaken. The first one is considering an infinite array of identical elements in simulation procedure. The second is about the non-constant distance between the radome and the planar array, which confirms the mechanical constraints. The measured gain radiation pattern (H-plane) for co- and cross-polar is presented in Figure 13(b) and (c). It can be seen that cross polarization discrimination higher than 31 dB has been obtained at three different frequencies (57, 61.5 and 66 GHz).
Figure 12.
(a) Fabricated antenna and (b) the transmit array antenna in chamber room during measurement process [14].
Figure 13.
(a) Measured and simulated broadside gain; measured radiation pattern of the linearly polarized transmitarray in (b) co-polar and (c) cross-polar situations [17].
Although the designed linearly polarized transmit array antenna has been characterized in V-band, a tradeoff between aperture efficiency and array sized is done to guarantee the bandwidth. For this purpose, the designed structure presents a broadside gain of 32.5 dBi at 61.5 GHz with an aperture efficiency of 42.7%. Moreover, the fractional bandwidth of 15.4% from 57 to 66.5 GHz has been obtained across the proposed gain.
3. Conclusion
Many technologies have been introduced and developed for the fifth-generation networks. They are either the evolved shapes of the previous generations technologies or sometimes new. In this chapter we first explained different performance, application and types of antennas used in various frequency bands of fifth generation cellular networks and some works have been discussed in each section. Antennas in frequency bands of less than 15 GHz, which equal to less than 1/20 wavelength, uses new structures to improve bandwidth, beam rotation and energy concentration as well. But for antennas in frequency range of 15–30 GHz and upper than 40 GHz or millimeter-wave antennas, the main issue is the appropriate size of antenna while achieving a good radiation performance. Therefore, in these frequencies horn antennas, MIMO antennas, dielectric resonator antennas and phased array antennas are widely used, so that a reasonable bandwidth can be obtained by beam rotating characteristic of the mentioned antennas. Moreover, by making changes on these antennas or by combining different types, it would be possible to enhance antenna characteristics such as production cost, design and production complexity, physical size, etc. multiband performance of the antenna can be argued from different aspects; such that this antenna can eliminate the need to several antennas hence less space will be occupied. Based on the different frequency band of the fifth generation which were explained separately in this chapter, it can be inferred that in the lower band good performance is also required in addition to a small size antenna, while in the upper bands, antenna is small but has a low quantitative and qualitative efficiency, therefore, it requires the use of larger antennas such as horn antennas. Also it should be noted that in these three cases (three frequency bands) MIMO, array and SIW structures are widely used.
\n',keywords:"multiband antenna, 5G application, mm-wave, substrate integrated waveguide (SIW), MIMO, array antenna",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/62178.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/62178.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62178",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62178",totalDownloads:1955,totalViews:493,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:55,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"October 21st 2017",dateReviewed:"January 27th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"March 20th 2019",dateFinished:"June 19th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"With the introduction of various antennas in the field of antenna technology, most of the constraints related to the transmission and receiving of the signals at different intervals have been resolved. By the rapid growth in industry and consequently high demands in the communication arena, the conventional antennas are unable to respond to these extended requirements. However, those initial antennas were suitably used in the field of technology. In the recent decades, by introducing new antenna technologies such as metamaterial structures, substrate integrated waveguide (SIW) structures and microstrip antennas with various feeding networks could meet the demands of the current systems. As stated before, in the frequency ranges of below 30 GHz, antenna size and bandwidth are of the important issues, so that novel antennas can be created in low frequencies, which are able to achieve reliable radiation properties when combined with new multiband antennas. Generally, transmission lines are practical in low frequencies and short distances, while higher frequencies are mainly used due to bandwidth goals. This chapter is organized into three subsections related to the 5G wireless communication systems: antennas below 15 GHz or accordingly antennas with wavelength less than 1/20; antennas operating between 15 and 30 GHz; higher frequency antennas or millimeter-wave antennas, which are desired for above 40 GHz.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/62178",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/62178",book:{id:"6576",slug:"the-fifth-generation-5g-of-wireless-communication"},signatures:"Kioumars Pedram, Mohsen Karamirad and Negin Pouyanfar",authors:[{id:"229236",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Kioumars",middleName:null,surname:"Pedram",fullName:"Kioumars Pedram",slug:"kioumars-pedram",email:"pedram.qmars@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229236/images/6762_n.png",institution:null},{id:"230623",title:"MSc.",name:"Mohsen",middleName:null,surname:"Karamirad",fullName:"Mohsen Karamirad",slug:"mohsen-karamirad",email:"mohsen.karamirad@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"240530",title:"Dr.",name:"Negin",middleName:null,surname:"Pouyanfar",fullName:"Negin Pouyanfar",slug:"negin-pouyanfar",email:"n.pouyanfar@urmia.ac.ir",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Urmia University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Antenna in 5G application",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Antennas below 15 GHz or accordingly antennas with a wavelength less than 1/20",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"2.1.1. Antenna based on SIW structure for 5G application",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.2. Antenna in mid-frequency (15 and 30 GHz) for 5G application",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.3. Higher frequency antennas or millimeter-wave antennas which are desired for 60 GHz",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.3.1. Wideband linearly polarized transmitarray antenna for 60 GHz",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_4",title:"2.3.1.1. Unit-cell design and frequency response",level:"4"},{id:"sec_6_4",title:"2.3.1.2. Design and characterization",level:"4"},{id:"sec_7_4",title:"2.3.1.3. Fabricated transmit array and experimental results",level:"4"},{id:"sec_11",title:"3. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Lai HW, Wong H. Substrate integrated magneto-electric dipole antenna for 5G Wi-fi. IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation. 2015;63:870-874'},{id:"B2",body:'Honari MM, Mirzavand R, Melzer J, Mousavi P. A new aperture antenna using substrate integrated waveguide corrugated structures for 5G applications. IEEE Antennas and Wireless Propagation Letters. 2017;16:254-257'},{id:"B3",body:'Ban Y-L, Li C, Wu G, Wong K-L. 4G/5G multiple antennas for future multi-mode smartphone applications. IEEE Access. 2016;4:2981-2988'},{id:"B4",body:'Ali M. Advanced 5G Substrates with Integrated Antennas [thesis]. Atlanta, Georgia: Georgia Institute of Technology; 2017'},{id:"B5",body:'Saada MHA. Design of Efficient Millimeter Wave Planar Antennas for 5G Communication Systems. Gaza: The Islamic University; 2017'},{id:"B6",body:'Ojaroudiparchin N, Shen M, Fr G. Multi-layer 5G mobile phone antenna for multi-user MIMO communications. In: 2015 23rd Telecommunications Forum Telfor (TELFOR); 2015. pp. 559-562'},{id:"B7",body:'Chen Z, Zhang YP. FR4 PCB grid array antenna for millimeter-wave 5G mobile communications. In: 2013 IEEE MTT-S International Microwave Workshop Series on RF and Wireless Technologies for Biomedical and Healthcare Applications (IMWS-BIO); 2013. pp. 1-3'},{id:"B8",body:'Alreshaid T, Hammi O, Sharawi MS, Sarabandi K. A millimeter wave switched beam planar antenna array. In: 2015 IEEE International Symposium on Antennas and Pro-pagation & USNC/URSI National Radio Science Meeting; 2015. pp. 2117-2118'},{id:"B9",body:'Yu LC, Kamarudin MR. Investigation of patch phase array antenna orientation at 28GHz for 5G applications. Procedia Computer Science. 2016;86:47-50'},{id:"B10",body:'Ta SX, Choo H, Park I. Broadband printed-dipole antenna and its arrays for 5G applications. IEEE Antennas and Wireless Propagation Letters. 2017;16:2183-2186'},{id:"B11",body:'Asaadi M, Sebak A. High-gain low-profile circularly polarized slotted SIW cavity antenna for MMW applications. IEEE Antennas and Wireless Propagation Letters. 2017;16:752-755'},{id:"B12",body:'Ashraf N, Haraz O, Ashraf MA, Alshebeili S. 28/38-GHz dual-band millimeter wave SIW array antenna with EBG structures for 5G applications. In: 2015 International Conference on Information and Communication Technology Research (ICTRC); 2015. pp. 5-8'},{id:"B13",body:'Pedram K, Karamirad M, Ranjbaran SMH. A novel circular polarization MIMO antenna in 60 GHz technology. In: 2017 IEEE 4th International Conference on Knowledge-Based Engineering and Innovation (KBEI); 2017. pp. 0335-0338'},{id:"B14",body:'Jouanlanne C, Clemente A, Huchard M, Keignart J, Barbier C, Le Nadan T, et al. Wideband linearly polarized transmitarray antenna for 60 GHz backhauling. IEEE Tran-sactions on Antennas and Propagation. 2017;65:1440-1445'},{id:"B15",body:'Kaouach H, Dussopt L, Lanteri J, Koleck T, Sauleau R. Wideband low-loss linear and circular polarization transmit-arrays in V-band. IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Pro-pagation. 2011;59(7):2513-2523'},{id:"B16",body:'Di Palma L, Clemente A, Dussopt L, Sauleau R, Potier P, Pouliguen P. Circularly polarized transmitarray with sequential rotation in Ka-band. IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation. 2015;63(11):5118-5124'},{id:"B17",body:'Fixed Radio Systems; Characteristics and Requirements for Point-to-Point Equipment and Antennas; Part 4-2: Antennas; Harmonized EN Covering the Essential Requirements of Article 3.2 of the R&TTE Directive, document EN 302 217-4-2 V1.5.1. ETSI; 2010'},{id:"B18",body:'An W, Xu S, Yang F. A two-layer transmitarray antenna. In: Proceedings of the IEEE Antennas and Propagation Society International Symposium (APSURSI); Memphis, TN, USA. July 2014. pp. 864-865'},{id:"B19",body:'Clemente L, Dussopt R, Sauleau PP, Pouliguen P. Wideband 400-element electronically reconfigurable transmitarray in X band. IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation. 2013;61(10):5017-5027'},{id:"B20",body:'Clemente L, Dussopt R, Sauleau PP, Pouliguen P. Focal distance reduction of transmit-array antennas using multiple feeds. IEEE Antennas and Wireless Propagation Letters. Nov. 2012;11(11):1311-1314'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Kioumars Pedram",address:"pedram.qmars@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Department of Electrical Engineering, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran
Department of Electrical Engineering, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran
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1. Introduction
The phylum Nematoda consists of non-segmented invertebrates commonly known as roundworms that occur in a wide range of habitats around the globe and lack jointed appendages. The causative agent of trichinellosis is Trichinella species including Trichinella spiralis (T. spiralis) which belongs to the superfamily Trichinelloidea of the phylum Nematoda. At present, the recognized number of species and genotypes in the genus Trichinella are nine and three respectively based on the larvae appearance in muscle cells [1, 2]. The most pathogenic and prevalent pathogen in this genus is T. spiralis [3]. This is a most serious zoonotic food-borne parasite which can infect a wide range of hosts, is liable for trichinellosis disease in humans, and can infect more than 150 species of animals such as carnivores and omnivores including human beings worldwide [4, 5]. Trichinellosis occurs around many parts of the world and infects a huge number of human beings. Its ranges from Europe, North America, China, Japan, and Tropical Africa. However, China is the most affected country [1, 6].
The definitive hosts of nematode Trichinella include many domestic animals such as pigs, horses, and wild animals like bears, rats, and wild pigs. Each intermediate host of Trichinella spiralis is also its definitive host and serves as a source of infection for any other definitive host species by carnivorism [2]. Humans can acquire infection by the ingestion of undercooked, or raw meat of these animals contaminated with the larvae of T. spiralis [7]. The important preventive measure (to limit people from getting trichinellosis) is to disrupt the transmission of infective Trichinella larvae encapsulated in meat to human beings [8, 9]. However, in some countries, this disease is also transmitted by wild animals [10]. Since an enormous amount of pork and its by-products are consumed in China, that results in increased issues in the country [5, 11]. Unlike many other helminth parasites, the survival of T. spiralis nematodes is only direct host-to-host transmission adapting normal cellular functions and host immunity at all the stages of infection [12, 13].
The life cycle of T. spiralis starts when an adult female and male worms reproduce sexually in the small intestine of the host. The unique characteristic of T. spiralis among other parasites is that it passes all the stages of its life cycle within a single host including all phases of adult worm, newborn larvae, and muscle larvae [10, 14, 15]. Humans acquire the infection when they ingest Trichinella larvae that are encapsulated in the striated muscles of domestic or wild animals [5]. After the consumption of infected meat, parasitic larvae which are encysted in the meat are then released into the host stomach by acid-pepsin digestion [16]. Columnar epithelial cells of the intestine at the base of the villus are invaded by muscular larvae. Previously released into the stomach from meat and each molts four times to reach sexual maturity [7, 9, 17]. Approximately 1500 newborn larvae are produced by each fertilized female T. spiralis within 2–3 weeks and up to 10,000 over 4 months period. These larvae penetrate the intestinal lining with the help of unique sword-like stylet they possess and migrate to the striated (skeletal) muscles via the circulatory and lymphatic system [15]. These larvae can enter any type of cells but only survive in skeletal muscles. In the striated muscles, these previously migrated newborn larvae develop into infective muscle larvae and transform the skeletal muscle cells into a new type of cells known as nurse cells which maintain the larval life and for many species of Trichinella changes into capsules or cysts made up of hyaline and collagen fiber [8]. These capsules containing the muscle larvae can persist for many years and calcification occurs in most of the cysts and dies within a few months (see Figure 1). The life span of live adult worms in the mucosa of the intestine is 4–6 weeks in human beings while the muscle larvae encapsulated in the striated muscle fibers persist for months to years [1].
Figure 1.
Life cycle of T. spiralis [10].
Immunity is the defensive mechanism against any pathogenic organisms that invade the victimized host. When the host consumes contaminated meat containing nurse cells, an immune-mediated inflammatory response starts due to the development of the adult worms in the epithelium of the intestine to expel the parasites. The level of antibody IgE which defends the body against parasitic organisms starts to increase. The inflammatory infiltrates containing mast cells and eosinophils present there pathologically. Both these immune cells are involved in the clearance of parasites. Toxic oxygen molecules and major basic proteins are elaborated by eosinophil to kill invaded organisms but also cause to damage the host body tissues. While mast cell protease-1 (MCP-1) is produced by mast cells that are also lethal to worms. There is widespread inflammation, edema if worm load is high and cells death occurs frequently during the parenteral stage of infection [18, 19].
Trichinellosis infection is classified into three stages depending upon the life cycle of the pathogenic worm; (1) as an invasive stage, in which larvae grow into adult worms and after fertilization females begin to release newborn larvae which then migrate to blood circulation via the Lymphatic system [9]. This stage is characterized by nausea, diarrhea, abdominal cramps, and seldom vomiting. Constipation is also seen in some of the individuals instead of diarrhea. All these symptoms appear within 2–30 h of post-eating infected food. (2) As migratory phase; characterized by the encapsulation of larvae in the muscles of the host. The main symptoms observed in this stage include fever, face edema, swelling, muscle pain, and weakness of the infected muscles [14, 16]. (3) As encystment stage; characterized by the calcification of cysts in the striated muscles only and results in everlasting injury [1]. As this parasite shows nonspecific signs and symptoms of the disease, its clinical diagnosis is difficult [15]. For the diagnosis of Trichinellosis, the digestion method is the best method reported by World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) but to better detect the Trichinella parasites molecular biology and serologic methods have been developed [5]. Currently, Trichinellosis diagnosis is based on larvae detection in muscle biopsy or immunodiagnostic tests which are highly specific. Many antigens are expressed during the developmental stages of the T. spiralis and are useful for the serodiagnosis of trichinellosis. However, due to limited T. spiralis antigens availability testing is not extensively available [15, 16].
Trichinellosis is not only responsible for public health casualties but also cause the economic problem in food safety and swine animal production. Due to a large number of people infected with T. spiralis, this disease is regarded as re-emerging in many regions of the world [2, 15]. If transmission of this disease is not under control, it can lead to serious public health problems [10].
2. Status of anti-T. spiralis vaccine
It is a promising method for the control of parasites in pigs to develop a vaccine against T. spiralis infection. However, most of the studies for the development of vaccines against Trichinella have been performed in lab animals (Mouse models) so far. Only a few studies are performed on pigs for the development of vaccines against Trichinella infection. To prevent and control the transmission of T. spiralis infection from pigs to humans vaccine exploitation is an important step [20]. Trichinella is a tissue-lodging, enteral, and multicellular parasite. Its life cycle is complex and has a diverse developmental phase. Trichinella worms have stage-specific antigens [21]. It is necessary to develop an effective vaccine against Trichinella to interrupt the transmission of parasites among animals and the cycle of pathogen transmission from swine to humans [5].
Till now, various practices and strategies have been used in the prevention and eradication of parasites including the application of chemicals. The chemical methods are not well signed and have certain limitations such as continuous use of antiparasitic drugs resulting in rising resistance, have risks related to the environment, health, and their potential effects on the host or non-target organisms. Chemotherapy and antiparasitic drugs are used to prevent T. spiralis infection, but when we compare the vaccination of animals with chemotherapy treatment, we found that it has several advantages. A single dose of vaccine can provide lifelong prevention of T. spiralis infection, reduce the risk of drug residues in meat and other by-products, and decline the emergence of T. spiralis drug-resistant parasites [2].
Anti-Trichinella vaccines will provide a substantial contribution to the control, prevention, and elimination of Trichinellosis. The eradication of Trichinella spp. infections in animals is a difficult task as vaccines against Trichinella that act as a preventive weapon are not currently available except for rats and pig models [6]. For the past three decades, significant improvements have been made for the recognition of several antigens from T. spiralis. It will lead toward a better understanding of the formulation of novel vaccine developments. A variety of vaccines such as subunit vaccines, recombinant proteins vaccines, inactivated vaccines, synthesized epitope vaccines, DNA vaccines, viral or bacterial vector vaccines can elicit an immune response against Trichinella and provide effective protection. Scientists have used different antigens to formulate recombinant protein vaccines and many of them have provided some effective protection against Trichinella infection [4, 10].
Preventive vaccine development against Trichinella infection in domestic pigs is valuable to control and prevent this parasite [21]. The diseases can also be controlled in animals through a veterinary vaccine. To induce long-term intestinal immunity the appropriate route for immunization against Trichinellosis is oral as the infection occurs due to the ingestion of poorly cooked meat containing encapsulated infective larvae [20]. Proteases (enzymes) are widely distributed in viruses, prokaryotes, and eukaryotes participate in different events of the parasite’s life cycle. In the process of causing infection, parasites serine proteases are thought to be a key factor and exist in the T. spiralis excretory-secretory (ES) products [20, 22]. The hydrolyzing enzyme Elastase (trypsin-like serine protease) helps the parasites in the penetration of host tissue through the hydrolysis of laminin, fibronectin, elastin, and type IV collagen. Elastases also participate in the immune evasion process. This enzyme is also involved in the digestion and molting of parasites and has an important role in parasitic worm intrusion of victimized hosts. It might be a target for a novel vaccine [21]. Recently, many anti-T. spiralis vaccines have been developed to interrupt the transmission of parasites from animals to humans. Many vaccine candidates which are effective against T. spiralis were selected from ES products and recombinant proteins. Serine protease enzymes (from T. spiralis) provide partial protection against T. spiralis larvae challenges [20].
T. spiralis exerts an immunomodulatory effect through ES products on the immune response of the host [22]. T. spiralis Nudix hydrolase (TsND) is a protein that binds to intestinal epithelial cells of normal mice (up-regulated gene). The size of this gene is about 1248 bp. A partial protective immunity against Trichinella infection was observed when mice were vaccinated with recombinant TsND protein [22, 23]. Vehicle (delivery system) and antigen are important elements that are responsible for the protection level induced by the candidate vaccine [24].
3. T. spiralis -associated immune mechanism
T. spiralis (Helminth) establishes infection which is long-lasting in the striated muscles of the host. Depending on the longevity of the host. It can persist successfully until the end of life in rodents and in higher species including humans can persist over several months to years following infection. They do not kill the host striated muscles cells during their stay, unlike some other intracellular parasites. This characteristic makes them one of the most successful symbiotic parasites [25]. Parasitic nematode T. spiralis completes its entire life cycle in one host and each stage of its life cycle provokes the immune system of the host differently [14, 15]. For the establishment of the life cycle successfully, this parasite with the help of its defensive mechanism manages to escape the host immune system responses. The excretory-secretory products of T. spiralis play a crucial role in the establishment of parasitism and modulation of host immune response to protect both host and the parasite [22]. When the host acquired the infection of T. spiralis, at early-stage cellular immunity of the host is inhibited but later recovery of host cellular immune function occurs, and humoral immunity starts its role in resisting the infection of T. spiralis. During the infection, both the cells Th1 (T helper cell) and Th2 play a major role in maintaining the immune system function. They are involved in the eradication of pathogens. When the maintenance of the host immune system disrupts it gets infected [18]. Nitric oxide (NO) is a molecule in the immune system which acts as an immunomodulator and immunotoxin. It is a gaseous molecule and has appropriate lipid membranes solubility. Without binding to any specific receptor of viruses and bacteria, it exerts lethal effects on them. NO is involved in the selective killing of parasites including infected cells and has a major role in the adult worm expulsion during Trichinella spiralis infection in mice (see Figure 2) [12].
Figure 2.
Immune response against T. spiralis.
Infection of T. spirilis has an immunosuppressive effect on the innate immune system of the host. Larvae release secretory antigens that elicit a protective strong immune response which is specific to invading parasites [20]. ES products reduce inflammation when parasites invade the muscle cells, modulate the host immune system response in a way to protective for both the host and the parasites. For survival inside the organism, T. spiralis build a unique place for their living and their niche contains a cyst or capsule composed of nurse cell (cellular components) and collagenous wall [22, 25, 26]. Both the wall and nurse cell are originated from the host, provide protection and maintenance of the parasite’s metabolism respectively [14].
Macrophages play a major role in the immune response of the host against various pathogens [22]. In vitro, ES products from different phases of the life cycle of T. spiralis can modulate macrophage’s function by inhibiting cytokine production. In chronic helminth infections, macrophages are activated by Th2 cytokines such as interleukin-4 (IL-4) and interleukin-13 (IL-13). Many immune mediator molecules are released such as IL-6, IL-12, nitric oxide (NO), and tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α) when in macrophages the signaling pathways are triggered by Th2 cytokines [22, 25, 27].
4. Genomic and proteomic profile of T. spiralis
There are 12 species and genotypes of Trichinella which are distributed worldwide and cause serious disease Trichinellosis in humans which leads to morbidity and mortality [1, 2, 12]. Based on larvae appearance in the muscle cells of the host only encapsulated and non-encapsulated clades (morphological distinct) Trichinella is recognized. Based on molecular studies, nine species and three genotypes of Trichinella show a wide biological diversity. Based on genetic data, only Trichinella encapsulated clade infects mammals includes Trichinella spiralis (T1), Trichinella nativa (T2), Trichinella britovi (T3), Trichinella murrelli (T5), Trichinella nelson (T7), and Trichinella patagoniensis(T12). The three Trichinella genotypes includes T6, T8, and T9. The Trichinella non-encapsulated clade includes Trichinella pseudospiralis (T4), which infects birds and mammals only, Trichinella papuae (T10), and Trichinella zimbabwensis (T11), they infect reptiles and mammals [1].
Proteomics (because of bioinformatics and mass spectrometry) is an effective technique to examine the modifications after the translation of genes such as proteolysis or glycosylation. These are powerful techniques to examine the samples obtained from pathogens to find the possible proteins involved in the pathogenesis of the disease [12]. Trichinella is substantially different in molecular and biological characteristics from other crown groups. The assembly of Trichinella is 64 million bp in length and about 15,808 proteins are encoded by this genome assembly. In T. spiralis genome, the estimation of repeat content is about 18% having low GC content (about 27%) relative to the overall genome (34%) and protein-coding region (43%) of Trichinella spiralis[14]. Microsatellites are present in the entire genome and many are distributed in the non-coding sequence of the genome. It leads to genetic diversity due to mutation [28]. During the early stage of Trichinella infection, Trichinella spiralis 14-3-3 protein is a strong immunogenic antigen [29]. Ts14-3-3 is an immunodominant antigen and this protein is also used to detect the whole period of infection with Trichinella. During the early phase of Trichinella infection, HSP70, cysteine protease, and Ts14-3-3 play a crucial role in balancing the host–parasite relationship. Therefore, these proteins are a good target for the development of vaccines and early immunodiagnostic measures [15].
4.1 DNA based vaccine
DNA vaccines got a glare in the early 1990s and evoked both humoral and cellular responses, when tested and identified, particularly induced cytotoxic T cell response, and abolished the safety concerns associated with the live vaccine [17]. Such vaccines tend to sustain host immune system stimulation in comparison to the Recombinant protein-based vaccines [6]. DNA vaccines emerged as a strong way of eliciting a humoral and cellular immune response against many parasitological antigens in small animal models. Moreover, DNA vaccines produce a concurrent Th1 and Th2 immune response against T. spiralis [30, 31].
The TspE1gene encoding a 31 kDa antigen of T. spiralis has been cloned to an expression vector pcDNA3 and administered in a mouse as a DNA vaccine [31]. Naturally, T. spiralis challenge suppresses the type 2 immune system response which inhibits them [17]. The mice immunized with the TspE1-pcDNA3 presented a significant larval reduction rate and an increased serum anti-Trichinella antibody level, hence this DNA vaccine proved to be partially protective against T. spiralis challenges [31]. Spleen cells after stimulation with the TspE1 recombinant protein exhibited a lymphoproliferative response, which is an indication of cellular response elicited by the DNA vaccine. Sequence of a serine protease (Ts-NBLsp) cDNA from newborn larvae of T. spiralis, cDNA sequence of recombinant TsNd (Trichinella spiralis nudix hydrolases) has been cloned to the plasmid pcDNA3.1 [17, 31, 32]. The antibody response against the serine protease of T. spiralis inhibits the protease activity thus hindering invasion of the parasite. The DNA vaccines Ts-NBLsp-pcDNA3.1 and pcDNA3.1-TsNd presented a balanced systemic Th1\\Th2 immune response. The immunization with recombinant TsNd DNA vaccine resulted in an increased intestinal IgA and total IgG response with an exalted IgG1 than that of IgG2a [31]. To compare the recombinant nudix hydrolase DNA vaccine, the Ts-NBLsp-pcDNA3.1 vaccine showed a dominant IgG2a anti trichinella antibody and a predominantly Th1 immune response [17]. DNA vaccines elevated IFN gamma, IL-2, IL-4, and IL-10 levels [31]. Secretory IgA causes a significant reduction in the female worm fecundity and this response is enhanced by cytokine IL-10 specifically. The intestinal mucosa of the infected animals produces a specific antibody response against T. spiralis. Ts-NBLsp-pcDNA3.1 and reduces the muscle larvae burden (77.93%) greater than that of the TsNd vaccine (53.9%).
In another study of the TsDNase II, the complementary DNA sequence of T. spiralis serine protease 2.1 has been cloned to the eukaryotic expression vector pcDNA3.1 and administered as a DNA vaccine through an attenuated Salmonella typhimurium to avoid degradation [30]. To elicit a persistent systemic and mucosal immune response against T. spiralis, attenuated salmonella is an effective live carrier that gives an efficient mode of vaccination. T. spiralis DNase II is an excretory-secretory product associated with adult worms and IIL which is expressed in the cuticle of IIL. T. spiralis serine protease appeared to be present in the spliceosome and cuticle of adult worms and intestinal infective larvae. Both of these vaccine candidates against T. spiralis resulted in the significant rise of specific IgG responses. IgG1 titer after the first dose of vaccination and then an increased level of IgG2a after the second dose of vaccination, furthermore they produced mixed Th1\\Th2 response which can be described through elicited cytokines response as Th1(IFN gamma) and Th2 cytokines (IL-4, IL10) [30]. TsSP 1.2-pcDNA3.1 vaccine resulted in a 71.84% reduction in the muscle larvae in comparison to the TsDNase II DNA vaccine which caused a 59.26% reduction in the muscle larvae [30].
T. spiralis adult-specific DNase II-1 (TsDNase II-1) and DNase II-7 recognized in the excretory-secretory proteins of the AW [30] has been analyzed for their immune response against the worm. Antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity assay (ADCC) revealed that both recombinant anti-TsDNase II-1 and anti-TsDNase II-7 sera mediated the attachment of mouse peritoneal exudate cells (PECs) to NBL and finally killing of the NBL. Paramyosin is a thick myofibrillar protein [6, 30, 33], which is an immunomodulatory protein that evades host immune response by inhibiting complement C1q and C8\\C9. TsPmy and Ts87 both are efficient vaccine candidates against T. spiralis. The DNA encoding TsPmy and Ts87 have been cloned in a eukaryotic vector pVAX1 and the recombinant DNA was transformed in the S. typhimurium strain SL7207. The resulting DNA vaccines produced protective immunity against T. spiralis when administered in mice, both resulted in mucosal sIgA response in the intestine and systemic anti TsPmyIgG response. The antibody-secreting cells from the spleen and mesenteric lymph nodes of the mice immunized with TsPmy vaccine expressed the intestinal homing receptors CCR9 and CCR10. [30] determined that SL7207\\ pVAX1-TsPmy vaccine came out with a 44.8% reduction in muscle larvae and a 46.6% reduction in adult worms. While SL7207\\ pVAX1-Ts87 caused a 34.2% reduction in muscle larvae and a 29.8% reduction in adult worm burden. By using B and T cell epitopes from TsPmy a novel multi-epitope vaccine has been designed which elicits an immune response more efficiently as compared to traditional vaccines, TsPmy MEP vaccine reduced the muscle larvae up to 55.4% [33].
DNA vaccines have many advantages as they are inexpensive, focused immune response against the antigen of interest, heat stable and a broad-spectrum vaccine can be developed by mixing plasmids.
4.2 Protein-based vaccine
In recent studies, it is reported that specific protein molecules from numerous T. spiralis life cycle stages have been considered and expressed properly, so that their immune protection was also estimated, such as paramyosin (Ts-Pmy) obtained from an adult cDNA library [21], TspGST and fructose-1,6-bisphosphate aldolase (Ts-FBPA) taken from the T. spiralis draft genome utilizing high expression at the ML stage, Ts31 from the ML ES proteins, serine protease (TsSP) from IIL (intestinal offensive stage) and ML surface proteins and cathepsin B (TsCB) from the T. spiralis draft genome [8]. On the other hand, when these recombinant proteins were used for vaccinating mice, they showed only 36.2–53.50% ML reduction following the T. spiralis challenge. In the current study, we determine the protective immunity persuaded by vaccination through a novel TsE protein. TsE is highly expressed and acts as a secretory protein at the T. spiralis intestinal offensive stage (IIL), TsE shows potency to be exposed first to the host’s intestinal mucosa and then produce the local immune response through its working. It is observed that vaccination with rTsE persuaded significantly high levels of TsE-specific sIgA, which can simplify adult worm removal from the intestine. TE immune protection having 64.06% ML reduction, with this novel TsE vaccination was considered superior to those of the above-mentioned other T. spiralis proteins act as candidate vaccine target molecules. This study also recognized a foundation to develop polyvalent anti-T. spiralis vaccines in the upcoming period.
The immune response stimulated by a vaccine based on an exclusive antigen and multi-epitope (that work more efficiently than the large protein molecules) vaccines against T. spiralis has now been proposed. Therefore, the amalgamation of three selected epitopes from Ts-Pmy and Ts87 from T. spiralis adult produced in immunized mice IgG and IgG1 production and higher protection of about 35% in contrast to the parasite challenge in comparison to that encouraged by individual epitope peptides [8]. To achieve higher shielding immune responses counter to T. spiralis, it will be essential to propose a vaccine with multi-epitopes from different parasite stages focusing on NBL and adult stages (Table 1).
Antigen
Database ID
Strain
Developmental stage
Function
Reference
Cathepsin B [T. spiralis]
XP_003373289
ISS 195
Muscle larvae(ML) and adult worm (AW)
Has important function in worm invading, migrating, molting and immune escape
Immunoregulatory kinetics of different T. spiralis based protein after binding with host immune cells.
5. Role of progesterone receptor in trichinella spiralis
Progesterone (P4) is a sex steroid hormone that plays roles in the physiology of the reproductive system such as corpus luteum of the ovary and placenta in females, while testes and adrenal cortex in males also participate in many other functions such as brain activity, immune modulation, metabolism of bones heart and lungs physiology. P4 is also responsible for the maintenance of pregnancy and shows an immunosuppressive effect [35]. when a high level of progesterone is present during the luteal phase of the estrus/menstrual cycle in females. Recent studies showed that these hormones also influence the course of parasites infections and also restrict the invasion of parasites when a high level of P4 in female animals is produced. Restricts the invasion of parasites [11]. P4 has an immunomodulatory effect on fetal antigens during pregnancy by suppressing the maternal immune response. However, progesterone can be either an inhibitory or stimulatory effect on the immune response mechanism depending upon cell type, concentration, and exposure time to steroids. It has nematotoxicity against newborn larvae of T. spiralis. Progesterone is responsible for decreased parasite load during pregnancy [11].
Sex steroids are known as immune response modulators and play a major role in T. spiralis susceptibility at two levels viz. (1) protective immune response and (2) direct effect on the development of worms. Besides, P4 up-regulates many molecules expressions from major histocompatibility complex class I and it also participates in the down-regulation of genes that are responsible for the fecundity and oviposition of the worms and inhibits the nuclear factor kappa B (NFƙB) activation in innate immunity [11].
6. Role of progesterone and mifepristone against T. spiralis
Progesterone is a gonadal hormone primarily involved in the preparation of the endometrium for implantation of an embryo and necessary for the maintenance of pregnancy, while mifepristone is a drug that works as an antagonist of progesterone and glucocorticoid. It has an abortifacient effect and terminates early pregnancy by binding to intracellular progesterone receptors. Mifepristone has an antagonistic effect on the T. spiralis (Ts) membrane-associated progesterone receptor component-2 (Ts-MAPRC2). It also down-regulates the expression of the Ts-MAPRC2 gene and results in the abortion of the pregnant adult female worms [11].
Mifepristone (RU486) can be taken as an example that works as an antagonist in contrast to the progesterone receptor (PR) and glucocorticoid receptor (GR) with some lethal properties such as aborting agent and anticancer activities in the body. In the case of helminths, several research studies are concentrated on PGRMC receptors. Similarly, RU486 was one of the first medications accepted for surgical abortion and is frequently used to terminate an early or midterm pregnancy. Hereafter, PR and binding of P4 molecules (agonist) and RU486 (antagonist) can be helpful to elaborate T. spiralis species regarding differentiation and reproductive development as well as creating potential pharmacological targets that might be used as a drug therapy against Trichinellosis.
Progesterone is known for its immune-modulatory effects, which happen during pregnancy that is done by suppressing the response from the mother toward paternal antigens expressed in the fetus [11]. Taking into the description, we can conclude that progesterone is an adequate inducing activation of the effector cell populations responsible for cell death in an antibody-independent cytotoxic mechanism. This cytotoxicity should also be activated by soluble antigens released by the parasite because at constant self-aggression of tissues by these activated cells 0% NBL mortality 10 10 100 Progesterone (ng/ml) cells [35] .
7. Challenges to developing an efficient vaccine against T. spiralis
The control of helminths in animals is usually through anthelmintics. Vaccine development against T. spiralis infection in pigs is an alternate method for the prevention of parasite T. spiralis from zoonosis. Effective vaccine development against Trichinellosis is conducted in mice instead of pigs. Effective development of a vaccine, is not only due to high price of experimental pigs but also due to poorly satisfied antigens detected from the mice. Moreover, the immune response induced by the same antigen in swine and mice is extremely different. So, [2]. concluded that in mice, poor immunogenic vaccine candidates are not capable to induce a strong protective immune response against T. spiralis infection in pigs.
TsT was a T. spiralis somatic antigen and at adult-stage with specific surface antigen it had a good antigenicity. If vaccination of mice is done with TsT, it will induce a systemic mixed Th1/Th2 response and an intestinal local sIgA response, which can produce partial protection against T. spiralis larval challenge. Then these results suggested that TsT plays a role in T. spiralis growth and survival in the host, and it might be deliberated as a potential target antigen for anti-T. spiralis vaccines. However [9], revealed that oral anti-Trichinella vaccines comprised of multiple antigenic epitopes of various T. spiralis life cycle phases should be recognized.
7.1 Diversity within T. spiralis parasites
T. spiralis is a nematode parasite that is prevalent throughout the world and translocated by humans and their animals. They occupy well-defined geographic ranges [36]. There is a big diversity among the T. spiralis parasites present in different geographic locations [24]. T. spiralis nematode belongs to the clade that diverged early in the phylum Nematoda evolution [14]. T. britovi parasitizes many sylvatic mammals such as Felidae, Canidae, Ursidae, Mustelidae, Suidae, Viverridae and is endemic to Northern-western Africa and Eurasia while T. murrelli is the only present in wild animals in North America. Millions of years ago, Trichinella could infect human beings evidenced by the ingestion of other parasites in meat [36].
The nematode T. spiralis is involved in the most common cause of human trichinellosis, which is considered a zoonotic disease worldwide. The heredity of T. spiralis giving rise to the genus Trichinella and reported that the last shared common ancestor was approximately 275 million years ago (Lower Permian Period) identified, however the modification of extant Trichinella species happened about 16–20 million years ago [14].
We compare the molecular physiognomies of nematodes and former metazoans by using the T. spiralis genome as standard. This comparative approach by using the T. spiralis permitted us to categorize conserved protein and gene sequences through the superficial model, particularly for the phylum Nematoda. We bring an approach that intrachromosomal modifications were common all over the phylum. However, this was in divergence to other features such as births and deaths of a protein family, which exhibited clear discrimination among the parasitic and non-parasitic nematodes. The identification of well-maintained physiognomies predicated based on this work will advance the more accurate research on pathogens from a phylum embracing thousands of pathogens that are mainly to infect humans, animals, and plants and behaves like infectious agent. The advances possibly will one day be responsible for complete strategies to prevent and control diseases that are caused by pathogens from across the Nematoda family around the globe [14, 36, 37].
Commencing from the time of the discovery of Trichinella which is in 1835 in anticipation of the middle of the next century. During the last decade, the use of molecular and biochemical methods in combination with experimental studies on biology, have resulted in the identification of seven Trichinella species that have different epidemiological and topographical distributions. Even though these species are very difficult to differentiate morphologically, this can be done with the molecular and positive biological characters for further identification [16].
7.2 Genetic diversity related to multiple hosts
A total of 30 species of T. spiralis having mtDNA genomes has 20 unique haplotypes that were observed containing 86 isolating sites. So, with four out of five shared haplotypes taking place in European and North American samples. Samples from North America had one haplotype, which is present in each geographic sampling site [38]. Out of the total, mostly the variations were limited to the Asian T. spiralis samples. There are about 7 Asian samples, and from these 8 haplotypes were identified; these differed on an ordinary by 24.9 nucleotides. In comparison to this, western samples are averaged with only 3.2 nucleotide differences per haplotype with only 13 haplotypes in 23 samples; the most different pair of western haplotypes differed by only 6 nucleotide differences between any two isolates. Similarly, nucleotide diversity (pi) was 0.00016 in western samples while Asian nucleotide diversity was 10-fold greater (0.00179). As a result, we can say that all Asian samples are different from the western samples by at least 45 bp and averaged 49 bp differences [24].
The most noticeable properties of this parasite’s epidemiology are its requisite transmission by mode of meat ingestion in consumers. There is another important feature, which is present in two normally isolated ecological systems, which are sylvatic and domestic. In certain situations, the two biotopes are connected from end to end man’s activities, which results in the revelation of humans to Trichinella species [38]. Usually, it is restricted to sylvatic animals. The species furthermost often associated with human infection is T spiralis, which is the reported species that is usually found in the meat of domestic pigs. The life cycle of T spiralis includes a multipart set of possible routes. Farm transmission can be the result of predation on or hunting other animals for food purposes (rodents), hog anthropophagy, and the feeding of uncooked meat leftovers [16].
Most outbreaks resulting from ingesting of T spiralis infected pigs can lead to its outbreak through local single-source but, progressively, the mass marketing of meat can distribute the disease-causing parasite in the entire population. There has been a great increase in the reported cases due to Trichinella species, just because of having so many species that are involved in the food chain. The reason for having genetic diversity is also stated that we are lacking in vaccines to eradicate it. The main source is considered as the meat from the game and domestic animals. From recent reports, we can conclude that it also specifies that infected herbivores including horses, sheep, goats, and cattle have been the source of the outbreak [14, 16].
7.3 Multiple stage complexity of T. spiralis
T. spiralisalso has several stages of the complex life cycle that completes in two niches viz. intra-multicellular niche occurs in the intestine epithelium of host where adult male and female worms are involved with the help of (proteolytic digestive enzymes and become mature adult worms). Whereas intracellular niche occurs in the striated muscles of the organism where muscle larvae participate in the development of nurse cells [16], T. spiralis life cycle represents different antigens specific for a particular stage, where these antigens elicit immune responses and facilitate the developmental cycle of the parasites by modifying the host immune responses. To complete their life cycle, they skip the defensive mechanism of the host against invading the foreign body.
Once newborn larvae invade the lymphatic or circulatory system, they can drive anywhere in the organism and survive only in the skeletal muscles of the host. Humans can acquire T. spiralis infection only if they consume undercooked or raw meat containing muscle larvae [36]. Several genes are differentially expressed among the life cycle stages and up-regulated genes in the newborn larvae. The genome of T. spiralis is regulated in the developmental stages [34].
8. Future perspective
Trichinella infection is an emerging zoonosis in many countries and where it become the reason for trichinellosis disease. Due to its widespread prevalence and high amount of pork meat consumption more clinical awareness is required. The acute infection is characterized by two phases viz. enteral which disrupt intestinal functions and parenteral phases are associated with the inflammatory and allergic reaction. The diagnosis of this disease contains new specific serological tests such as immunoblot or ELISA. Anthelmintics and anti-inflammatory drugs are the drug of choice for Trichinella infection [16]. Vaccines formulated for veterinary purposes have made a great impact not only on animal welfare, production, and health but also on human health. Vaccines are considered reliable, efficient, and sustainable for the control and prevention of parasitic infection.
In Thrichinellosis, induction of protective and therapeutic responses should evoke both innate and adaptive immune systems to prevent the establishment of parasites in the organism. The life cycle of T. spiralis is complex, and the immune response is not strong that induced by a vaccine containing specific antigen to overcome the challenging infection. Therefore, a vaccine containing multiple epitopes against T. spiralis induces higher immunity [24]. Probiotics such as Lactobacillus keep the environment of the intestine healthy and prevent enteric infections. Probiotic Lactobacillus casei is most commonly used for protection against Trichinellosis. L. casei is involved in the production of IL-4, IgA, and IgG (anti-T. spiralis antibodies) and has a preventive role against high infection of T. spiralis. Some strains of L. casei include L. casei ATCC 469, L. casei ATCC 7469, and L. casei Shirota have proven efficacy against T. spiralis infection. For the control of Trichinellosis, Probiotics and plants-based veterinary vaccines are a new approach and can be used as treatment and edible vaccines for various parasitic diseases in animals. Due to the low cost of plants production, sterile delivery, and transportation at a suitable temperature, plants are considered as a suitable vehicle for veterinary vaccines [1].
Antigens in the vaccines administered orally are subject to proteolysis by the proteolytic enzymes present in the digestive tract of the organism. It will decrease the bioavailability of the vaccines and will induce a low immune response [1]. On the other hand, in plant-based vaccines antigens are protected from proteolytic enzymes by the cell wall of the plant cells and enable antigens to reach their desired destination (gut-associated lymphoid tissue). Various plants and vegetable species such as potato, tomato, tobacco, alfalfa, rice, spinach, beans, maize, strawberries, and carrots can be used in the biotechnology of plants for the expression and production of recombinant proteins.
For the prevention and control of diseases in animals and their transmission from animals to humans, plant-based vaccines seem to be an excellent tool. More research is required to thoroughly understand the applications of medical plant extracts, probiotics, and other biological agents [24].
9. Conclusion
At least twelve species and genotypes of Trichinella genus can cause veterinary or medical health hazards in a wide geographical range throughout the world. The main etiological agent of Trichinellosis in humans is only T. spiralis parasite and can result in mild to severe clinical signs and symptoms. Numerous antigens are used as candidate vaccines from different stages of T. spiralis and can be used as DNA vaccines or recombinant protein vaccines. The role of progesterone and mifepristone against T. spiralis is also very helpful as they penetrate the vaccine into the target of T. spiralis. Altogether, we can get different strains for specific vaccines with molecular physiognomies of different Trichinella species.
Acknowledgments
The author wishes to thank all other co-authors for providing guidance and support.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"Trichinella spiralis, immune response, progesterone receptor, hormones, vaccine",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81718.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/81718.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81718",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81718",totalDownloads:14,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"December 19th 2021",dateReviewed:"February 2nd 2022",datePrePublished:"May 11th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"May 11th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Trichinellosis is a food-borne, zoonotic disease that causes infection by a nematode parasite belonging to the genus Trichinella. This is an important disease, and its causative agent is prevalent throughout the world (cosmopolitan). More clinical awareness of trichinellosis is required due to its many outbreaks, increase in the consumption of pork meat and its by-products. Trichinellosis is an epizootic in nature and its economic burden is associated with the prevention of this disease from the human food chain. This disease is transmitted from animals to humans through the consumption of raw or undercooked meat containing encapsulated muscle larvae of Trichinella spiralis. This paper demonstrates the direct effect of progesterone (P4) and mifepristone (RU486) on the progesterone receptors of T. spiralis. Also, studied the challenges in the preparation of DNA and recombinant protein vaccination to control trichinellosis. It is simply done this study at different life cycle developmental stages of T. spiralis. Vaccines development against T. spiralis infection is the new paradime shift from prevention of trichinellosis to fulfilling the food safety requirements.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81718",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81718",signatures:"Muhammad Tahir Aleem, Ruofeng Yan, Asad Khan, Rida Asrar, Amna Shakoor, Areej Asif, Zhaohai Wen, Zhengqing Yu, Muhammad Abdullah Malik, Tauseef-ur-Rehman, Rao Zahid Abbas, Muhammad Mohsin, Xiaokai Song, Lixin Xu and Xiangrui Li",book:{id:"11380",type:"book",title:"Parasitic Helminths and Zoonoses - From Basic to Applied Research",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Parasitic Helminths and Zoonoses - From Basic to Applied Research",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Jorge Morales-Montor, Dr. Víctor Hugo Del Río-Araiza and Dr. Romel Hernández Bello",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11380.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-568-3",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-567-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-569-0",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Status of anti-T. spiralis vaccine",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. T. spiralis -associated immune mechanism",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Genomic and proteomic profile of T. spiralis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1 DNA based vaccine",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2 Protein-based vaccine",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"5. Role of progesterone receptor in trichinella spiralis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"6. Role of progesterone and mifepristone against T. spiralis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"7. Challenges to developing an efficient vaccine against T. spiralis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"7.1 Diversity within T. spiralis parasites",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"7.2 Genetic diversity related to multiple hosts",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"7.3 Multiple stage complexity of T. spiralis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"8. Future perspective",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"9. 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Parasites & Vectors. 2018 Dec;11(1):625. DOI: 10.1186/s13071-018-3198-5'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Muhammad Tahir Aleem",address:null,affiliation:'
MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, China
MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, China
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She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. 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He is also Member of the Laboratory of genetic, animal and feed resource and member of Animal science Department of INAT. He graduated from Higher School of Agriculture of Mateur, University of Carthage, in 2002 and completed his masters in 2006. Dr. M’HAMDI completed his PhD thesis in Genetic welfare indicators of dairy cattle at Higher Institute of Agronomy of Chott-Meriem, University of Sousse, in 2011. He worked as assistant Professor of Genetic, biostatistics and animal biotechnology at INAT since 2013.",institutionString:null,institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"8460",title:"Reproductive Biology and Technology in Animals",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8460.jpg",slug:"reproductive-biology-and-technology-in-animals",publishedDate:"April 15th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi and Katy Satué Ambrojo",hash:"32ef5fe73998dd723d308225d756fa1e",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Reproductive Biology and Technology in Animals",editors:[{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:"Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, Spain",institution:null}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"11601",title:"Econometrics - Recent Advances and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11601.jpg",hash:"bc8ab49e2cf436c217a49ca8c12a22eb",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 13th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"452331",title:"Dr.",name:"Brian",surname:"Sloboda",slug:"brian-sloboda",fullName:"Brian Sloboda"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"12141",title:"Leadership - Advancing Great Leadership Practices and Good Leaders",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12141.jpg",hash:"85f77453916f1d80d80d88ee4fd2f2d1",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"July 1st 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"420133",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",surname:"Crawford",slug:"joseph-crawford",fullName:"Joseph Crawford"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"12139",title:"Global Market and Trade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12139.jpg",hash:"fa34af07c3a9657fa670404202f8cba5",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"July 21st 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"243649",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Ireneusz",surname:"Miciuła",slug:"ireneusz-miciula",fullName:"Ireneusz Miciuła"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[],publishedBooks:{},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[],publicationYearFilters:[],authors:{paginationCount:301,paginationItems:[{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116250/images/system/116250.jpg",biography:"Professor Nima Rezaei obtained an MD from Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran. He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. 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She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. 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Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. 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Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"435274",title:null,name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Shahid Khan",slug:"muhammad-shahid-khan",fullName:"Muhammad Shahid Khan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Islamia University of Bahawalpur",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"86",type:"subseries",title:"Business and Management",keywords:"Demographic shifts, Innovation, Technology, Next-gen leaders, Worldwide environmental issues and clean technology, Uncertainty and political risks, Radical adjacency, Emergence of new business ecosystem type, Emergence of different leader and leader values types, Universal connector, Elastic enterprise, Business platform, Supply chain complexity",scope:"
\r\n\tThe Business and Management series topic focuses on the most pressing issues confronting organizations today and in the future. Businesses are trying to figure out how to lead in a time of global uncertainty. In emerging markets, issues such as ill-defined or unstable policies, as well as corrupt practices, can be hugely problematic. Changes in governments can result in new policy, regulations, and interest rates, all of which can be detrimental to foreign businesses and investments. A growing trend towards economic nationalism also makes the current global political landscape potentially hostile towards international businesses.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe demographic shifts are creating interesting challenges. People are living longer, resulting to an aging demographic. We have a large population of older workers and retirees who are living longer lives, combined with a declining birthrate in most parts of the world. Businesses of all types are looking at how technology is affecting their operations. Several questions arise, such as: How is technology changing what we do? How is it transforming us internally, how is it influencing our clients and our business strategy? It is about leveraging technology to improve efficiency, connect with customers more effectively, and drive innovation. The majority of innovative companies are technology-driven businesses. Realizing digital transformation is today’s top issue and will remain so for the next five years. Improving organizational agility, expanding portfolios of products and services, creating, and maintaining a culture of innovation, and developing next -generation leaders were also identified as top challenges in terms of both current and future issues.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe most sustained profitable growth occurs when a company expands its core business into an adjacent space. This has significant implications for management because innovation in business ecosystems differs from traditional, vertically integrated firms. Every organization in the ecosystem must be aware of the bigger picture. Innovation in ecosystems necessitates collaborative action to invent and appraise, efficient, cross-organizational knowledge flows, modular architectures, and good stewardship of legacy systems. It is built on multiple, interconnected platforms. Environmental factors have already had a significant impact in the West and will continue to have an impact globally. Businesses must take into account the environmental impact of their daily operations. The advantage of this market is that it is expected to grow more rapidly than the overall economy. Another significant challenge is preparing the next generation of leaders to elevate this to the number one priority within the next five years. There can be no culture of innovation unless there is diverse leadership or development of the next generation of leaders; and these diverse, next-generation leaders are the ones who will truly understand the digital strategies that will drive digital transformation.
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His own consulting firm, Palemid, has managed twenty significant projects, such as Cooperation Program Interreg V-A (Slovenia-Austria) and Capacity Building for the Serbian Chamber of Enforcement Agents. He has also participated in many international projects in Italy, Germany, Great Britain, the United States, Spain, Turkey, France, Romania, Croatia, Montenegro, Malaysia, and China. Dr. Bobek is also a co-founder of the Academy of Regional Management in Slovenia.",institutionString:"Universities of Applied Sciences FH Joanneum, Austria",institution:null},editorTwo:{id:"293992",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatjana",middleName:null,surname:"Horvat",slug:"tatjana-horvat",fullName:"Tatjana Horvat",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hXb0hQAC/Profile_Picture_1642419002203",biography:"Tatjana Horvat works as a professor for accountant and auditing at the University of Primorska, Slovenia. She is a Certified State Internal Auditor (licensed by Ministry of Finance RS) and Certified Internal Auditor for Business Sector and Certified accountant (licensed by Slovenian Institute of Auditors). At the Ministry of Justice of Slovenia, she is a member of examination boards for court expert candidates and judicial appraisers in the following areas: economy/finance, valuation of companies, banking, and forensic investigation of economic operations/accounting. 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