A summary of the main spraying jet modes (adopted from [63]).
\r\n\tThe human microbiota consists of a wide variety of bacteria, viruses, fungi, and other single-celled animals that live in the body while microbiome is the name given to all of the genes inside these microbial cells. Recently, there has been renewed interest in the role played by microbiota and microbiome in both human health and human disease. A correct equilibrium between the human host and their microorganisms is important for an appropriate physiological function.
\r\n\tMicroorganisms have evolved alongside humans and form an integral part of life, carrying out a range of vital functions. They are implicated in both health and disease, and research has found links between bacterial populations, whether normal or disturbed, and the following diseases: asthma, cancer, diabetes, obesity, heart disease and, neurological and neurodegenerative diseases.
\r\n\tThe chapters of this book aim to present outstanding research on biochemical, genetics, clinical, molecular and behavioral fields about microbiota-gut-brain axis with emphasis in how neuropeptides such as brain derived factor (BDNF), substance P, calcitonin gene-related peptide and neuropeptide Y (NPY), vasoactive intestinal polypeptide, somatostatin and corticotropin-releasing factor are also likely to play a role in the bidirectional gut-brain communication. In this capacity they may influence the activity of the gastrointestinal microbiota and its interaction with the gut-brain axis.
\r\n\tIt will be shown evidence that neuropeptides represents a challenge in understanding the complex interactions between gut and brain. Although their precise role in the microbiota-gut-brain axis has not yet been defined, neuropeptides play an important role in this respect. For instance, a growing field of work is implicating the microbiota-microbiome in a variety of psychological processes and neuropsychiatric disorders. These include mood and anxiety disorders, neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism spectrum disorder and schizophrenia, and even neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases. These brain disturbances have been linked to molecular and biochemical alterations in the course of neurodevelopment so, the research in this area has established different approaches (nutritional, immunological, energy homeostasis), to find the role played by the gut microbiota-microbiome in the etiology of the aforementioned brain disorders.
Since the late twentieth century, electrospinning, a technology used for the fabrication of nanofibers, has been receiving increasing attention not only in the scientific community but also in industry. With this technique fibrous material was conveniently prepared with fascinating properties such as ultrafine diameters in the range of 10–500 nanometer (nm), high permeability, porosity, surface area per unit mass, and small inter-fibrous pore size [1, 2, 3]. It is, therefore, considered to be a vital scientific and commercial venture with global economic benefits. This technology traced its legacy back to 1902 [4, 5] and 1934 [6], when the very first patents entitled “Apparatus for Electrical Dispersion of Fluids” and “Process and Apparatus for Preparing Artificial Over and Done Threads from Electrically Dispersed Fluids” were registered. Since then, this process was largely ignored until the 1990s. However, with the recent revelations by researchers who are associated with the field of nanotechnology mainly nanofibers, investigations into the preparation of nanofibers using the aforementioned technique picked up momentum [7].
In the literature, various techniques are reported for the fabrication of nanomaterials. These include drawing-processing, template-assisted synthesis, self-assembly, solvent casting, phase separation, and electrospinning [8, 9, 10]. With advancement of research in nanotechnology, particularly associated with nanoparticles, nanostructures, and more explicitly with the preparation of scaffolds, electrospinning emerged as a highly developed and frequently used technique/process. This process is favored over other techniques such as solvent casting and phase separation, since nanofibers have high surface area to volume ratio and inter-/intra-fibrous pores. In addition to the previously mentioned properties, it has the advantages of being easy to use and have a low processing cost. The growing literature on electrospinning has helped this technique to pave the way for advancements in areas like environmental protection, bioengineering, electronics, and catalysis [11, 12, 13]. The capability of this technique to produce nanomaterials from numerous raw materials ranging from simple natural polymers to complex materials such composites has attracted a large number of researchers. For example, scientists have reported a wide range of applications of electrospun nanofibers in the protection of the environment, most importantly in water and air filtration. Subramanian et al. [14] and Feng et al. [15] emphasized the importance of using electrospun nanofibers for the removal of contaminants from water, focusing on the application of electrospun nanofibers in nanofiltration.
Furthermore, polymers with a piezoelectric effect (i.e., polyvinylidene fluoride) can be subjected to an electrospinning technique for the fabrication of nanofiber scaffolds with a piezoelectric effect. Apart from the use of nanofibers in scaffolds with piezoelectric effect, they can also be used for producing high-surface-area nanosensors. Huang et al. suggested that scaffolds of the copolymer poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) could be used as sensing tools in both chemical and biological fields [16]. Investigators have also highlighted that sensors prepared of nanofibers might demonstrate improved sensing capabilities for chemicals such as 2,4-dinitrotulene DNT, mercury (Hg), and ferric (Fe+3) ions as compared to orthodox thin film.
Furthermore, fluorescent polymer electrospun nanofiber optical sensors also showed high sensitivity [17]. Ultrafine electrospun nanofiber scaffolds can also be applied in the preparation of nanotubes, which are of prime importance in various industries [18]. To prepare nanotubes, electrospun nanofibers are coated with the raw material of the nanotubes, and upon the evaporation of a solvent via solvent evaporation or the thermal degradation of the polymers, the nanotubes are synthesized. Bognitzki et al. adopted a physical and chemical vapor deposition technique using poly (L-lactide)(PLLA) nanofibers as a template and synthesized polymer composite nanotubes comprised of poly(p-xylene)/aluminum metal with a thickness of 0.1–1 mm [19]. Hou et al. prepared nanotubes with an even smaller diameter by adopting the same technique using poly(L-lactide)(PLA) and poly(tetramethylene adipamide)(PA) as templates [16, 20].
Electrospun nanofibers have also played a pivotal role in the area of biomaterials. The importance of electrospun nanofibers in the biomedical field can be determined from the fact that numerous articles are being published every year on a regular basis in high-quality journals, highlighting their significance in biomedical engineering. Nanofiber scaffolds were also functionalized with desired triggering groups. These triggering groups performed a significant role in providing conducive atmosphere to the cells, which resulted in their enhanced anchoring, proliferation, and differentiation. For example, collagen fibril has been known to enhance the interaction between cells and scaffolds. Similarly, electrospun nanofiber scaffolds are also used as a drug delivery carrier for carrying drugs to their target sites [21, 22].
Nanofibers, until now, have been produced using electrospinning from nearly 100 diverse polymers of natural and synthetic origins. All polymers have been electrospun via solvent and melt spinning. Even with the persistent use of this technique, the understanding of the basics still need to be acquired. Figures 1–5 show the research interest in the area of electrospinning and the market interest in the electrospun product. More than 200 universities and research institutes worldwide (some with high publications are shown in Figure 3) are still studying a variety of the electrospinning processes, their various aspects, and the nanofibers produced. The market of electrospun product is expected to increase mostly in filtration and medical fields by 2025 (Figure 5).
Scopus data showing year-wise publications in the area of electrospinning. The data is taken on February 09, 2019.
Showing Scopus data subject wise where electrospinning has been used. The data is taken on February 09, 2019.
Showing Scopus data of the institutions, which are working in area of electrospinning. The data is taken on February 09, 2019.
Country-wise Scopus data of electrospinning. The data is taken on February 09, 2019.
Nanofiber market to 2025—Global analysis and forecasts by material (polymer nanofiber, carbon nanofiber, ceramic nanofiber, composite nanofiber, and glass nanofiber) and application (energy, medical life science and pharmaceutical, and chemical and environmental and defense and security, consumer, electronics,
Much research has been done on the electrospinning technique. Based on the literature, the fundamental setup used for electrospinning (Figure 6a) consists of mainly four parts: a glass syringe (holding solution), needle (metallic), applied voltage, and collector (metallic, with a variable morphology). The process commences, when electric charges, produced on the needle due to the applied voltage, transfer into the polymer solution via the metallic needle [22]. These charges cause instability within the polymer droplet. The repulsion of charges generates a force opposite to surface tension. These forces cause the polymer solution to move in the direction of the electric field (Figure 6b). An increase in the electric field forces the spherical droplet to distort and adopt a conical shape. At this phase, fine nanofibers (nano to micro in diameters) appear from the conical droplet called Taylor cone, which are whippingly collected on the collector and kept at an optimized distance. A steady charge jet could only form, when the polymer solution possesses adequate cohesive force. This whipping of the fibers permits the polymer chains to stretch and slide past each other in the solution, which leads to the fabrication of fibers with diameters as mentioned above [23, 24].
Schematic depicting (a) electrospinning setup, and (b) phenomenon of electrospinning.
There are various factors that affect the electrospinning process. These factors are classified as electrospinning parameters and solution parameters. The electrospinning parameters include the applied electric field, distance between the needle and collector, flow rate, and needle diameter. The solution parameters include the solvent, polymer concentration, and viscosity. All of these parameters directly affect the generation of smooth and bead-free electrospun fibers. Therefore, to gain a better understanding of the electrospinning technique and fabrication of polymeric nanofibers, it is essential to thoroughly understand the effects of all of these governing parameters. Detailed information highlighting the role of electrospinning and the effects of the solution parameters on the morphology of electrospun polymeric nanofibers are summarized below.
Generally, it is a known fact that the flow of current from a high-voltage power supply into a solution via a metallic needle will cause a spherical droplet to deform into a Taylor cone and form ultrafine nanofibers at a critical voltage (Figure 7a–f). This critical value of applied voltage varies for different polymers systems. The creation of nanofibers with smaller diameter as the applied voltage is increased could be ascribed to the stretching of the polymer solution and charge repulsion in the polymer jet [25]. An increased applied voltage further than the critical value while keeping the flow rate constant will lead to the creation of beads or beaded nanofibers. The creation of beads or beaded nanofibers with an increased applied voltage is ascribed to the decrease in size of the Taylor cone and increase in the jet velocity. Deitzel et al. reported bead formation with an increase in the applied voltage using poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO)/water. Similar results were also reported by Meechaisue et al. and Zong et al. [26]. Furthermore, the diameter of the nanofibers was also reported to increase with an increase in the applied voltage. This increase in the diameter was attributed to an increase in the jet length with the applied voltage (Figure 7) [27].
The images showing the droplet deformation and eventual fiber ejection with an increase in electric field on droplet and effect of charges on polymeric solutions [
The movement of solution through the tip of the needle controls the morphology of the nanofibers. Uniform beadless nanofibers could be fabricated via a critical flow rate. The flow rate varies for different polymers systems. An increase in the flow rate further than the critical value results in the creation of beads. For instance, the increase in flow rate of polystyrene (PS) to 0.10 mL/min led to bead creation. However, when the flow rate was reduced to 0.07 ml/min, bead-free, narrow-diameter electrospun fibers were formed. Because an increase and the decrease in the flow rate affect the nanofiber diameter, a minimum flow rate is preferred to maintain a balance between the leaving polymeric solution and replacement of that solution with a new one during jet formation [29, 30]. This will also permit the formation of a steady cone jet and sometimes a receded jet: a jet that appears from the inside of the needle with no apparent droplet or cone. Receded jets are not steady jets, and during the process, these jets are unceasingly substituted by cone jets. This phenomenon results in the formation of nanofibers with wide range diameters (Figure 8a–h) [31]. Numerous research groups have studied the effect of the flow rate on the morphology and diameter of nanofibers. For instance, Zong et al. revealed that smaller diameter nanofibers can be prepared using a low flow rate, whereas a high flow rate will not only yield high-diameter nanofibers, but the bead formed will also have a high diameter [32]. Megelski et al. showed an increase in the pore size and fiber diameter of PS nanofibers by increasing the flow rate of the polymeric solution. They also concluded that fibers with beads were formed at a high flow rate as a result of the incomplete drying of the nanofibers jet during its flight between the needle tip and metallic collector [29]. In addition to bead formation, in some cases, at an elevated flow rate, ribbonlike defects [29] and unspun droplets (Figure 8e) have also been reported in the literature [31]. The creation of beads and ribbonlike structures with an increased flow rate was mainly ascribed to the low stretching of the solution in the flight between the needle and metallic collector and the non-evaporation of the solvent. Similar effect could also be ascribed to an increase in diameter of the nanofibers with an increase in the flow rate [29]. The presence of the unspun droplets is attributed to the influence of the gravitational force [31]. Another important factor that may cause defects in the nanofiber structure is the surface charge density. Any change in the surface charge density may also affect the morphology of the nanofibers. For example, Theron et al. found that flow rate and electric current are directly linked to each other. His group investigated the effects of the flow rate and surface charge density using PEO, polyacrylic acid (PAA), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), polyurethane (PU), and polycaprolactone (PCL). They noted that, in the case of PEO, an increase in the flow rate increased the electric current and decreased the surface charge density at the same time. A decreased surface charge density permits the merger of nanofibers in their flight to the collector. This merger of nanofibers helps in the creation of garlands [33, 34].
Formation of various jets with increasing flow rate; here, (f–h) show images of electrospun fibers on aluminum foil [
Electrospinning counts on the uniaxial stretching of a charged jet. The stretching of the charged jet is considerably affected if the solution concentration is changed. For instance, when the concentration is low, the applied electric field and surface tension force the entangled polymer chains to rupture into fragments before reaching the collector [23, 35] . These fragments then lead to the creation of beads or beaded nanofibers. Increased concentration of the solution, however, leads to an increase in the viscosity, which subsequently increases the chain entanglement. These entanglements then overcome the surface tension and eventually result in uniform and beadless nanofibers. Moreover, increasing the concentration further than a critical value impedes the flow of the solution through the needle tip. In simple words viscous solution partially blocks and dries at the needle tip. This eventually leads to defective and beaded nanofibers [23]. The morphologies of the beads depict an interesting shape change from a round droplet-like shape (with low-viscosity solutions) to a stretched droplet or ellipse to smooth fibers (with sufficient viscosity) as the solution viscosity changes (Figure 9a–h). This effect of the concentration/viscosity on the morphology of the nanofibers was also reported by Doshi et al. Working with PEO, they concluded that the optimum viscosity for the generation of electrospun nanofibers is 800–4000 cp [7]. In addition to the work of Doshi et al., an experiment on a polyacrylonitrile (PAN) polymer solution showed that smooth electrospun nanofibers could be prepared when the viscosity of the solution was kept at 1.7–215 cp. Hence, it can be concluded that in addition to the electrospinning parameters, the determination of the critical value of the concentration/viscosity is also essential to obtain beadless nanofibers [27].
Variation in morphology of electrospun nanofibers with viscosity: (a–d) schematic and (e–h) SEM micrographs [
The selection of solvent is one of the key factors for the fabrication of smooth and beadless electrospun nanofibers. Usually two things need to be kept in mind before selecting the solvent. First, the preferred solvents for electrospinning process have polymers that are completely soluble. Second, the solvent should have a moderate boiling point. Its boiling point gives an idea about the volatility of a solvent. Mostly volatile solvents are desired as their high evaporation rates boost the fabrication of nanofibers. However, very highly volatile solvents are commonly avoided since their high evaporation rate forces the drying of jet at the needle tip. This drying blocks the needle tip and thus hampers the electrospinning process. Likewise, low-volatile solvents are also avoided since their low evaporation inhibits their drying in the flight. The deposition of solvent-containing nanofibers on the collector will cause the formation of beaded nanofibers [25, 38]. Numerous research groups have studied the effects of the solvent and solvent system on the morphology of nanofibers (Figure 10a–f) [39] and concluded that similar to the applied voltage, solvent also affects the polymer system [40]. Moreover, solvents also play a vibrant role in the fabrication of highly porous nanofibers. This may happen when a polymer is dissolved in two solvents, where one act as solvents and the other as a non-solvent. The difference in the evaporation rates of the solvent and non-solvent causes phase separation, which results in the creation of pores in nanofibers (Figure 10f) [25]. Similar results were also reported by Zhang et al. [41]. Megelski et al. prepared porous nanofibers by varying the ratio of tetrahydrofuran (THF) and dimethylformamide (DMF) [29]. The conductivity and dipole moment of the solvent are also very vital. Jarusuwannapoom et al. from the test of 18 solvents concluded only five solvents (ethyl acetate, DMF, THF, methyl ethyl ketone, and 1,2-dichloroethane) were feasible to be used in the electrospinning of PS, since these solvents displayed relatively superior conductivity and dipole moment [42].
SEM images of 5% PCL solutions dissolved in different solvents: (a) glacial acetic acid, (b) 90% acetic acid, (c) methylene chloride/ DMF = 4/1, (d) glacial formic acid, (e) and formic acid/acetone, along with (f) SEM images of PVB nanofibers prepared from 10 wt% THF/DMSO (9/1 v/v) [
The distance between the metallic needle tip and collector plays an essential role in determining the morphology of electrospun nanofibers. Similar to the applied electric field, viscosity, and flow rate, the distance between the metallic needle tip and collector also varies with the polymer system. The nanofiber morphology could be easily affected by the distance because it depends on the deposition time, evaporation rate, and whipping or instability interval [44]. Hence, a critical distance needs to be maintained to prepare smooth and uniform electrospun nanofibers, and any changes on either side of the critical distance will affect the morphology of the nanofibers [45]. Numerous research groups have studied the effect of the distance between the needle tip and collector and concluded that defective and large-diameter nanofibers are formed when this distance is kept small, whereas the diameter of the nanofibers decreased as the distance was increased [27, 44, 46]. However, there are cases where no effect on the morphology of the nanofibers was observed with a change in the distance between the metallic needle and collector [47].
Electrospray is a technique that uses electricity to disperse a liquid and produce fine aerosol. High voltage is applied to a liquid supply usually a glass or metallic capillary. The liquid on reaching to the tip of the capillary tube (in ideal conditions) forms a Taylor cone, which produces a liquid jet through its top. Varicose waves (twisted and lengthened waves) on the surface of the jet lead to the creation of small and highly charged liquid droplets, which due to Coulomb repulsion are radially dispersed. Electrospray deposition technique is very famous among chemical and medical researchers. This system has several advantages (such as high drug-loading efficiency and self-dispersion) over conventional methods.
In the late sixteenth century, Gilbert [48] described the behavior of magnetic and electrostatic phenomena. He noticed that, in the presence of a charged piece of amber, a drop of water deformed into a cone. This effect was clearly related to electrospray and considered to be the first such observation. Gilbert did not record/elaborate the observation. In 1750, a French clergyman and physicist Jean-Antoine (Abbé) Nollet noticed that water flowing from a vessel aerosolized when the vessel was electrified and placed near electrical ground. He also observed that if a person is electrified due to a connection to a high-voltage generator, he would not bleed normally if he were to cut himself. The blood would only spray from the wound [49]. In 1882, Rayleigh theoretically estimated the maximum amount of charge a liquid droplet could carry [50]. This theory is now known as the “Rayleigh limit.” He predicted that a droplet on reaching Rayleigh limit would move as fine jets of liquid. More than 100 years later, Rayleigh limit theory was confirmed experimentally [51]. In 1914, Zeleny studied the behavior of fluid droplets at the end of glass capillaries. The work was later published [52]. The report presented experimental evidence for several electrospray-operating regimes (dripping, burst, pulsating, and cone jet). A few years later, the first time-lapse images of the dynamic liquid meniscus were captured [53]. Between 1964 and 1969, Taylor produced the theoretical groundwork of electrospraying [54, 55, 56]. Taylor demonstrated a cone formation by the fluid droplet when an electric field was applied. This characteristic droplet shape is named as the Taylor cone. He further worked with Melcher to develop the “leaky dielectric model” for conducting fluids [57].
Electrospraying is a technique (Figure 11) used for liquid atomization that achieves the stretching and breakup of polymeric solution via electrical forces to obtain micro- or nanoscale particles. Many forces control and direct the electrospraying process; the most important are (i) gravity of polymeric solution, (ii) electrostatic force generated (from external electric field) between nozzle and collector, (iii) repulsion force (Coulomb forces) among adjacent charged carriers on the surface of jet, (iv) viscoelastic force of polymeric solution, (v) interfacial surface tension between air and liquid, and (vi) frictional force between the charged jet and the surrounding air. Among these forces, electrostatic, repulsion, viscoelastic forces, and surface tension affect the stretching and atomization of the droplets during the electrospraying process. When a solution flows out of the nozzle (needle), the charge distribution and carried charge quantity on the surface of the solution will change in varying degrees, according to its electrical conductivity and dielectric constant, because of the polarization effect coming from the external electric field. At the same time, initially, the uncharged liquid becomes charged jet and is further stretched toward the direction of electrostatic attraction. However, compared to gravity and electrostatic force that accelerates the movement and stretching of polymeric solution from the nozzle to the collector, the surface tension and viscoelastic ones prevent this movement and elongation because of their opposite behavior on the electrosprayed solution. When these forces reach a balance at a certain range, the droplets at the tip of the nozzle are stretched from the spherical surface into conical surface. In 1964, Taylor proposed, for a perfectly conducting liquid, a first explanation of the conical shape formation, corresponding to a hydrostatic balance between electrostatic forces and surface tension. The presence of the conical surface at the tip of the nozzle during electrospraying is also called Taylor cone. According to Rayleigh’s theory, when the charge quantity distributed on the surface of droplets reaches the value between 50 and 80% of the Rayleigh limit, the breakup and fission of charged droplets occur due to Coulomb repulsions among charged droplets [58]. A classical electrospray setup is considered, with the glass capillary tube situated at a distance (d) from a grounded counter-electrode. The liquid being sprayed is characterized by its viscosity (μ), surface tension (γ), conductivity (κ), and relative permittivity (εr).
(a) Basic electrospraying setup and (b) electrospraying mechanism [
The liquid meniscus adopts a semispherical shape at the needle tip under the influence of surface tension. Application of the voltage (V) will bring into effect the electric field [60]:
where (r) is the liquid radius of curvature. The electric field causes the polarization of the liquid into negative and positive charges. At low voltage, the liquid assumes an equilibrium geometry with a small radius of curvature.
A Taylor cone is formed at the applied electric field above the threshold value. Theoretically the shape of the cone depends on two assumptions: first the cone has equipotential surface, and second the cone is in steady-state equilibrium [54]. To meet both of these conditions, the electric field must have (R1/2) dependence and azimuthal symmetry to counter the surface tension. The answer to this problem is given as below:
where ((V=Vo) equipotential surface) occurs at a value of (θo) (regardless of R) leading to an equipotential cone. The angle necessary for (V=Vo) for all R is a zero of the Legendre polynomial of order 1/2, P1/2 (cosθo). There is only one zero between 0 and Π at 130.7099°, which is the complement of the Taylor’s now famous 49.3° angle.
The top of the conical meniscus cannot turn into substantially small. A singularity develops when the hydrodynamic relaxation time
The charged liquid ejects through the cone top and is collected as charged droplets on the collector which act as electrode. To balance the loss charge, the negative charge (which is in excess) is neutralized electrochemically at the nozzle tip. A disproportion between the amount of charge produced electrochemically and that of the lost at the cone top could result in numerous electrospray regimes. For a stable electrosprays, the potential at interface (metal/liquid) self-regulates to produce the equal amount of charges that are lost through the cone tip [62].
Various institution and disciplines around the world are working on electrospray technique to prepare nano- and microparticles for a number of applications ranging from food to biomedical. Figures 12–15 show the research interest in the area of electrospraying. However, even with the widespread use of the electrospraying technique, the understanding of this method is still very limited.
Scopus data showing year-wise publication in the area of electrospraying. The data is taken on February 09, 2019.
Country-wise Scopus data of electrospraying. The data is taken on February 09, 2019.
Showing Scopus data subject wise where electrospraying has been used. The data is taken on February 09, 2019.
Showing Scopus data of the institutions, which are working in area of electrospraying. The data is taken on February 09, 2019.
Similar to electrospinning, there are various factors that affect the electrospraying process. These factors are classified as operating and solution parameters. The operating parameters include (i) applied voltage, (ii) working distance, (iii) liquid flow rate, and (iv) nozzle type. The solution parameters include (i) electrical conductivity, (ii) surface tension, (iii) viscosity, (iv) vapor pressure, and (v) dielectric constant. All these parameters directly affect the formation of the Taylor cone, which leads to the production of particles having a low mean diameter and narrow particle size distribution. Therefore, to gain a better understanding of the electrospraying technique and achieve low mean diameter and narrow particle size distribution, it is essential to thoroughly understand the effects of all of these governing parameters [58].
Applied voltage is one of the essential parameters, which needs to be optimized to get low diameter and narrow particle distribution. Voltage applied between the nozzle and collector not only influences the stretching of the jet but also the formation of the Taylor cone at the end of the nozzle. Increase in the applied voltage increases the electrostatic forces that are acting on the surface of the charged droplets. This causes the spray mode to gradually take its route from dripping to multi-jet and then to a stable cone jet (Figure 16 and Table 1). When the electrostatic forces acting on the surface of the spray droplets are not sufficiently strong to overcome surface and viscoelastic tensions (low applied voltage causes drop-to-drop mode), film formation occurs on the collector. In the dripping area, electrified liquid form drops at the capillary end till the gravitational and electrical forces overcome their surface tension. The droplets emerge at the end of the capillary at low frequency and maintain spherical morphologies due to gravitational force and surface tension. As the voltage is increased, the shape of the ejected droplet is affected by its wetting properties, which allows the formation of particles with high average diameter and wide size distribution. At higher voltages, the jet mode changes to stable conical jet mode (Figure 17). At this point the electrostatic forces are strong enough to overcome surface and viscoelastic tension, which leads to a balance between different forces and fabrication of low mean diameter particles of narrow size distribution [63, 64].
Schematic showing various possible jet modes during electrospraying process adopted from [
A summary of the main spraying jet modes (adopted from [63]).
Showing the switching of a liquid meniscus (subjected to increasing applied voltage) into a conical shape and a stable jet, adopted from [
The flow rate of the electrospray solution is also an essential factor in the formation of the Taylor cone. The optimization of this parameter depends on two intrinsic characteristics of the solutions: (i) vapor pressure of the solvent (ii) and electrical conductivity of the solutions. A stable Taylor cone prefers low flow rates because the uncharged drop at the tip of the nozzle needs sufficient time polarization. This polarization generates charges on the droplet surface, which in turn promote Taylor cone formation. At higher flows, the decrease in the polarization/partial polarization of the droplets result in continuous dripping of droplets due to gravity. Having said this, for different materials the flow rate to form a stable jet varies. The use of a solvent with a high-saturation vapor pressure needs a higher flow rate to avoid nozzle blocking, when the solvent evaporates. A lower flow rate is recommended for solutions prepared from solvents having low saturated vapor pressure. This is done to ensure complete removal (evaporation) of the solvent during solidification process. Another factor that might affect the optimization of flow rate is the conductivity of the solutions. It is a known fact that conductivity of a solution influences the droplet polarization time. This means, it will also influence the adjustment of an adequate flow rate. Since low conductivity solution will need more time to polarize and generate charges on the droplet, hence in such case low flow rate is recommended. Reverse is the case with high-conductivity solutions [66].
The working distance between the metallic nozzle tip and collector also plays an essential role in determining the formation of a table Taylor cone. Similar to the applied electric field, viscosity, and flow rate, the distance between the metallic needle tip and collector also varies for different polymer systems. Smeets et al. achieved the formation of a stable Taylor cone using a lager tip-to-collector distance and low flow rate. The working distance between the tip and the collector is controlled to achieve a critical electric field (at constant applied field) and ensure the formation of the Taylor cone. At shorter distance, the electric field is higher. This leads to the formation of small particles. However, this is only possible when the solvent is more volatile; otherwise swelled particles are collected on the collector. Long working distance may cause lower yield. This is attributed mainly to the loss of material to the surrounding due to the turbulent droplet flight. Having said this, long working distance is needed when denser polymer particles are required. The particles do not swell on the collectors because of the availability of sufficient time for the droplet’s solvent to evaporate in the flight from nozzle tip to the collector. For low conductive solution with more volatility, nozzle to collector distance is smaller and vice versa for the high-conductivity and low-volatility solution [64].
In the process of electrospraying, a solution is stretched and converted into a jet at the tip of the nozzle due to the electrostatic force, when an electric field is applied between the nozzle tip and collector. A balance between gravity, electrostatic force, Coulomb repulsions, viscoelastic and frictional forces, and surface tension leads to the formation of a Taylor cone at the tip of the nozzle (Figures 11 and 17). The strength of the electrostatic force and Coulomb repulsions that are acting on the electrosprayed droplets depends on the amount of polarization charge on the droplets, which in turn depends on the strength of the applied electric field. These electrostatic attractions counteract the surface tension and viscoelastic forces, which then leads to the formation of Taylor cone. When the electrical conductivity of the solution is too high, this high conductivity causes increased Coulomb repulsions among charged droplets and breakup of the charged droplets. This phenomenon leads to the modification of the balance between gravity, electrostatic force, Coulomb repulsions, viscoelastic and frictional forces, and surface tension and a change from a stable cone jet to an unstable jet. Similarly, a too low electrical conductivity causes decreased electrostatic attractions on the droplets, which leads to the same unbalance among the abovementioned forces and results neither in the Taylor cone formation at the nozzle tip nor the formation of particle. Hence, a critical conductivity of the solution is needed, which results in the formation of a stable Taylor cone. Jaworek and Xie et al. suggested that a electrohydrodynamic process is carried out under cone-jet mode, when the electrical conductivity of the solution is in the range of 10−11 to 10−1 S/m [67].
As discussed earlier, unbalance between the forces affects the formation of a Taylor cone at the tip of the nozzle during the electrospraying. One of these forces is surface tension. Cloupeau and Smith suggested that the surface tension value of the solution used in electrospraying must not exceed 50 mN/m, though some studies reported more value for glycerine (63 mN/m) and water (72.8 mN/m) [68, 69, 70, 71]. A high surface tension of a solution will result in a corona discharge at the tip of the nozzle, which will cause a stable cone jet to change into an irregular spraying and an asymmetrical mode. Similar to surface tension, viscosity of the solutions also affects the formation of a stable Taylor cone. Since the direction of the viscoelastic force is opposite to the direction of the gravity and electrostatic attraction, when the viscosity of the solution is low, the combined viscoelastic force and surface tension are sufficiently strong to counteract the gravity and electrostatic attraction forces. This leads to dripping instead of cone jet. A high-viscosity solution does not allow the formation of a stable Taylor cone due to the drying of the polymeric particles, which block the tip of the capillary and therefore restricting the formation of a stable Taylor cone. Thus, in order to achieve a stable con jet during electrospraying process, a critical range of viscosity is needed. This range will be different for different for polymeric systems. For some the range may be from 1.5 to 5500 mPa·s [52, 53].
Boiling point of the solution in electrospraying also affects the formation of Taylor cone. Since the evaporation of solvent and the formation of Taylor cone at the tip of the nozzle occur simultaneously in jetting, thus a too low boiling point (high vapor pressure) changes the shape of the stable cone jet into an unstable one. Furthermore, a low boiling point of solution will result in the drying of the polymeric particles at the tip of the nozzle and will block the tip and stop the process. The effect of the dielectric constant on the cone-jet formation is similar to the electrical conductivity. A very high and too low dielectric constant is not favorable to obtain a stable cone jet during electrospraying process (e.g., polycaprolactone (PCL)). Some research published on the electrospinning of PS correlated to the dipole moment and the dielectric constant of the solutions. To date, very few articles have studied the effect of dielectric constant on the outcomes of electrospraying; much work is needed to completely understand its effects [42, 72].
Electrospinning is a technique used for the fabrication of nanofibers, whereas electrospray is a technique used for the preparation of micro- or nanoscale size, mono-dispersed particles. Both of these electrodynamic techniques have been receiving increasing attention not only in the scientific community but also in the food, environmental, and biomedical industries. The main apparatus used for both of these processes is almost the same. Both need electric voltage to induce charges on the droplet, which at optimized electric filed leads to micro- or nanofibers and micro- or nanoparticles. Rayleigh in 1882, for the first time, theoretically estimated the maximum amount of charge a liquid droplet could carry to change in a jet. This theory is now known as the “Rayleigh limit.” His predicted that a droplet on reaching Rayleigh limit would move as fine jets of liquid. More than 100 years later, Rayleigh limit theory was confirmed experimentally. Beside electric filed there are other operating and solution parameters that need to be optimized before we obtain our desired products. The particle and fiber formation mechanisms and principles of electrospraying and electrospinning are still complicated, and more studies are needed understand both of these processes.
Protein is a necessary nutrient, but not all protein-rich foods are equally represented, and you may no longer require as much as you believe. Protein, together with carbs and fat, is one of the three essential crucial components. Protein is made from more than 20 amino acids that assist create and repair muscle fiber, so that it is known as the “building blocks” of your body. Adults should consume at least 0.8 g of protein per kg of body weight each day or little over 7 g every 20 lb of body weight. In 2005, it was projected that 20% of children under the age of five in the lowlands were overweight [1]. Even though southern Asia has the biggest number of children (74 million), East Africa and South East Asia have the highest stunting rate [1]. When nations with a stunting frequency of at least 20% were included, approximately 36 mainly consisted of 90% of all retarded young children [1].
According to various reports from Germany, the U.N, and French during the previous century, acute malnutrition was more prevalent among the hospitalized pediatric patients in Germany, the United Kingdom, the United States, and France [2, 3, 4]. Pawellek and colleagues discovered that 24% of children in a German major government hospital were underweight (90th percentile weight for height), with 17.9% mild malnutrition, 4.4% moderate malnutrition, and 1% severe, using Waterlow’s criteria. Undernutrition was found in 40% of patients with chondrogenesis, 34% of patients with infection, and 33.3% of patients with cystic fibrosis, 28.6% of patients with heart disease, 27.3% of patients with cancer treatment, and 23.6% of patients with gastrointestinal disorders [3]. Protein is necessary for proper growth and the avoidance of malnutrition.
The population of the world is predicted to double by 2063, from around 6.5 billion currently to 13 billion. Because proteins are the only one of three macronutrients in our diet (the others being carbohydrates and fats), ensuring that adequate protein is available to feed the world’s population is crucial. Proteins are made up of a variety of amino acid residues that are required for tissue growth, repair, and replenishment. Protein costs are rising as a result of societal shifts such as rising wages, increasing population, and living standards, where the value of proteins in healthy aging is well recognized [5, 6], as well as a growing recognition of the needs of protein in a healthy diet. Economic urban development is generating significant population dynamics nutritional status, particularly in moderate and high countries, with developing countries accounting for the majority of global increases in demand for animal-based meals [5].
Vegetables are not only the most energy effective in the green house, but they are also a major source of energy, nutrients, elements, protein, omega-3 fatty acids, and widely accessible energy for global agricultural production. Over 3000 plant species have been utilized for food by humans over history, with at least 50 species being farmed for business reasons. Nevertheless, approximately 20 different vegetable crops support the majority of the world’s population. Vegetables produce two-thirds of all dietary protein on the planet. Table 1 shows that cereal crops, especially, provide a significant amount of protein to the global protein supply. The data are derived from FAO and Agro state sites [7].
Protein (g) | Protein (%) | Energy (Kcal) | Energy (%) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Total plant | 46.1 | 65 | 2277 | 84 |
Cereals | 33.7 | 47 | 1385 | 51 |
Pulses, nuts | 6.0 | 8 | 109 | 4 |
Starchy roots | 2.0 | 3 | 141 | 5 |
Other vegetables | 2.5 | 4 | 46 | 2 |
Fruits | 0.8 | 1 | 65 | 2 |
Total animal | 25.0 | 35 | 433 | 16 |
71.1 | 100 | 2710 | 100 |
Worldwide relative importance of various food groups and per capita intake.
Table 2 illustrates the amounts of necessary amino acids in various dietary sources, with the most restricting amino acids in protein sources meals shown in bold. The necessary protein lysine is significantly lower in vegetable-food protein classes than in animal nutrition, as can be shown. Children can thrive as well as recover from acute malnutrition if carefully prepared meals based exclusively on vegetable food sources are supplied. As a consequence, vegetable meals can supply the critical components needed for optimal health and function in the correct ratios and combinations. Protein sources meal combinations have the potential to be nutrient dense. Despite the soybean’s reduced sulfur content, soya, peanut and sesame flour, and cereal grains, for instance, are mostly poor in lysine. This suggests that oil-seed proteins, especially soy proteins, might be used efficiently for most cereal grains to enhance protein properties. Data from the FAO and the US Department of Agriculture are included in Table 2 [8].
Food source | Threonine | Tryptophan | Lysine | Sulfur amino acids |
---|---|---|---|---|
mg/g protein | ||||
Legumes | 38 ± 3 | 12 ± 4 | 64 ± 10 | 25 ± 3 |
Cereals | 32 ± 4 | 12 ± 2 | 31 ± 10 | 37 ± 5 |
Nuts, seeds | 36 ± 3 | 17 ± 3 | 45 ± 14 | 46 ± 17 |
Fruits | 29 ± 7 | 11 ± 2 | 45 ± 12 | 27 ± 6 |
Animal foods | 44 ± 6 | 12 ± 6 | 85 ± 9 | 38 ± 7 |
The presence of the amino acid content of different food protein source.
This is entirely dependent on the individual’s age, exercise level, weight, medical history, and desired outcomes. People who are sedentary have distinct needs, adults have different requirements, and athletes possess different needs. Assessments of protein requirements, as according to FAO/WHOIUNU [9], refer to metabolic activities that last for a long duration. Though protein and amino acid requirements are usually expressed as daily rates, this is not always the case, and this does not mean that they must be ingested every day. To preserve muscle mass and function, as well as to fight osteoporosis, the aged require a larger protein consumption than younger people [10, 11]. Although current guidelines recommend a protein consumption of 0.8 grams per kilogram body weight per day (g/kg/d) [12], it is been shown that fit and healthy seniors need a protein intake of 1.2 g/kg/d to avoid age-related weight gain and function [13, 14]. There is presently no evidence on the usual protein consumption of healthy and active older adults, including any potential differences between males and females, to our knowledge. Figure 1 shows how protein requirements differ depending on the individual [15].
Protein intake requirements on a daily basis.
Because our bodies are unable to manufacture critical amino acids, we must obtain them from food. Some amino acids found in proteins could not be used by our bodies. Figure 2 shows many forms of amino acids [15].
Types of amino acids with their importance.
When a person consumes vegetable-based protein, their nutritional needs are higher than when they consume animal protein. Figure 3 depicts the protein requirements for the plant. Vegetable-based proteins that include essential amino acids and branched-chain amino acids include soy, pea, and rice. These are complete proteins that are hypoallergenic and gluten free. Proteins are essential components of human diets because they aid in the maintenance of muscle mass, the regulation of immune responses, the healing of cells, and the enhancement of communication. Proteins are important components in functional meals because of their helpful activities in terms of delivering different proteins in the human diet, such as stiffening and meshing capability, emulsion, fizzing, water retention, and body fat [16, 17].
The protein requirements including essential amino acids and branched-chain amino acids.
Figure 4 shows a wide range of vegetable-based proteins derived from several sources. These can be extracted from low-cost and ecological sources such as agricultural wastes and crop and oil industry by-products, which can help to achieve food security [16].
Major plant-based protein sources.
Because of the varied metabolic requirements of certain tissues, rats, and humans have varying amino acid requirements. The fact that the protein-energy ratio of animal proteins (or a combination of proteins) does not reach its maximum value but rises when methionine is added supports the notion that rodents have a higher sulfur amino acid need than humans. The consumption of a protein in people can be measured by monitoring the fecal matter and urine nitrogen (N) losses; it is predicated on the nitrate adjustment study premise. These studies indicated that some vegetable proteins, particularly beans and wheat, are underappreciated. Wheat’s net protein utilization was calculated to be 41% when compared to egg protein. In humans, data show that most vegetable sources of protein have true digestibility in the 80–90% range, with references having lower digestibility (e.g., “rice, cereal”: 75% and “rice, polished”: 88%) and others having higher digestibility (e.g., “wheat, refined”: 96%, “soy protein isolate”: 95%). When protein percentage is purer, vegetable protein is much more digestive. Instead of looking at total nitrogen levels, per specific amino acid’s digestion should be studied, as this has been suggested for many years. Because some protein acids personal digestion fluctuates or is lower than that of others for several reasons, average digestion is an insufficient proxy with each protein bioavailability.
The digestibility of various dietary proteins was found to be between 89 and 95 % in investigations using advanced techniques. The findings were 89 %–92 % for soy protein isolate, pea protein flour or isolate, wheat flour, and lupine flour, which were close to those reported for eggs (91%) and meat (90 –94 %), but somewhat lower than those published for milk protein isolate (95 %). When absorbed at a level that fulfills the entire protein needs (e.g., 0.66 g/kg weight), a dietary protein with an amino acid score offers precisely the exact quantities of proteins that satisfy metabolic requirements and at a ratio in which no amino acid limits utilization of others. Lysine in grains and sulfur amino acids in beans typically emerge as restricted AAS stands for Amino acid score of vegetable protein. A closer analysis of the literature discloses that lysine rates are reduced or near zero in cereals such as sorghum, wheat, triticale (47, 49, and 62%), and rice (80%), and also low in few more both these sources (walnuts and almonds: 60%). In contrast, it is high or extremely high in other sources, notably legumes (e.g., pea: 168 %; fava bean: 152 %; soybean: 134 %) and animal proteins (milk: 168 %; beef: 193 %; egg: 160 %) [18].
Vegetable proteins can also be used to generate bioactive peptides. Most vegetable-based proteins, however, are insoluble in water due to their poor wettability, intricacy, and vulnerability to pH, osmotic pressure, and temperature, limiting their application. Flaxseed, soy, and pea proteins are examples of vegetable proteins with varied percentages. The presence of antinutrients with in form of individual plant residuals is a disadvantage of vegetable proteins. These compounds are produced by vegetables and have biological functions such as protecting vegetables from bugs, infections, fungi, and other organisms. Some of these changes can also assist to mitigate the negative effects of antinutrients [19]. Figure 5 shows plant protein utilization issues and challenges. To overcome challenges of vegetable-based proteins to date, modifications tactics have been used to circumvent these difficulties. Protein modification is the process of changing a protein’s chemical composition or a few chemical units using particular procedures to enhance its techno-functionality and bioactivity. The advantages and disadvantages of each of the physical techniques of protein change used yet for vegetable proteins will be examined separately. Plant-based protein utilization and challenges are shown in Figure 5.
Plant-based protein utilization issue and challenges.
Heat is among the most common methods for significantly modifying the structure and sensory attributes of vegetable proteins. Protein unwinding is aided by a low-temperature environment, resulting in an intermediary molten globule state with improved functioning. Extreme heat stability, on the other hand, causes permanent changes in protein structures, resulting in hydrolysis and aggregating
Microwave frequency is less than chemical bond rate [22], and the approach can change the protein without disrupting its core structure, making it attractive as a classification scheme before further physical methods. The microwave approach has also been used to regulate the immune system of vegetable proteins. A significant drop (24.7%) is found in soya mutagenicity by microwave heating at 600 W for 10 min [23]. The activity of chemicals released by dipolar and ionic movement in the existence of an RF field impacts protein function. Radiofrequency (RF) like the microwave is premised on heat production and impacts protein function
It is the fourth form of matter could be generated at a wide range of temperatures and tensions
Vegetable proteins | Animal proteins |
---|---|
Adjustable for CKD patients | Non-adjustable |
Lower cholesterol | Higher in cholesterol |
Reduced blood pressure | Increase blood pressure |
Lower the obesity | Increase risk of obesity |
The utilization of vegetable and animal proteins in disease status.
The expected increase in the world population to 9 billion people (United Nations Population Department, 2000, 2050—medium version) defines the growth plan. As a result, not only does the quantity of food necessary change, and so will the food groups required, as well as their major contributors to nutrition. Predicted protein consumption seems to be of key significance, with forecasts that global demand for animal protein will quadruple by 2050 [34], raising concerns about food management and sustainable development. This is partial because it is widely acknowledged that animal meals emit more greenhouse gasses than vegetables, which are affected by temperature. The fact that rapid growth for animal protein is likely to rise land stress due to the requirement to generate more animal feed adds to the problem. As a result, the clearance of land, lakes, and natural grassland to farming land would rise, negatively impacting greenhouse gasses emissions, diversity, and other essential natural ecosystems [35]. Excess supply of proteins is fueled by social and economic developments including such rising incomes, increase in urbanization, and population growth, in which the importance of proteins to health and longevity is commonly understood [5, 6], as well as awareness of the function of protein in a balanced diet. Economic growth and urbanization are causing large shifts in demographic nutritional status in middle to low nations especially in developing nations accounting for such bulk of worldwide increases in costs for animal-based meals [6]. Protein isolate synthesis, on the other hand, has a smaller impact on the environment but is a long-term alternative since it consumes less fuel, produces less pollution, requires less land, and uses less water. Animals are not efficient kilo converters of the proteins they ingest; thus, manufacturers should provide vegetables to animals to make animal proteins. It is the typical switching frequency of veggie to animal protein is 10 to 1, which indicates that 10 pounds of feed protein is required to create 1 pound of animal protein. Foods high fiber and low in fat are common in vegetable-based diets. A high-fiber, low-fat diet has been demonstrated in multiple trials to reduce the risk of certain malignancies, including colon, breast, and prostate cancers.
Our ever-increasing world population necessitates the availability of low-cost protein. As per world population projections, we will have to deliver protein to nearly nine billion by 2050. Accessibility to low-cost protein sources is critical for sustaining the growing world population while reducing environmental harm. Vegetable proteins have obvious health advantages. Vegetable proteins have been shown to reduce our risk of cardiovascular disease. Incorporating soy protein into your diet may also aid in the prevention of heart disease. Packaged beef should be designated as a “human carcinogen,” according to a research published by the International Agency for Research on Cancer. Meat, on the other side, has been deemed “possibly carcinogenic to humans.” While the exact evidence is inconclusive, iron absorption is assumed to play a key role in N-nitroso-compound processing, the formation of lipid oxidation, and a probable cytotoxic impact. The demand for agricultural production would likely be higher to population growth and the moral imperative to provide enough, healthy, and inexpensive food for everyone. By 2050, simply supplying 2900 kcal mean food production with 50% of the proteins coming from animal protein will roughly treble grain consumption. Furthermore, economic expansion, coupled with someone who can afford its desire for an excess of animal goods and poor eat conversion, may drive up prices even more. The purposeful decrease of animal protein intake as well as the replacement of animal proteins with protein sources could be used as a temporary fix to lessen the social change caused by the existing agricultural system. The worldwide market for protein foods is expected to be different combinations of that of the United States. The industry for protein isolate components is growing due to a number of factors. Food producers are reacting to the rising costs for meat-restricted, protein foods among the wellness Boomer Generation and other consumers. Animal food prices are high and variable, placing pressure on global food makers to come up with new ways to reduce expenses.
Our world’s expanding population necessitates the availability of low-cost protein. As per population projections, by 2050, we would be supplying protein to roughly 9 billion individuals. The availability of low-cost protein sources is critical for feeding the world’s growing population while reducing environmental stress. Vegetables are popular on the market right now. As per market research firm Frost & Sullivan, the U.S. protein-ingredients market alone is expected to produce about $4.5 billion in sales in 2008 (43.3% vegetable proteins and 56.7% animal proteins) and is expected to increase at an annual growth rate of nearly 5%. Barriers are there in shifting from animals to vegetable protein. The transition from animal to vegetable meals is not without its challenges, or at least four have been identified [36]. Change is difficult because social factors oppose it beef has a high social position and that it is the average human’s wish to consume high up food given the correct financial circumstances. Lobby groups inside the meat manufacturing chain are significant, and economic concerns against reform are considerable. The advanced technologies required to generate innovative protein sources foods are lacking. Because the animal protein supply chain has been designed for using all by-products for generations, eliminating meat on a broad scale might just have a significant impact on linked production systems, perhaps canceling out most of the putative environmental benefits.
Vegetable proteins are more long-lasting and sufficient to meet the demands of a rapidly growing population. Vegetable proteins are more adaptable and can be altered in response to health issues than animal proteins. In this chapter, we focused on vegetable protein because the consumption of protein is increasing as the world’s population expands. The population of the globe is anticipated to double by 2063, from 6.5 to 13 billion people. Rapid urbanization and rising protein consumption have exacerbated the problem, leading to an increase in malnutrition among children. As a result, we must meet our protein requirements in order to develop healthy and combat malnutrition. We will underline that everyone’s protein requirements, as well as the demands for vegetable and animal proteins, are unique. Animal protein sources are not sustainable as the world’s population expands; thus, we cannot meet our protein demands only from them. In this chapter, we reviewed how vegetable protein sources are more stable and sufficient for meeting our protein requirements. Vegetable diets produce more greenhouse emissions than animal meals because they are affected by temperature. The fact that rapid development of animal protein production is expected to create land stress due to the requirement to produce more animal feed exacerbates the problem. As a response, land, lakes, and natural grassland conversion to farming land would rise, posing a threat to greenhouse gas emissions, biodiversity, and other essential natural ecosystems. Vegetable proteins are promoted as more sustainable, disease-adjustable, and cost-effective than animal proteins. We made the switch from animal- to vegetable-based protein. There are various challenges to overcome when it comes to employing vegetable proteins. As a result, we looked at numerous methods for using vegetable protein and its derivatives to meet amino acid deficiencies, including heating, ohmic heating, microwave, radiofrequency, and extrusion, among others.
We thank the digital library GCUF for providing access to the publication.
There is no conflict of interest as declared by all authors.
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. 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Cárdenas-Aguayo, M. del C. Silva-Lucero, M. Cortes-Ortiz,\nB. Jiménez-Ramos, L. Gómez-Virgilio, G. Ramírez-Rodríguez, E. Vera-\nArroyo, R. Fiorentino-Pérez, U. García, J. 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MRI is commonly used once treating brain, prostate cancers, ankle and foot. The Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) images are usually liable to suffer from noises such as Gaussian noise, salt and pepper noise and speckle noise. So getting of brain image with accuracy is very extremely task. An accurate brain image is very necessary for further diagnosis process. During this chapter, a median filter algorithm will be modified. Gaussian noise and Salt and pepper noise will be added to MRI image. A proposed Median filter (MF), Adaptive Median filter (AMF) and Adaptive Wiener filter (AWF) will be implemented. The filters will be used to remove the additive noises present in the MRI images. The noise density will be added gradually to MRI image to compare performance of the filters evaluation. The performance of these filters will be compared exploitation the applied mathematics parameter Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR).",book:{id:"6144",slug:"high-resolution-neuroimaging-basic-physical-principles-and-clinical-applications",title:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging",fullTitle:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging - Basic Physical Principles and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Hanafy M. Ali",authors:[{id:"213318",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanafy",middleName:"M.",surname:"Ali",slug:"hanafy-ali",fullName:"Hanafy Ali"}]},{id:"41589",doi:"10.5772/50323",title:"The Role of the Amygdala in Anxiety Disorders",slug:"the-role-of-the-amygdala-in-anxiety-disorders",totalDownloads:9671,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"2599",slug:"the-amygdala-a-discrete-multitasking-manager",title:"The Amygdala",fullTitle:"The Amygdala - A Discrete Multitasking Manager"},signatures:"Gina L. Forster, Andrew M. Novick, Jamie L. Scholl and Michael J. 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Particularly in the case of motor imagery BCIs, users may need several training sessions before they learn how to generate desired brain activity and reach an acceptable performance. A typical training protocol for such BCIs includes execution of a motor imagery task by the user, followed by presentation of an extending bar or a moving object on a computer screen. In this chapter, we discuss the importance of a visual feedback that resembles human actions, the effect of human factors such as confidence and motivation, and the role of embodiment in the learning process of a motor imagery task. Our results from a series of experiments in which users BCI-operated a humanlike android robot confirm that realistic visual feedback can induce a sense of embodiment, which promotes a significant learning of the motor imagery task in a short amount of time. We review the impact of humanlike visual feedback in optimized modulation of brain activity by the BCI users.",book:{id:"6610",slug:"evolving-bci-therapy-engaging-brain-state-dynamics",title:"Evolving BCI Therapy",fullTitle:"Evolving BCI Therapy - Engaging Brain State Dynamics"},signatures:"Maryam Alimardani, Shuichi Nishio and Hiroshi Ishiguro",authors:[{id:"11981",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Ishiguro",slug:"hiroshi-ishiguro",fullName:"Hiroshi Ishiguro"},{id:"231131",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Alimardani",slug:"maryam-alimardani",fullName:"Maryam Alimardani"},{id:"231134",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuichi",middleName:null,surname:"Nishio",slug:"shuichi-nishio",fullName:"Shuichi Nishio"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"29764",title:"Underlying Causes of Paresthesia",slug:"underlying-causes-of-paresthesia",totalDownloads:192666,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1069",slug:"paresthesia",title:"Paresthesia",fullTitle:"Paresthesia"},signatures:"Mahdi Sharif-Alhoseini, Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar and Alexander R. 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Precise anatomical description along with a correct characterization of the component structures is essential for understanding its functions.",book:{id:"6331",slug:"hypothalamus-in-health-and-diseases",title:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases",fullTitle:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases"},signatures:"Miana Gabriela Pop, Carmen Crivii and Iulian Opincariu",authors:null},{id:"57103",title:"GABA and Glutamate: Their Transmitter Role in the CNS and Pancreatic Islets",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-their-transmitter-role-in-the-cns-and-pancreatic-islets",totalDownloads:3478,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are the major neurotransmitters in the mammalian brain. Inhibitory GABA and excitatory glutamate work together to control many processes, including the brain’s overall level of excitation. The contributions of GABA and glutamate in extra-neuronal signaling are by far less widely recognized. In this chapter, we first discuss the role of both neurotransmitters during development, emphasizing the importance of the shift from excitatory to inhibitory GABAergic neurotransmission. The second part summarizes the biosynthesis and role of GABA and glutamate in neurotransmission in the mature brain, and major neurological disorders associated with glutamate and GABA receptors and GABA release mechanisms. The final part focuses on extra-neuronal glutamatergic and GABAergic signaling in pancreatic islets of Langerhans, and possible associations with type 1 diabetes mellitus.",book:{id:"6237",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-new-developments-in-neurotransmission-research",title:"GABA And Glutamate",fullTitle:"GABA And Glutamate - New Developments In Neurotransmission Research"},signatures:"Christiane S. Hampe, Hiroshi Mitoma and Mario Manto",authors:[{id:"210220",title:"Prof.",name:"Christiane",middleName:null,surname:"Hampe",slug:"christiane-hampe",fullName:"Christiane Hampe"},{id:"210485",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Manto",slug:"mario-manto",fullName:"Mario Manto"},{id:"210486",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Mitoma",slug:"hiroshi-mitoma",fullName:"Hiroshi Mitoma"}]},{id:"35802",title:"Cross-Cultural/Linguistic Differences in the Prevalence of Developmental Dyslexia and the Hypothesis of Granularity and Transparency",slug:"cross-cultural-linguistic-differences-in-the-prevalence-of-developmental-dyslexia-and-the-hypothesis",totalDownloads:3601,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"673",slug:"dyslexia-a-comprehensive-and-international-approach",title:"Dyslexia",fullTitle:"Dyslexia - A Comprehensive and International Approach"},signatures:"Taeko N. Wydell",authors:[{id:"87489",title:"Prof.",name:"Taeko",middleName:"N.",surname:"Wydell",slug:"taeko-wydell",fullName:"Taeko Wydell"}]},{id:"58597",title:"Testosterone and Erectile Function: A Review of Evidence from Basic Research",slug:"testosterone-and-erectile-function-a-review-of-evidence-from-basic-research",totalDownloads:1331,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Androgens are essential for male physical activity and normal erectile function. Hence, age-related testosterone deficiency, known as late-onset hypogonadism (LOH), is considered a risk factor for erectile dysfunction (ED). This chapter summarizes relevant basic research reports examining the effects of testosterone on erectile function. Testosterone affects several organs and is especially active on the erectile tissue. The mechanism of testosterone deficiency effects on erectile function and the results of testosterone replacement therapy (TRT) have been well studied. Testosterone affects nitric oxide (NO) production and phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE-5) expression in the corpus cavernosum through molecular pathways, preserves smooth muscle contractility by regulating both contraction and relaxation, and maintains the structure of the corpus cavernosum. Interestingly, testosterone deficiency has relationship to neurological diseases, which leads to ED. Testosterone replacement therapy is widely used to treat patients with testosterone deficiency; however, this treatment might also induce some problems. Basic research suggests that PDE-5 inhibitors, L-citrulline, and/or resveratrol therapy might be effective therapeutic options for testosterone deficiency-induced ED. Future research should confirm these findings through more specific experiments using molecular tools and may shed more light on endocrine-related ED and its possible treatments.",book:{id:"5994",slug:"sex-hormones-in-neurodegenerative-processes-and-diseases",title:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases",fullTitle:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases"},signatures:"Tomoya Kataoka and Kazunori Kimura",authors:[{id:"219042",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tomoya",middleName:null,surname:"Kataoka",slug:"tomoya-kataoka",fullName:"Tomoya Kataoka"},{id:"229066",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazunori",middleName:null,surname:"Kimura",slug:"kazunori-kimura",fullName:"Kazunori Kimura"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"18",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81998",title:"Understanding the Neuropathophysiology of Psychiatry Disorder Using Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation",slug:"understanding-the-neuropathophysiology-of-psychiatry-disorder-using-transcranial-magnetic-stimulatio",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103748",abstract:"Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a safe and non-invasive tool that allows researchers to probe and modulate intracortical circuits. The most important aspect of TMS is its ability to directly stimulate the cortical neurons, generating action potentials, without much effect on intervening tissue. This property can be leveraged to provide insight into the pathophysiology of various neuropsychiatric disorders. Using multiple patterns of stimulations (single, paired, or repetitive), different neurophysiological parameters can be elicited. Various TMS protocol helps in understanding the neurobiological basis of disorder and specific behaviors by allowing direct probing of the cortical areas and their interconnected networks. While single-pulse TMS can provide insight into the excitability and integrity of the corticospinal tract, paired-pulse TMS (ppTMS) can provide further insight into cortico-cortical connections and repetitive TMS (rTMS) into cortical mapping and modulating plasticity.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Jitender Jakhar, Manish Sarkar and Nand Kumar"},{id:"81646",title:"Cortical Plasticity under Ketamine: From Synapse to Map",slug:"cortical-plasticity-under-ketamine-from-synapse-to-map",totalDownloads:15,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104787",abstract:"Sensory systems need to process signals in a highly dynamic way to efficiently respond to variations in the animal’s environment. For instance, several studies showed that the visual system is subject to neuroplasticity since the neurons’ firing changes according to stimulus properties. This dynamic information processing might be supported by a network reorganization. Since antidepressants influence neurotransmission, they can be used to explore synaptic plasticity sustaining cortical map reorganization. To this goal, we investigated in the primary visual cortex (V1 of mouse and cat), the impact of ketamine on neuroplasticity through changes in neuronal orientation selectivity and the functional connectivity between V1 cells, using cross correlation analyses. We found that ketamine affects cortical orientation selectivity and alters the functional connectivity within an assembly. These data clearly highlight the role of the antidepressant drugs in inducing or modeling short-term plasticity in V1 which suggests that cortical processing is optimized and adapted to the properties of the stimulus.",book:{id:"11374",title:"Sensory Nervous System - Computational Neuroimaging Investigations of Topographical Organization in Human Sensory Cortex",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11374.jpg"},signatures:"Ouelhazi Afef, Rudy Lussiez and Molotchnikoff Stephane"},{id:"81582",title:"The Role of Cognitive Reserve in Executive Functioning and Its Relationship to Cognitive Decline and Dementia",slug:"the-role-of-cognitive-reserve-in-executive-functioning-and-its-relationship-to-cognitive-decline-and",totalDownloads:24,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104646",abstract:"In this chapter, we explore how cognitive reserve is implicated in coping with the negative consequences of brain pathology and age-related cognitive decline. Individual differences in cognitive performance are based on different brain mechanisms (neural reserve and neural compensation), and reflect, among others, the effect of education, occupational attainment, leisure activities, and social involvement. These cognitive reserve proxies have been extensively associated with efficient executive functioning. We discuss and focus particularly on the compensation mechanisms related to the frontal lobe and its protective role, in maintaining cognitive performance in old age or even mitigating the clinical expression of dementia.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Gabriela Álvares-Pereira, Carolina Maruta and Maria Vânia Silva-Nunes"},{id:"81488",title:"Aggression and Sexual Behavior: Overlapping or Distinct Roles of 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B Receptors",slug:"aggression-and-sexual-behavior-overlapping-or-distinct-roles-of-5-ht1a-and-5-ht1b-receptors",totalDownloads:20,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104872",abstract:"Distinct brain mechanisms for male aggressive and sexual behavior are present in mammalian species, including man. However, recent evidence suggests a strong connection and even overlap in the central nervous system (CNS) circuitry involved in aggressive and sexual behavior. The serotonergic system in the CNS is strongly involved in male aggressive and sexual behavior. In particular, 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B receptors seem to play a critical role in the modulation of these behaviors. The present chapter focuses on the effects of 5-HT1A- and 5-HT1B-receptor ligands in male rodent aggression and sexual behavior. Results indicate that 5-HT1B-heteroreceptors play a critical role in the modulation of male offensive behavior, although a definite role of 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors cannot be ruled out. 5-HT1A receptors are clearly involved in male sexual behavior, although it has to be yet unraveled whether 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors are important. Although several key nodes in the complex circuitry of aggression and sexual behavior are known, in particular in the medial hypothalamus, a clear link or connection to these critical structures and the serotonergic key receptors is yet to be determined. This information is urgently needed to detect and develop new selective anti-aggressive (serenic) and pro-sexual drugs for human applications.",book:{id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS - New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg"},signatures:"Berend Olivier and Jocelien D.A. Olivier"},{id:"81093",title:"Prehospital and Emergency Room Airway Management in Traumatic Brain Injury",slug:"prehospital-and-emergency-room-airway-management-in-traumatic-brain-injury",totalDownloads:49,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104173",abstract:"Airway management in trauma is critical and may impact patient outcomes. Particularly in traumatic brain injury (TBI), depressed level of consciousness may be associated with compromised protective airway reflexes or apnea, which can increase the risk of aspiration or result in hypoxemia and worsen the secondary brain damage. Therefore, patients with TBI and Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) ≤ 8 have been traditionally managed by prehospital or emergency room (ER) endotracheal intubation. However, recent evidence challenged this practice and even suggested that routine intubation may be harmful. This chapter will address the indications and optimal method of securing the airway, prehospital and in the ER, in patients with traumatic brain injury.",book:{id:"11367",title:"Traumatic Brain Injury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11367.jpg"},signatures:"Dominik A. Jakob, Jean-Cyrille Pitteloud and Demetrios Demetriades"},{id:"81011",title:"Amino Acids as Neurotransmitters. The Balance between Excitation and Inhibition as a Background for Future Clinical Applications",slug:"amino-acids-as-neurotransmitters-the-balance-between-excitation-and-inhibition-as-a-background-for-f",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103760",abstract:"For more than 30 years, amino acids have been well-known (and essential) participants in neurotransmission. They act as both neuromediators and metabolites in nervous tissue. Glycine and glutamic acid (glutamate) are prominent examples. These amino acids are agonists of inhibitory and excitatory membrane receptors, respectively. Moreover, they play essential roles in metabolic pathways and energy transformation in neurons and astrocytes. Despite their obvious effects on the brain, their potential role in therapeutic methods remains uncertain in clinical practice. In the current chapter, a comparison of the crosstalk between these two systems, which are responsible for excitation and inhibition in neurons, is presented. The interactions are discussed at the metabolic, receptor, and transport levels. Reaction-diffusion and a convectional flow into the interstitial fluid create a balanced distribution of glycine and glutamate. Indeed, the neurons’ final physiological state is a result of a balance between the excitatory and inhibitory influences. However, changes to the glycine and/or glutamate pools under pathological conditions can alter the state of nervous tissue. Thus, new therapies for various diseases may be developed on the basis of amino acid medication.",book:{id:"10890",title:"Recent Advances in Neurochemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10890.jpg"},signatures:"Yaroslav R. Nartsissov"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:18},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:99,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:290,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:1,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/22.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 18th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"356540",title:"Prof.",name:"Taufiq",middleName:null,surname:"Choudhry",slug:"taufiq-choudhry",fullName:"Taufiq Choudhry",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000036X2hvQAC/Profile_Picture_2022-03-14T08:58:03.jpg",biography:"Prof. Choudhry holds a BSc degree in Economics from the University of Iowa, as well as a Masters and Ph.D. in Applied Economics from Clemson University, USA. In January 2006, he became a Professor of Finance at the University of Southampton Business School. He was previously a Professor of Finance at the University of Bradford Management School. He has over 80 articles published in international finance and economics journals. His research interests and specialties include financial econometrics, financial economics, international economics and finance, housing markets, financial markets, among others.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Southampton",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"86",title:"Business and Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/86.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"128342",title:"Prof.",name:"Vito",middleName:null,surname:"Bobek",slug:"vito-bobek",fullName:"Vito Bobek",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/128342/images/system/128342.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vito Bobek works as an international management professor at the University of Applied Sciences FH Joanneum, Graz, Austria. He has published more than 400 works in his academic career and visited twenty-two universities worldwide as a visiting professor. Dr. Bobek is a member of the editorial boards of six international journals and a member of the Strategic Council of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Slovenia. He has a long history in academia, consulting, and entrepreneurship. His own consulting firm, Palemid, has managed twenty significant projects, such as Cooperation Program Interreg V-A (Slovenia-Austria) and Capacity Building for the Serbian Chamber of Enforcement Agents. He has also participated in many international projects in Italy, Germany, Great Britain, the United States, Spain, Turkey, France, Romania, Croatia, Montenegro, Malaysia, and China. Dr. Bobek is also a co-founder of the Academy of Regional Management in Slovenia.",institutionString:"Universities of Applied Sciences FH Joanneum, Austria",institution:null},editorTwo:{id:"293992",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatjana",middleName:null,surname:"Horvat",slug:"tatjana-horvat",fullName:"Tatjana Horvat",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hXb0hQAC/Profile_Picture_1642419002203",biography:"Tatjana Horvat works as a professor for accountant and auditing at the University of Primorska, Slovenia. She is a Certified State Internal Auditor (licensed by Ministry of Finance RS) and Certified Internal Auditor for Business Sector and Certified accountant (licensed by Slovenian Institute of Auditors). At the Ministry of Justice of Slovenia, she is a member of examination boards for court expert candidates and judicial appraisers in the following areas: economy/finance, valuation of companies, banking, and forensic investigation of economic operations/accounting. At the leading business newspaper Finance in Slovenia (Swedish ownership), she is the editor and head of the area for business, finance, tax-related articles, and educational programs.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Primorska",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"87",title:"Economics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/87.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"327730",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaime",middleName:null,surname:"Ortiz",slug:"jaime-ortiz",fullName:"Jaime Ortiz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002zaOKZQA2/Profile_Picture_1642145584421",biography:"Dr. Jaime Ortiz holds degrees from Chile, the Netherlands, and the United States. He has held tenured faculty, distinguished professorship, and executive leadership appointments in several universities around the world. Dr. Ortiz has previously worked for international organizations and non-government entities in economic and business matters, and he has university-wide globalization engagement in more than thirty-six countries. He has advised, among others, the United Nations Development Program, Inter-American Development Bank, Organization of American States, Pre-investment Organization of Latin America and the Caribbean, Technical Cooperation of the Suisse Government, and the World Bank. Dr. Ortiz is the author, co-author, or editor of books, book chapters, textbooks, research monographs and technical reports, and refereed journal articles. He is listed in Who’s Who in the World, Who’s Who in America, Who’s Who in Finance and Business, Who’s Who in Business Higher Education, Who’s Who in American Education, and Who’s Who Directory of Economists. Dr. Ortiz has been a Fulbright Scholar and an MSI Leadership Fellow with the W.K. Kellogg Foundation. His teaching interests revolve around global economies and markets while his research focuses on topics related to development and growth, global business decisions, and the economics of technical innovation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Houston",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"88",title:"Marketing",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/88.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,editor:null,editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{id:"81831",title:"Deep Network Model and Regression Analysis using OLS Method for Predicting Lung Vital Capacity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104737",signatures:"Harun Sümbül",slug:"deep-network-model-and-regression-analysis-using-ols-method-for-predicting-lung-vital-capacity",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Decision Science - Recent Advances and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11604.jpg",subseries:{id:"86",title:"Business and Management"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"11392",title:"Leadership in a Changing World",subtitle:"A Multidimensional Perspective",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11392.jpg",slug:"leadership-in-a-changing-world-a-multidimensional-perspective",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Muhammad Mohiuddin, Bilal Khalid, Md. 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He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNVJQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-07T13:23:04.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Integral University. Currently, he’s working as an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than 32 original articles published in reputed journals, 3 edited books, 5 book chapters, and a number of scientific articles published in ‘Ingredients South Asia Magazine’ and ‘QualPharma Magazine’. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs that aim to provide practical solutions to current healthcare problems.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. He has also been a reviewer of international journals and ad hoc reviewer of scientific committees from Brazilian Universities.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"217850",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarete Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Bagatini",slug:"margarete-dulce-bagatini",fullName:"Margarete Dulce Bagatini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217850/images/system/217850.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Margarete Dulce Bagatini is an associate professor at the Federal University of Fronteira Sul/Brazil. She has a degree in Pharmacy and a PhD in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry. She is a member of the UFFS Research Advisory Committee\nand a member of the Biovitta Research Institute. She is currently:\nthe leader of the research group: Biological and Clinical Studies\nin Human Pathologies, professor of postgraduate program in\nBiochemistry at UFSC and postgraduate program in Science and Food Technology at\nUFFS. She has experience in the area of pharmacy and clinical analysis, acting mainly\non the following topics: oxidative stress, the purinergic system and human pathologies, being a reviewer of several international journals and books.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"226275",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Metin",middleName:null,surname:"Budak",slug:"metin-budak",fullName:"Metin Budak",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226275/images/system/226275.jfif",biography:"Metin Budak, MSc, PhD is an Assistant Professor at Trakya University, Faculty of Medicine. He has been Head of the Molecular Research Lab at Prof. Mirko Tos Ear and Hearing Research Center since 2018. His specializations are biophysics, epigenetics, genetics, and methylation mechanisms. He has published around 25 peer-reviewed papers, 2 book chapters, and 28 abstracts. He is a member of the Clinical Research Ethics Committee and Quantification and Consideration Committee of Medicine Faculty. His research area is the role of methylation during gene transcription, chromatin packages DNA within the cell and DNA repair, replication, recombination, and gene transcription. His research focuses on how the cell overcomes chromatin structure and methylation to allow access to the underlying DNA and enable normal cellular function.",institutionString:"Trakya University",institution:{name:"Trakya University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",biography:"Anca Pantea Stoian is a specialist in diabetes, nutrition, and metabolic diseases as well as health food hygiene. She also has competency in general ultrasonography.\n\nShe is an associate professor in the Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases Department, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania. She has been chief of the Hygiene Department, Faculty of Dentistry, at the same university since 2019. Her interests include micro and macrovascular complications in diabetes and new therapies. Her research activities focus on nutritional intervention in chronic pathology, as well as cardio-renal-metabolic risk assessment, and diabetes in cancer. She is currently engaged in developing new therapies and technological tools for screening, prevention, and patient education in diabetes. \n\nShe is a member of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes, Cardiometabolic Academy, CEDA, Romanian Society of Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, Romanian Diabetes Federation, and Association for Renal Metabolic and Nutrition studies. She has authored or co-authored 160 papers in national and international peer-reviewed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"279792",title:"Dr.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Cotas",slug:"joao-cotas",fullName:"João Cotas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279792/images/system/279792.jpg",biography:"Graduate and master in Biology from the University of Coimbra.\n\nI am a research fellow at the Macroalgae Laboratory Unit, in the MARE-UC – Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre of the University of Coimbra. My principal function is the collection, extraction and purification of macroalgae compounds, chemical and bioactive characterization of the compounds and algae extracts and development of new methodologies in marine biotechnology area. \nI am associated in two projects: one consists on discovery of natural compounds for oncobiology. The other project is the about the natural compounds/products for agricultural area.\n\nPublications:\nCotas, J.; Figueirinha, A.; Pereira, L.; Batista, T. 2018. An analysis of the effects of salinity on Fucus ceranoides (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae), in the Mondego River (Portugal). Journal of Oceanology and Limnology. in press. DOI: 10.1007/s00343-019-8111-3",institutionString:"Faculty of Sciences and Technology of University of Coimbra",institution:null},{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279788/images/system/279788.jpg",biography:"Leonel Pereira has an undergraduate degree in Biology, a Ph.D. in Biology (specialty in Cell Biology), and a Habilitation degree in Biosciences (specialization in Biotechnology) from the Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Coimbra, Portugal, where he is currently a professor. In addition to teaching at this university, he is an integrated researcher at the Marine and Environmental Sciences Center (MARE), Portugal. His interests include marine biodiversity (algae), marine biotechnology (algae bioactive compounds), and marine ecology (environmental assessment). Since 2008, he has been the author and editor of the electronic publication MACOI – Portuguese Seaweeds Website (www.seaweeds.uc.pt). He is also a member of the editorial boards of several scientific journals. Dr. Pereira has edited or authored more than 20 books, 100 journal articles, and 45 book chapters. He has given more than 100 lectures and oral communications at various national and international scientific events. He is the coordinator of several national and international research projects. In 1998, he received the Francisco de Holanda Award (Honorable Mention) and, more recently, the Mar Rei D. Carlos award (18th edition). He is also a winner of the 2016 CHOICE Award for an outstanding academic title for his book Edible Seaweeds of the World. In 2020, Dr. Pereira received an Honorable Mention for the Impact of International Publications from the Web of Science",institutionString:"University of Coimbra",institution:{name:"University of Coimbra",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"61946",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol",middleName:null,surname:"Bernstein",slug:"carol-bernstein",fullName:"Carol Bernstein",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61946/images/system/61946.jpg",biography:"Carol Bernstein received her PhD in Genetics from the University of California (Davis). She was a faculty member at the University of Arizona College of Medicine for 43 years, retiring in 2011. Her research interests focus on DNA damage and its underlying role in sex, aging and in the early steps of initiation and progression to cancer. In her research, she had used organisms including bacteriophage T4, Neurospora crassa, Schizosaccharomyces pombe and mice, as well as human cells and tissues. She authored or co-authored more than 140 scientific publications, including articles in major peer reviewed journals, book chapters, invited reviews and one book.",institutionString:"University of Arizona",institution:{name:"University of Arizona",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"182258",title:"Dr.",name:"Ademar",middleName:"Pereira",surname:"Serra",slug:"ademar-serra",fullName:"Ademar Serra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/182258/images/system/182258.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serra studied Agronomy on Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS) (2005). He received master degree in Agronomy, Crop Science (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2007) by Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados (UFGD), and PhD in agronomy (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2011) from Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados / Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz (UFGD/ESALQ-USP). Dr. Serra is currently working at Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA). His research focus is on mineral nutrition of plants, crop science and soil science. Dr. Serra\\'s current projects are soil organic matter, soil phosphorus fractions, compositional nutrient diagnosis (CND) and isometric log ratio (ilr) transformation in compositional data analysis.",institutionString:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",institution:{name:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"10",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Physiology",keywords:"Physiology, Comparative, Evolution, Biomolecules, Organ, Homeostasis, Anatomy, Pathology, Medical, Cell Division, Cell Signaling, Cell Growth, Cell Metabolism, Endocrine, Neuroscience, Cardiovascular, Development, Aging, Development",scope:"Physiology, the scientific study of functions and mechanisms of living systems, is an essential area of research in its own right, but also in relation to medicine and health sciences. The scope of this topic will range from molecular, biochemical, cellular, and physiological processes in all animal species. Work pertaining to the whole organism, organ systems, individual organs and tissues, cells, and biomolecules will be included. Medical, animal, cell, and comparative physiology and allied fields such as anatomy, histology, and pathology with physiology links will be covered in this topic. Physiology research may be linked to development, aging, environment, regular and pathological processes, adaptation and evolution, exercise, or several other factors affecting, or involved with, animal physiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/10.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11406,editor:{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. 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\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
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",annualVolume:11967,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",institutionString:"Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"177015",title:"Prof.",name:"Elke Jurandy",middleName:null,surname:"Bran Nogueira Cardoso",fullName:"Elke Jurandy Bran Nogueira Cardoso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGxzQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-25T08:32:33.jpg",institutionString:"Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil",institution:null},{id:"211260",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Ricart",fullName:"Sandra Ricart",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/211260/images/system/211260.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",keywords:"Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Fauna, Taxonomy, Invasive species, Destruction of habitats, Overexploitation of natural resources, Pollution, Global warming, Conservation of natural spaces, Bioremediation",scope:"