Physicochemical characteristics of the two soils studied: Contents of pH, TOC (%) and ETM extractable by ammonium acetate-EDTA (mg,kg−1).
\r\n\t
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The detrimental effects of fragmentation can be avoided or minimised by the creation of new habitats and/or the protection of existing habitats by ensuring more connected habitat patches (or the networks of habitats/green and open spaces). Hence, the growing awareness of the need for connected habitats/green and open spaces was reflected in planning approaches such as greenbelts and linked park systems, greenways, ecological networks, green networks and green infrastructure (GI).
\nThese approaches have their own planning aims and strategies, in particular in the early stages of their development. But they have become closer with regard to their common concerns and the underlying concept of landscape connectivity to identify their spatial configuration. In the context of this chapter, the theoretical and scientific background of different network approaches has been reviewed.
\nThe scope of early landscape planning approaches to networks was limited by their foci, where the spatial planning of nature and human dimensions has been treated as separate sectors. However, nature conservation and landscape planning practices have started to evolve into more integrated and multidisciplinary approaches, which are centered on the concepts of sustainability and multifunctionality [6, 10, 11].
\nA more recent planning approach is GI and it is thought to be able to ensure the multifunctionality of different land uses and provide sustainable benefits to nature, biodiversity and people from available land in and around urban environments. However, there is still need for a more robust decision-making structure and feasible planning approach as well as a measurable and traceable tool to planning GI in order to achieve these goals.
\nThis chapter reviews and discusses the literature on landscape ecology applications in landscape planning with an emphasis on sustainability in urban environments. The chapter starts with urbanisation as an issue and explains how it leads to fragmentation and the loss of connectivity. After giving a brief overview of issues related to fragmentation, it moves on to the relationship between urbanisation and sustainability. Thereafter, it introduces different ways in which networks have been developed in ecology and planning to mitigate the adverse effects of fragmentation by enhancing landscape connectivity.
\nUrbanisation can be defined as a dynamic process, where the land is mainly modified with an extension of the urbanised area and/or increased population [12–14]. While different social processes are regarded as the main drivers of urbanisation (i.e., population growth and employment opportunities), the process of urbanisation itself affects social, economic and political life [14, 15].
\nIn general, urbanisation is thought to have adverse effects on the nature, biodiversity, the quality of life of people as well as the functioning of local and global ecosystems [16]. Since the built-up areas cover a large proportion of the land surface in urban environments, they are generally thought to be more disturbed and degraded compared to rural areas [16, 17].
\nHowever, it has been claimed that the process of urbanisation may also provide favourable conditions for biodiversity as it creates and supports a variety of species because of the diversity of habitats included in urban environments [12, 18, 19]. This is exemplified in the work undertaken by Gaston et al. [20] who demonstrated that domestic gardens in Sheffield contain a large amount of biodiversity. Also, Savard et al. [21] drew our attention to some other benefits of urban ecosystems to people, species and the other aspects of biodiversity (e.g., population structure and genetic diversity). This is evident in the case of the cultivation of rare plants in urban areas, which may attract species that are dependent on those plants.
\nOn the other hand, changes in the existing land uses/covers and fragmentation have assumed to be the most important environmental issues associated with the process of urbanisation [7, 22–24]. The term fragmentation reflects both a status and process. As a status, fragmentation can be defined as the degree of isolation of previously connected landscape components [25, 26]. As a process, it implies a dynamic process of structural and functional changes in a landscape where a continuous habitat type is split into separated patches with different sizes, shapes and functions [9, 10, 27].
\nBennett [23, 24] summarises the major effects of fragmentation under structural changes in the landscapes and adverse effects on wildlife. With regard to its effects on landscape structure, fragmentation causes the loss and/or degradation of valuable habitats with an increasing isolation – or in other words the loss of connectivity [9, 23, 24, 28–30]. Recent evidence suggests that larger habitats can support a wide diversity of animal and plant species [31–33]. Accordingly, the loss or reduction of habitats also means a dramatic reduction in biodiversity, where some species become rare or extinct depending on their habitat requirements [9, 10, 32]. Therefore, the maintenance of connectivity has been regarded as a worldwide concern to mitigate the detrimental effects of fragmentation as well as the conservation of the nature and biodiversity.
\nThe concept of connectivity stems from the relationships between the spatial structure and functioning of landscape and means “the degree to which a landscape facilitates or impedes movement of organisms among habitat patches” [4, 35, 36]. As one of the fundamental properties of landscapes, connectivity has been considered as “a measure of the ability of organisms to move among suitable habitat patches” [4, 30, 37].
\nAccording to another definition provided by Ahern [38], connectivity is “a spatial characteristic of systems which enables and supports the occurrence of specific processes and functions, through adjacency, proximity or functional linkage and connection”. In this regard, the concept of connectivity encompasses the structural and functional aspects of a landscape. While structural connectivity refers to the degree to which habitat patches are physically/structurally linked to each other [23, 24, 39], functional connectivity denotes the measure of species’ ability to move between habitat patches and does not necessarily require physical connections between habitat patches [19, 40, 41]. Functional connectivity, therefore, depends on the behavioural responses of organisms to the spatial structure of landscapes [39, 42, 43].
\nThe relationship between urbanisation and sustainability largely depends on their dynamic interactions and interdependencies with environmental, societal and economic processes [44]. In urban areas, natural habitats and biodiversity have been subjected to intense human disturbances, and so urban environments and their surroundings have been the focus of conservation efforts [45]. In conjunction with the increased concerns for the nature and biodiversity, sustainability has become a central issue in urban areas, as a response to the growing concern for the quality of the natural environment as well as the social and economic life in the early nineteenth century [46, 47].
\nThe concept of sustainable development is formally defined for the first time in the Brundtland Report (Our Common Future) as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” [48]. The concept of sustainable development seeks to achieve a dynamic and long-term balance between socioeconomic (e.g., well-being and equity of people) and environmental systems (e.g., protection and maintenance of the nature and biodiversity) [49]. As suggested by Selman [10], the landscape itself provides an arena in which this balance might be provided and maintained.
\nWith regard to sustainability in landscapes, it is claimed that a generally accepted definition of landscape sustainability is lacking or it is generally defined in different contexts [49, 50]. While some researchers used the Brundtland Report as the source of definition with an emphasis on the maintenance of ecological integrity and basic human needs [27, 51], some highlighted the importance of natural capital and ecosystem services [52, 53], while others considered the localisation and self-regenerative capacity as the essential property of sustainability in landscapes [54]. However, in broad terms, landscape sustainability is defined as “the capacity of a landscape to consistently provide long-term, landscape-specific ecosystem services essential for maintaining and improving human wellbeing in a regional context and despite environmental and sociocultural changes” [49].
\nAs with the three pillars of sustainability (environment, society and economy), landscape sustainability has been described on the basis of a variety of dimensions. Selman [50] draws attention to the five dimensions of landscape sustainability – i.e., environmental, economic, social, political and aesthetic sustainability. Likewise, Musacchio [55] describes six dimensions of landscape sustainability: environment, economy, equity, aesthetics, experience and ethics.
\nSelman [20] claims that environmental sustainability stems from landscape ecology as a response to the fragmentation of landscapes with an emphasis on the importance of landscape multi-functionality, ecosystem services and/or resilience. First of all, a sustainable landscape should maintain and improve landscape connectivity to facilitate species’ life cycles as well as sustaining healthy and viable populations through a biodiverse network of habitats [50, 55, 56]. It should also be able to support other functions, provide a variety of ecosystem services to people, biodiversity and nature, besides its ability to achieve a state of relative stability [50, 57]. Another dimension of a sustainable landscape, the economic sustainability, draws attention to the importance of a “virtuous circle” in which the endogenous economic vitality of a local landscape maintains and supports environmental production practices (i.e., tourism, recreation, and the production of food and timber) as well as promoting landscape quality and the quality of life [10, 55, 58]. The social sustainability of a landscape, on the other hand, refers to opportunities for public participation in decision-making processes, inclusivity and equity in access, equal right to benefit from the use of resources, social inclusion and community cohesion [50, 58]. The political aspect of landscape sustainability focuses on an effective governance structure, where the planning, protection and management of different landscape elements are put in place on common grounds for both the public and private sectors [50]. Finally, the aesthetic sustainability of a landscape relates to the visual amenity and healthy functioning of the landscape [50, 55].
\nIn view of all that has been mentioned so far, we can clearly see that a sustainable landscape is a multidimensional and dynamic system in which every component is crucial for providing multi-functionality, supporting the essential ecosystem services, benefiting the health and well-being of people as well as meeting the different needs of people in urban environments.
\nWhile a variety of definitions of landscape ecology have been proposed, one of the first people to use landscape ecology was Carl Troll [59], who integrated the different concepts of geography and ecology into a new inter-disciplinary research area [60, 61]. Defined as “the study of structure, function and change in a heterogeneous land area composed of interacting ecosystems" [62, 63], landscape ecology encompasses three main characteristics of landscapes: structure, function and change.
\nLandscape structure is the mosaic of different geographical units (ecosystems, etc.) and is characterised by the amount and occurrence of different units (composition) as well as their spatial distribution and arrangement in the landscape (configuration) [64–68]. Landscape function refers to the interaction between spatial components of landscapes (flow of matter, energy and organisms) and landscape change expresses alterations in the structure and functions of a landscape over time [27, 62, 69]. These three characteristics of landscapes are closely associated with each other and their relationships constitute the past, current and future landscapes [64, 70, 71].
\nLandscape ecology not only helps researchers to investigate the spatial structure and functions of changing landscapes, but it also can help to identify the origin of changes and the interactions between spatial structure, function and change of a landscape in order to find the most appropriate options for decision making [62, 63, 72–75]. Hence, it is clear that the science of landscape ecology provides valuable insights into how short and long term landscape planning processes can improve the quality of life and achieve sustainability in urban environments [74, 76].
\nAccording to a definition provided by the Landscape Institute [77], landscape planning is “the development and application of strategies, policies and plans to create successful environments, in both urban and rural settings, for the benefit of current and future generations". This definition refers to a formal process of decision making and technical/spatial planning activity built upon the assessment of physical, natural and cultural resources, where the main concern is the enhancement, restoration and/or creation of landscapes [10, 38, 78].
\nAs mentioned earlier, urbanisation has been regarded as one of the main drivers of the change in landscape structure and function. As being one of the fundamental functions of a landscape, connectivity enables the movement of organisms through landscapes as well as sustaining other functional processes in a landscape [10]. Therefore, the crucial role of landscape connectivity for the conservation of nature and biodiversity has been emphasised by researchers to reduce the adverse effects of urbanisation, in particular the fragmentation and isolation of habitats [4, 32, 34, 69, 79, 80].
\nWhile planning is regarded as a key tool to deliver sustainable development [10], the need for multi-disciplinary and more integrated approaches to nature conservation and landscape planning has been highlighted [6]. Within this context, in order to mitigate the effects of fragmentation and to conserve nature and biodiversity in urban areas, different spatial planning approaches and strategies have been integrated into landscape planning and ecology, i.e., habitat creation or preservation that produces more connected patches or networks [7, 23, 26].
\nThe growing recognition of connected systems was reflected in planning strategies such as greenbelts and linked park systems since the early nineteenth century. Thereafter a variety of approaches have been developed throughout the world with regard to the connected systems of green spaces in urban areas (i.e., ecological/green networks) [1, 2, 6, 38, 81, 82].
\nEven though each of these network approaches shares a great deal of common ground in terms of their main idea and structural properties, they typically differ from each other in their intended aims and functions that the networks will deliver [6]. While there has been a consensus on the main benefits of different network approaches for nature, biodiversity and people [4, 5, 83–85], there is a degree of uncertainty around the terminology on these approaches [3]. In this regard, it is necessary to clarify exactly what is meant by different network concepts and approaches in the literature. The next section therefore looks at the definition, the underlying rationale and the development of different networks being planned and managed in urban areas.
\nThe idea of greenways originates in the concept of parkways, the linear system of green and open spaces in urban areas, which was first developed by Frederick Law Olmsted in the nineteenth century [6, 86, 87]. Frederick Law Olmsted, the founder of the profession of landscape architecture in the USA, proposed two important plans for Brooklyn and Boston in order to connect urban parks and the surrounding areas as linear park systems. With a width between 65 and 150 m, these parkways aimed to deliver aesthetic and recreational functions for the benefit and use of people [6, 88, 89].
\nAs the first greenway approach in the USA, the Boston Park System – or in other words the “Emerald Necklace” – was an attempt to integrate urban and suburban areas to increase the functioning of these areas [89–91]. On the other hand, in the same period in the UK, the concept of the “green belt” was first introduced by Ebenezer Howard, in his book
The underlying idea of green belts was separating urban and rural environments from each other by designating some of the land around the inner cities as green to regulate urban sprawl and protect the countryside beyond the urban areas [6, 10, 93]. The fundamental difference between the traditional linked park systems and green belts is in their main functions. While the concept of parkways is built upon green corridors from and to the urban parks which are surrounded by trees (linking function), the concept of green belts is largely based on the idea of controlling urban growth by separating urban and rural areas with a buffer of undeveloped land (separating function) [6, 92]. Conversely, according to Kühn [95], in the future, green belts might behave as complementary zones between different urban areas by linking them in a polycentric city region [95]. Within this framework, being located in the urban fringe, green belts have the potential of providing a multifunctional and dynamic environment where there is a wide variety of low-density economic activities and a diversity of wildlife [96, 97].
\nAt that time, the town planner Patrick Abercrombie developed another pioneering approach to planning and implementing a park system for Sheffield: the Sheffield Civic Survey and Development Plan. In this comprehensive city plan, Abercrombie [98] proposed a park system where all the individual open spaces (e.g., existing and new parks, playgrounds, accessible moorlands and waterwork properties) were linked to each other with tree-planted avenues.
\nAccording to Abercrombie [98], the success of a systematic provision of open spaces in urban areas is dependent on the area, use and distribution of open spaces. Accordingly, the following planning principles underpinned the Abercrombie’s city plan:
The area of different open spaces must be proportional to the whole extent of the city.
The different uses and functions of open spaces should be determined by their user groups.
Open spaces must be distributed throughout the city, in particular where it is appropriate and required. Therefore, planners should take into account the travelling distance to open spaces. Additionally, depending on the use of open spaces, certain types of parks should be located evenly throughout the city, whereas some of them must be placed in the city centre or distributed irregularly [98].
The underlying principle employed in Abercrombie’s plan represented an emerging theoretical basis for the linked park systems, where it was suggested that all the green and open spaces should be located close to the centres of population it serves. Additionally, Winkler [99] claims that this strategic plan, grounded on an in-depth analysis process, has a crucial role in the development of Sheffield. Perhaps most importantly, Abercrombie’s plan revealed the actual structure of Sheffield at that time, offering a complete framework for green and open spaces throughout the city and towards the Peak District National Park as well as making clear connections between green and open spaces and the centres of population [99].
\nFollowing these pioneering planning strategies, the concept of greenways has become a common landscape planning approach all over the world. Little [100] defined a greenway as the following:
“A linear open space established along either a natural corridor, such as a riverfront, stream valley, or ridgeline, or overland along a railroad right-of way converted to recreational use, a canal, scenic road, or other route,
Any natural or landscaped course for pedestrian or bicycle passage,
An open-space connector linking parks, nature reserves, cultural features, or historic sites with each other and with populated areas,
Locally, certain strips or linear parks designated as parkway or green belt”.
Additionally, according to a definition provided by Ahern [3], greenways are the “networks of land that are planned, designed and managed for multiple purposes including ecological, recreational, cultural, aesthetic, or other purposes compatible with the concept of sustainable land use”. Thereafter, a further definition is given by Ahern [38] who describes greenways as “the connected systems of protected lands that are managed for multiple uses including: nature protection, recreation, agriculture, and cultural landscape protection”.
\nAs shown in the abovementioned definitions, the focus of greenways has been moved from a single purpose planning approach to a multifunctional network approach, which is intended to assist key ecological functions as well as supporting public enjoyment and movement in urban environments [101]. In this regard, Ahern [91] claimed that the term greenway is a generic description of various strategic landscape planning approaches and plans which embodies a multitude of concepts with the main aim of ensuring multifunctionality in urban areas.
\nHistorically, the term “ecological” was inserted into the network approaches in the Netherlands with the ecological infrastructure concept [102]. As with greenways, the concept of ecological networks has been an attempt to integrate landscape ecology into landscape planning in order to protect nature and biodiversity, manage natural resources, and also to connect people with nature conservation [6]. Even though these terms have been used interchangeably, as pointed out by Ahern [91, 103], the term ecological networks is more common in Europe, whereas the term greenways is more common in the USA. Also, while greenways initially aimed to provide access to people between urban and rural green and open spaces in the USA, ecological networks in Europe stemmed from the need to conserve species and habitats [6].
\nSimilar to greenways, a variety of definitions have been suggested for ecological networks in the literature. Bennett [104] defined ecological networks as “the coherent systems of natural or semi-natural landscape elements configured and managed with the objective of maintaining or restoring ecological functions as a means of conserving biodiversity, besides providing appropriate opportunities for the sustainable use of natural resources”. According to a definition provided by Jongman and Pungetti [6], ecological networks are “the systems of nature reserves and their interconnections that make a fragmented natural system coherent, so as to support more biological diversity than in its non-connected form”.
\nAlthough differences of definitions exist, there appears to be some agreement that the concept of ecological networks is founded on the conservation of natural areas and biodiversity as well as the enhancement of the functioning of ecosystems [2, 105, 106]. In addition to these, Ignatieva et al. [107] claim that urban ecological networks are one of the most effective tools for providing physical, visual and ecological connectivity between urban areas and surrounding natural areas. Hence, the development and the integration of ecological networks into the planning system have been regarded as the spatial expression of the idea of landscape connectivity in planning activities [6].
\nIn general terms, spatially, the structural elements of ecological networks are composed of core areas, which are usually protected by surrounding buffer zones and are linked to each other with linear corridors [1, 78, 108, 109].
\nAs claimed by Jongman [88], core areas are generally defined on the basis of traditional nature conservation practices as the natural and seminatural areas of conservation concern or the ecologically important areas with high nature value. Thus, the primary functions of core areas are thought to be the conservation of nature and biodiversity by meeting the ecological requirements of species or ecosystems [78].
\nThe main purpose of corridors is to enable dispersal and migration of animal and plant species by providing functional connections between core areas (e.g., ecosystems or habitats for species) [1, 78, 108]. With regards to their intended ecological functions, Bouwma et al. [109] emphasised the crucial role of the spatial arrangement, internal structure and management of corridors, where the more complex corridors can provide multiple functions for different animal and plant species. Within ecological networks, three types of corridors are defined on the basis of their spatial structures and they are landscape, linear and stepping stone corridors [1, 78]. While landscape corridors can be in various forms of linked landscape matrices, linear corridors are composed of linear landscape elements such as rivers or forest strips. Conversely, stepping stone corridors are composed of a range of small habitat patches within the landscape matrix.
\nBuffer zones, on the other hand, prohibit the damaging effects from external influences and maintain landscape processes within core areas and corridors by creating environmental gradients around these [78, 88, 110]. Finally, another spatial element of ecological networks mentioned by Bouwma et al. [109] includes sustainable use areas which refer to the exploitation of opportunities within the landscape mosaic for the maintenance of ecosystem services and sustainable use of natural resources [1]. Also, more intensive human uses are allowed in buffer zones and sustainable use areas only if these activities support the maintenance of ecosystem services and sustainability [78, 110].
\nThe common goals of ecological networks are to maintain the functioning of ecosystems and to promote the sustainable use of natural resources by assisting policy sectors [6, 81]. Within this framework, ecological networks have been considered one of the most important landscape planning approaches to address issues associated with human-induced habitat depletion. The concept of ecological networks has therefore attracted the attention of conservationists and planners in Europe [111, 112]. In Europe, many international initiatives and strategies for ecological networks have been developed [105, 113]. For example, the Pan-European Ecological Network (PEEN) is thought to be one of the most ambitious international ecological network programmes. The aims of the PEEN programme are to ensure the following:
the conservation of a full range of ecosystems, habitats, species and landscapes of European importance,
the maintenance of the habitats that are large enough to conserve animal and plant species,
the promotion of sufficient opportunities for species to disperse and migrate,
the restoration of the damaged parts of the key environmental systems, and
the prevention of potential threats on key environmental systems [10–114].
Overall, the ecological network approach has been regarded as an important tool to maintain some level of ecological structure and function in urban areas, since they are thought to provide habitats and ecological connectivity for species and to conserve the wildlife [6]. But, as indicated by Andrian [115], the emphasis of the wildlife and nature conservation has been a major driver for the development of urban ecological networks and there is still a need for integrating social and cultural values into ecological networks.
\nThe green network concept has been inserted into urban planning practices, principally based on the idea of ecological networks [116]. Accordingly, the ecological and green network concepts have been used synonymously. However, the transition from ecological networks to green networks has created a noticeable shift in the spatial planning of nature and human dimensions. In other words, while the focus of the ecological network concept was on the conservation of species and habitats, the concept of green networks has brought the needs of species and humans together under the same roof [6, 82]. Moreover, the concept of green networks recognises the crucial role of green and open spaces and the linkages between them to support and improve sustainable development and also to enhance the functioning of urban environments [82]. Here, it is also important to note that the multiple benefits (social, economic, health and environmental) of urban green and open spaces have already been recognised by researchers, planners and decision-makers [84, 117–121].
\nBarker [122] defined green networks as “natural, or permanently vegetated, physically connected spaces situated in areas otherwise built-up or used for intensive agriculture, industrial purposes or other intrusive human activities”. Additionally, the term green network was used by Bennett [104] to refer to a “spatial planning tool for the purpose of balancing and integrating land uses”. Thus, the concept of green networks has been seen as a multifunctional urban planning approach, in which the value and importance of natural, seminatural habitats and human-dominated habitats (e.g., urban green and open spaces) are appreciated to deliver benefits both for people and the environment.
\nRegarding the requirements of people in urban environments, a recent study by Scotland and Northern Ireland for Environmental Research claimed that green networks are capable of increasing the number of people visiting urban green spaces and the countryside by providing a safe environment for people to move across [85, 123]. Furthermore, the green network approach goes beyond the limited vision of developing individual green spaces in urban areas just for recreational and visual purposes and focuses on the functionally connected systems of formal and informal green and open spaces [122, 124].
\nAccording to Forest Research [82], the concept of green networks takes into account multiple functions offered by green spaces as well as their ability to support the movement of people and species by the interconnections between them. Within this framework, the differences between individual green and open spaces and a green network have been explained according to their functions and spatial configurations. While green spaces refer to publicly accessible individual green areas in urban environments, green networks reflect a strategically identified and functional system of green spaces for the benefit of people, habitats and biodiversity [82, 125].
\nAs well as these important features of green networks, Barker [122] suggested that one of the major benefits of green networks is their ability to provide connections between urban and rural landscapes. Therefore, green networks are said to be able to fulfil the requirements of wildlife, support ecological processes and meet the recreational, visual and social needs of people. In most countries, even though green networks have been primarily developed for their benefits to nature and biodiversity, they also serve multiple uses and functions such as meeting the ecological requirements of species and providing recreational facilities to people [122]. For example, in Sheffield, reasons for conserving and improving a green network for people and wildlife are defined as the following:
to increase and support biodiversity in Sheffield and the surrounding areas,
to allow the dispersal and genetic exchange of species throughout the city,
to reduce the adverse effects of fragmentation and isolation,
to control and support a sustainable drainage system,
to encourage the movement of people by increasing the access to open and green spaces, and countryside,
to improve the well-being and health of people, and
to improve the general character of the city as an attractive and healthy place [126].
From a theoretical point of view, it is obvious that the intended functions of green networks are broadly compatible with the main functions of ecological networks, which aim to support and enhance the movement of animal and plant species. Besides maintaining and enhancing urban biodiversity and nature, the green network approach also provides appropriate opportunities for the sustainable use of natural resources, and so is regarded as one of the fundamental components of a more sustainable urban environment [82]. To conclude, the green network approach has been inserted into the planning and management strategies as a broad concept to achieve multifunctionality for biodiversity and people in urban areas.
\nAs a more recent approach, the GI concept takes its theoretical and conceptual background from the abovementioned network approaches to provide multiple benefits for biodiversity, nature and people within an urban environment [127, 128]. For this reason, we can claim that the GI concept is not a new idea in landscape planning and management [129]. Accordingly, it can be suggested that the concept of GI is grounded on the recognition of the crucial role of green networks in the wider landscape to provide essential services, functions and resources. In this context, Rouse and Bunster [130] claim that the previous plans of green and open spaces (e.g., greenways) have been increasingly adapted as GI plans to provide environmental, economic and social benefits in urban environments.
\nGI is defined by Benedict and McMahon [127] as “an interconnected network of waterways, wetlands, woodlands, wildlife habitats, and other natural areas; greenways, parks and other conservation lands; working farms, ranches and forests; and wilderness and other open spaces that support native species, maintain natural ecological processes, sustain air and water resources and contribute to the health and quality of life for communities and people”. In addition, according to Natural England [131], GI is “the network of multifunctional open spaces, waterways, trees and woodlands, parklands and open countryside within and between our cities, towns and villages”. In an urban context, the Natural Environment White Paper defined GI as “the living network of green spaces, water and other environmental features in both urban and rural areas. It is often used in an urban context to cover benefits provided by trees, parks, gardens, road verges, allotments, cemeteries, woodlands, rivers and wetlands” [132]. Furthermore, Natural England [133] suggested that GI is “a strategically planned and delivered network comprising the broadest range of high quality green spaces and other environmental features”.
\nThe careful wording of these definitions includes three important ideas at the heart of the GI concept: connectivity in the form of networks, multifunctionality and green components [127, 129, 134]. In spite of the emphasis on the term “green”, it is quite important to note that GI also includes the features of blue infrastructure, such as river systems, other water features and coastal environments [127, 131]. As mentioned earlier, connectivity refers to the functional linkages in a landscape for the movement of animals, plants and/or people as well as the flows of materials, nutrients and energy [30, 35, 41]. Accordingly, supporting and enhancing connectivity between (habitat) patches is an important issue for biodiversity and nature conservation, and also to support human well-being and health in GI planning [127, 134].
\nMoreover, taking into consideration the abovementioned definitions, it is obvious that the concept of multifunctionality is the core idea of the GI concept, since the ability of a landscape to deliver multiple benefits and functions for wildlife, nature and people has been widely recognised by decision-makers, planners and managers. Multifunctionality refers to “the potential for GI to have a range of functions to deliver a broad range of ecosystem services” [135]. The key benefits of a GI approach are summarised by Forest Research [136] as the following:
mitigating and adapting to the effects of climate change,
supporting and promoting the health and well-being of people,
supporting economic growth and investment,
regeneration of previously developed, derelict, underused and neglected (brown fields) lands,
protecting, supporting and improving wildlife and habitats, and
enhancing social inclusion and creating community cohesion.
The Landscape Institute [137] claims that a strategically planned and managed GI approach may provide enhanced multifunctions in comparison with the sum of individual green and open spaces in an urban area. The concept of multifunctionality can be fitted into the planning of individual green and open spaces as well as routes but we can achieve a fully multifunctional GI network when these individual sites and their connections are taken together [10]. In this respect, it is important to note that multifunctionality in a landscape is characterised by a high level of complexity, where different functions occur at the same time and interact with each other [138].
\nConsisting of natural, seminatural and man-made ecological systems altogether in a system, a GI forms a multifunctional network within and around urban areas [139]. Hence, the planning and management of a GI approach should take into account its capacity to deliver multiple ecological services, address the requirements of people and enhance the spatial character and quality of landscapes in urban environments [96, 131, 133]. Accordingly, a GI approach also requires involvement of a variety of stakeholders (e.g., planning authorities, policy makers, conservationists and the general public) in order to meet its intended functions and benefits that we expect them to provide [5, 140, 141].
\nIn brief, the GI is a more promising and comprehensive planning approach to develop a coherent system of green and open spaces which serve multiple purposes and provide multifunctionality in urban areas [142].
\nThe objective of this chapter was to provide a deeper understanding of the context and evolution of different approaches to planning and designing urban networks. While, during their early stages, different approaches had their own planning aims and strategies to define networks spatially, subsequently, their general concerns about nature, wildlife and people have become more aligned [6].
\nIn early network planning practices, although natural and seminatural habitats were connected to each other for the benefit and use of wildlife, the linkages between urban green and open spaces were more concerned with people’s use and enjoyment of nature. However, in urban environments, it is hard to develop a network which focuses only on the conservation of nature and biodiversity or the benefit of people [3]. In many cases it is not appropriate to apply such an approach, since we cannot ignore the interactions between nature and people in urban environments. In this context, there has been a shift from single purpose planning approaches to more comprehensive and integrative planning approaches in order to deliver multifunctionality in urban environments [10, 80].
\nAll network approaches recognise the importance of functional connections for biodiversity and people in an increasingly fragmented urban environment. Accordingly, the common characteristics of the different network approaches are their spatial configuration and focus on connectivity. With regard to their spatial configuration in landscapes, all networks benefit from a linear structure in which different habitats and green and open spaces are included and connected. In relation to that, there is evidence for the benefits of networks to wildlife and biodiversity and people. The wider benefits to wildlife and biodiversity include facilitating the dispersal, genetic exchange and variability of many animal and plant species; increasing species’ resilience to the environmental changes, predators and human disturbances and supporting the essential ecosystem services [2, 4, 83]. The benefits of networks to people, on the other hand, include supporting the health and well-being of people and enhancing community spirit [5, 84, 85, 136].
\nHowever, our understanding of the underlying science and the ways of planning, designing and managing networks in urban landscapes is still developing. Accordingly, one of the most important obstacles to enhance connectivity, maintain biodiversity and support human well-being through the planning of networks has been the gap between their intended aims and actual outcomes in urban environments.
\nA comprehensive network planning approach requires the following considerations in order to achieve sustainability and multifunctionality in urban environments. Sustainability is a natural characteristic of any planning activity. Accordingly, the spatial planning of networks requires the investigation and integration of ecological, societal and economic aspects to provide multiple benefits to wildlife, nature and people. Also, detailed research is required to explore how differing land use/cover morphologies within the wider landscape matrix would support or detract from their expected functions. In addition, after the determination of areas for different functions and/or multifunctionality, their applicability should be evaluated using different tools, such as the use of multicriteria analysis as well as defining opportunities and constraints for the planning decisions. Moreover, the planning strategies for networks require cooperation between the local and regional authorities to provide and support connectivity at landscape and regional levels. It is also important to identify and cooperate with stakeholders including public/private sectors and organisations to provide and support multifunctionality and sustainability in urban environments. Finally, it is a necessity to monitor the results of networks in order to measure and ensure the success of the network plans as well as identifying any changes and modifications to these plans.
\nThis chapter is built upon as part of my PhD thesis. Hence, I gratefully acknowledge the invaluable guidance and support provided by Dr Anna Jorgensen (University of Sheffield, Department of Landscape) and Prof Philip H. Warren (University of Sheffield, Department of Animal and Plant Sciences) during my PhD research in the Department of Landscape, University of Sheffield.
\nFor the CFSVA [1], despite the country’s enormous agricultural potential, the majority of the population of the DRC remains largely exposed to poverty, food insecurity, malnutrition and hunger. According to the UNDP_RDC report, more than 71% of Congolese live on less than one US dollar / person / day. In terms of the Human Development Index, the UNDP ranked the country 41st out of 53 in Africa and 176th out of 189 countries in 2018 [2]. For the country as a whole, only one percent of arable land is used, and the country resorts to massive imports of almost all food products such as maize, rice, wheat, sugar, poultry, fish, meat, dairy products and other foodstuffs [3, 4, 5, 6]. The majority of the population of the DRC lives on agricultural activities, often associated with animal husbandry [7]. According to Brunneau [8], in Katanga, Kasai, Kivu provinces many villagers have lost their farmland to mining companies. Southern Katanga is one of the populated regions of the DRC. Mining, urbanization, insecurity in some parts of the country and the fluidity of the roads have allowed a rural exodus and an attraction of several populations from other towns and villages of the country. This massive presence of populations constitutes a potential market for agricultural products including milk, meat and vegetables. The same CFSVA report [1] mentions that in the DRC, poultry, goats, pigs, sheep and cattle are common livestock species and are thus among the important sources of income and meat production; they can be used as active savings assets for small farmers. Goat and pork meat is consumed in the HMK region. Goat meat is mainly sold cut in markets or around bars and drinking flow. The majority of goats sold and slaughtered in the Katanga Copper Belt (KCB) are imported from Zambia through the borders of Kasumbalesa, Kipushi, Kasenga, and others. According to the President of the Zambia Cross-Border Traders Association (CBTA), there is a high demand for animals and a huge market for goat meat in DRC. In only Kasumbalesa border on average, more than 4,500 goats are traded monthly [6], not counting sellers not officially registered and other points of entry into the DRC from Zambia. The optimal management of goat breeding and agricultural perimeters: soils, livestock resources, including the production, use, conservation, complementarity of species and the sharing of the resulting benefits, is therefore a necessity for an improvement of living conditions and income for the peasants of the Katanga Mining Hinterland.
Listing the constraints and opportunities of the goat sector in the KCB would serve as support for responsible decision-making at the level of decision-makers and actors involved.
The Katanga copper belt area is included in the Hinterland-Minier of the former province of Katanga, which is currently dismembered. This mining area is currently located in the provinces of Lualaba and Haut-Katanga. It was from Kolwezi (Lualaba) to Sakania (Haut-Katanga) (Figure 1). These two new provinces are subdivided into five territories for Lualaba, three of which are mining (Lubudi, Mutshasha and Dilolo) and six territories for Haut-Katanga, five of which are mining (Kambove, Kipushi, Sakania, Pweto and Mitwaba). The main minerals mined in this area are copper, cobalt, zinc, manganese, uranium, germanium, gold, cassiterite and silver.
Katangan copper belt region of Democratic Republic of Congo. (Source: Ref. [
Beyond the mining sector, the copper belt is also an agricultural and livestock area. The main agricultural products are maize, cassava, sweet potatoes, vegetable crops, rice, soya and other.
Animal husbandry is a secondary activity practiced by the majority of farmers and non-farmers. The main livestock species are in order of importance the chickens, the goat, the pig, the rabbits, the ducks…
The vegetation of the mining hinterland of Katanga (Figure 1) is characterized by an open forest (Miombo), wooded savannas, swampy meadows and grassy savannas. There is a specific cupricola vegetation installed on soils highly contaminated with copper and other metals characteristic of the region [10].
The different types of soils encountered are ferrisols, arreno-ferrals, hydro-kaolisols, recent tropical soils, the tropical black earths on alluvium.
The climate is classified as warm and temperate. Precipitation is heavier in summer than in winter. The Köppen-Geiger classification is of the Cwa type. The annual average temperature is 20.5°C. The average annual precipitation is 1240 mm. The climatological characteristics of the region are presented in Figure 2.
Ombrothermal diagram of the hinterland-Minier of Katanga region. (source: Climate-data.org, 2021. Climat Lubumbashi (Congo-Kinshasa):
The economic activities of the population bordering on mining are based on a subsistence economy, which is an economy chosen or suffered, relatively or totally separate from economic flows, where there is essentially self-consumption. The production of food, movable or immovable goods necessary for existence depends on the family or a small group without there being any trade or in a very limited way. They are mainly based on subsistence farming, the production of embers, small trade, fishing, hunting, breeding, crafts, education and in some urban planning sites, some households live off the property rights of the Earth. Several studies show that 61% of people earn their income from farming. This shows that agriculture remains the main income-generating activity in areas around mines and in general in rural areas [11].
This study on goat breeding in KCB was made possible by a compilation of official documents, in particular: reports from state institutions such as national and provincial ministries, provincial inspections of agriculture, fishing and breeding; the national statistics institute. Reports from international organizations. Reports from state institutions and development NGOs, scientific articles, theses and dissertations from higher studies, the laws of the country and archives of the territorial administration, testimonies from village chiefs, reports from cadastral services and mining cadastre, as well as data from our own investigations and professional experience and our discussions with goat breeders.
The protein content was determined by the Digesdahl method (CP = Nx6.25). Contents of parietal fiber (ADF and NDF) were determined by the FibreBag Gerhardt procedure as described by Van Soest et al. [12]. The ether extracts (EE) were determined by the Soxtec System using the method described by Matsler and Siebenmorgen [13]. The organic material was determined by placing the samples in a muffle furnace at 560°C overnight. Crude ash levels were deduced by the difference of dry matter and organic matter. Dry matter concentration was determined after drying leaves and root in an oven at 105°C for 24 h. Soil total concentrations of copper, cobalt, zinc and lead were measured in duplicate, and results reported in mg/kg dry soil. The pH was determined using a pH-meter glass electrode in a soil to distilled water ratio of 1: 2.5. The mineral content of the soil was determined according to the method described by Alsac [14]. Digestion was carried out on 0.5 g soil with 6 ml of hydrochloric acid and 2 ml of nitric acid (aqua regia) at 95°C for 75 min on a heating block. The digest was then adjusted to 50 ml. Mineral content were done using atomic absorption spectrometry, according to the NF EN ISO 17294-1 and 17294–2 French standard method [15]. The minimum detection limit for each of these metals in leaves and roots samples were Cu: 3 ppb, Co: 5 ppb, Pb: 10 ppb and Zn: 1 ppb. For Influence of Washing, Samples of the plant, were collected from the shallows, slopes and trays on each of the sites. Whole plants of were harvested at the same places where soil profiles were dug for soil sampling. Roots were separated directly from the aerial parts of plants, washed and tops sampled into two parts. Fractions were packaged and labeled. In the laboratory, one of two aliquot of each aerial part was washed with deionized water containing Alconox [16].
The presence of the mining industry in the KCB has had an impact on agricultural activities in general and goat breeding in particular. Mining companies and artisanal mining activities have resorted to an active local workforce. This practice has had the following consequences [11]: - Food insecurity due to the drop in agricultural production per capita: exodus of young people to the mines and adults and old people who remain in the rural environment must feed everyone who is in the quarries and in the city, − Diversion of agricultural labor: the villages are depopulated by young people who prefer quarries than the village because of the high income provided by mining activity, − Rise in food prices so much both plant and animal origin, − Ecological imbalance which paralyzes certain crops and other rural activities, − Disappearance of certain villages and centers.
The granting of mining squares resulted in the expropriation of agricultural land and even the relocation of local peasant farmers. The acquisition of land by some mining companies to the detriment of communities is a form of land grabbing. The precedence of the mining code over the agricultural law [17] has a lot to do with the dispossession of agricultural land. Land, the precious capital that provided the bare minimum of subsistence to small producers, through agriculture is in alteration. At the provincial level, the study carried out by in 2015 by [11], revealed that out of a total of 496,865 km2 of land, 356,220 km2 are occupied by mining companies, or 71.69%. Another study estimates that 85% of the territory of former Katanga is divided into mining squares ceded to third parties, Yan Gorus (2009) cited by [11]. The part of the land that remains unassigned to mining companies is approximately 140.645 km2, or 28% of the land. It is also necessary to subtract from it all the space occupied by the national parks (17.870 km2) as well as the water surfaces (lakes: approximately 26.899 km2) and the 95.932 km2 remain free for agriculture without considering to what degree they lend themselves to this in terms of fertility without subtracting urban space. According to the same study 87% of farmers have reduced the area of their fields as a result of the pressure exerted by the occupation of land for mining activities. Areas that were once used for agricultural activities are closed to indigenous populations. However, the agricultural activity practiced in rural areas is nothing other than shifting slash-and-burn agriculture with the practice of fallow. For the communities, this leads to the reduction of areas or cultivable land, and as a result, a drastic reduction in subsistence income.
Mining has opened a door to easy but very precarious and unsecured gain for the young people who engage in it. For most of the peasants in this region, mining is a quick and easy way to earn income, to the detriment of farming and goat farming. The breeding time to obtain an adult animal that can be cheap being “long”, the peasants, men, women and even children, prefer to practice artisanal mining and other activities related to it including washing. Minerals, prostitution, petty trade and transport. These activities are not without negative consequences on the health and social life of the population: precarious income, sexually transmitted diseases, debauchery, drugs, banditry, unemployment and teenage delinquency and especially contamination with characteristic metallic trace elements from the cupro-cobalt-bearing region. Exposure and contamination to heavy metals in KCB has been well described by [18, 19].
The rush for mining centers and quarries fostered intense commercial activity. As with the artisanal mining mentioned above, the petty trade, especially in foodstuffs from the countries of southern Africa, mainly from neighboring Zambia, has taken a toll on agricultural and livestock activities. This activity also has consequences on the social life of households, including household instability, monetary instability, the advent of COVI-19 which, at certain periods, has forced the confinement of populations, the instability of prices of manufactured products, debts, the eviction of artisanal miners unexpectedly by the politico-administrative authorities… All these acts have repercussions on the life of the peasants: their social and monetary stability which could be guaranteed by an activity agricultural and/or goat breeding.
The south-eastern region of the former dismembered province of Katanga is characterized by a CWa type climate according to the Koppen classification. Pastures are mainly made up of seasonal grasses and rarely legumes. The rainy season is spread out from November in the first half of April and the dry season is from April to October. During the long dry season, with cold periods (Figure 2), the grassy vegetation dries up completely and leaves in place highly lignified straw of poor nutritional quality for ruminants. Likewise, the crop residues of the main food crops are very lignified and do not provide an acceptable quality fodder, especially since the method of rearing straying, without supplementation leaves ruminants no choice but to be satisfied with these quality poor foods.
This situation is to the detriment of the animals with the consequence of a decrease in performance and an economic loss for local breeders.
Following the flourishing mining activities in the region, the residents exploit natural resources of the clear forest: the Miombo. Among the available resources exploited we find caterpillars, edible mushrooms, game, honey … and especially wood.
Of all these non-timber and wood resources, the exploitation of wood, firewood and charcoal production is one of the intense activities of farmers. Due to the insufficient supply of electrical energy for domestic needs, charcoal is the primary resource for cooking for all households in the region (Figure 3). This activity is preferred by peasants (Figure 4) after agriculture. Logging is one of the activities of environmental degradation and imbalance of Miombo ecosystems.
Distribution of sources of income for peasants in the KCB [
Peasants selling charcoal in KCB. (source: Alexis Huguet, 2019. En RDC, le charbon de bois vital pour les foyers, mortel pour les forêts. Agence France-Presse).
Some agricultural and livestock activities are adopted by agro-pastoralists because of the short time frame and simplicity. Market gardening activities are preferred by many farmers because of their short duration and market demand. Chicken breeding, mainly broilers, is also preferable to goats rearing, among other things, to the short raising time, the demand and preference of more and more consumers and the availability of chicks and feed imported completely without difficulty from neighboring Zambia. All these activities are without consequences because market gardening crops face competition with that from Zambia and also they are exposed to rapid degradation in the event of unsold, for lack of techniques and means of conservation and/or processing. The cost of local production of broilers is so far higher than the selling price of imported chicken. This constitutes a huge difficulty for local semi-intensive poultry farmers.
The insecurity experienced by the DRC following the various wars that have taken place for more than twenty years; have caused negative effects on animal husbandry as a whole. Armed groups have had to constantly resort to farm animals for food in various war zones including the Hinterland-mining region of Katanga. Several villages have been victims of this practice and some agro-pastoralists have abandoned the practice of goat breeding. An example is the incursion of militiamen and the looting in the city of Diambala and Kakokonya, in the territory of Kipushi (Haut-Katanga). During the night of Thursday, January 16, 2014, these attackers took goats, agricultural products and other goods from the population of these localities.
Another constraint linked to insecurity is theft. The wandering breeding system and the precarious housing conditions of the animals are factors that contribute to the loss of animals by theft. The high selling price of goats in urban centers and large towns in the region is the determining factor in this practice. Stray animals are stolen either by some inhabitants of the village or by strangers in the village. This practice is often organized at night during which thieves, coming from urban centers, bring in vehicles and spray insecticides in goat houses to steal animals without agitation or noise. Several villages, some of which have benefited from NGDOs aid, nowadays find themselves without goats because of this practice.
Several NGOs have contributed to the rebuilding of goat herds in the dismembered province of Katanga after the unfortunate events of the repetitive wars that have raged in the country. Unfortunately, some breeders, having benefited from these donations, have preferred to sell their herd for emergency medical care or children’s schooling. Some preferred other activities, mainly petty trading and the sale of charcoal or market gardening which allows them to have permanent access to cash.
Several studies have shown that soils and fodder are contaminated with trace metal elements characteristic of the region (Tables 1–3) [16, 20, 21, 22]. This situation does not encourage fodder vegetation to spread in certain potentially grazing areas. Goats reared on vegetation in Lubumbashi in its southwest and northwest part had debris and tissues including meat, liver and kidneys containing high levels of Cd and Pb exceeding the recommended standards [18]. And that the feces of these goats had high levels of Cu, Cd, Pb and Zn [18]. This is explained by the presence of the former foundry plant of the state mining company, “Générale des Carrières et des Mines:
Soils | pHh2O | pHkci | COT | Cu | Co | Cd | Pb | Zn |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Garden | 6.2 | 5.8 | 2.2 | 142 | 6.7 | 0.67 | 15.3 | 24.9 |
Penga penga | 5.4 | 5.3 | 1.1 | 3524 | 109 | 8.59 | 249 | 290.4 |
Physicochemical characteristics of the two soils studied: Contents of pH, TOC (%) and ETM extractable by ammonium acetate-EDTA (mg,kg−1).
Source [20].
Culture | ETM (mg.kg1) | SN | TO | C15 | M105 | CM1 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
31 | — | 118 | — | 121 | ||
— | — | 8.8 | — | 6.5 | ||
4.1 | — | 8.6 | — | 6.1 | ||
1.2 | — | 6.5 | — | 7.1 | ||
100 | — | 80 | — | 113 | ||
49 | 2601 | 62 | 156 | 121 | ||
1.5 | 91.2 | 3.2 | 84 | 6.5 | ||
5 | 0.9 | 2.9 | 6.1 | 2.3 | ||
1.7 | 11.5 | 2 | 7.1 | 3.1 | ||
192 | 348 | 94 | 113 | 58 |
Contents of ETM extractable by ammonium acetate-EDTA in the harvested plants (mg.Kg−1 MS).
Contaminated soil without amendment (T0), with 15 g of limestone (C15), 105 g of compost (M105) per kg of soil, 15 g of limestone +105 g of compost (CM1) per kg of soil and reference soil of experimental garden (SN).
Source [20].
Sites | Topography | Effect (p > F) | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Parameters | WS | KAS | KINS | LUI | S | T | SI | SEM | Site | top | site*top |
Cu | Unwashed | 63Aa | 42Ab | I68Aa | 85Aa | 98Aa | 90Aa | 27,8 | ** | NS | NS |
Washed | 20Ba | 12Aa | 45B’ | I8BA | 30Ba | 29Ba | 9,5 | NS | NS | NS | |
Co | Unwashed | 14Aa | 10Aa | 60Ab | 29Aa | 25Aa | 30Aa | 2,7 | * | NS | NS |
Washed | 10Aa | 3Ab | I3Ba | 8* | 11Ba | 7Ba | 1,3 | NS | NS | NS | |
Zn | Unwashed | 185Aa | 24Ab | 87Ab | 38Ab | 107Aab | 151Aa | 33 | * | * | NS |
Washed | 103Aa | 26Ab | 39Aab | 37Aa | 58Ab | 12,3 | * | NS | NS | ||
Pb | Unwashed | 107Aa | 8Ab | l36Aa | 78Aa | 65Aa | 78Aa | 21,7 | ** | NS | NS |
Washed | 7Ba | 3Aa | 7Ba | 4Ba | 9Ba | 4Ba | 1,4 | NS | NS | NS |
Heavy metal concentration in Adenodolichos rhomboideus leaves according to site, topography and washing at Lubumbashi.
1:
Source [16].
High levels of heavy metals were found in different soils and fodder in a few sites near certain mining quarries in Kasombo (Kipushi), MMG (Kinsevere) and Luisuishi (Lubumbashi) [16]. For these authors, the Cu contents were high in all the sites, the Pb contents were read high at Kasombo and Luiswishi; Co levels were high at the Luiswishi sites and moderately at Kasombo, while Zn was higher at Kasombo and Luiswishi (Table 3).
As the region is a mining area, there is no policy of choosing pasture with uncontaminated vegetation to practice goat breeding. The consumption of forages containing high levels of heavy metals can have several consequences in animals and in consumers of goat meat. The consumer can, through the food chain, become intoxicated by regularly consuming meat from these farms.
More than 40% of samples of kidneys, livers and muscles from goats reared in the prevailing wind area levels of cadmium, lead, copper and zinc above the recommended standards (Table 4). While samples collected from farms indicate values below recommended limits in feces. Samples of offal and meat from goats collected from contaminated sites showed high levels of Pb and Cd in kidneys and liver (Table 5) [18].
Contaminated urban areas | Peri-urban farms | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Dry season | Rainy season | Dry season | Rainy season | |
Cd | 3.02 ± 1.41 | 4.39 ± 2.55 | 2.49 ± 2.28 | 2.27 ± 1.41 |
Cu | 277.80 ± 304.07 | 236.83 ± 272.16 | 87.05 ± 66.71 | 71.57 ± 28.92 |
Pb | 24.24 ± 24.93 | 23.99 ± 20.25 | 4.92 ± 4.94 | 6.01 ± 3.07 |
Zn | 221.63 ± 124.81 | 259.59 ± 98.21 | 106.19 ± 30.02 | 145.20 ± 33.88 |
Average concentrations of Cd, Pb, Cu and Zn in the feces of goats reared in Lubumbashi (mg/kg).
Source [18].
Kedney | Liver | Muscles | Standard | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Cd | 1.91 ± 0.69 | 1.39 ± 0.62 | 0.36 ± 0.12 | 0.522 (FAO/WHO) |
Cu | 36.09 ± 12.17 | 47.84 ± 22.59 | 24.48 ± 11.87 | 20023 (ANZFA) |
Pb | 4.7 ± 2.55 | 1.8 ± 0.5 | 0.96 ± 0.46 | 123 (ANZFA) |
Zn | 66.06 ± 30.1 | 106.94 ± 50.21 | 12.98 ± 5.38 | 15023 (ANZFA) |
Heavy metal concentrations (Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn) found in certain tissues of goats reared in the contaminated zone.
Source: [18].
Samples taken from edible offal in some markets show that only the Pb contents are above the recommended limits in the kidneys and liver (Table 6). In view of these results, the regular consumption of goat offal may be the basis of lead poisoning in humans.
Kidney | Liver | Muscles | Standard | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Cd | 0.084 ± 0.037 | 0.061 ± 0028 | 0.015 ± 0.006 | 0.5 [23] |
Cu | 36.09 ± 12.17 | 47.84 ± 22.59 | 24.48 ± 11.87 | 200 [24] |
Pb | 4.7 ± 2.55 | 1.8 ± 0.5 | 0.96 ± 0.46 | 1 [24] |
Zn | 66.06 ± 30.1 | 106.94 ± 50.21 | 12.98 ± 5.38 | 150 [24] |
Heavy metal concentrations (Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn) found in the meat and certain offal of goats sold at the market (ppm).
Source [18].
Another constraint is linked to the practice of traditional and rudimentary rearing [25]. The majority of goat keepers resort to straying and tethering [26] (Figure 5) without supplementation, prophylaxis or breeding stock selection. The practice of stake tying is often done during the maize growing period, at the start of the rainy season, to prevent goats from grazing the young plants of this food crop. Animals are satisfied with natural vegetation regardless of its composition. A few rare breeders sporadically bring in crop residues.
Grouping of farms based on farming method. SystemeE: Breeding system; divagation: Rambling goats system; piquet: Stakes attachment system. Source [
Prophylaxis is almost non-existent and goats hardly ever receive veterinary services. These are often limited to inspecting meat and collecting state taxes. The practice of straying, which is the general breeding method for almost all breeders, promotes uncontrolled mating. This practice has harmful consequences such as consanguinity, the transmission of venereal diseases, the increase in genetic defects and abnormalities. This does not promote good animal yields for growth and reproduction.
The average sub-sternal gracefulness index (IGs) of adult animals in this region, all sexes combined, is close to 1, indicating that these goats are mostly brevipedes, and that considering the average weight and other body measurements, in particular the average height at the withers greater than 50 cm, they belong, like small ruminants of the “Mossi” breed, to the small-format genetic type7. However, these authors have found that these goats are very heterogeneous, this does not allow them to be classified into a homogeneous genetic type. This gives rise to a great possibility of selection.
The small size and low weight of these animals may be due to the fact that the grazing in the study area is generally poor. Indeed, soils have a high metal content, acid rain makes phosphorus virtually unavailable, and uncontrolled bushfires destroy huge amounts of organic matter every year and deplete the soil of nitrogen [27].
The poor performance of these goats does not allow them to be marketed within a reasonable time (Table 7). The live weight of adult goats ranging from 12.8 to 26.3 kg [29] and some authors found weights of 13.28 and 14.41 kg respectively for females and males at the age of 9 months [28]. The male: female ratio is on average 1: 3. However, 11.4% of herds have a zero ratio with absence of males [29]. And this zero ratio can reach more than 60% for some goat herds in the region [30].
Variable | N | Average | Standard deviation | Minimum | Maximum |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
P0days: Weight at Birth | |||||
Average herd | 245 | 1.75 | 0.46 | 0.5 | 2.8 |
Females | 119 | 1.74 | 0.36 | 0.6 | 2.5 |
Males | 126 | 1.75 | 0.54 | 0.5 | 2.8 |
Average herd | 111 | 2.69 | 0.59 | 1.4 | 5 |
Females | 54 | 2.62 | 0.47 | 1.6 | 3.9 |
Males | 57 | 2.77 | 0.69 | 1.4 | 5 |
Average herd | 235 | 4.28 | 1.04 | 1.8 | 8.9 |
Females | 113 | 4.2 | 0.96 | 2 | 6.1 |
Males | 122 | 4.34 | 1.12 | 1.8 | 8.9 |
Average herd | 228 | 7.14 | 2.04 | 3.2 | 12.3 |
Females | 111 | 6.82 | 2.05 | 3.2 | 10.6 |
Males | 117 | 7.46 | 1.99 | 3.7 | 12.3 |
Average herd | 218 | 10.22 | 2.15 | 4.2 | 14.4 |
Females | 105 | 9.9 | 2.13 | 4.2 | 14.4 |
Males | 113 | 10.52 | 2.09 | 5.3 | 13.4 |
P270days | |||||
Average herd | 216 | 13.37 | 3.47 | 5.5 | 19.4 |
Females | 104 | 13.28 | 2.9 | 5.5 | 17.1 |
Males | 112 | 14.41 | 3.87 | 6.6 | 19.4 |
Several symptoms related to pathologies have been documented by some authors [26, 29, 31].
In the event of pathologies, breeders resort to pharmacopeia, using some local substances and plants, and the main symptoms encountered in goats are: diarrhea, cough, mange, cachexia [26] (Figure 6). An extrapolation of the etiological causes of some of the symptoms of the diseases was carried out on the basis of the diagnoses carried out in the field: - weight loss, usually associated with bloating of the abdomen, poor general condition and a “pricked hair »Is a sign of significant gastrointestinal verminosis; –the causes of abortion are undoubtedly diverse: their etiology has not been specifically studied; –diarrheas are frequently cited, but their intensity and frequency vary from one farm to another. This variability could be linked to farming conditions and more specifically to hygienic conditions; - the diarrhea described as “red” by the breeders are in fact bloody diarrhea; − the udder problems, which the breeders clearly dissociate from agalactia, are probably mastitis in the majority of cases: they describe swollen udders, red and painful; −the skin problems revealed by breeders most often result in the presence of scabs and scratching lesions, probably due to the presence of ectoparasites (scabies, lice, ticks, even myiasis); –Cough a sign of an upper and/or lower respiratory disorder. It is more frequent, according to pastoralists, during the rainy season which lasts from October to April [31].
Grouping of farms in relation to the pathological symptoms encountered. Aucccune: None, Diarhée: Diarrhea, Maigreur: Weight loss, Toux et gale: Cough and scabies. Source [
A few cases of reproductive pathologies including physiological (muco-sanguinolent or bloody discharge) and pathological (mucopurulent or purulent discharge) vaginal and/or uterine secretions in 13% and 5% of the 739 non-pregnant goats examined, respectively in farms. And that a number of cases (n = 59) of more specific pathological situations were also observed including eleven cases of hydrosalpinx, eleven cases of paraovarian cysts, two cases of hydrometer and one case of paracervical cyst. Six cases of genital tract abnormalities were observed out of 346 males examined. They mainly concerned the testes (atrophy, cryptorchidism, hydrocele, orchitis) [29].
In addition to reproductive pathologies, a few cases of contagious ecthyma, scabies and estrosis have also been detected [30]. A few cases of caprine brucellosis have also been reported in the killings of goats in the city of Lubumbashi, around 9.8% of cases recorded [30].
Other pathologies are linked to gastrointestinal parasitosis. Table 8 provides information on the symptoms linked to infestations of these parasitosis.
Symptoms and causes of gastrointestinal parasitosis | Frequency | |
---|---|---|
Symptoms: | Weight loss | 28/44 |
Lack of appetite | 28/44 | |
Hairless hairs | 39/44 | |
Belly bloating | 32/44 | |
Presence of worms in stool | 32/44 | |
Diarrhea | 19/44 | |
Causes: | Water | 44/44 |
Pasture | 37/44 | |
Night kraal | 2/44 | |
Humidity | 3/44 |
The DR Congo is the world’s leading producer of cobalt (the leading strategic mineral in the electric automobile industry with a third of world reserves31, the leading African producer of copper and the fourth in the world. The mining code [17] of 2002, inspired by the World Bank and designed to attract foreign investment, encouraged the rise of the mining sector. DR Congo’s mining industry has been one of the most dynamic in sub-Saharan Africa over the past two decades. There are currently several industrial companies that exploit deposits mainly of copper and cobalt and nearly sixty cooperatives including those working in artisanal mining [11]. There are also several other independents not officially recognized who sell directly to expatriate intermediaries, mainly Chinese and Indo-Pakistani. This situation has encouraged a massive exodus of the Congolese populations to the mining centers and agglomerations of this region. Added to this is the insecurity due to the wars and armed groups that have taken place in certain regions of the Northeast favoring the influx of displaced people from internal wars to the more secure Southeast. The presence of all these populations has constituted a labor force for mining companies and also for artisanal mining which represents about 20% of the mining production of the DRC. Currently more than ten million people depend directly or indirectly on this mining activity [33]. This has fostered a strong demand for primary foodstuffs including meat products.
Goat meat is among the meat products most consumed by the population of Katanga. This meat is the most preferred of ruminant meats, because it is sold in all public markets and especially near the thousands of bars and drinking establishments scattered throughout the KCB, in the form of CABRI commonly called “MITSHOPO”, appetizers (pieces of goat meat cooked on a hearth of wood fires). Every day vendors slaughter thousands of goats in large towns, villages and in artisanal mining quarries. Raising domestic animals is generally a savings opportunity for marginalized farming households in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Goats are the second farmed species in this region [26, 27, 29] and in DRC after chicken [25]. It is rustic, easy to breed and easy to handle, with the ability to adapt to harsh and poor grazing areas. Goat droppings are also used as organic manure which serves to amend the acidic soils (ferrisols) which characterize the region. They can also be used to produce biogas in combination with other crop residues. The vegetation of the HMK lends itself well to the rearing of goats.
Some studies on forages have shown interesting results. The studies carried out the supplementation of goats fed on hay of
Treatments | WI (kg) | WF (kg) | GWF(g) | ADG(g) |
---|---|---|---|---|
16.85a | 17.9a | 1050a | 17.5a | |
16.35a | 20ab | 3970bc | 66bc | |
16.7a | 21.5b | 4820c | 80c | |
16.6a | 19.9ab | 3300b | 55b | |
0.37 | 0.49 | 0.42 | 6.9 | |
0.97 | 0.012 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Effect on the growth performance of the consumption of hay consisting of a mixture of Setaria palidefusca and
Means followed by different letters in the column are different.
Source [34].
Fodder | QC (g,DM,Head1 day1) | Index |
---|---|---|
Hay | 187.5 ± 46.6b | 1c |
Adenodolichos | 83.7 ± 16.9a | 1.44 ± 0.5a |
Leucaena | 268.7 ± 119d | 1.7 ± 0.8 |
Stylosanthes | 230 ± 23.7 | 1.56 ± 0.64ab |
A | 164.4 ± 68.6a | 1.6 ± 1.1b |
B | 208.4 ± 105b | 1.3 ± 0.3a |
C | 208.2 ± 101b | 1.4 ± 0.4 ab |
D | 164.4 ± 68.6a | |
Feed | 0.00000 | 0.000000 |
Periods | 0.001 | 0.016571 |
Animal | 0.272471 | 0.871944 |
forage x periods | 0 | 0.778595 |
periods x animal | 0.997815 | 0.000042 |
forage x animal | 0.919552 | 0.884571 |
periods x animal x forage | 1 | 0.996648 |
Average quantities consumed and palatability index of fodder consumed by goats.
The means followed by different letters in the same column, for each variable, are significantly different from each other (p < 0,05), NS: not significant, **: highly significant, ***: very highly significant, QC: Quantities consumed; A: period 1; B: period 2; C: period 3 and D: period 4.
Source [36].
Forage | OM | CP | ADF | NDF | EE | Asli | UFL | PDLX | PDLE | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hay | 977a | 959a | 30a | 503a | 709a | 11a | 40a | 0.59a | 18a | 47a |
892b | 960a | 153b | 480a | 600a | 33b | 40a | 0.71b | 96c | 76c | |
896b | 897b | 305.6c | 264b | 345b | 51.5c | 100b | 1.5c | 192d | 130d | |
910b | 947a | 104d | 492a | 560a | 17ab | 53a | 0.68b | 65b | 66b | |
Corn | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 1 | 74 | 97 |
SEM | 17 | 24 | 6.8 | 10.6 | 43.8 | 4.25 | 24 | 0.01 | 1.6 | 1.1 |
0.002 | 0.01 | 0.000 | 0.001 | 0.004 | 0.002 | 0.01 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Chemical composition (g/kg) of legume forage.
Means followed by different letters in the row are different ai level p < 0.05.
DM: dry matter, OM: organic matter, CP: crude protein, ÁDF: insoluble fiber in acid detergent, NDF: insoluble fiber in neutral detergent, E: ether extract, UFL: net energy for lactation, PDIN: protein digested in the small intestine when rumen-fermentable nitrogen is limiting, PDIE: protein digested in the small intestine when rumen-fermentable energy is limiting S&M: standard error of the mean.
Source: [36].
Comparison between energy and nitrogen, requirement and intake of experimental diets consumed by local goats in Lubumbashi. BesUFL: Requirement net energy for lactatio, ApUFL: Intake net energy for lactation, BesPDI: Requirement protein digested in the small intestine when rumen-fermentable nitrogen is limiting, ApPDI: Intake protein digested in the small intestine when rumen-fermentable nitrogen is limiting. (Source: Ref. [
Tests carried out on ten forage species (Table 12) have shown the good productive and nutritive capacities of these forage [21]. Some of these species have adapted well despite their first attempts at cultivation in the region. Their use in fodder crops or in association with spontaneous vegetation would be an asset for the improvement of goats and to solve the problems linked to nutritional deficiencies, especially in the dry season. Another opportunity is that some of these forage species have shown good adaptability on soils contaminated with heavy metals characteristic of the HMK region [16, 20, 36].
Species | Production (TDM/ha/year) | CP (%MS) | NDF (%MS) | ADF | CPt/Ha/year | CE |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
7.9 | 21.38–29.31 | 48.15–42.41 | 42.45–29.77 | 1.8 | 3340.69–3152.82 | |
10.6 | 24.51–25.67 | 50.16–55.89 | 41.62–50.66 | 2.7 | 3444.05–3650.52 | |
3.8 | 22.76–24.21 | 42.13–37.23 | 24.99–24.45 | 0.9 | 3112.35–3053.35 | |
6.3 | 20.71–26.02 | 24.68–24.55 | 16.75–14.07 | 0.5 | 3111.54–3251.58 | |
4.3 | 7.38 | 72.94 | 40.32 | 0.3 | 11137,5 | |
13.9 | 7.6–9.01 | 67.40–64.06 | 39.30–36.28 | 1.2 | 2834.27–2661.95 | |
5.9 | 3.95 | 74.47 | 54.19 | 0.2 | 2648.25 | |
6.5 | 3.56 | 65.66 | 37.50 | 0.2 | 2679.64 | |
8.7 | 5.37–6.53 | 73.13–61.55 | 48.41–37.36 | 0.5 | 2777.22–2485.73 | |
13.1 | 5.66–7.79 | 71.00–69.77 | 34.48–44.66 | 0.8 | 2631.83–2449.69 |
Productivity and chemical composition of forage species cultivated in Lubumbashi.
TDM: ton dry matter, CP: crude protein, NDF: neutral detergent fiber, ADF: acid detergent fiber, ADL: acid detergent lignin, CE: crude energy.
Source [21].
Studies of indigenous goat crossbreeds have taken place and have shown encouraging results for improved growth and average daily gain. These studies show that crossbreeding has improved the growth rate and average daily gain of hybrids between the indigenous goat and the South African Boer breed [37] (Tables 13 and 14).
Genetic group | Birth | 30 days | 90 days | 180 days | 270 days |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Boer (n = 62) | 2.41 ± 0,38a | 6.87 ± 0.38a | 14.3 ± 0.38a | 17.9 ± 0.38a | 24.7 ± 0.38a |
F1 (n = 167) | 2.18 ± 0,15a | 6.87 ± 0.38a | 9.53 ± 0.15b | 14.4 ± 0.15c | 21.4 ± 0.15c |
Local (n = 116) | 1.75 ± 0,12a | 4.27 ± 0.12b | 7.11 ± 0.12c | 10.2 ± 0.13b | 13.8 ± 0.13b |
Genetic group * sex | |||||
Boer F | 2.29 ± 0.49a | 6.59 ± 0.49a | 13.9 ± 0.49a | 17.6 ± 0.49a | 24.4 ± 0.49a |
F1 F | 2.06 ± 0.22a | 4.89 ± 0.22b | 8.68 ± 0.22b | 13.8 ± 0.22c | 21.9 ± 0.22b |
Local F | 1.75 ± 0.17a | 4.19 ± 0.18c | 6.79 ± 0.18c | 9.87 ± 0.18b | 13.2 ± 0.18d |
Boer M | 2.52 ± 0.57a | 7.14 ± 0.57a | 14.5 ± 0.57a | 18.3 ± 0.57a | 25.1 ± 0.57a |
F1 M | 2.29 ± 0.20a | 5.45 ± 0.20b | 10.4 ± 0.20d | 14.9 ± 0.20d | 20.8 ± 0.20c |
Local M | 1.75 ± 0.17a | 4.34 ± 0.17b.c | 7.43 ± 0.17e | 10.5 ± 0.18e | 14.4 ± 0.18e |
Average weights (kg) of kids in the pre-weaning and post-weaning period of the genetic groups and the genetic group-sex interaction. Means followed by different letters; a, b, c, d and e; in the column are different at level p < 0.05.
F1: Hybrid; F: femelle, M: male.
Source [37].
Sources of variation | Days 0–30(g.d-1) | Days 30–90(g.d−1) | Days 90–180 (g.d−1) | Days 180–270 (g.d−1) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Boer F | 143 ± 9.10 a | 122 ± 5.91a | 41.2 ± 4.44a | 75.7 ± 5.53a |
F1 F | 94.3 ± 4.07b | 62.2 ± 2.64b | 56.5 ± 1.98b | 88.7 ± 2.47a |
Local F | 81.0 ± 3.30c | 43.0 ± 2.16d | 33.4 ± 1.68a | 37.4 ± 2.10b |
Boer M | 154 ± 10.6a | 124 ± 6.90a | 41.1 ± 5.18a.c | 75.3 ± 6.45a |
F1 M | 106 ± 3.74b | 82.1 ± 2.43c | 50.8 ± 1.85c | 65.6 ± 2.31a |
Local M | 85.7 ± 3.19c | 51.0 ± 2.16e | 34.4 ± 1.62a | 43.0 ± 2.02b |
Averages of daily gain (ADG) of different genetic groups. Means followed by different letters; a, b, c and d; in the column are different at level p<0.05.
F1 = Hybrid; F = femelles; M = males.
Source [37].
Studies of the remedies used for the care of goats in this region show that the majority of goat breeders use local plants to care for their animals (Table 15). And that for the majority of breeders, this knowledge of herbal remedies is acquired by family transmission; only one of these breeders has enriched his knowledge by studying botany. Almost a quarter of breeders report having acquired this knowledge esoterically by dreaming, or by communicating with a deceased relative, or even by inspiration. Only one breeder reports acquisition by trial and error [31].
Plant used | Vernacular name (in Swahili) | Symptoms treated | Parts of the plant used | Method of preparation of administration remedies | Dosage | Solvent | Number of breeders using this remedy (n = 50) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hayi | Cough | Pods | Pounded and given in syrup (with honey) | 1 glass for 2 to 3 days | Honey | 27 | |
Kipayi payi | Skin problems (scabs and itching) | Leaves | Fiction on lesions of previously looted leaves | Depending on the surface to be treated | No solvent | 42 | |
Kipayi payi | Skin problems (scabs and itching) | latex from unripe fruit | Fiction about lesions | Depending on the surface to be treated | No solvent | 43 | |
Kipayi payi | Skin problems (scabs and itching) | Seeds | Maceration | 1 to 3 glasses for 2 to 3 days | Water | 50 | |
Kibwabwa | Stung belly bloating | Seeds | Maceration | 1 to 2 glasses / day for 2 to 3 days | Water | 34 | |
Mafuta ya ngaji | Wounds | Paml oil | Local application | 21 | |||
Kavudji | Belly bloating and prickly hair | whole plant | Maceration | 1 to 2 glasses / day for 2 to 4 days | Water | 41 | |
Manga | Diarrhea | Trunk bark | Maceration | 1 to 2 glasses / day for 3 to 4 days | Water | 26 | |
Mapela | Diarrhea | Leaves | Decoction | 1 to 2 glasses / day for 3 to 4 days | Water | 21 | |
Buba | Skin problem (scabs and itching) | Leaves | Fiction on lesions | 1 to 2 glasses / day for 3 to 4 days | No solvent | 23 | |
Kilulu nkundja | Skin problem (scabs and itching) | Leaves | Fiction on lesions | Depending on the surface to be treated. | No solvent | 39 | |
Kilulu nkundja | Belly bloating and prickly hair | Leaves | Maceration | 1 to 2 glasses / day for 3 to 4 days | Water | 41 |
Latin name, vernacular in Swahili and parts of plants identified as constituents of remedies administered to goats, symptoms treated, methods of preparation of herbal remedies, method of administration and dosage. Frequency of use of the remedy is also specified by the number of families out of the 50 questioned.
Source [31].
Like all other ruminants in the tropics, the goat reproduces at any time in the DRC, which makes it economically profitable to have births during all periods of the year. More births are observed in the dry season than in the rainy season [38]. This situation would be due to the fact that the births which arrive in the dry season result from the gestations of the rainy season which is characterized by an abundance of fodder and that the dry season where there is a lack of fodder is characterized by fewer gestations and therefore, fewer births in the rainy season. The mean age of farrowing is 15 months and therefore corresponds to an average age of pregnant matings of around 10 months [30]. While the age of pregnant females ranged from 7 to 108 months [38].
In view of the constraints and opportunities related to goat breeding in the Katanga Mining Hinterland, it is necessary to list the perspectives and recommendations to overcome the difficulties of breeding and the goat sector in the area.
In view of the foregoing, goat breeders are abandoned by the authorities and decision-makers of the Congolese State at all levels. Political leaders should get involved in the organization and supervision of breeders in general, and those in the goat sector in particular, by prohibiting the straying of animals. They should help agro-pastoralists by granting breeding areas chosen according to the quality of pastures and according to safety to help them do their best work in serenity. These pastures must be community-based taking into account the remoteness of the mining and mineral processing areas and also far from urban areas. The breeders should be organized in cooperatives or associations. Each organization must be organized so as to have its own pastures, its own technicians and its organization of the market. This would serve to conduct the feeding well, the improvement and management grazing, prophylaxis, veterinary care, reproduction, selection, other zootechnical operations and the marketing of animals.
Poor husbandry practice contributes negatively to the economic profitability of goat rearing in the KCB. Straying like breeding exposes animals to loss, theft, disease, nutritional deficiency and increased rate of inbreeding. It also results in an irrecoverable loss of dejection following straying. In order to compensate for the nutritional deficiency linked to the scarcity of fodder, especially in the dry season, and the low nutritional value of fodder, it is important to resort to the enrichment of pastures with grasses and fodder legumes which have made proof of good growth, good productivity, good palatability and good nutritional value. It should also be noted the valuation of excessive vegetation during the active period as hay for use in cold and dry season where there is a lack of vegetation. Providing decision-makers and breeders with a map of uncontaminated pastures would help guide a good use of the available fodder resources in the region,
The use of a lick block and/or multi-nutritional block, especially in the dry season, could make it possible to compensate for the deficiency in minerals, energy and protein.
The quantification, the study of the nutritional value and the methanogenic potential in combination of the goat droppings of the crop residues of the main crops in the region could also make it possible to increase the productivity per unit of agricultural area and the well-being of households agricultural.
To avoid losses, theft, straying, nutritional deficiencies and allow the welfare of animals, agro-pastoralists must be obliged to build goat barns that meet standards. Good housing for animals would also protect them against diseases and bad weather linked to climatic hazards such as showers, winds, dust and ectoparasites. This practice would also allow the collection of droppings, to be used as organic manure or for methanogenesis, wasted when the animals are straying.
The promotion of local medicinal plants is a major asset in the prophylaxis and the fight against common diseases such as parasitoses, bacterial infections and others. This would allow breeders to save the costs associated with the purchase of conventional veterinary drug. A systematic inventory and studies on chemical compounds, biology, cultivation attempts and then the popularization of medicinal plants would be an asset for their conservation and their use for veterinary care and prophylaxis in the region.
The introduction of the goat milk sector which is a stable activity, not depending on the season, providing daily milk, would allow the diversification of sustainable activities and permanent family recipes. This activity would be made possible after studies on livestock purebred goats or crosses of specialized exotic breeds with the indigenous goat. Among these breeds there are some that have proven themselves in sub-Saharan Africa such as Saanen, Nubian, Alpine, Topinambour and others.
The goat is the second highest species in the DRC and it is its meat that is consumed the most by ruminants. Too little attention is paid to its breeding; which remains a secondary activity for several peasant families. The goat industry is characterized here by a very low level of inputs in subsistence farms which are made up exclusively of small family farms. The lack of support for its breeding is an obstacle to the development of this sector, which provides meat and financial resources for peasant households. For the Katanga copper belt region, the majority of goats are imported from Zambia, which constitutes a big shortfall for the country and for the local farmers.
The goat sector receives almost no sustainable financial support from the government, unlike the crop production sector. A synergy between researchers, breeders and the political-administrative authorities on improving the goat sector would be a breath of fresh air for the poor farmers and this will save a few masses of currency which are exported for the purchase of meat abroad.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\\n\\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\\n\\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
\\n\\n\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Currently, he is a professor of Orthodontics. He holds a Certificate of Advanced Study type A in Technology of Biomaterials used in Dentistry (1995); Certificate of Advanced Study type B in Dento-Facial Orthopaedics (1997) from the Faculty of Dental Surgery, University Denis Diderot-Paris VII, France; Diploma of Advanced Study (DESA) in Biocompatibility of Biomaterials from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2002); Certificate of Clinical Occlusodontics from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2004); University Diploma of Biostatistics and Perceptual Health Measurement from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2011); and a University Diploma of Pedagogy of Odontological Sciences from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2013). 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"243698",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"7227",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsui",slug:"hiroaki-matsui",fullName:"Hiroaki Matsui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Tokyo",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"338222",title:"Mrs.",name:"María José",middleName:null,surname:"Lucía Mudas",slug:"maria-jose-lucia-mudas",fullName:"María José Lucía Mudas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"1",type:"subseries",title:"Oral Health",keywords:"Oral health, Dental care, Diagnosis, Diagnostic imaging, Early diagnosis, Oral cancer, Conservative treatment, Epidemiology, Comprehensive dental care, Complementary therapies, Holistic health",scope:"
\r\n This topic aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the latest trends in Oral Health based on recent scientific evidence. Subjects will include an overview of oral diseases and infections, systemic diseases affecting the oral cavity, prevention, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, as well as current clinical recommendations for the management of oral, dental, and periodontal diseases.
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In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/23953",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"23953"},fullPath:"/profiles/23953",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()