Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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Besides, this book also presents some recent researches on typical polymer material such as silicon rubber and LDPE, which may provide some clues of advanced polymer properties for both engineers and researches.\nThe author has been a professor at the Department of Electrical Engineering, School of Electrical Engineering and Automation, Tianjin University, China, since 2002. He has been active in polymer insulation research since the 1990s. He is a member of IEEJ, senior member of CSEE, member at several WG in CIGRE, and associate editor of the IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation.",isbn:"978-953-51-3148-9",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3147-2",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4840-1",doi:"10.5772/63063",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"properties-and-applications-of-polymer-dielectrics",numberOfPages:150,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"74628bc4cc35e20eea8aa3a376fdc72d",bookSignature:"Boxue Du",publishedDate:"May 11th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5478.jpg",numberOfDownloads:11786,numberOfWosCitations:12,numberOfCrossrefCitations:16,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:28,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:56,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 25th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 16th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 20th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 18th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 18th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"27801",title:"Prof.",name:"Boxue",middleName:null,surname:"Du",slug:"boxue-du",fullName:"Boxue Du",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27801/images/5598_n.jpg",biography:"Boxue Du (M’00-SM’04) received his ME degree in Electrical Engineering from Ibaraki University and his PhD degree from Tokyo University of A&T. Since 2002, he has been a professor at the Department of Electrical Engineering, School of Electrical Engineering and Automation, Tianjin University, China. Professor Du has been active in polymer insulation research since the 1990s. His fundamental and meaningful work provided original and valuable information to the design, evaluation, and monitoring of electrical power devices for the purpose of enhancing the operating reliability in various environments. He is a member of IEEJ, senior member of CSEE, member at several WG in CIGRE, and associate editor of the IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Tianjin University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"739",title:"Electronic Circuits",slug:"electrical-and-electronic-engineering-electronic-circuits"}],chapters:[{id:"53049",title:"Polymer Dielectric in Organic Field‐Effect Transistor",doi:"10.5772/65916",slug:"polymer-dielectric-in-organic-field-effect-transistor",totalDownloads:2042,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, we aim to present an overview of the polymer dielectrics in organic field‐effect transistors and their applications. In the first section, we give a short introduction of polymer dielectrics in organic field‐effect transistors. We illustrate multilayer, hybrid, and cross‐linked polymer dielectrics adopted in organic field‐effect transistors. Then we introduce the available biomaterials engaged as polymer dielectrics in organic field‐effect transistors. We mainly focus on the utilization of silk fibroin, DNA, and DNA base pair dielectrics. We end the chapter by presenting the applications of polymer dielectrics. We elaborate that the polymer dielectrics can function as the electrode buffer layer, as well as the organic field‐effect transistor‐based gas sensor, inverter, and memory.",signatures:"Wei Shi, Yifan Zheng and Junsheng Yu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53049",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53049",authors:[{id:"190552",title:"Dr.",name:"Wei",surname:"Shi",slug:"wei-shi",fullName:"Wei Shi"},{id:"190761",title:"Prof.",name:"Junsheng",surname:"Yu",slug:"junsheng-yu",fullName:"Junsheng Yu"},{id:"195027",title:"Dr.",name:"Yifan",surname:"Zheng",slug:"yifan-zheng",fullName:"Yifan Zheng"}],corrections:null},{id:"52876",title:"High-k Polymer Nanocomposites for Energy Storage Applications",doi:"10.5772/65944",slug:"high-k-polymer-nanocomposites-for-energy-storage-applications",totalDownloads:2095,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"High dielectric (high-k) polymer nanocomposites that can electrostatically store energy are widely used in electronics and electric power systems due to their high breakdown strengths (Eb), durability, and ability to configure in various shapes. However, these nanocomposites suffer from a limited working temperature regime, thus limiting their extreme applications, such as hybrid and electric vehicles, aerospace power electronics, and deep ground fuel exploration. Furthermore, the Eb and the electric displacement (D) of polymer nanocomposites must be simultaneously enhanced for high-density capacitor applications, which prove to be difficult to modify concurrently. This chapter thoroughly reviews (investigates) the recent developments in the high-k polymer nanocomposites synthesis, characterization, and energy storage applications. Consequently, the aim of this chapter is to provide an overview of the novel developmental strategies in order to develop high-dielectric nanocomposites perovskite ceramics that can be incorporated in high-energy-density (HED) applications.",signatures:"Asad Mahmood, Abdul Naeem and Tahira Mahmood",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52876",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52876",authors:[{id:"191569",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul",surname:"Naeem",slug:"abdul-naeem",fullName:"Abdul Naeem"},{id:"196379",title:"Dr.",name:"Asad",surname:"Mahmood",slug:"asad-mahmood",fullName:"Asad Mahmood"},{id:"196380",title:"Dr.",name:"Tahira",surname:"Mahmood",slug:"tahira-mahmood",fullName:"Tahira Mahmood"}],corrections:null},{id:"53915",title:"Electrical Properties of Different Polymeric Materials and their Applications: The Influence of Electric Field",doi:"10.5772/67091",slug:"electrical-properties-of-different-polymeric-materials-and-their-applications-the-influence-of-elect",totalDownloads:3499,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:20,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"In this chapter, a comprehensive study on the general structure of polymers, their properties and applications has been carried out. In particular, the application of polymers for insulating high‐voltage (HV) equipment has been reported, together with the effect of electric field when they are subjected to HV stress. Experimental results related to the effect of partial discharge (PD) on polymeric insulations have been reported and discussed. Practical implications of the results have been discussed, and recommendations are made for future improvement. It is important to obtain new information regarding novel polymeric materials such as nano‐polymers that can possibly outperform the currently used ones. It is also vital to investigate the right information for electrical equipment, i.e. by using the appropriate polymer as solid insulation, minimizing the presence of any metallic sharp object and any other conducting path during manufacture in order to avoid any type of internal or external PD.",signatures:"Sk Manirul Haque, Jorge Alfredo Ardila Rey, Abdullahi Abubakar\nMasúd, Yunusa Umar and Ricardo Albarracin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53915",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53915",authors:[{id:"188032",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullahi",surname:"Mas\\'Ud",slug:"abdullahi-mas'ud",fullName:"Abdullahi Mas\\'Ud"},{id:"192893",title:"Dr.",name:"Ricardo",surname:"Albarracín Sánchez",slug:"ricardo-albarracin-sanchez",fullName:"Ricardo Albarracín Sánchez"},{id:"193667",title:"Dr.",name:"Yunusa",surname:"Umar",slug:"yunusa-umar",fullName:"Yunusa Umar"},{id:"193668",title:"Dr.",name:"Manirul",surname:"Haque",slug:"manirul-haque",fullName:"Manirul Haque"},{id:"196087",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",surname:"Ardila Rey",slug:"jorge-ardila-rey",fullName:"Jorge Ardila Rey"}],corrections:null},{id:"54984",title:"Investigating the Influence of Different Types of Nanoparticles on Thermal and Dielectric Properties of Insulation in Converter Transformer",doi:"10.5772/67432",slug:"investigating-the-influence-of-different-types-of-nanoparticles-on-thermal-and-dielectric-properties",totalDownloads:1372,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Converter transformer is the extraordinarily vital apparatus in the high-voltage direct current (HVDC). Transformer oil and oil-impregnated paper are considered as the essential parts of converter transformer, which has suffered various complex electric fields such as AC/DC composite electric field and polarity reversal. The occurrence of discharge or insulation failure in oil-paper insulation system will threaten the safety of the entire grid. Hence, efforts should be focused on investigating the charge behavior and improving the property of dielectric.",signatures:"Boxue Du",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54984",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54984",authors:[{id:"27801",title:"Prof.",name:"Boxue",surname:"Du",slug:"boxue-du",fullName:"Boxue Du"}],corrections:null},{id:"54243",title:"Statistical Analysis of Partial Discharge during Electrical Tree in Silicone Rubber Nanocomposites under Elevated Temperature",doi:"10.5772/67100",slug:"statistical-analysis-of-partial-discharge-during-electrical-tree-in-silicone-rubber-nanocomposites-u",totalDownloads:1386,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The electric fields at the cable accessories such as jointing and termination are not uniform due to the nonuniformity structures of the accessories. Thus, it has attracted the formation of the electrical tree inside the cable accessory that is commonly made from silicone rubber. Also, the location of the cable that is exposed to the high temperature level gives severe effect to the electrical performance of the insulation. Recently, the inclusion of nanoparticles into the cable insulation has resulted in a promising outcome by resisting the discharge phenomenon such as treeing. However, the study on partial discharge during electrical trees grown in silicone rubber nanocomposites under elevated temperature is scarce including the statistical analysis of the partial discharge mechanisms. Therefore, this chapter is aiming to analyze the statistical behaviors of partial discharge during electrical tree growth in silicone rubber nanocomposites under the effect of temperature.",signatures:"Mohd Hafizi Ahmad",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54243",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54243",authors:[{id:"190051",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Hafizi",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"mohd-hafizi-ahmad",fullName:"Mohd Hafizi Ahmad"}],corrections:null},{id:"54272",title:"Effect of Stretching on Electrical Properties of Low Density Polyethylene/MgO Nanocomposites",doi:"10.5772/66982",slug:"effect-of-stretching-on-electrical-properties-of-low-density-polyethylene-mgo-nanocomposites",totalDownloads:1396,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Pulsed electroacoustic (PEA) method, dielectric analyzer, and high resistance meter were used to research the DC breakdown, space charge behavior, permittivity, loss tangent, and volume resistivity of neat low density polyethylene (LDPE) and LDPE/MgO nanocomposites with concentration of 1, 3, and 5 wt% with and without the elongation ratio of 1.1. Results indicate that the DC breakdown strengths of neat LDPE and nanocomposites decrease after stretching. The heterocharges near electrodes in neat LDPE change to homocharges after stretching and a large amount of positive and negative charges accumulated in samples with concentration of 3 and 5 wt%. Meanwhile, homocharges near cathode electrode in nanocomposite with concentration of 1 wt% decrease a little and a small amount of positive charges were observed in the samples after stretching. Furthermore, there are different increases in amplitudes of permittivity in all the samples after stretching, as well as the loss of tangents especially in the frequency domain from 10−1 to 102 Hz. The results of volume resistivity show that comparing with the nanocomposite with the concentration of 1 wt% whose volume resistivity decrease after stretching, larger volume resistivity is observed in neat LDPE and nanocomposites with the concentration of 3 and 5 wt%.",signatures:"Youyuan Wang and Can Wang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54272",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54272",authors:[{id:"191706",title:"Dr.",name:"Youyuan",surname:"Wang",slug:"youyuan-wang",fullName:"Youyuan Wang"},{id:"191707",title:"Dr.",name:"Can",surname:"Wang",slug:"can-wang",fullName:"Can Wang"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3576",title:"Solid State Circuits Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a14e0865ac126e0234df9b53a5943ebf",slug:"solid-state-circuits-technologies",bookSignature:"Jacobus W. 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Karlenius,\nGiovanna Di Trapani and Kathryn F. Tonissen",dateSubmitted:"December 1st 2011",dateReviewed:"November 22nd 2012",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"January 23rd 2013",book:{id:"2610",title:"Carcinogenesis",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Carcinogenesis",slug:"carcinogenesis",publishedDate:"January 23rd 2013",bookSignature:"Kathryn Tonissen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2610.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145170",title:"Dr.",name:"Kathryn",middleName:null,surname:"Tonissen",slug:"kathryn-tonissen",fullName:"Kathryn Tonissen"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"145170",title:"Dr.",name:"Kathryn",middleName:null,surname:"Tonissen",fullName:"Kathryn Tonissen",slug:"kathryn-tonissen",email:"k.tonissen@griffith.edu.au",position:null,institution:{name:"Griffith University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"147950",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Maneet",middleName:null,surname:"Bhatia",fullName:"Maneet Bhatia",slug:"maneet-bhatia",email:"Maneet.Bhatia@griffithuni.edu.au",position:null,institution:{name:"Griffith University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"147952",title:"Dr.",name:"Therese",middleName:null,surname:"Karlenius",fullName:"Therese Karlenius",slug:"therese-karlenius",email:"therese.karlenius@griffithuni.edu.au",position:null,institution:{name:"Griffith University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"150307",title:"Dr.",name:"Giovanna",middleName:null,surname:"Di Trapani",fullName:"Giovanna Di Trapani",slug:"giovanna-di-trapani",email:"g.ditrapani@griffith.edu.au",position:null,institution:{name:"Griffith University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},book:{id:"2610",title:"Carcinogenesis",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Carcinogenesis",slug:"carcinogenesis",publishedDate:"January 23rd 2013",bookSignature:"Kathryn Tonissen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2610.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145170",title:"Dr.",name:"Kathryn",middleName:null,surname:"Tonissen",slug:"kathryn-tonissen",fullName:"Kathryn Tonissen"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11561",leadTitle:null,title:"Zeolite From Wastes - New Perspectives on Innovative Resources and Their Valorization Process",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tZeolites are microporous crystalline materials characterized by a framework of linked TO4 tetrahedra (where T=Si, Al, or others), each consisting of four O atoms surrounding a cation. They are natural phases or synthetic materials. \r\n\tSynthetic zeolites can be formed from different raw materials and among these many wastes represent some interesting sources due to their chemical and mineralogical composition. Today, a large number of different types of waste resulting from many human activities are produced in the world (e.g. industrial, municipal, agricultural waste) and most of them are deposed of in landfills thus determining a great environmental problem.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art on the possibility to transform the different types of waste materials into useful products, zeolites, through conventional processes and innovative methods. The aim is to demonstrate that waste can be a problem or a resource depending on how it is managed.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-426-5",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-425-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-427-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"3ed0dfd842de9cd1143212415903e6ad",bookSignature:"Dr. Claudia Belviso",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11561.jpg",keywords:"Structure, Properties, Natural Material, Synthetic Product, Type, Composition, Production, Disposal, Hydrothermal Method, Pre-fusion Process, Sonication, Multiple Steps",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 25th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 25th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 24th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 12th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 11th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"5 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Since 2002, Dr. Claudia Belviso has been carrying out research activity in the field of mineralogy and geochemistry aimed at environmental protection. She is responsible for the research activity on zeolite synthesis from waste materials and natural sources which has allowed her to be the inventor of an International Patent, publish numerous scientific articles in peer-reviewed journals, and carry out scientific research in national and international projects.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"61457",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Belviso",slug:"claudia-belviso",fullName:"Claudia Belviso",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61457/images/system/61457.jpg",biography:"Claudia Belviso is a researcher at the Institute of Methodologies of Environmental Analysis (IMAA) of CNR. After graduating in Geological Sciences and qualifying as a professional geologist, she earned a Ph.D. in Earth Sciences. Since 2002 has been carrying out her research activity in the field of mineralogy and geochemistry aimed at environmental protection. She is responsible for the research activity on zeolite synthesis from waste materials and natural sources as well as their application to solving environmental problems and as new raw material. These research activities have allowed her to be the inventor of an International Patent, publish numerous scientific articles in peer-reviewed journals, participate in national and international conferences, take part in the organization of international congresses, and carry out scientific research in national and international projects.",institutionString:"National Research Council",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"National Research Council",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"8",title:"Chemistry",slug:"chemistry"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"453622",firstName:"Tea",lastName:"Jurcic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"tea@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5306",title:"Zeolites",subtitle:"Useful Minerals",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eec7f864baf093058440c0f56072a7cf",slug:"zeolites-useful-minerals",bookSignature:"Claudia Belviso",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5306.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"61457",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",surname:"Belviso",slug:"claudia-belviso",fullName:"Claudia Belviso"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3828",title:"Application of Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"51a27e7adbfafcfedb6e9683f209cba4",slug:"application-of-nanotechnology-in-drug-delivery",bookSignature:"Ali Demir Sezer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3828.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"22047",title:"Steroid Prohormones: Effects on Body Composition in Athletes",doi:"10.5772/28543",slug:"steroid-prohormones-effects-on-body-composition-in-athletes",body:'\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
1. Introduction
\n\t\t\t
Androgenic-anabolic steroid hormones (AAS) are synthetic derivatives of the male hormone testosterone and for many years have been popular among athletes both for performance enhancement, due to physiological and psychological effects, and for aesthetic reasons (Evans 2004; Hartgens & Kuipers 2004). The anabolic action of AAS is particularly interesting since its affects protein metabolism by stimulation of protein synthesis and inhibition of protein breakdown, which could induce muscle growth and enhance adaptation to resistance training (Yesalis & Bahrke 1995; Brown et al. 2006). Since the AAS use in sport is banned, different nutritional strategies have been developed in the past decades to circumvent this problem and administer other exogenous testosterone analogues (King et al. 1999).
\n\t\t\t
In the past 2o years, different steroid prohormones or prosteroids (e.g. androstenedion, dehydroepiandrosterone, androstenediol, 19-nor androstenediol, 19-nor androstenedione, 1-testosterone) have been developed and aggressively marketed in athletic environment as legal nutritional supplements that are expected to convert to active anabolic steroid hormones in the body and enhance exercise performance (Brown et al. 1999; Brown et al. 2000; Earnest et al. 2000; Leder et al. 2000; Brown et al. 2001; Kanayama et al. 2001). The efficacy and safety of these prohormones are not well established but are highly promoted to have the same androgenic effects on building muscle mass and strength as AAS (Baulieu et al. 2000; Brown et al. 2006). A typical steroid prohormone is intended to be a precursor to both testosterone and estrogens, through different biochemical pathways (Figure 1), typically resulting in the action of dehydrogenases in skeletal muscle, adipose tissue, skin, prostate and adrenal gland (Griffin 2004).
\n\t\t\t
Dehydroepiandrosterone (3β-hydrohy-5-androsten-17-one; DHEA) seems to be the master steroid prohormone due its precursor function and its conversion to other hormones (Brown et al. 2006). Although the mechanism of action of DHEA or other prosteroids is not completely understood, it could be hypothesized that DHEA could increase testosterone production (at least as an acute response) if supplemented in diet, and due to its anabolic action may affects nitrogen balance and protein synthesis (Morales et al. 1998).
\n\t\t\t
Testosterone is synthesized through either the Δ-4 or Δ-5 pathway (Broeder 2003) with the effects of newly synthesized testosterone in humans occur by way of 2 main mechanisms: by activation of the androgen receptor (directly or as 5α-dihydrotestosterone), and by conversion to estradiol and activation of estrogen receptors (Wilson 1988).
\n\t\t\t
Figure 1.
Androgens biosynthesis from cholesterol to testosterone/dihydrotestosterone and estrogens (estrone and estradiol) via prohormone precursors (e.g. DHEA, androstenedione, androstenediol). Abb. DHEA – dehydroepiandrosterone.
\n\t\t\t
Free testosterone is transported into the cytoplasm of target tissue cells, where it can bind to the androgen receptor, or can be reduced to 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT) by the cytoplasmic enzyme 5-alpha reductase (Hartgens & Kuipers 2004). DHT binds to the same androgen receptor even more strongly than testosterone, so that its androgenic potency is about 5 times that of testosterone (Breiner et al. 1986). The testosterone-receptor or DHT-receptor complex undergoes a structural change that allows it to move into the cell nucleus and bind directly to specific nucleotide sequences of the chromosomal desoxiribonucleic acid. The areas of binding are called hormone response elements, and influence transcriptional activity of certain genes, producing the anabolic effects (Saartok et al. 1984). Theoretically, the fewer interconversion steps a prohormone must complete in the syntheisis pathway to testosterone, the greater potential for enhancing active hormone production (Broeder 2003); for example, androstenedione converts to testosterone more rapidly than DHEA.
\n\t\t\t
Existing data suggest that acute oral ingestion of DHEA, androstenediol or androstenedione modestly and transiently increase serum testosterone concentration; however, this is accompanied by greater increase in other steroids as well (i.e. estrogens, luteinizing hormone) (Ziegenfuss et al. 2002). Yet, it is questionable if this acute elevation in testosterone concentration induced by prosteroids necessarily result in enhanced transcriptional activity (Broeder 2003). Furthermore, research has shown that prosteroids may have significant biological activity by itself (Ostojic et al. 2009, Ostojic et al. 2010), affecting resting metabolic rate through futile cycling (Tagliaferro et al. 1986), increasing the flux of fatty acids through β-oxidation (Mohan et al. 1988), and alter the level of serotonin and dopamine (Cleary 1991; Ebeling et al. 1994; Kroboth 1999). Yet, the mechanism of action of prosteroids may differ between compounds because of variations in the steroid molecules (Hartgens & Kuipers 2004). These differences could be responsible for differences in the specificity of binding to receptor proteins or to interactions with various steroid-metabolizing enzymes (Wilson 1988; Creutzberg & Schols 1998) with future research needed to clarify the explaining physiological effects due to prosteroids use in humans.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
2. History of steroid prohormones use in sport and exercise
\n\t\t\t
Although the first documented reports of misuse of AAS by athletes stem from the 1950s (Yesalis 1999), the use of prosteroids in the athletic environment is rather new. Prosteroids were indirectly introduced with US Anabolic Steroid Control Act of 1990 (21 USCS Section 802), which defined anabolic steroids as “…any drug or hormonal substance that promotes muscle growth in a manner physiologically similar to testosterone…”, while steroid prohormones were not classified as anabolic steroids and could be purchased legally as dietary supplements (Broeder 2003; Brown et al. 2006). This document didn’t appear to make a significant decrease in the use of anabolic steroids (Brainum 2008), but concern about the side effects linked to steroid use did lead to the development of another popular anabolic offering: prohormone nutritional supplements (Brown et al. 2003).
\n\t\t\t
In December of 1996, androstenedione became available for over-the-counter sales in United States (Ziegenfuss et al. 2002), with subsequent availability of several other prohormones (e.g. androstenediol, DHEA, norandrostenedione). The non-critical promotion era of prosteroids in sport began with the disclosure of androstenedione use by Mark McGwire in 1998, who at the time was elite baseball player, which stimulated extensive media attention and dramatically increased the sales of prohormones among recreative and professional athletes (Brown et al. 2003, Brown et al. 2006).
\n\t\t\t
In the past decades, prohormones have been highly marketed in the field of sport as lean body mass builders, fat reduction agents, and anticatabolic compounds. Recently, concerns over the safety of the prohormones use induced changes in US Anabolic Steroid Control Act in 2004 (21 USCS Section 802, amended), redefining anabolic steroids and classify prohormones as controlled substances. While the 2004 amendment specifically mentioned most of the current prohormones by name, that didn’t stop some companies from marketing at least one anabolic steroid that the lawmakers had overlooked (Brainum 2008).
\n\t\t\t
At the moment, it seems that legal status of prohormones is different throughout the world. In USA, Canada or Australia prosteroids are recognized as controlled substances and it is illegal to own or sell the product without prescription. On the other hand, no prescription is required for prosteroids purchase in several European countries, Russia or Japan, with products recognized as over-the-counter dietary supplements.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
3. Epidemiology of steroids use among athletes: scope of the problem
\n\t\t\t
Anabolic steroid usage has been recognized as a serious health and ethical problem among athletes for several decades (Foster & Housner 2004). Numerous examples of steroid usage rules violations have been highly publicized and have lead to the suspension and stripping of medals from international athletes, as well as many professional athletes (International Olympic Committee 1997; Wroble et al. 2002). Elite athletes are not the only population of individuals that use steroids. Recreational athletes also use steroids to enhance performance and to improve personal appearance (Wroble et al. 2002). Furthermore, evidence indicates that steroid usage often starts during high school (Yesalis et al, 1989; Kerr and Congeni 2007). Use of anabolic steroids is widespread in the athletic environment, particularly in power events and disciplines (e.g. football, track and field, body building, power lifting) (Foster & Housner 2004).
\n\t\t\t
It seems that athletes have used AAS for more than 50 years, with first anecdotal evidence of use of animal testicular extracts even in 1890s (Yesalis 1999). Despite educational and preventive measures, steroid use increases (Windsor & Dumitru 1988). The prevalence of AAS abuse has been reported in several populations. The highest estimates have come from male bodybuilders with even more than 50% regularly using steroids (Tricker et al. 1989; Lindstrom et al. 1990). Lower rates have been reported among intercollegiate athletes, ranging from 15% to 20% (Dezelsky et al. 1985). Rates of steroids use vary greatly across individual sports and are used in higher frequency and higher doses by strength athletes (Sturmi & Diorio 1998). By contrast, only 1% of their nonathletic university student counterparts reported steroids use (Dezelsky et al. 1985). Perhaps the most surprising and alarming finding is the rather high rate of steroids abuse among high school students (Mulcahey et al. 2010). The typical rate reported in male students is between 5% and 6%, but rates as high as 11% have been reported (Johnson et al 1989). The most recent estimate reported a range of 5% to 15% for steroids use among high school boys. In female high school students, steroids abuse rates tend to be lower, but quite worrisome at 1% to 3% (Harmer 2010). Wroble and co-workers (2002) indicated that less than one percent (0.7%) of youth sports participants reported current or previous usage of anabolic steroids; the rate of usage was higher in males than females. Three percent of athletes had been offered steroids at some time with 22% of them admitted to using steroids. Of the reported anabolic steroid users, 27% admitted they used anabolic steroids for athletic performance; 18% used to improve personal appearance; 18% used for bodybuilding; and 18% took due to peer pressure. Twelve percent of all athletes said that they personally know someone who was using or had used steroids.
\n\t\t\t
Although several prohormones are considered as AAS, and are banned by many sports governing bodies, including the International Olympic Committee (IOC), they are semi-legal substances available from many retail outlets, including internet health food stores. The overall prevalence of prohormones use is not known, although several reports indicated that prohormones are among the most popular dietary supplements especially in adolescent athletes (Smurawa & Congeni 2007). Even though usage has decreased by over 50% since 1989, steroid use in sport is still a serious problem. Insufficient knowledge and inappropriate attitudes regarding the benefits and risks of using anabolic steroids is also a major concern (Schwingel et al. 2011).
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
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4. Testosterone production and musculotrophic effects of prosteroids
\n\t\t\t
The most prevalent reason for athletes initiating AAS or prosteroids use is to promote muscle mass and strength (Yen et al. 1995). From long list of previous studies (for review see Hartgens & Kuipers 2004) it could be concluded that steroids administration may increase muscle mass. Exogenous testosterone administration (> 125 mg/week), with and without strength training program, may lead to increments of muscle volume and/or muscle fibre size. Yet, lower doses of testosterone (e.g. 25, 50 or 100 mg/week) had no effect on muscle fibre cross-sectional area. It seems that musculotrophic effect of steroids is dose-dependent. Therefore, the effects of prosteroids on muscle size and/or strength is highly influenced by its potential to increase serum testosterone after administration.
\n\t\t\t
Existing data on testosterone-boosting effects of prosteroids are equivocal; it seems that age and basal serum testosterone concentration may influence the response to prosteroids intake (Brown et al. 2000). Several studies reported that serum sex steroid levels in both mature and young men were not significantly affected by prohormone supplementation, with only a minimal amount converted to testosterone and more to estrogen (Vogiatzi et al. 1996; Morales et al. 1998; Kroboth et al. 1999; Yamada et al. 2007). No changes in levels of testosterone and estradiol were observed for men after supplementation with 50 mg of DHEA for 3, 6 and 12 months (Von Muhlen et al. 2008). In 19 young men (23 ± 1 yr old) participating in an 8-week resistance training, ingestion of 150 mg/day of DHEA did not affect serum testosterone and estrogen concentrations (Bowers 1999). On the other hand, ingesting 100 mg of androstenedione t.i.d. for 28 days increases serum-free testosterone concentration by 40% (Brown et al. 2000; Brown et al. 2001), while 200 mg of androstenediione increases testosterone area under the curve by approximately 15% during the 90 min post-administration (Earnest et al. 2000). In recent study (Ostojic et al. 2010) intake of DHEA resulted in significant increase of total testosterone in treated subjects after 28-days of supplementation. Accordingly, Wolf et al. (1997) reported 1.3-fold increase in testosterone levels after supplementation with 50 mg oral DHEA for 2 weeks in 25 men. Furthermore, serum estradiol levels were significantly elevated, indicating that a significant portion of the ingested prosteroids underwent aromatization. It seems that both the magnitude of the dose administered and the route of administration affect the extent of change in concentrations of sex hormones (Ziegenfuss et al. 2002). Furthermore, several studies confirm the importance of extraadrenal and extragonadal 3ß-hydroxysterodi dehydrogenase activity in the synthesis of androgens and estrogens after prohormones administration (Nestler et al. 1991; Kroboth et al. 1999).
\n\t\t\t
Not all subjects respond to prohormones in same fashion, suggesting that additional factors (i.e. age, gender, diet, type and intensity of exercise) influence these responses. For example, research demonstrates that prohormone supplementation may acutely increase testosterone levels in women, thus producing a virilizing effect (Bahrke & Yesalis 2004). Furthermore, exercise could result in increased DHEA and DHEA-S concentrations (Bernton et al. 1995) and these elevated levels in athletes could influence response to supplementation, which requires further investigation. The recent study (Ostojic et al. 2010) reported an increase of total testosterone and estradiol while free testosterone is normal. These data can be consistent with an increase of sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) by prosteroids administration (Nestler et al. 1991). Total testosterone was increased to keep normal free testosterone or in alternative free testosterone was normal due to an increase activation of 5-alpha reductase. Measuring SHBG luteinizing and folicle-stimulating hormone in future studies should prove these hypotheses. However, it is important to point out that simply producing an acute elevation in a particular hormone concentration (i.e. testosterone) does not necessarily result in increases in muscle mass or lean body mass. Prosteroids do not appear to have functional benefits when taken in daily concentrations up to 300 mg per day in young, middle-aged or older men (Wallace et akl. 1999; Ballantyne et al. 2000; Broeder 2003). Although oral DHEA intake enhanced testosterone production for 30%, Ostojic and co-workers (2010) did not found changes in total muscle mass or regional muscularity.
\n\t\t\t
It seems that effect of prosteroids on serum hormones was not mediated by an effect on body composition. Increasing DHEA or other prohormones levels may not provide the optimal anabolic environment desired in spite of elevated total testosterone level, due to several possible mechanisms (i.e. genetic polymorphism of the androgen receptor, potential hormonal interconversions at the paracrine level) (Nestler et al. 1991). Whether the increase of testosterone after intake of prohormones translates into a meaningful change in body composition or rates of muscle protein synthesis is debatable. Studies must be evaluated in terms of the relative potency of various testosterone enhancers with varying effects on different tissues according to receptor-binding properties of the compound and its metabolites (Ebeling & Koivisto 1994). The relative potency of prosteroids seems to be small with inconsiderable advantageous anabolic properties. Several authors hypothesized that an important part of the musculotrophic effect of prosteroids may not be directly mediated through androgen receptors but instead involves interference with catabolic effects produced by glucocorticoid hormones binding to their specific receptors (Bernton et al. 1995; Morales et al. 1998). With an incomplete understanding of how prohormones exert their effects on skeletal muscle, further studies should analyze nitrogen balance indicators as noninvasive approximate index of muscle protein status.
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5. Fat mass alteration and steroid prohormones intake
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In the field of sports and exercise nutrition, prosteroids (DHEA in particular) are often promoted as fat-burning agent that could enhance body physique and estetize appearance (Kroboth et al. 1999). However, clear evidence supporting the use of prosteroids in athletic environment remains less clear. It is well known that age-related decreases in DHEA are associated with increases in obesity and a decline in fat free mass (Morales et al. 1998) yet the potential usefulness of DHEA as a slimming agent is mostly indicated by previous research in animals, particularly lower mammals (Cleary 1991). In the rat plasma concentration of DHEA ranges between 14 and 80 nM while in the plasma of humans DHEA-concentration ranges between 5 and 24 nM and DHEAS-concentration is up to 9 μM (Svec & Porter 1998). The anti-obesity effect of DHEA in animals could be due to several possible mechanisms (Cleary 1991; Ebeling & Koivisto 1994; Kroboth et al. 1999). However, studies that have investigated the effects of oral prosteroids supplementation on body composition in humans produced equivocal results, particularly in young men.
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\n\t\t\t\tNestler et al. (1988) reported that 28-day supplementation with DHEA (1600 mg/day) reduced body fat by 31% with no change in body mass in five normal men. Serum total testosterone, free testosterone, sex hormone-binding globulin, estradiol, and estrone levels did not change while serum DHEA-S and androstenedione rose 2.0- to 3.5-fold in DHEA group. Morales et al. (1998) founded that 100 mg of DHEA for 6 months induced decrease in body fat mass (6.1 ± 2.6%) in healthy non-obese men. On the other side, several investigators showed that body composition was not affected by prosteroids treatment in young and adult men, both obese and non-obese (Usiskin et al. 1990; Welle et al. 1990; Wallace et al. 1999). Vogiatzi et al. (1996) suggested that DHEA 40 mg administered sublingually twice daily for 8 weeks has no positive effects on body composition in obese young adults. In recent DAWN trial (Von Muhlen et al. 2008) no beneficial effects of 50 mg daily oral DHEA supplementation on body composition were found in 110 healthy mature men. In accordance with above research, the recent study (Ostojic et al. 2010) failed to show any beneficial effects of oral DHEA administration on body mass and body composition in non-obese young athletes. Authors did not found significant reduction in body fat of young soccer players after DHEA supplementation. Other indicators of body fatness (i.e. body mass index, waist-to-hip ratio) remained unchanged during the study in both DHEA and placebo group, indicating that treatment with DHEA does not result in significant changes to justify its use as an antiobesity or slimming agent. As in the case of cognition, negative results in healthy volunteers can be attributed either to a true lack of DHEA effect or to body composition too close to ideal at the study start to detect changes in the small numbers of subjects studied.
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Although most studies found no beneficial effects of prosteroids supplementation on body composition in athletes, several investigators underlined possible beneficial effects of prosteroids supplementation for elderly. Hernández-Morante et al. (2008) demonstrated for the first time in vitro that DHEA-S stimulates lipolysis in 85 obese patients, preferably in subcutaneous fat in women and in visceral fat in men. A study by Ho et al. (2008) suggested that low DHEA-S is associated with increased waist-to-hip ratio and reduced insulin sensitivity with aging while Hsu et al. (2008) had reported that body composition and insulin sensitivity can change with aging in early lifetime. Benefits of prosteroids supplementation in this regard for early middle-aged people requires more clinical investigation.
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Although the body composition changes induced by steroids or prosteroids administration are rather small, after the drug withdrawal the alterations of body composition fade away in slow manner, but may be presented in part for period up to 3 months (Kuipers et al. 1991; Hartgens et al. 2001; Brown et al. 2006). Yet, the final net results of short-term steroids or prosteroids administration on body composition seems to be minute (Hartgens & Kuipers 2004). This is particularly true for all athletes who are not capable of maintaining the nutritional intake and training workload of the level required for significant body composition changes (Hartgens et al. 1996). It may be important that steroid cessation is followed by a period of hypogonadism, while testicular function gradually returns to normal, over a period of weeks or several months (Hartgens & Kuipers 2004). Although this has not been specifically studied, reduced circulating androgen during this period may help to accelerate the loss of any anabolic steroid-induced gains. How much of the gain can be sustained by physical training following drug cessation remains to be studied (Yesalis & Bahrke 2000).
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6. Known and potential health risks of prosteroids administration
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During the past 20 years, researches suggested that potential risk factors associated with prosteroids use were similar to those observed with anabolic steroids (Broeder 2002). The altered hormonal milieu caused by prohormone intake is similar to the hormonal milieu observed in men with gynecomastia, prostate cancer, testicular cancer and pancreatic cancer (Fyssas et al. 1997; Chang et al. 2005). Yet, no documented cases exist of these endocrine-related diseases caused by prohormone supplementation (Brown et al. 2006). Furthermore, it seems that athletes who regularly use prosteroids experienced several side effects (e.g. fatigue, headache, nasal congestion, acne, increased aggressiveness, increased blood pressure, masculinization in women, gynecomastia and testicular wasting in men) (Broeder et al. 2000). Although prohormones induces small decreases in high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), long-term implications of transient negative changes in blood lipids (e.g. 3-6 mg/dL reductions in HDL-C) have yet to be elucidated as the risk of sustaining a cardiac event (Ziegenfuss et al. 2002).
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Regarding unfavourable body composition changes, it has been noted that prohormones could lead to changes in hydration of the fat free mass (via sodium and water retention), which could be interpreted as hyperhydration effect (Casaburi et al. 1996). Whether more prolonged (> 8-12 weeks) prohormones supplementation is safe or useful remains uncertain, but appears unlikely (Ziegenfuss et al. 2002). Although some health risks have been noted, thus far none of the prohormones tested appear to be overly toxic as no elevations in clinically relevant tissue enzymes (e.g. alanine aminotransferase, creatine kinase, aspartate aminotransferase, gamma-glutamyltransferase, lactate dehydrogenase) have been observed (Brown et al. 2000; Ziegenfuss et al. 2002). However, due to the lack of efficacy of oral prosteroids supplementation in athletes, its theoretical risks seem to fat outweight any potential benefits on body composition and should be discouraged (Earnest 2001).
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7. Summary
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In the past 2o years, different steroid prohormones or prosteroids have been aggressively marketed in athletic environment as legal nutritional supplements that are expected to convert to active anabolic steroid hormones in the body and enhance exercise performance. Although the mechanism of action of prosteroids is not completely understood it has been promoted that prosteroids increases testosterone production if supplemented in diet and due to its anabolic action may affects nitrogen balance and protein synthesis. Although popular among athletes, studies have demonstrated repeatedly that acute and long-term administration of these oral testosterone precursors does not effectively increase serum testosterone levels and fails to produce any significant changes in lean body mass, muscle strength, or performance improvement compared with placebo. It seems that increasing prohormone levels in athletes may not provide the optimal anabolic environment desired in spite of elevated total testosterone level (at least acutely), due to several possible mechanisms (i.e. genetic polymorphism of the androgen receptor, potential hormonal interconversions at the paracrine level). The relative potency of prosteroids seems to be small with inconsiderable advantageous anabolic properties. Furthermore, recent studies indicates that treatment with prosteroids does not result in significant changes to justify its use as an antiobesity or slimming agent. Not all subjects respond to prohormones in same fashion, suggesting that additional factors (i.e. gender, diet, type and intensity of exercise) influence these responses. Although some health risks have been noted, thus far none of the prohormones tested appear to be overly toxic. Yet, due to the lack of efficacy of oral prosteroids supplementation in athletes, its theoretical risks seem to far outweight any potential benefits on body composition and should be discouraged. Although the understanding of testosterone precursors as performance-enhancing drugs continues to advance, there are likely to be more revelations as scientific investigations continue.
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\n\t\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/22047.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/22047.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/22047",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/22047",totalDownloads:5833,totalViews:1126,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:185,introChapter:null,impactScore:2,impactScorePercentile:77,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"February 28th 2011",dateReviewed:"June 13th 2011",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"October 21st 2011",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/22047",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/22047",book:{id:"2013",slug:"steroids-clinical-aspect"},signatures:"Sergej M. Ostojic, Julio Calleja-Gonzalez and Marko Stojanovic",authors:[{id:"74282",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergej",middleName:null,surname:"Ostojic",fullName:"Sergej Ostojic",slug:"sergej-ostojic",email:"sergej.ostojic@uia.no",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/74282/images/3393_n.jpg",institution:null},{id:"136860",title:"Dr.",name:"Julio",middleName:null,surname:"Calleja-Gonzalez",fullName:"Julio Calleja-Gonzalez",slug:"julio-calleja-gonzalez",email:"julio_callejagonzalez@intechweb.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Center for Health, Exercise and Sport Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Serbia"}}},{id:"136861",title:"Prof.",name:"Marko",middleName:null,surname:"Stojanovic",fullName:"Marko Stojanovic",slug:"marko-stojanovic",email:"marko_stojanovic@intechweb.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Metropolitan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. History of steroid prohormones use in sport and exercise",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Epidemiology of steroids use among athletes: scope of the problem",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Testosterone production and musculotrophic effects of prosteroids",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Fat mass alteration and steroid prohormones intake ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Known and potential health risks of prosteroids administration",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Summary",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBahrke\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYesalis\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC. E.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2004 Abuse of Anabolic Androgenic Steroids and Related Substances in Sport and Exercise. 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Endocrinology Review, 9\n\t\t\t\t\t2 (May 1988), 181\n\t\t\t\t\t199 , 0163-769X.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B63",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWindsor\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDumitru\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1989 Prevalence of anabolic steroid use by male and female adolescents. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 21\n\t\t\t\t\t5 (October 1989), 494\n\t\t\t\t\t497, 0195-9131\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B64",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWolf\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tO. T.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNeumann\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tO.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHellhammer\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD. H.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGeiben\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA. C.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tStrasburger\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDressendörfer\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPirke\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK. M.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKirschbaum\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1997 Effects of a Two-Week Physiological Dehydroepiandrosterone Substitution on Cognitive Performance and Well-Being in Healthy Elderly Women and Men. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 82\n\t\t\t\t\t7 (July 1997), 2363\n\t\t\t\t\t2367 , 0021-972X.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B65",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWroble\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR. R.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGray\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRodrigo\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2002 Anabolic Steroids and Pre-adolescent Athletes: Prevalence, Knowledge, and Attitudes. Sport Journal,\n\t\t\t\t\t5\n\t\t\t\t\t3 (March 2002), 1\n\t\t\t\t\t8 , 1543-9518\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B66",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYamada\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSekihara\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tOmura\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYanase\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTakayanagi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMune\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYasuda\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tIshizuka\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tUeshiba\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMiyachi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tIwasaki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNakajima\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNawata\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2007 Changes in Serum Sex Hormone Profiles after Short-Term Low-Dose Administration of Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) to Young And Elderly Persons. Endocrine Journal, 54\n\t\t\t\t\t1 (February 2007), 153\n\t\t\t\t\t162, 0918-8959\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B67",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYen\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMorales\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKhorram\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tO.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1995 Replacement of DHEA in aging men and women. Potential remedial effects. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 774 (December 1995), 128\n\t\t\t\t\t142 , 0077-8923\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B68",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYesalis\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC. E.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tStreit\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA. L.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tVicary\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. R.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFriedl\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK. E.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBrannon\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBuckley\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1989 Anabolic Steroid Use: Indications of Habituation Among Adolescents. Journal of Drug Education, 19\n\t\t\t\t\t2 (April 1989), 103\n\t\t\t\t\t116 , 0047-2379\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B69",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYesalis\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC. E.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBahrke\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1995 Anabolic-Androgenic Steroids: Current Issues. Sports Medicine, 19\n\t\t\t\t\t5 (May 1995), 326\n\t\t\t\t\t340 , 0112-1642\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B70",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYesalis\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC. E.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1999 Medical, Legal and Societal Implications of Androstenedione Use. JAMA, 281\n\t\t\t\t\t21 June 1999), 2043\n\t\t\t\t\t2044 , 0098-7484\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B71",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYesalis\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC. E.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBahrke\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2000 Doping among adolescent athletes. Baillière’s best practice & research. Clinical endocrinology & metabolism, 14\n\t\t\t\t\t1 (March 2000), 25\n\t\t\t\t\t35 , 0950-351X.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B72",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZiegenfuss\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT. N.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBerardi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. M.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLowery\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL. M.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAntonio\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2002 Effects of Prohormone Supplementation in Humans: A Review. Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology, 27\n\t\t\t\t\t6 (December 2002), 628\n\t\t\t\t\t645 , 1066-7814\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Sergej M. Ostojic",address:null,affiliation:'
Center for Health, Exercise and Sport Sciences, Belgrade, Serbia
Center for Health, Exercise and Sport Sciences, Belgrade, Serbia
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1. Introduction
Probably the foremost unsolved problem in Graph Theory is Ulam’s Conjecture. This problem is due to P.J. Kelly and S.M. Ulam. Kelly’s Ph.D thesis [1] written under S.M.Ulam in 1942 dealt with this. Ulam proposed it as a set theory problem in his famous book “A Collection of Mathematical Problems” [2].
This is how Ulam’s problem was originally stated [2]:
Suppose that E and F are two sets, each containing m elements such that there is defined a distance function μ for every pair of distinct points, with values either 1 or 2, and μpp=0. If, for every subset of n−1 points of E, there exists an isometric system of m−1 points of F and the number of distinct subsets isometric to any given subset of m−1 points is the same in E and in F, then does E and F isometric?
There are many restatements of Ulam’s original conjecture, each dealing with another way of talking about sets. Kelly [3] has given the graph theoretic version of this problem as below and solved it for trees and disconnected graphs, and verified it for graphs on up to six vertices.
Theorem 1.1.(Ulam Conjecture).
Let G and H be graphs with VG=v1,v2,⋯,vn and for n≥3. If G−vi≅H−ui, for all then G≅H.
Many graph theorists have found other ways to restate the Ulam Conjecture. But the current version of this problem, popularly known as the Reconstruction Conjecture is the one formulated by Frank Harary [4].
Theorem 1.2. (Reconstruction Conjecture).
Every graph on at least three vertices is uniquely determined up to isomorphism by the collection of its one vertex-deleted subgraphs.
Graphs obeying the above conjecture are said to be reconstructible. Many classes of graphs and some parameters of graphs are already proved to be reconstructible. The papers [5, 6] and the book [7] deal with earlier work done on this problem. P. J. Kelly first proved that trees are reconstructible; but the proof is quite lengthy. A short proof was given by Greenwell and Hemminger using a powerful but simple counting theorem. This chapter deals with the counting theorem and its subsequent applications; also it ends up with a reduction of the Reconstruction Conjecture using distance and connectedness, which may lead to the final solution of the conjecture.
2. Reconstructible parameters and graphs
A vertex-deleted subgraph of a graph G, is called a card of G. The collection of all cards of G is called the deck of G and is denoted by DG.
Note that the graphs in the deck are unlabelled and, if G contains isomorphic vertex-deleted subgraphs, then such subgraphs are repeated in DG according to the number of isomorphic subgraphs that G contains. Therefore DG is a multiset, rather than a set, of isomorphism type of graphs.
Figure 1 shows an example of a graph and its deck.
Figure 1.
Graph and its deck.
A graph H with deck DH=DG is called a reconstruction of G. If every reconstruction of G is isomorphic to G, then G is said to be reconstructible. A graph that is not reconstructible is given by G≅K2 because, if H is the graph consisting of two isolated vertices, then clearly H is a reconstruction of G but it is not isomorphic to G. A property p defined on a class F of graphs is called a recognizable property if pG=pH whenever G∈F and H is a reconstruction of G. A classC of graphs is said to be recognizable if for all graphs G in C, any reconstruction of G must be in C. A parameterθ=θG is said to be reconstructible if for all reconstructions H of G, θH=θG. In other words θG is reconstructible if it can be determined uniquely from the deck of G. A classC of graphs is said to be reconstructible if every graph in C is reconstructible. A class C of graphs is said to be weakly reconstructible if for all graphs G in C, any graph in C that is a reconstruction of G is isomorphic to G.
Theorem 1.3. If G is a pq-graph with p≥3, then p and q are reconstructible.
Proof. It is trivial to determine the number p, which is necessarily one greater than the order of any subgraph G−v. Also, p is equal to the number of subgraphs G−v. To determine q, label these subgraphs by Gi,i=1,2,…p, and suppose Gi≅G−vi, where vi∈VG. Let qi denote the size of Gi. Consider an arbitrary edge e of G, say e=vjvk. Then e belongs to p−2 of the subgraphs Gi, namely all except Gj and Gk.
Hence,
∑i=1pqi
counts each edge p−2 times. That is,
∑i=1pqi=p−2q
Therefore,
q=∑i=1pqip−2
Corollary 1.4. Given a graph G−v in the deck of G=pq, the degree of v and the degrees of the neighbors of v in G are reconstructible.
Proof. The degree of v in G is simply q−EG−v, and this is reconstructible since q is. Therefore d, the degree sequence in nondecreasing order of G, is reconstructible.
Let d′ be the degree sequence of G−v but with the degree of v inserted in its correct position. The nonzero entries of the vector difference d−d′ occur in positions corresponding to neighbors of v in G, and their degrees can be read off from d.
Example 1.5. We illustrate Theorem 1.3 and Corollary 1.4 with the six subgraphs G−v shown in Figure 2 of some unspecified graph G. From these subgraphs we determine p,q, and degvi for i=1,2,...6. Clearly p=6. By calculating the qi,i=1,2,...6, we find that q=9. Thus, degv1=degv2=2,degv3=degv4=3, and degv5=degv6=4.
Figure 2.
Deck of the graph G.
Theorem 1.6.The connectivityκGof a graphGis reconstructible.
Proof. A graph G is disconnected if and only if κG=0. If G is connected and let κG = k≥1. Then there exists a set of k-vertices, say v1,v2,…,vk in VG such that G−v1v2…vk is disconnected and the removal of any set of fewer than k-vertices from G do not separable G. It follows that κG−vi=k−1 for i=1,2,…,k and κG−v≥k−1 for v∈VG=v1v2…vk. Hence for a connected graph G, κG−minv∈VGκG−v+1. Since the R.H.S. of the above equation is known from the deck of G, κG is reconstructible.
Theorem 1.7.If a graphGis reconstructible, then the complementG¯ofGis reconstructible.
Proof. Let G¯−v1G¯−v2…G¯−vn be the given deck of G¯. Then G¯−v1¯G¯−v1¯…G¯−vn¯=G−v1G−v2…G−vn. Therefore, DG is known. Since G is reconstructible, G can be obtained uniquely (up to isomorphism) from DG Hence G and so G¯ is known. That is, G¯ is reconstructible.
Theorem 1.8. Regular graphs are reconstructible.
Proof. From the deck of G, the degree sequence is reconstructible. Therefore, from DG it can be determined whether G is regular and if it is, its degree r is reconstructible.
Thus without loss of generality, we may assume that G is an r−regular graph with VG=v1,v2,…,vp,p≥3. Take any G−vi in the deck. The only way to reconstruct a regular graph of degree r from G−vi is to add a new vertex vi joining it to all the vertices of degree d−1 in G−v. Hence G is uniquely reconstructible.
Theorem 1.9. For graphs of order at least 3, connectedness is a recognizable property. In particular, if G is a graph with VG=v1,v2,…,vp,p≥3, then G is connected if and only if at least two of the subgraphs G−vi are connected.
Proof. Let G be a connected graph. By theorem G contains at least two vertices that are not cut-vertices. Let v1 and v2 be two vertices that are not cut-vertices. Then, clearly G−v1 and G−v2 are connected.
Conversely, assume that there exists vertices v1,v2∈VG such that both G−v1 and G−v2 are connected. Thus, in G−v1 and also in G, vertex v2 is connected to vi,i≥3. Moreover, v1 is connected to each vi,i≥3 in G−v2 and thus in G. Hence every pair of vertices of G are connected and so G is connected.
Remark 1.10. Since connectedness is a recognizable property, it is possible to determine from the subgraphs G−v,v∈VG, whether a graph G of order at least 3 is disconnected.
Theorem 1.11. Disconnected graphs of order at least 3 are reconstructible.
Proof. We have already noted that disconnectedness in graphs of order at least 3 is a recognizable property. Thus, we assume without loss of generality that G is a disconnected graph with VG=v1,v2,…vp,p≥3. Further, let Gi=G−vi for i=1,2,…p. Hence, if G contains an isolated vertex, then G is reconstructible. Assume that G has no isolated vertices. Among all the components of all the graphs in DG, let C be one with maximal number of vertices. Then C must be a component of G. Let v0 be a vertex of C that is not a cut vertex. Consider all graphs in DG that have the least number of components isomorphic to C. Among these, let G−v be the one with the largest number of components isomorphic to C=v0. Then the only way to form G from G−v is by replacing one component C−v0 by C.
Theorem 1.12. Separable graphs G without end vertices are reconstructible.
Proof. If the given deck of G contains two connectred cards and one disconnected cards, then G must be connected and containing a cut vertex and so it separable. Therefore, since the degree sequence of a graph is reconstructible, the class of all separable graphs without end vertices is recognizable. Throughout this proof, blocks mean rooted blocks where roots are the cut vertices of the graph that are in the blocks. The largest end blocks of G are identified as the the largest end blocks in all cards G−v. Let B be the one of the largest end blocks of G and the unique cut vertex in B is indicated in that card G−v. If any non-cut vertex w of B is deleted from B, then new rooted blocks are produced. Suppose that among the blocks so produced B1 is the largest, B2 the next largest (or another largest) and so on. Among all such vertex-deletions B−w, some of them must produce a maximum number, say k1 of B1‘s. Among all those vertex-deletions B−w producing k1 of B1‘s, some of them must produce a maximum number, say k2 of B2‘s, and so forth.
Now consider a card G−u showing a minimum number of blocks B, and a maximum number of blocks B1, B2, and so forth (in that order), all with roots as marked. Then the card G−u will show all blocks of G, except for one B, plus k1B1‘s, k2B2‘s, and so forth. Thus we can find all end blocks of G, with cut vertices marked. Let D be some smallest end block of G. Now choose a connected card G−v in which there is a smaller number of end blocks D than in G. Then G−v must have resulted from deletion of a vertex from D. Since G has no end vertices, the leftovers D−v is a nontrivial subgraph of G. That leftovers can be identified by considering first the smallest connected subgraph, say D′ of G−v containing all end blocks smaller than D. If D′ has ∣D∣−1 vertices, it is the leftovers of D. Otherwise, add to D′ the (unique) block which joins it to the rest of G. Continue adding blocks in that way until the resulting subgraph B contains ∣D∣−1 vertices. Then G can be recovered by replacing B by D, using the same cut vertex of attachment. Hence G is reconstructible.
Definition 1.13. For graphs F and G we denote by sFG the number of non-identical subgraphs F0 of G such that VF0⊆VG,EF0⊆EG and F0≅F.
In his thesis [1], Paul J. Kelly proved that for any two graphs F and G with VF<VG, the number of subgraphs of G isomorphic to F is reconstructible from the deck of G. Greenwell extended this result as follows: Let P denote a graphical property. If F is a subgraph of G having property P, then the number of subgraphs of G that are isomorphic to F and maximal with respect to property P is reconstructible from the deck of G.
Theorem 1.14. (Kelly’s Lemma) Let F and G be graphs of orders p1 and p respectively, where p1<p. Then the number sFG is recognizable from the subgraphs G−v,v∈VG.
Proof. Each subgraph of G isomorphic to F occurs in exactly p−p1 subgraphs G−v,v∈VG. Therefore,
p−p1sFG=∑v∈VGsFG−v
Since the numerator of the right hand side of this equation is recognizable and p and p1 are known, sFG is recognizable. Also,
sFG=∑v∈VGp−p1
3. Counting theorem
Let P denote a graphical property (such as being connected, being n-connected for some n≥2 or being planar, for example).Let G be a given graph, and let F be a graph such that F has property P and F⊂G, that is, sFG≥1. By an FG−chain with respect toP,we mean a sequence of pairwise nonisomorphic subgraphs of G such that each subgraph has property P and
F≅F0⊂F1⊂F2⊂⋯⊂Fn⊂G
where VF0⊆VF1⊆⋯⊆VFn⊆VG and EF0⊆EF1⊆⋯⊆EFn⊆EG.
The chain F0F1F2⋯Fn is said to have length n. Two FG−chains with respect to a property P are called isomorphic if they have the same length and corresponding terms are isomorphic graphs. The rank of F in G (with respect to P) is the maximum length among all FG−chains with respect to P.
Let F be a subgraph of a graph G such that F has a graphical property P. Then F is said to be a maximal subgraph with respect toP if VF⊆VG and EF⊆EG, and if, whenever H is a subgraph of G having property P such that VF⊆VH⊆VG and EF⊆EH⊆EG, it follows that F=H. For example, if P1 is the property of being connected, then a subgraph F of a graph G is a maximal subgraph with respect to P1 if and only if F is a component of G. If P2 denotes the property of being a block, then F is a maximal subgraph with respect to P2 if and only if F is a block of G.
Let P denote a graphical property and let G be a given graph. If F is a subgraph of G having property P, then by 54mPFG we mean the number of subgraphs of G that are isomorphic to F and maximal with respect to property P. For example, if P2 denotes the property of being a block and F≅K3, then for the graph G of Figure 3, it follows that sFG=6 and mPFG=2.
Figure 3.
The number of subgraphs with a specific property.
Theorem 1.15.(Counting Theorem). Let G be a graph of order at least 3, and let P be a graphical property. Suppose that each subgraph of G with property P has order less than of G. If for each subgraph F of G with property P and for each graph F0≅F such that VF0⊆VG and EF0⊆EG, there is a unique subgraph H of G that is maximal with respect to P such that VF0⊆VH and EF0⊆EH, then for each subgraph F of G having property P, the number mPFG is recognizable.
Proof. Let F be a subgraph of G such that F has property P.
By hypothesis, the order of F is less than the order of G. Denote the rank of F in G by r.
We show that
mPFG=∑n=0r∑−1nsFF1sF1F2⋯sFn−1FnsFnGE1
where the inner sum is taken over all pairwise nonisomorphic FG−chains F0F1⋯Fn of length n. (Note that all FG−chains can be determined since each is contained in some G−v, v∈VG.)
We verify (Eq. (1)) by induction on r. If r=0, the only FG−chain is the trivial F0, where F0≅F. This implies that each subgraph of G that is isomorphic to F is, in fact, a subgraph that is maximal with respect to P. Thus mPFG=sFG and (Eq. (1)) holds in the case where r=0. Let r be a positive integer, and assume that (Eq. (1)) is true for all subgraphs F of G with property P and having rank less than r. Let F be a subgraph of G having property P and rank r in G. By hypothesis, for each graph F0≅F such that VF0⊆VG and EF0⊆EG, there is a unique subgraph H of G that is maximal with respect to P such that VF0⊆VH and EF0⊆EH. Thus, the number of subgraphs of G isomorphic to F that are subgraphs of maximal subgraphs isomorphic to H is given by sFH.mPHG. Hence, if we sum these numbers over all nonisomorphic subgraphs H of G having property P, then we obtain the total number of subgraphs of G isomorphic to F. In symbols,
sFG=∑sFH.mPHG
where the sum is taken over all nonisomorphic subgraphs H of G having property P. Since sFH=1 if H≅F, we have
mPFG=sFG−∑H≠FsFH.mPHGE2
In (Eq. (2)) it suffices to consider only those subgraphs H of G having property P for which sFH>0. Since any such subgraph H has rank less than r, the inductive hypothesis can be applied to each term mPHG, yielding
mPFG=sFG−∑sFG∑m=0rankH∑−1msHH1sH1H2⋯sHmGE3
where the inner sum is taken over all pairwise nonisomorphic HG-chains H0H1⋯Hm of H of G having property P such that sFH>0 and H≠F. Redistributing the summations in (Eq. (3)), we obtain
mPFG=sFG−∑∑m=0rankH∑−1msFHsHH1⋯sHmG
or equivalently,
mPFG=∑n=0r∑−1msFHsHH1⋯sHmGE4
where the inner sum is over all pairwise nonisomorphic FG−chains F0F1⋯Fn of length n. However, this is precisely (Eq. (1)). By Theorem 1.14, the right side of (Eq. (4)) is recognizable. Thus the left hand side is recognizable.
Theorem 1.16. Let G be a connected graph with two or more blocks. Then the blocks of G are recognizable.
Proof. First observe that connected graphs with two or more blocks are recognizable. By Theorem 1.9 connectedness is a recognizable property. A connected graph G has two or more blocks if and only if G−v is disconnected for at least one vertex of G, that is, v is a cut-vertex of G. Thus let G be a connected graph with two or more blocks. Then each subgraph F of G that is a block has order less than that of G. Furthermore, for each F0≅F such that VF0⊆VG and EF0⊆EG, there is a unique subgraph H of G that is maximal with respect to the property P2 of being a block (that is, a unique block H of G) such that VF0⊆VH and EF0⊆EH. Therefore by Theorem 1.15, the number mP2FG is the number of blocks of G isomorphic to F.
4. Trees
Paul J. Kelly first proved that trees are reconstructible; but the proof was quite lengthy. Here we present a short proof due to Greenwell and Hemminger using the counting lemma.
A vertex v of a tree G is called a peripheral if it is an end-vertex of a diametrical path of G that is peripheral if its eccentricity ev=diamG. By a branch of a central tree we mean a maximal subtree of G in which the central vertex is an end vertex. A branch of a bicentral tree of G is a maximal subtree of G containing the central edge and in which the central edge is incident with an end vertex. A radial branch is a branch that contains a peripheral vertex of the tree. A tree is called basic if it has exactly two branches, exactly one of which is a path. The branch that is a path is called the stem of the basic tree; the other branch is called the top.
Theorem 1.17. Every tree of order at least 3 is reconstructible.
Proof. First we note that trees are recognizable. Since the order, size and connectedness of a graph G can be determined from its subgraphs G−v,v∈VG, it can be recognized whether a pq graph G is connected and q=p−1, that is, it can be recognized whether G is a tree. Therefore, we assume that G is a tree. If no vertex of G has degree exceeding 2, then G is a path. Hence, paths are reconstructible. Thus, we assume that G is not a path.That is, G has vertices of degree 3 or more. Then a diametrical path of such a tree G necessarily has order less than G. From Theorem 1.14, it follows that the number of paths of various lengths in G is recognizable. This implies that the diameter is a recognizable parameter.
Since the diameter of a tree equals either 2r or 2r−1 according as the tree is central or bicentral, where r is the radius. It further follows that the radius is recognizable and whether G is central or bicentral is recognizable. We have already mentioned that the number of diametrical paths in G recognizable. Now, a vertex u is peripheral if and only if degGu=1 and G−u has fewer paths of length diamG than does G. Hence the number of peripheral vertices is recognizable.
A central tree G with central vertex v has degGv branches, at least two of which are radial, while a bicentral tree has exactly two branches, both of which are radial. A tree (which is not a path) having radius r is basic if and only if it contains no subgraph of Type 1,2,or 3, as shown in Figure 4. The central vertices are drawn as solid circles. In each case, the indicated u-v path is a diametrical path of the original tree: its length is 2r if the subtree is of Type 1 or Type 2 and is 2r−1 if the subtree is of Type 3. The length a and b of the indicated paths satisfy 1≤a≤r−1 and 1≤b≤r−1. The lengths c and d satisfy 1≤c≤r−2 and 1≤d≤r−2. If a non-basic tree contains a subtree of Type 1, 2 or 3 as a proper subtree, then this is recognizable by Theorem 1.14. Thus, in order to show that all nonbasic trees are recognizable, we need only show that a non-basic tree G is recognizable when G itself is of Type 1,2 or 3.
Figure 4.
Nonbasic trees.
A tree G of order p is of Type 1 if and only if it contains a path of length 2r=p−2, one 3−vertex, and the only subgraph G−v with three components is isomorphic to 2Pr∪K1. A tree G of order p is of Type 2 if and only if it contains a path of length 2r=p−3, has exactly two 3−vertices, and in the two subgraphs G−v with three components, the size of any component that is a path at most r−2. Finally, a tree G of order p is of Type 3 if and only if it contains a path of length 2r−1=p−3, has exactly two 3−vertices, and each subgraph G−v with three components is isomorphic to Pr+1∪Pr−1∪K1 or in each such G−v, the size of any component that is a path at most r−2. Thus nonbasic trees of Types 1,2 and 3 are recognizable. Since nonbasic trees are recognizable, basic trees are also recognizable.
Claim:1 Basic trees are reconstructible.
Let G be a central basic tree, and consider those subgraphs G−v which are bicentral(basic) tree. For each such tree G−v, let mv denote the least distance from a vertex of degree 3 or more in G−v to a vertex incident with the central edge of G−v. Among all such numbers mv, let mv1 be one of minimum value. By adding v1 to G−v1 and joining v1 to the end-vertex of the stem of G−v1, the tree G is obtained. Suppose that G is a bicentral basic tree. Consider all those subgraphs G−v which are central(basic) trees. One of these trees, say G−vp, has a vertex of degree greater than 2 closest to the central vertex. By adding vp to Gvp and joining vp to the end-vertex of the stem of G−vp, the tree G is produced.
Claim:2 Nonbasic trees are reconstructible.
Let G be a nonbasic tree. If F is a subtree of G that is maximal with respect to the property P of being a basic tree having the same diameter as G, then we call F a maximal basic subtree of G. Clearly, every subtree of G with property P has order less than that of G and is a subtree of a unique maximal basic subtree of G. So, if such subtrees exist, by Theorem 1.14, the number of maximal basic subtrees of G isomorphic to a given basic subtree F of G having the same diameter as G is recognizable.
We now determine the radial branches of G. If no subtree of G has property P, then each radial branch of G is a path (of length radG) and the number of radial branches equals the number of peripheral vertices in G. If, on the other hand, G has basic subtrees with the same diameter as that of G, then G has radial branches that are not paths. In fact, every maximal basic subtree of G gives rise to such a branch. Let H1,H2,⋯,Ht be nonisomorphic subtrees of G with property P such that every maximal basic subtree F of G is isomorphic to some Hi, 1≤i≤t, and such that mPHiG>0 for i=1,2,⋯,t. For convenience, let mi=mPHiG. For each i, 1≤i≤t, consider a maximal basic subtree F of G that is isomorphic to Hi. The tree F has one radial branch B that is not a path. If G has n peripheral vertices and B contains ki peripheral vertices (of F and hence of G), then B is the top of n−ki maximal basic subtrees of G isomorphic to Hi(namely, one for each of the n−ki stems produced from the other nki peripheral vertices). Thus, the number mi of maximal basic subtrees isomorphic to Hi equals ℓin−ki, where ℓi is the number of radial branches of G isomorphic to B. Therefore, ℓi=mi/n−ki, where mi, ni and ki are recognizable. The number of radial branches of G that are paths equals n−∑i=1tℓiki. Since bicentral nonbasic trees have only radial branches, it follows that such trees are reconstructible. However, we still construct any nonradial branches that may exist if G is a central nonbasic tree. This can be accomplished though, by observing that, in this case, the nonradial branches of G are the nonradial branches of G−v, where.
v is a peripheral vertex of a radial branch containing at least two peripheral vertices,or.
v is a nonperipheral end vertex of a radial branch.
If no vertex v as described in i and ii exist, then all radial branches of G are paths and the nonradical branches of G are the nonradical branches of G−v with the exception of with the exception of one path of length radG−1, in G−v, where v is a peripheral vertex.
We now illustrate some of the ideas involved in the proof of Theorem 1.17 by considering the subgraphs of Figure 5, where Gi=G−vi for some graph G with VG=v1,v2,⋯,v16.
Figure 5.
Deck of a tree.
Clearly, G has order p=16 and, by Theorem 1.3, size q=15. Since G1 and G2, for example, are connected it follows by Theorem 1.9 that G is connected. Therefore, we recognize G as a tree. Hence, by Theorem 1.17 that G is recognizable. Therefore, we now proceed to reconstruct G..
We observe that G has vertices of degree exceeding 2 (since, for example, G1 does) so that G is not a path. Hence a diametrical path of G has order less than that of G, so by determining the lengths of all paths in the subgraphs G−v, the maximum such length is the diameter of G. The maximum is 6 (which occurs in G1, for example) so that diamG=6. Since the diameter of a tree is either 2r or 2r1, where r is the radius of the tree, depending on whether the tree is central or bicentral, it follows that r=radG=3 and that G is a central tree.
In order to calculate the number n of peripheral vertices of G, we first calculate the number of diametrical paths. This can be done with the aid of Kelly’s Lemma, in which F≅P7 and p1=7. We obtain
sP7G=∑v∈VGsP7G−v16−7=459=5
Thus a vertex v1 of G is a peripheral vertex if and only if G−v1 is a tree and G−v1 has fewer than five diametrical paths. The subgraphs G1,G2,G11, and G12 satisfy these criteria so that the number n of peripheral vertices of G is four.
We next determine whether G is a basic or nonbasic (central) tree. Observe that the Type 1 tree of Figure 6 is a subtree of at least one subgraph G−v (in fact, T is a subtree of all Gi,i≠6). Therefore T is a proper subtree of G and G is nonbasic.
Figure 6.
A type 1 subtree of G.
We now determine the radial branches of G. Since every radial branch that is not a path is the top of some maximal basic subtree of G (that is, a subtree of G that is maximal with respect to the property P of being a basic subtree of G and having diameter 6), we begin by finding the maximal basic subtrees of G. By inspecting the graph, we see that only subtrees of G having property P are trees H1,H2 and H3 shown in Figure 7. Therefore every maximal basic subtree of G is isomorphic to one of H1,H2 and H3.
Figure 7.
The basic subtrees of G having diameter 6.
The number mPH1G of maximal basic subtrees of G isomorphic to H1 can be computed with the aid of (Eq. (1)) of Theorem 1.15. By investigating the subgraphs, we see that there is only one H1G−chain (up to isomorphism), namely the trivial chain H1. Thus by (Eq. (1)), mPH1G=−1sH1G, where sH1G is the number of subtrees of G isomorphic to H1. By using Kelly’s lemma with p1=9, we have
sH1G=∑v∈VGsH1G−v16−9=147=2.
Therefore there are two maximal basic subtrees of G isomorphic to H1.
In order to compute mPH2G, we observe that, up to isomorphism, there are two H2G−chains, namely H2 and H2H1, where H1 is shown in Figure 7. By (Eq. (1)),
mPH2G=−10sH2G+−11sH2H1sH1G.
Again using Kelly’s Lemma, we have
sH2G=∑v∈VGsH2G−v16−8=328=4
One observes that sH2H1=2. Also we have already seen that sH1G=2. So mPH2G=4−2.2=0. Therefore there are no maximal basic subtrees of G isomorphic to H2.
In order to compute mPH3G, we observe that, up to isomorphism, there are two H3G−chains, namely H3 and H3H1, where H1 is shown in Figure 7. By (Eq. (1)),
mPH3G=−10sH3G+−11sH3H1sH1G.
Again using Kelly’s Lemma, we have
sH3G=∑v∈VGsH3G−v16−8=168=2
One observes that sH3H1=1 and we have already seen that sH1G=2. So mPH3G=2−2.1=0. Therefore there are no maximal basic subtrees of G isomorphic to H3.
Thus G has exactly two maximal basic subtrees each of which is isomorphic to H1.
If H′ is a maximal basic subtree of G, then H′≅H1 has one non-path radial branch B, and B is isomorphic to the graph shown in Figure 8, where v corresponds to the central vertex of G.
Figure 8.
The unique non-path radial branch of G.
Since B contains two of the four peripheral vertices of G, each radial branch isomorphic to B is the top of 4−2=2 maximal basic subtrees isomorphic to H1. Thus the number ℓ of radial branches isomorphic to B equals 1, since mPH1G=2.
At this point we conclude that G contains exactly one radial branch that is not a path, namely B. All other radial branches of G are necessarily paths. Since the branch B contains two of the four peripheral vertices possessed by G. It follows that each of the remaining two peripheral vertices corresponds to a radial branch that is a path. All radial branches of G have thus been determined, as shown in Figure 9.
Figure 9.
The radial branches of G.
Since the tree constructed thus far has order 12 and G has order 16, G contains nonradial branches. These can be determined by noticing that G1, for example, is obtained by the deletion of a peripheral vertex of G belonging to the radial branch B. Since B is isomorphic to the graph shown in Figure 9 and contains more than one peripheral vertex of G, the nonradial branches of G1 are precisely the nonradial branches of G. Combining this observation with our information in Figure 9, we have constructed the tree G shown in Figure 10.
Figure 10.
The tree G reconstructed.
5. Diameter two or three
In 2003, S. K. Gupta [8] defined three families of simple graphs of diameter two or three and proved that the reconstruction conjecture is true if reconstruction is proved for either these three families. Already the digraph reconstruction conjecture was disproved [9]. So the proof of the reconstruction conjecture depends on any property on graphs that does not hold for digraphs. Since the diameter is one such property of graphs, graph theorists thought that the final proof of the reconstruction conjecture may hold in this line of direction. Gupta’s reduction of the reconstruction conjecture is presented next.
Gupta defined three disjoint families of simple graphs, namely F1,F2 and F3 such that the reconstruction conjecture is true if it true for the families F1,F2 and F3. These families are quite restrictive in that each has diameter two or three. First of all, it is proved that these families F1,F2 and F3 are recognizable by showing that graphs of diameter two are recognizable. The reconstruction conjecture is thus reduced to showing weak reconstructibility for the three families.
Theorem 1.18. If a graph G has diameter greater than three then the diameter of G¯ is less than three.
Proof. Let G be a connected with diameter greater than 3.
Then there exists u,v∈VG such that duv>3. Clearly the graph G¯ will contain the edge uv. In G¯ any vertex different from u and v is adjacent to u or to v or to both since there is no path of length 3 connecting u and v in G.
Let x and y be any two vertices different from u and v. If they have u or v as a common neighbor in G¯, then xuy or xvy is a path connecting them in G¯. Otherwise, they must be adjacent in G¯ since neighbors of u and neighbors of v are not adjacent in G.
Now define.
C1: class of all graphs H such that diamH=diamH¯=2.
C2: class of all graphs H such that diamH=2 and diamH¯>2.
C3: class of all graphs H such that diamH=diamH¯=3.
For i∈0n−2,pvHi is the number of pairs of non-adjacent vertices of H such that, for each pair, there are exactly i paths of length two between the two vertices, and pavHi is the number of pairs of adjacent vertices of H such that, for each pair, there are exactly i paths of length two between the two vertices.
Theorem 1.19. If pvHn−2>0 or pavHn−2>0 then H¯ is disconnected.
Proof. If pvHn−2>0 or pavHn−2>0, then H must contain at least one pair of vertices, say uv, such that there are n−2 paths of length two between u and v, which means vertices u and v are adjacent to all other remaining n−2 vertices of H. Hence, in H¯, no vertices other than u and v are adjacent to them. Therefore, in H¯, either u and v are isolated vertices or they together form a component isomorphic to K2. Thus, H¯ is disconnected.
Theorem 1.20.
a∑i=1npvHij=j+1pvHj+1+n−j+2pvHj∀j∈0n−3
b∑i=1npavHij=j+1pavHj+1+n−j+2pavHj∀j∈0n−3
Proof. (a) Let uv be a pair of vertices in the graph H such that duv=2 and let there be exactly k paths of length two uv1vuv2v…uvkv between u and v. Then, both in H−u and H−v, the pair uv will not appear at all. In each of the k cards H−vi, where i=1,2,…,k, this pair uv appears as having k−1 paths of length two. In the remaining n−k cards, this pair will appear as having k paths of length two.
(b) Proof is similar to Part(a) but taking uv as a pair of adjacent vertices.
Theorem 1.21.ParameterspvHiandpavHiare reconstructible for alli∈0n−2.
Proof. First we prove that the parameters pvHi are reconstructible and that of pavHi follows similarly.
From the given deck of H, the left hand side of Theorem 1.20(a) is known for j∈0n−3. Thus, from Theorem 1.20(a), we have n−2 independent linear equations of n−1 parameters pvH0,pvH1,⋯,pvHn−3 and pvHn−2.
Case 1. Suppose pvHn−2>0.
Now, by Theorem 1.19, H¯ is disconnected. So H¯ and hence H is reconstructible. Then each parameter pvHi (where i∈0n−2) is clearly reconstructible.
Case 2: Suppose pvHn−2=0.
In this case, we have an additional linearly independent equation pvHn−2=0 apart from the n−1 equations stated in Theorem 1.20(a). Now we have n−1 linearly independent equations with n−1 unknowns namely pvH0,pvH1,⋯,pvHn−3 and pvHn−2. The unique solution set of these equations will provide the values of the parameters pvH0,pvH1,⋯,pvHn−2.
Theorem 1.22.Graphs of diameter two are recognizable.
Proof. Graphs of diameter one are precisely complete graphs and so they are recognizable. If diamH≠1 and pvH0= 0, then diamH= 2 since pvHi (where i∈0n−2) is the number of pairs of non-adjacent vertices of H such that, for each pair, there are exactly i paths of length two between the two vertices. If pvH0> 0, then diamH>2.
The number of pairs of vertices of H such that distance between vertices of each pair is greater than two (or pvH0) is reconstructible.
Theorem 1.23. Families C1,C2 and C3 are recognizable.
Proof. Given the deck of some graph H, H=Hii∈1n, we can get the deck of H¯, H′=Hi¯i∈1n. We can recognize whether diamH=1 or not (as complete graphs are recognizable). If diamH≠1 and pvH0=0, then diamH=2. If pvH0>0, then diamH>2. So we can recognize both H and H¯ whether they have diameter equal to one or two or greater than two. So, C1 and C2 are recognizable. We have, if diamH>2 and diamH¯>2 then diamH=3 and diamH¯=3. Also, G∈C3 if and only if diamH>2 and diamH¯>2. Hence C3 is also recognizable.
The next well known result is useful while proving the reduction of the Reconstruction Conjecture.
Theorem 1.24 ([10]). If a graph H has diameter greater than three then the diameter of H¯ is less than three.
Theorem 1.25 ([11]). If a graph H has radius greater than three then the radius of H¯ is less than three.
Theorem 1.26 (Gupta et al. [8]). The Reconstruction Conjecture is true if and only if all graphs H with diamH=2 and all graphs H with diamH=diamH¯=3 are reconstructible.
Proof. The necessity is obvious. For sufficiency, let H be a graph. If H is disconnected, then it is reconstructible. So, we can take that H is connected. If diamH=2 or diamH=diamH¯=3, then H is reconstructible by hypothesis. Hence we may assume that diamH=1 or, by Theorem 1.24, diamH¯≤2. If diamH=1 or diamH¯=1, then H is reconstructible (because graphs with diameter one are precisely complete graphs). Hence we assume diamH¯=2. Now H¯ is reconstructible by assumption. Hence H is reconstructible by Theorem 1.7.
Theorem 1.27.Graphs onnvertices having ann−1-vertex are reconstructible.
Proof. Since the degree sequence of H is reconstructible, we can recognizable whether the graph has a vertex of degree n−1 or not. Therefore the claim of under consideration is recognizable, weakly reconstructible. In a card H−v, where degHv = n−1, annexing a new vertex to H−v and joining it all the vertices of H−v; the graph H in this way is unique. Hence H is reconstructible.
Lemma 1.28.Separable graphsHwith diamH=2 are reconstructible.
Proof. We know that, graphs G with diamH=2 are recognizable. A connected graph is separable if and only if one of its cards is disconnected. Now H has no non-end block, as otherwise H has diameter greater than 2. So all the blocks of H are end-blocks. Hence H has only one cut vertex, say v. Since diamH=2, v must be adjacent to all other vertices of H. Hence H is reconstructible.
Yang Yongzhi [2] proved the following reduction of the Reconstruction Conjecture in 1988. Yongzhi achieved this significant reduction of the RC by proving the reconstructibility of a new class of graphs called P-graphs. Yongzhi observed that reconstructibility of P-graphs turns out to be of great use while shuttling between a graph and its complement in order to reconstruct it.
Figure 11.
A P-graph on 9 vertices.
Definition 1.29.A graphGwithpvertices is aP-graph, if.
there exists only two blocks inGand one of them is an edge (denote it byrxwithdx=1),and
Proof. Since the degree sequence and the number of cut vertices are reconstructible, recognizability of (i) of Definition 1.31 follows immediately. Existence of u as in (ii) of Definition 1.31 is guaranteed by the existence of a connected card obtained by deleting a p−2 vertex in the given deck of G..
Every graph must be contained in one of the following disjoint classes of graphs: disconnected graphs (which are reconstructible); separable graphs without end vertices (which are reconstructible); separable graphs with end vertices; and 2-connected graphs. Yongzhi [12] further divided the class of separable graphs with end vertices into P-graphs and other than P-graphs, and proved that the former class of graphs is reconstructible if all 2-connected graphs are reconstructible. We omit the proof as it is very lengthy.
Theorem 1.31. P-graphs are reconstructible if all 2-connected graphs are reconstructible.
Theorem 1.32. Every connected graph is reconstructible if and only if every 2-connected graph is reconstructible.
Proof. The necessity is obvious. For proving the sufficiency part, assume that all 2-connected graphs are reconstructible. Let G be a separable graph on p (≥12) vertices. If G has no end vertex then G is reconstructible (by Theorem 1.12).
Thus,wecanassume thatGhasanendvertex andap−2−vertexbecause of Theorems1.12and1.7and the hypothesis.E5
We have two subcases.
Case 1. The graph G has at least two end vertices.
NowG¯hasatleasttwop−2−vertices.E6
Let u1 and u2 be two p−2-vertices in G¯. By (Eq. (6)), G¯ has at most two end vertices and (Eq. (5)) now gives that G¯ has either one or two end vertices.
Case 1.1. The graph G¯ has exactly one end vertex, say y..
Now G¯ is a P-graph (as in (i) and (ii) below) and hence G is reconstructible by Theorem 1.31.
(i) If y is not adjacent to ui,i=1,2, then in G¯−y, u1 and u2 are p−2-vertices and hence G¯−y is a block as G¯−y has only p?1 vertices. Hence G¯ is a P-graph.
(ii) If y is adjacent to u1 (say), then in G¯−y, u2 is adjacent to all the vertices hence no vertex other than u2 can be a cut vertex of G¯−y. Also if u2 were a cut vertex of G¯−y, then u1 and all its p−3 neighbors in G¯−y are confined to a single block with p−2 vertices and the only other vertex of G¯−y must be an end vertex adjacent to u2. Thus G¯ has two end vertices, leading to a contradiction. Hence G¯−y has no cut vertex and G¯ is a P-graph.
Case 1.2. The graph G¯ has exactly two endvertices.
Now the bases of the two endvertices in G¯ are different (otherwise G¯ has at most one p−2-vertices, contradicting (Eq. (6))). No vertex other than the bases of the endvertices can have degree p−2. Hence G¯ has at most two p−2-vertices and (Eq. (6)) now gives that has exactly two p−2-vertices, which are the bases of the endvertices. In this case G¯ is clearly recognizable from its degree sequence and is reconstructible by augmenting an end vertex-deleted card G¯−y (by adding a vertex to G¯−y and joining it to a p−3-vertex).
Case 2. The graph G has exactly one end vertex, say y.
If G has more than one p−2-vertex, then G is a P-graph and hence is reconstructible by Theorem 1.31. Hence let G have exactly one p−2-vertex, say w
Case 2.1. The vertices w and y are nonadjacent in G.
Now we can assume that w is a cut vertex of G as otherwise G is a P-graph and hence is reconstructible. So w and q (the base of y) are the only cut vertices of G. Hence G is the union of three subgraphs Bwq (the non-end block containing w and q), Fw (the union of end-blocks containing w) and the end-block By (K2) containing y.
If degq=p−3 then Fw≅K3 (because G has only one end vertex). Consider a 2-vertex deleted card G−z with exactly two end vertices (the deleted 2-vertex cannot be from Bwq as every 2-vertex in Bwq is adjacent to w and q so that no additional end vertex is created). Such a G−z will have an automorphism that interchanges the two end vertices, interchanges the two bases and fixes all other vertices. Hence all augmentations of G−z by introducing a 2-vertex so that the resulting graph has only one end vertex and only one end-block isomorphic to K3 are isomorphic.
If degq≠p−3 then degq<p−3 (because ∣Fw∣≥3). Now in the cards G−v that are connected and have at least one end vertex (cards for which the deleted vertex is not one of w,y and q), the vertices w,y and q are identifiable as the only cut vertex of degree p−3, the only end vertex nonadjacent with w and the base of y respectively. Among these cards G−v, if we choose one, say G1 such that.
w and q are in the same block, and.
the block containing w and q has maximum number of vertices,
then the non-end block of G1 is Bwq. Hence Bwq is known with w and q labeled.
The only end vertex-deleted card in the deck is G−y and its only cut vertex is w. Since Bwq is known with w and q labeled, there is an isomorphism α from Bwq on to a block of G−y such that αw=w. The graph Gα obtained from G−y by adding a vertex and joining it only with αq is a candidate for G. If β is another such isomorphism and Gβ is the corresponding augmented graph, then Gα≅Gβ under the mapping ψ where
Now in G¯, w is the only end vertex and y is the only p−2-vertex and they are not adjacent. Hence G¯ is reconstructible as in Case 2.1. This completes the proof.
“Reconstruction Conjecture for digraphs” is already disproved by Stockmeyer [9]. So a proof for the Reconstruction Conjecture will depend on some property for graphs which does not extend to digraphs. Such properties are called significant properties (from the reconstruction angle) by Stockmeyer. One such property which arises out of distance in complement is given by Theorems 1.7 and 1.24. So far, in digraphs, there is no definition of complement and diameter such that Theorem 1.7 and 1.24 are simultaneously true. So reductions of the Reconstruction Conjecture obtained using the above theorems apply only for graphs and deserve attention. One reduction was proved in the last chapter (Theorem 1.26) by Gupta et al. [8] using Theorems 1.7 and 1.24. Reconstructibility of the subfamilies of 2-connected graphs in the families ℱ1,ℱ2 and ℱ3 are sufficient for the truth of the Reconstruction Conjecture.
Theorem 1.33 ([13]).All 2-connected graphs are reconstructible if and only if all 2-connected graphsGsuch that diamG=2 or diamG= diamG¯=3 are reconstructible.
Proof. The necessity is obvious. For sufficiency, let G be a 2-connected graph. Since graphs of diameter one are precisely complete graphs, this, together with hypothesis, leaves us to reconstruct only 2-connected graphs G of types (a) and (b) below.
a diamG=3 but diamG¯ is different from 3.
If diamG¯>3, then by Theorem 1.24, diamG<3, giving a contradiction. Hence diamG¯=2. Hence G¯ is reconstructible, by Lemma 1.28 if it is separable and by hypothesis otherwise.
b diamG>3.
Now, by Theorem 1.24, diamG¯<3 and so diamG¯=2, since G is connected. Therefore G¯ and hence G is reconstructible by hypothesis.
Theorem 1.34. All graphs are reconstructible if and only if all 2-connected graphs G such that diamG=2 or diamG = diamG¯ = 3 are reconstructible.
Proof. Follows by Theorems 1.32 and 1.33.
6. Radius two
Theorem 1.35.IfGis connected and radG≥3, then radG¯≤2andG¯has no endvertices.
Proof. Let G be a connected graph with radG≥3. Then radG¯≤2. If possible, let G¯ have endvertices. Then G has an n−2-vertex say v. Hence v is adjacent to all but one vertex, say v′ of G. Hence v′ is adjacent to at least one neighbor of v in G (as G is connected). Hence dvw≤2,∀w∈VG. Hence radG≤2, giving a contradiction. This completes the proof.
Theorem 1.36. All 2-connected graphs are reconstructible if and only if all 2-connected graphs G with radG = 2 are reconstructible.
Proof. The necessity is obvious. For sufficiency, let G be any 2-connected graph. It is enough to show that G or G¯ is reconstructible. If radG=1, then G has a vertex adjacent to all other vertices and hence G is reconstructible. If radG=2, then G is reconstructible by hypothesis.
Now let radG≥3. Then radG¯≤2 and G¯ has no endvertices by Theorem 1.35. If radG¯=1, then G¯ is reconstructible as it has a vertex adjacent to all other vertices. When radG¯=2, G¯ is disconnected, separable without end vertices or 2-connected. Therefore G¯ is reconstructible by Theorem 1.11, Theorem 1.28 or the hypothesis.
Theorem 1.37 ([13]). All graphs are reconstructible if and only if all 2-connected graphs G such that radG=2 are reconstructible.
Proof. By Theorem 1.32, we have all graphs are reconstructible if and only if all 2-connected graphs are reconstructible. We also know that all 2-connected graphs are reconstructible if and only if all 2-connected graphs G such that radG = 2.
As 2-connected graphs are recognizable, the families of 2-connected graphs in the hypothesis of Theorems 1.34 and 1.37 are recognizable. Thus, to settle the Reconstruction Conjecture, it is enough to prove that neither of these two families contains a pair of non-isomorphic graphs having the same deck. However, radius of a graph is not yet proved to be reconstructible.
Many classes of blocks which are cartesian, lexicographic or strong products of graphs have been shown to be weakly reconstructible [6, 7]. Several other families of graphs already proved to be reconstructible contain 2-connected graphs. As there are a number of results on the structure of special classes of graphs of diameter 2, they may lead to the reconstruction of more classes of graphs and further narrow down the classes of graphs to be reconstructed to prove the Reconstruction Conjecture. These narrowed down classes must contain counterexamples to the Reconstruction Conjecture if at all there exists one.
\n',keywords:"Reconstruction, Counting Theorem, Tree, Diameter, 2-connected",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/77911.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/77911.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77911",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77911",totalDownloads:211,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:"June 4th 2021",datePrePublished:"August 7th 2021",datePublished:"May 18th 2022",dateFinished:"August 7th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"A graph is reconstructible if it is determined up to isomorphism from the collection of all its one-vertex deleted unlabeled subgraphs. One of the foremost unsolved problems in Graph Theory is the Reconstruction Conjecture, which asserts that every graph G on at least three vertices is reconstructible. In 1980’s, tremendous work was done and many significant results have been produced on the problem and its variations. During the last three decades, work on it has slowed down gradually. P. J. Kelly (1957) first noted that trees are reconstructible; but the proof is quite lengthy. A short proof, due to Greenwell and Hemminger (1973), was given which is based on a simple, but powerful, counting theorem. This chapter deals with the counting theorem and its subsequent applications; also it ends up with a reduction of the Reconstruction Conjecture using distance and connectedness, which may lead to the final solution of the conjecture.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/77911",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/77911",signatures:"Sivaramakrishnan Monikandan",book:{id:"10676",type:"book",title:"Recent Applications in Graph Theory",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Recent Applications in Graph Theory",slug:"recent-applications-in-graph-theory",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",bookSignature:"Harun Pirim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10676.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83969-527-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-526-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-528-5",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"146092",title:"Dr.",name:"Harun",middleName:null,surname:"Pirim",slug:"harun-pirim",fullName:"Harun Pirim"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"351447",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sivaramakrishnan",middleName:null,surname:"Monikandan",fullName:"Sivaramakrishnan Monikandan",slug:"sivaramakrishnan-monikandan",email:"monikandans@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Reconstructible parameters and graphs",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Counting theorem",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Trees",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Diameter two or three",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Radius two",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'P. J. Kelly, On Isometric Transformations, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1942'},{id:"B2",body:'S. M. Ulam, A collection of mathematical problems, Wiley Interscience, New York (1960) p. 29'},{id:"B3",body:'P.J. Kelly, A congruence theorem for trees, Pacific J. Math. 7 (1957) 961-968'},{id:"B4",body:'F. Harary, On the reconstruction of a graph from a collection of subgraphs, in: Theory of Graphs and its Applications (M.Fieldler, ed.) Prague, 1964. 47-52; reprinted, Academic Press, New York, 1964'},{id:"B5",body:'J. A. Bondy and R. L. Hemminger, Graph reconstruction - a survey, J. Graph Theory 1 (1977) 227–268'},{id:"B6",body:'J. A. Bondy, A graph reconstructor’s manual, in Surveys in Combinatorics (Proceedings of the 13th British Combinatorics Conference) London Math. Soc., Lecture Note Ser. 166 (1991) 221–252'},{id:"B7",body:'J. Lauri and R. Scapellato, Topics in Graph Automorphisms and Reconstruction, London Math. Soc. Student Texts 54, 2003'},{id:"B8",body:'S. K. Gupta, P. Mangal and V. Paliwal, Some work towards the proof of the reconstruction conjecture, Discrete Math. 272 (2003) 291–296'},{id:"B9",body:'P. K. Stockmeyer, The falsity of the reconstruction conjecture for tournaments, J. Graph Theory 1 (1977) 19-25'},{id:"B10",body:'F.Harary and R.W. Robinson, The diameter of a graph and its complement, American Math. Monthly, 92 (1985), 211-212'},{id:"B11",body:'D.B.West, Introduction to Graph Theory, Second Edition, Prentice-Hall, Inc. 2005'},{id:"B12",body:'Y. Yongzhi, The Reconstruction Conjecture is true if all 2-connected graphs are reconstructible, J. Graph. Theory, 12 (2) (1988), 237-243'},{id:"B13",body:'S. Ramachandran and S. Monikandan, Graph reconstruction conjecture: Reductions using complement, connectivity and distance, Bull. Inst. Combin. Appl. 56 (2009) 103–108'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Sivaramakrishnan Monikandan",address:"monikandans@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Department of Mathematics, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli, Tamilnadu, India
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The attribution of liability for damages produced by autonomous agents usually focuses the theoretical discussion on legal and ethical fields on robotics. The European Parliament adopted the report with recommendations to the Commission on Civil Law Rules on Robotics (2015/2103(INL)) in February 2017. This work includes the master guidelines that the European Commission should take into account to legislate this technology. In its attempt to attribute responsibility for damages caused by robots, the Committee considers that once responsible parties have been identified, their liability level should range, looking the robot’s learning capability and the knowledge learned from its owner. This work proposes the use of responsibility setting matrix as a mechanism to distribute liabilities between the robot, the manufacturer, and the owner, depending on the knowledge programmed by the manufacturer and the one acquired by the robot (through its learning ability and the adjustments made by the owner), that would distribute the responsibility for damages among the three agents involved.",signatures:"Alejandro Zornoza, José C. Moreno, José L. Guzmán, Francisco\nRodríguez and Julián Sánchez-Hermosilla",authors:[{id:"5859",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",surname:"Guzman",fullName:"Jose Luis Guzman",slug:"jose-luis-guzman",email:"joguzman@ual.es"},{id:"22920",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Carlos",surname:"Moreno",fullName:"Jose Carlos Moreno",slug:"jose-carlos-moreno",email:"jcmoreno@ual.es"},{id:"22922",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",surname:"Rodriguez",fullName:"Francisco Rodriguez",slug:"francisco-rodriguez",email:"frrodrig@ual.es"},{id:"22923",title:"Dr.",name:"Julian",surname:"Sanchez-Hermosilla",fullName:"Julian Sanchez-Hermosilla",slug:"julian-sanchez-hermosilla",email:"jusanche@ual.es"},{id:"204035",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alejandro",surname:"Zornoza",fullName:"Alejandro Zornoza",slug:"alejandro-zornoza",email:"alejandro.zornoza.somolinos@gmail.com"}],book:{id:"6003",title:"Robotics",slug:"robotics-legal-ethical-and-socioeconomic-impacts",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"11897",title:"Prof.",name:"Bor-Sen",surname:"Chen",slug:"bor-sen-chen",fullName:"Bor-Sen Chen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12114",title:"Mr.",name:"Chia -Hung",surname:"Chang",slug:"chia-hung-chang",fullName:"Chia -Hung Chang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"18500",title:"Prof.",name:"Rama",surname:"Yedavalli",slug:"rama-yedavalli",fullName:"Rama Yedavalli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"18706",title:"Prof.",name:"Yung-Jen",surname:"Chuang",slug:"yung-jen-chuang",fullName:"Yung-Jen Chuang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"19287",title:"Dr.",name:"Khaled",surname:"Halbaoui",slug:"khaled-halbaoui",fullName:"Khaled Halbaoui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20799",title:"Prof.",name:"Djemal",surname:"Boukhetala",slug:"djemal-boukhetala",fullName:"Djemal Boukhetala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Polytechnic School of Algiers",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"20800",title:"Prof.",name:"Farès",surname:"Boudjema",slug:"fares-boudjema",fullName:"Farès Boudjema",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Polytechnic School of Algiers",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"21702",title:"Prof.",name:"Farès",surname:"Boudjema",slug:"fares-boudjema",fullName:"Farès Boudjema",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"École Nationale Polytechnique d'Oran",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"22096",title:"Ms.",name:"Nagini",surname:"Devarakonda",slug:"nagini-devarakonda",fullName:"Nagini Devarakonda",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"22135",title:"Dr.",name:"Endra",surname:"Joelianto",slug:"endra-joelianto",fullName:"Endra Joelianto",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Institut Teknologi Bandung",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}}]},generic:{page:{slug:"open-access-funding",title:"Open Access Funding",intro:"
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. 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Diseases",slug:"bacillus-based-biological-control-of-plant-diseases",totalDownloads:17398,totalCrossrefCites:65,totalDimensionsCites:153,abstract:null,book:{id:"432",slug:"pesticides-in-the-modern-world-pesticides-use-and-management",title:"Pesticides in the Modern World",fullTitle:"Pesticides in the Modern World - Pesticides Use and Management"},signatures:"Hélène Cawoy, Wagner Bettiol, Patrick Fickers and Marc Ongena",authors:[{id:"27515",title:"Prof.",name:"Patrick",middleName:null,surname:"Fickers",slug:"patrick-fickers",fullName:"Patrick Fickers"},{id:"40395",title:"Dr.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Ongena",slug:"marc-ongena",fullName:"Marc Ongena"},{id:"108031",title:"Ms.",name:"Hélène",middleName:null,surname:"Cawoy",slug:"helene-cawoy",fullName:"Hélène Cawoy"},{id:"108032",title:"Dr.",name:"Wagner",middleName:null,surname:"Bettiol",slug:"wagner-bettiol",fullName:"Wagner Bettiol"}]},{id:"32936",doi:"10.5772/26052",title:"Phytochemicals: Extraction Methods, Basic Structures and Mode of Action as Potential Chemotherapeutic Agents",slug:"phytochemicals-extraction-methods-basic-structures-and-mode-of-action-as-potential-chemotherapeutic-",totalDownloads:95200,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:116,abstract:null,book:{id:"878",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",title:"Phytochemicals",fullTitle:"Phytochemicals - A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health"},signatures:"James Hamuel Doughari",authors:[{id:"65370",title:"Dr.",name:"James",middleName:null,surname:"Hamuel Doughari",slug:"james-hamuel-doughari",fullName:"James Hamuel Doughari"}]},{id:"49289",doi:"10.5772/61442",title:"Abiotic and Biotic Elicitors–Role in Secondary Metabolites Production through In Vitro Culture of Medicinal Plants",slug:"abiotic-and-biotic-elicitors-role-in-secondary-metabolites-production-through-in-vitro-culture-of-me",totalDownloads:7036,totalCrossrefCites:43,totalDimensionsCites:111,abstract:"Plant secondary metabolites are having the great application in human health and nutritional aspect. Plant cell and organ culture systems are feasible option for the production of secondary metabolites that are of commercial importance in pharmaceuticals, food additives, flavors, and other industrial materials. The stress, including various elicitors or signal molecules, often induces the secondary metabolite production in the plant tissue culture system. The recent developments in elicitation of plant tissue culture have opened a new avenue for the production of secondary metabolite compounds. Secondary metabolite synthesis and accumulation in cell and organ cultures can be triggered by the application of elicitors to the culture medium. Elicitors are the chemical compounds from abiotic and biotic sources that can stimulate stress responses in plants, leading to the enhanced synthesis and accumulation of secondary metabolites or the induction of novel secondary metabolites. Elicitor type, dose, and treatment schedule are major factors determining the effects on the secondary metabolite production. The number of parameters, such as elicitor concentrations, duration of exposure, cell line, nutrient composition, and age or stage of the culture, is also important factors influencing the successful production of biomass and secondary metabolite accumulation. This chapter reviews the various abiotic and biotic elicitors applied to cultural system and their stimulating effects on the accumulation of secondary metabolites.",book:{id:"5066",slug:"abiotic-and-biotic-stress-in-plants-recent-advances-and-future-perspectives",title:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants",fullTitle:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants - Recent Advances and Future Perspectives"},signatures:"Poornananda M. Naik and Jameel M. Al–Khayri",authors:[{id:"176282",title:"Prof.",name:"Jameel M.",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Khayri",slug:"jameel-m.-al-khayri",fullName:"Jameel M. Al-Khayri"},{id:"176284",title:"Dr.",name:"Poornananda M.",middleName:null,surname:"Naik",slug:"poornananda-m.-naik",fullName:"Poornananda M. Naik"}]},{id:"49274",doi:"10.5772/61368",title:"Reactive Oxygen Species and Antioxidant Enzymes Involved in Plant Tolerance to Stress",slug:"reactive-oxygen-species-and-antioxidant-enzymes-involved-in-plant-tolerance-to-stress",totalDownloads:4956,totalCrossrefCites:50,totalDimensionsCites:110,abstract:"Plants are continuously exposed to several stress factors in field, which affect their production. These environmental adversities generally induce the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which can cause severe oxidative damage to plants. ROS are toxic molecules found in various subcellular compartments. The equilibrium between the production and detoxification of ROS is sustained by enzymatic and nonenzymatic antioxidants. Due to advances in molecular approaches during the last decades, nowadays it is possible to develop economically important transgenic crops that have increased tolerance to stresses. This chapter discusses the oxidative stress and damage to plants. In addition, it reports the involvement of antioxidant enzymes in the tolerance of plants to various stresses.",book:{id:"5066",slug:"abiotic-and-biotic-stress-in-plants-recent-advances-and-future-perspectives",title:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants",fullTitle:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants - Recent Advances and Future Perspectives"},signatures:"Andréia Caverzan, Alice Casassola and Sandra Patussi Brammer",authors:[{id:"176303",title:"Dr.",name:"Alice",middleName:null,surname:"Casassola",slug:"alice-casassola",fullName:"Alice Casassola"},{id:"176409",title:"Dr.",name:"Andréia",middleName:null,surname:"Caverzan",slug:"andreia-caverzan",fullName:"Andréia Caverzan"},{id:"176410",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Patussi Brammer",slug:"sandra-patussi-brammer",fullName:"Sandra Patussi Brammer"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"66996",title:"Ethiopian Common Medicinal Plants: Their Parts and Uses in Traditional Medicine - Ecology and Quality Control",slug:"ethiopian-common-medicinal-plants-their-parts-and-uses-in-traditional-medicine-ecology-and-quality-c",totalDownloads:4174,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"The main purpose of this review is to document medicinal plants used for traditional treatments with their parts, use, ecology, and quality control. Accordingly, 80 medicinal plant species were reviewed; leaves and roots are the main parts of the plants used for preparation of traditional medicines. The local practitioners provided various traditional medications to their patients’ diseases such as stomachaches, asthma, dysentery, malaria, evil eyes, cancer, skin diseases, and headaches. The uses of medicinal plants for human and animal treatments are practiced from time immemorial. Stream/riverbanks, cultivated lands, disturbed sites, bushlands, forested areas and their margins, woodlands, grasslands, and home gardens are major habitats of medicinal plants. Generally, medicinal plants used for traditional medicine play a significant role in the healthcare of the majority of the people in Ethiopia. The major threats to medicinal plants are habitat destruction, urbanization, agricultural expansion, investment, road construction, and deforestation. Because of these, medicinal plants are being declined and lost with their habitats. Community- and research-based conservation mechanisms could be an appropriate approach for mitigating the problems pertinent to the loss of medicinal plants and their habitats and for documenting medicinal plants. Chromatography; electrophoretic, macroscopic, and microscopic techniques; and pharmaceutical practice are mainly used for quality control of herbal medicines.",book:{id:"8502",slug:"plant-science-structure-anatomy-and-physiology-in-plants-cultured-in-vivo-and-in-vitro",title:"Plant Science",fullTitle:"Plant Science - Structure, Anatomy and Physiology in Plants Cultured in Vivo and in Vitro"},signatures:"Admasu Moges and Yohannes Moges",authors:[{id:"249746",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Admasu",middleName:null,surname:"Moges",slug:"admasu-moges",fullName:"Admasu Moges"},{id:"297761",title:"MSc.",name:"Yohannes",middleName:null,surname:"Moges",slug:"yohannes-moges",fullName:"Yohannes Moges"}]},{id:"63148",title:"Domestic Livestock and Its Alleged Role in Climate Change",slug:"domestic-livestock-and-its-alleged-role-in-climate-change",totalDownloads:15946,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"It is very old wisdom that climate dictates farm management strategies. In recent years, however, we are increasingly confronted with claims that agriculture, livestock husbandry, and even food consumption habits are forcing the climate to change. We subjected this worrisome concern expressed by public institutions, the media, policy makers, and even scientists to a rigorous review, cross-checking critical coherence and (in)compatibilities within and between published scientific papers. Our key conclusion is there is no need for anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs), and even less so for livestock-born emissions, to explain climate change. Climate has always been changing, and even the present warming is most likely driven by natural factors. The warming potential of anthropogenic GHG emissions has been exaggerated, and the beneficial impacts of manmade CO2 emissions for nature, agriculture, and global food security have been systematically suppressed, ignored, or at least downplayed by the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) and other UN (United Nations) agencies. Furthermore, we expose important methodological deficiencies in IPCC and FAO (Food Agriculture Organization) instructions and applications for the quantification of the manmade part of non-CO2-GHG emissions from agro-ecosystems. However, so far, these fatal errors inexorably propagated through scientific literature. Finally, we could not find a clear domestic livestock fingerprint, neither in the geographical methane distribution nor in the historical evolution of mean atmospheric methane concentration. In conclusion, everybody is free to choose a vegetarian or vegan lifestyle, but there is no scientific basis, whatsoever, for claiming this decision could contribute to save the planet’s climate.",book:{id:"7491",slug:"forage-groups",title:"Forage Groups",fullTitle:"Forage Groups"},signatures:"Albrecht Glatzle",authors:[{id:"252990",title:"Dr.",name:"Albrecht",middleName:null,surname:"Glatzle",slug:"albrecht-glatzle",fullName:"Albrecht Glatzle"}]},{id:"66714",title:"Biotic and Abiotic Stresses in Plants",slug:"biotic-and-abiotic-stresses-in-plants",totalDownloads:5911,totalCrossrefCites:60,totalDimensionsCites:106,abstract:"Plants are subjected to a wide range of environmental stresses which reduces and limits the productivity of agricultural crops. Two types of environmental stresses are encountered to plants which can be categorized as (1) Abiotic stress and (2) Biotic stress. The abiotic stress causes the loss of major crop plants worldwide and includes radiation, salinity, floods, drought, extremes in temperature, heavy metals, etc. On the other hand, attacks by various pathogens such as fungi, bacteria, oomycetes, nematodes and herbivores are included in biotic stresses. As plants are sessile in nature, they have no choice to escape from these environmental cues. Plants have developed various mechanisms in order to overcome these threats of biotic and abiotic stresses. They sense the external stress environment, get stimulated and then generate appropriate cellular responses. They do this by stimuli received from the sensors located on the cell surface or cytoplasm and transferred to the transcriptional machinery situated in the nucleus, with the help of various signal transduction pathways. This leads to differential transcriptional changes making the plant tolerant against the stress. The signaling pathways act as a connecting link and play an important role between sensing the stress environment and generating an appropriate biochemical and physiological response.",book:{id:"8015",slug:"abiotic-and-biotic-stress-in-plants",title:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants",fullTitle:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants"},signatures:"Audil Gull, Ajaz Ahmad Lone and Noor Ul Islam Wani",authors:null},{id:"62573",title:"Introductory Chapter: Terpenes and Terpenoids",slug:"introductory-chapter-terpenes-and-terpenoids",totalDownloads:7635,totalCrossrefCites:29,totalDimensionsCites:56,abstract:null,book:{id:"6530",slug:"terpenes-and-terpenoids",title:"Terpenes and Terpenoids",fullTitle:"Terpenes and Terpenoids"},signatures:"Shagufta Perveen",authors:[{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen"},{id:"192994",title:"Dr.",name:"Areej",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Taweel",slug:"areej-al-taweel",fullName:"Areej Al-Taweel"}]},{id:"62876",title:"Introduction to Phytochemicals: Secondary Metabolites from Plants with Active Principles for Pharmacological Importance",slug:"introduction-to-phytochemicals-secondary-metabolites-from-plants-with-active-principles-for-pharmaco",totalDownloads:5894,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:30,abstract:"Phytochemicals are substances produced mainly by plants, and these substances have biological activity. In the pharmaceutical industry, plants represent the main source to obtain various active ingredients. They exhibit pharmacological effects applicable to the treatment of bacterial and fungal infections and also chronic-degenerative diseases such as diabetes and cancer. However, the next step in science is to find new ways to obtain it. In this chapter, we discuss about the main groups of phytochemicals, in addition to presenting two case studies. One of the most important secondary metabolites is currently Taxol, which is a natural compound of the taxoid family and is also known for its antitumor activity against cancer located in breasts, lungs, and prostate and is also effective with Kaposi’s sarcoma. Our case studies will be about Taxol, extracted from an unexplored plant species, and the production of Taxol by its endophytic fungi.",book:{id:"6794",slug:"phytochemicals-source-of-antioxidants-and-role-in-disease-prevention",title:"Phytochemicals",fullTitle:"Phytochemicals - Source of Antioxidants and Role in Disease Prevention"},signatures:"Nadia Mendoza and Eleazar M. Escamilla Silva",authors:[{id:"51406",title:"Dr.",name:"Eleazar",middleName:"Máximo",surname:"Escamilla Silva",slug:"eleazar-escamilla-silva",fullName:"Eleazar Escamilla Silva"},{id:"243304",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Nadia",middleName:null,surname:"Mendoza",slug:"nadia-mendoza",fullName:"Nadia Mendoza"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"41",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82159",title:"Chlorophyll and Its Role in Freshwater Ecosystem on the Example of the Volga River Reservoirs",slug:"chlorophyll-and-its-role-in-freshwater-ecosystem-on-the-example-of-the-volga-river-reservoirs",totalDownloads:15,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105424",abstract:"The present chapter has the aim to considerate the most significant aspects of chlorophyll (Chl) applications in the ecological study of fresh waters on the example of the Volga River reservoirs. Throughout the cascade of seven large reservoirs, Chl varied in wide range from 2.5–9 to over 100 μg/L with mean values of 16.5–41.2, 6.7–44.0, and 3.6–10.6 μg/L in the Upper, Middle, and Lower Volga, respectively. Mean Chl values that constantly decrease from the Upper Volga to Lower Volga, characterize Ivankovo, Uglich, and Cheboksary reservoirs as eutrophic, Saratov and Volgograd reservoirs as mesotrophic, while Gorky and Kuibyshev reservoirs in some years are mesotrophic or eutrophic. Chl seasonal dynamics in the Rybinsk reservoir that is dynamics of phytoplankton biomass, is characterized by spring, summer, and, in some years, autumn maxima. Water temperature and water regime of the reservoir are the main factors in Chl dynamics. Years with low-water conditions are favorable for the high Chl concentrations and intensive development of algae. Seasonally average Chl that make from 5 to 22 μg/L during 1969–2019, show variations in trophic state of reservoir from mesotrophic (Chl < 10 μg/L), to moderately eutrophic (10–15 μg/L), and eutrophic (15–22 μg/L).",book:{id:"11324",title:"Chlorophylls",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11324.jpg"},signatures:"Natalya Mineeva"},{id:"82027",title:"Underutilized Grasses Production: New Evolving Perspectives",slug:"underutilized-grasses-production-new-evolving-perspectives",totalDownloads:21,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105375",abstract:"Globally, over-reliance on major food crops (wheat, rice and maize) has led to food basket’s shrinking, while climate change, environmental pollution and deteriorating soil fertility demand the cultivation of less exhaustive but nutritious grasses. Unlike neglected grasses (grass species restricted to their centres of origin and only grown at the subsistence level), many underutilized grasses (grass species whose yield or usability potential remains unrealized) are resistant and resilient to abiotic stresses and have multiple uses including food (Coix lacryma-jobi), feed (Eragrostis amabilis and Cynodon dactylon), esthetic value (Miscanthus sinensis and Imperata cylindrica), renewable energy production (Spartina pectinata and Andropogon gerardii Vitman) and contribution to ecosystem services (Saccharum spontaneum). Lack of agricultural market globalization, urbanization and prevalence of large commercial enterprises that favor major grasses trade, improved communication means that promoted specialization in favor of established crops, scant planting material of underutilized grasses and fewer research on their production technology and products development are the prime challenges posed to underutilized grasses promotion. Integration of agronomic research with novel plant protection measures and plant breeding and molecular genetics approaches for developing biotic and abiotic stresses tolerant cultivars along with the development of commercially attractive food products hold the future key for promoting underutilized grasses for supplanting food security and sustainably multiplying economic outcomes.",book:{id:"10895",title:"Grasses and Grassland - New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10895.jpg"},signatures:"Muhammad Aamir Iqbal, Sadaf Khalid, Raees Ahmed, Muhammad Zubair Khan, Nagina Rafique, Raina Ijaz, Saira Ishaq, Muhammad Jamil, Aqeel Ahmad, Amjad Shahzad Gondal, Muhammad Imran, Junaid Rahim and Umar Ayaz Aslam Sheikh"},{id:"81218",title:"Murburn Model of Photosynthesis: Effect of Additives like Chloride and Bicarbonate",slug:"murburn-model-of-photosynthesis-effect-of-additives-like-chloride-and-bicarbonate",totalDownloads:30,totalDimensionsCites:2,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103132",abstract:"Oxygenic photosynthesis essentially involves photo-lysis (splitting of water to release oxygen), photo-reduction (formation of NADPH), and photo-phosphorylation (synthesis of ATP) reactions. These reactions use photoactive pigments such as chlorophylls and carotenoids. Z-scheme and Kok-Joliot cycle, the acclaimed and deterministic model of photosynthesis, are founded on the classical enzyme reaction mechanisms that depend solely on affinity-based interactions of enzymes with the substrates at defined active sites, for explaining electron/moiety transfers. In contrast, the new murburn model is built on stochastic collisions between diffusible reactive species (DRS) and other milieu components (including enzymes, substrates and ions). This novel perspective explains fast kinetics and action spectrum, and affords a spontaneously probable/evolvable biochemical system. The murburn perspective proposes that the photo-excitation of pigments in the chloroplast leads to effective charge separation and DRS-formation. DRS are stabilized/utilized by a pool of redox-active components via disordered/parallel bimolecular interactions at the thylakoid membrane interface. Herein, we provide details of how murburn model is a thermodynamically, kinetically, and mechanistically viable mechanism for the formation of ATP, NADPH and oxygen. The murburn model also provides more viable explanations for several classical experimental observations in photosynthesis (Emerson enhancement effect, Jagendorf/Racker experiments, etc.) and the non-specific effects of diverse additives (such as chloride and bicarbonate).",book:{id:"11324",title:"Chlorophylls",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11324.jpg"},signatures:"Kelath Murali Manoj, Nikolai Bazhin, Yanyou Wu and Afsal Manekkathodi"},{id:"81388",title:"Electronic Structure of Chlorophyll Monomers and Oligomers",slug:"electronic-structure-of-chlorophyll-monomers-and-oligomers",totalDownloads:40,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104089",abstract:"This chapter deals with the electronic structure of chlorophyll molecules and their complexes. Different theoretical and quantum chemical calculation methods are used to study the molecular and electronic structure of chlorophylls. Studied spectral region covers ultraviolet and infrared spectral regions, containing blue side of the Soret band, as also traditional Qy band region. Thus, there are not only focusing on the traditional Qy, Qx, and Soret transitions of chlorophylls but also high-energy transitions (in this region also proteins and nuclei acids absorb light). The aim is to show the effect of molecular conformation on the electronic states and thus on the absorption and emission spectra of monomers and oligomers. In chlorophyll-protein complexes, such conformation effect finetuning the spectral transitions and increases overlap between donor and acceptor states of energy transfer processes. Also, the role of vibronic transition in the shape of absorption and emission spectra of the studied systems will be considered.",book:{id:"11324",title:"Chlorophylls",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11324.jpg"},signatures:"Juha Matti Linnanto"},{id:"81038",title:"Earth’s Energy Budget Impact on Grassland Diseases",slug:"earth-s-energy-budget-impact-on-grassland-diseases",totalDownloads:18,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99971",abstract:"The change in climate have caused different biotic and abiotic factors to be more prominent when management plan is executed. The increase in temperature have then cause frequent drought that may attract alien species of vectors to spread novel diseases among the native plants. However, the change in climate varies in different countries. Thus, common diseases that threatens food security such as Xanthomonas spp., Pseudomonas spp are in limelight of research. Vectors lifecycle may cause plant diseases to by cyclative. Therefore, to find the break in the vector’s lifecycle will be a method to eradicate harmful population in grassland. Modern days will then call for innovative method and limitations should be considered. Climate change have also impacted pathogens migration and mating pattern. The need for innovative management is constantly on the rise.",book:{id:"10895",title:"Grasses and Grassland - New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10895.jpg"},signatures:"Ang Jia Wei Germaine"},{id:"81107",title:"Can Genus Trichoderma Manage Plant Diseases under Organic Agriculture?",slug:"can-genus-trichoderma-manage-plant-diseases-under-organic-agriculture",totalDownloads:95,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103762",abstract:"Organic agriculture has been coming up as one of the promising segments of crop production systems in India. There are numerous reasons for it, however; human health, sustainable environment, soil health, etc. are the important ones. As per the latest information, India has about 1.5% of total cultivable land under organic agriculture. The occurrence of plant diseases in this crop production system is one of the limiting factors. For the management of plant diseases in organically grown crops, there are limited resources since there is a restriction on the use of synthetic fungicides. Under such a situation, bio-pesticides have the potency to take care of plant diseases. Although there are certain fungal and bacterial candidates well efficient in controlling diseases, genus Trichoderma has occupied a prestigious position among them. It is capable of managing seed and soil-borne plant diseases. 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He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"117248",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Macnab",slug:"andrew-macnab",fullName:"Andrew Macnab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. 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Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11420,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"1177",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"J. 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\r\n\tIn general, the harsher the environmental conditions in an ecosystem, the lower the biodiversity. Changes in the environment caused by human activity accelerate the impoverishment of biodiversity.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity refers to “the variability of living organisms from any source, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; it includes diversity within each species, between species, and that of ecosystems”.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity provides food security and constitutes a gene pool for biotechnology, especially in the field of agriculture and medicine, and promotes the development of ecotourism.
\r\n
\r\n\tCurrently, biologists admit that we are witnessing the first phases of the seventh mass extinction caused by human intervention. It is estimated that the current rate of extinction is between a hundred and a thousand times faster than it was when man first appeared. The disappearance of species is caused not only by an accelerated rate of extinction, but also by a decrease in the rate of emergence of new species as human activities degrade the natural environment. The conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humanity" and an integral part of the development process. Its objectives are “the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits resulting from the use of genetic resources”.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe following are the main causes of biodiversity loss:
\r\n
\r\n\t• The destruction of natural habitats to expand urban and agricultural areas and to obtain timber, minerals and other natural resources.
\r\n
\r\n\t• The introduction of alien species into a habitat, whether intentionally or unintentionally which has an impact on the fauna and flora of the area, and as a result, they are reduced or become extinct.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Pollution from industrial and agricultural products, which devastate the fauna and flora, especially those in fresh water.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Global warming, which is seen as a threat to biological diversity, and will become increasingly important in the future.
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\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
\r\n\tWater is not only a crucial substance needed for biological life on Earth, but it is also a basic requirement for the existence and development of the human society. Owing to the importance of water to life on Earth, early researchers conducted numerous studies and analyses on the liquid form of water from the perspectives of chemistry, physics, earth science, and biology, and concluded that Earth is a "water polo". Water covers approximately 71% of Earth's surface. However, 97.2% of this water is seawater, 21.5% is icebergs and glaciers, and only 0.65% is freshwater that can be used directly by humans. As a result, the amount of water reserves available for human consumption is limited. The development, utilization, and protection of freshwater resources has become the focus of water science research for the continued improvement of human livelihoods and society.
\r\n
\r\n\tWater exists as solid, liquid, and gas within Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. Liquid water is used for a variety of purposes besides drinking, including power generation, ecology, landscaping, and shipping. Because water is involved in various environmental hydrological processes as well as numerous aspects of the economy and human society, the study of various phenomena in the hydrosphere, the laws governing their occurrence and development, the relationship between the hydrosphere and other spheres of Earth, and the relationship between water and social development, are all part of water science. Knowledge systems for water science are improving continuously. Water science has become a specialized field concerned with the identification of its physical, chemical, and biological properties. In addition, it reveals the laws of water distribution, movement, and circulation, and proposes methods and tools for water development, utilization, planning, management, and protection. Currently, the field of water science covers research related to topics such as hydrology, water resources and water environment. It also includes research on water related issues such as safety, engineering, economy, law, culture, information, and education.
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The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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