Acid strength and acid amount of solid acid catalysts (measured by Hammett indicators and n-butylamine titration) [9].
\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Milestone",originalUrl:"/media/original/124"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"},{slug:"intechopen-identified-as-one-of-the-most-significant-contributor-to-oa-book-growth-in-doab-20210809",title:"IntechOpen Identified as One of the Most Significant Contributors to OA Book Growth in DOAB"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5854",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Germ Cell",title:"Germ Cell",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book focuses on the development and biology of germ cell and is edited by Ahmed RG, associate professor and Doctor of Developmental and Experimental Biology, Division of Anatomy and Embryology, Zoology Department, Faculty of Science, Beni-Suef University, Egypt. While many articles have appeared in journals on germ cell, this book provides you with a rare treat - an extensive and intensive study on it. It is one of a kind, offering important and valuable information about the biology of germ cell. This book covers the specification, regulation, and reprogramming of germ cell and germ line stem cells. This book provides important information about the new insight into germ cell signaling and the genotoxic in vitro studies in testicular germ cells. This book offers significant results about the origin, specification, and development of the female germ line in placental mammals and the germ cell tumors and their association with pregnancy.",isbn:"978-953-51-3759-7",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3758-0",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-3986-7",doi:"10.5772/65614",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"germ-cell",numberOfPages:156,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"e63c03c8b93ebc004eef632ab84d62ea",bookSignature:"Ahmed RG",publishedDate:"January 31st 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5854.jpg",numberOfDownloads:8005,numberOfWosCitations:11,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:14,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:28,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"December 14th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 21st 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 16th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 16th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 16th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"138555",title:"Prof.",name:"R.G.",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"r.g.-ahmed",fullName:"R.G. Ahmed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/138555/images/system/138555.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Ahmed RG received his Ph.D. in Developmental Biology (Developmental endocrinology) from Beni-Suef University, Egypt and received research training (postdoctoral fellowship) as a visiting scholar at the Katholic University, Belgium. He has outstanding record of scientific and academic accomplishments with multiple research funding, numerous publications (books/papers) in highly prestigious journals and various presentations in both national and international conferences. He is a member of a number of eminent societies, organizations and schools. On the other hand, he served as a scientific editors and reviewer for the national and international research institutions. He has been honored by the Society for Endocrinology in project of You and Your hormones. He is an assistant director of animal housing, Zoology department, Faculty of Science, Beni-Suef University, Egypt.",institutionString:"Beni-Suef University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"Beni-Suef University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1403",title:"Reproductive Immunology",slug:"reproductive-immunology"}],chapters:[{id:"58819",title:"Germ Cell Specification: The Evolution of a Recipe to Make Germ Cells",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71557",slug:"germ-cell-specification-the-evolution-of-a-recipe-to-make-germ-cells",totalDownloads:1389,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Multicellular species use gametes for their propagation. Gametes are formed from primordial germ cells (PGCs), which develop during embryogenesis. In some species, PGCs are specified by the inheritance of a RNA granule known as germ plasm. During germ cell specification, the germ plasm conveys a unique set of properties, e.g. the germ cell specific meiotic cell cycle to the PGCs. Germ plasm assembly is controlled by independently evolving organizer proteins like Oskar in Drosophila or Bucky ball in zebrafish. These organizers are intrinsically disordered proteins, which rapidly changed their amino acid sequence during evolution. A common recipe has emerged by studies on organizer proteins for animals that use germ plasm to specify their germline. Investigating the nature of these organizers might therefore provide a clue to germ cell specification in other species, which are less accessible to molecular-genetic and embryological approaches. Moreover, we might understand how the first metazoans modified their existing cellular structures from unicellular eukaryotes to ensure their reproduction.",signatures:"Pritesh Krishnakumar and Roland Dosch",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58819",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58819",authors:[{id:"220901",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Pritesh",surname:"Krishnakumar",slug:"pritesh-krishnakumar",fullName:"Pritesh Krishnakumar"}],corrections:null},{id:"56303",title:"The Regulation of Germline Stem Cells and Their Neighbouring Somatic Cells in the Fruit Fly (Drosophila melanogaster)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69963",slug:"the-regulation-of-germline-stem-cells-and-their-neighbouring-somatic-cells-in-the-fruit-fly-drosophi",totalDownloads:1309,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The Drosophila germline stem cells (GSCs) remain as one of the most well-understood adult stem cells. The number of stem cells that self-renews and differentiates must be tightly controlled to maintain tissue homeostasis. The Drosophila GSCs are maintained by local signals emanated from the niche, which is composed of the surrounding somatic cells. Notably, GSC homeostasis is also known to be influenced by systemic signals and external stimuli. The Drosophila hormone ecdysone and its signalling cascade were found to regulate GSC homeostasis. The insulin signalling pathway as well as nutrient availability can also regulate GSC number. Furthermore, neuronal sex peptide signalling induced in female flies after mating was shown to increase GSC number. Hence, the Drosophila GSC system serves as a useful model towards understanding the mammalian stem cells. Compared with the mammalian stem cell models, the Drosophila GSC system is anatomically simpler where stem cells can be easily identified, imaged and manipulated genetically. Nevertheless, recent findings have facilitated our understanding into how GSCs and their neighbouring somatic cells sense and respond to changes in a variety of local, systemic and external stimuli.",signatures:"Sharon Wui Sing Tan, Yu Cai and Gyeong Hun Baeg",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56303",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56303",authors:[{id:"198098",title:"Prof.",name:"Gyeong Hun",surname:"Baeg",slug:"gyeong-hun-baeg",fullName:"Gyeong Hun Baeg"},{id:"207180",title:"MSc.",name:"Sharon Wui Sing",surname:"Tan",slug:"sharon-wui-sing-tan",fullName:"Sharon Wui Sing Tan"},{id:"207181",title:"Dr.",name:"Yu",surname:"Cai",slug:"yu-cai",fullName:"Yu Cai"}],corrections:null},{id:"56483",title:"Primordial Germ Cell Reprogramming",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69965",slug:"primordial-germ-cell-reprogramming",totalDownloads:1429,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Primordial germ cells (PGCs) are the embryonic precursors of the gametes. Thus, they are unipotent cells. However, PGCs share some common features with pluripotent stem cells. Among them, PGCs show alkaline phosphatase activity and express stage-specific embryonic antigens and pluripotency factors Lin28, Oct4, Sox2, and Nanog. Under specific conditions, they undergo spontaneous reprogramming in vivo. Moreover, they can be easily reprogrammed in vitro into pluripotent embryonic germ cells (EGCs) by culturing them in the presence of basic fibroblast growth factor or the epigenetic modulator trichostatin A. Previous work in our laboratory has also proven that hypoxia alone can reprogram PGCs into hypoxia-induced embryonic germ-like cells, which have a pluripotent phenotype but which do not show self-renewal capacity. Therefore, PGCs are an interesting model to further comprehensively understand the process of cell reprogramming. This chapter reviews various methods to achieve PGC reprogramming, as well as the molecular pathways involved. We focus on soluble factors and genetic strategies to obtain pluripotent cells from PGCs. Special emphasis will be given to factors implied in energetic metabolism, epigenetics, and cell signaling transduction, both in vitro and in vivo.",signatures:"Maria P. De Miguel, Yago Alcaina and Diego Sainz de la Maza",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56483",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56483",authors:[{id:"60625",title:"BSc.",name:"Yago",surname:"Alcaina",slug:"yago-alcaina",fullName:"Yago Alcaina"},{id:"199960",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria P",surname:"De Miguel",slug:"maria-p-de-miguel",fullName:"Maria P De Miguel"},{id:"207051",title:"Dr.",name:"Diego",surname:"Sainz De La Maza",slug:"diego-sainz-de-la-maza",fullName:"Diego Sainz De La Maza"}],corrections:null},{id:"56417",title:"Membrane Dynamics of Spermatozoa during Capacitation: New Insight in Germ Cells Signalling",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69964",slug:"membrane-dynamics-of-spermatozoa-during-capacitation-new-insight-in-germ-cells-signalling",totalDownloads:1300,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The study of germline stem cells and of germline cells has deep implications for the understanding of fertility, development and cancer. Nowadays, we are experiencing the very fascinating challenge of application of –OMICS technologies to this issue, which is opening new and unexpected horizons in virtually all the branches of biology. Here, we carried out a review of signalling systems involved in maturation of male germ cells and in the process that leads them to become fully fertile. In particular, we discuss the control mechanisms involved in capacitation and acrosome reaction that act at membrane level. Indeed, spermatozoa membranes play key roles in determining the achievement of fertility: they are the interface with the surrounding environment, they locate the signal transduction systems and they are active in recognizing and binding the oocyte. In addition, we discuss the effect of several compounds that could exert a negative effect on reproductive activity, by interfering with the endocrine axis, the so-called endocrine disruptors.",signatures:"Nicola Bernabò, Marina Ramal Sanchez, Luca Valbonetti, Luana\nGreco, Giulia Capacchietti, Mauro Mattioli and Barbara Barboni",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56417",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56417",authors:[{id:"88710",title:"Prof.",name:"Mauro",surname:"Mattioli",slug:"mauro-mattioli",fullName:"Mauro Mattioli"},{id:"88713",title:"Prof.",name:"Barbara",surname:"Barboni",slug:"barbara-barboni",fullName:"Barbara Barboni"},{id:"90197",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicola",surname:"Bernabò",slug:"nicola-bernabo",fullName:"Nicola Bernabò"},{id:"199832",title:"Dr.",name:"Luca",surname:"Valbonetti",slug:"luca-valbonetti",fullName:"Luca Valbonetti"},{id:"199833",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",surname:"Ramal Sancez",slug:"marina-ramal-sancez",fullName:"Marina Ramal Sancez"},{id:"199834",title:"Dr.",name:"Giulia",surname:"Capacchietti",slug:"giulia-capacchietti",fullName:"Giulia Capacchietti"}],corrections:null},{id:"57528",title:"Challenging the Paradigms on the Origin, Specification and Development of the Female Germ Line in Placental Mammals",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71559",slug:"challenging-the-paradigms-on-the-origin-specification-and-development-of-the-female-germ-line-in-pla",totalDownloads:1195,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Most of our understanding on the origin, specification and development of the female germ line in placental mammals comes from studies in the laboratory mouse. The molecular pathway leading to the development and establishment of the female germ line in mouse has erected as the paradigm for placental mammals. It remains, however, largely unexplored whether the well-established mouse regulatory pathway is a common mechanism to other or all placental mammals. Discrete differences in mammals other than mouse reveal the existence of alternative mechanisms that challenge the currently accepted tenets on the origin and establishment of the mammalian female germinal reserve. Here, we will discuss the mouse framework in the light of emerging discrepancies seen in other placental mammals.",signatures:"Noelia P. Leopardo, Pablo I.F. Inserra and Alfredo D. Vitullo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57528",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57528",authors:[{id:"214484",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfredo",surname:"Vitullo",slug:"alfredo-vitullo",fullName:"Alfredo Vitullo"},{id:"214485",title:"Dr.",name:"Noelia",surname:"Leopardo",slug:"noelia-leopardo",fullName:"Noelia Leopardo"},{id:"214486",title:"Dr.",name:"Pablo",surname:"Inserra",slug:"pablo-inserra",fullName:"Pablo Inserra"}],corrections:null},{id:"58351",title:"Germ Cell Tumors and their Association with Pregnancy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72556",slug:"germ-cell-tumors-and-their-association-with-pregnancy",totalDownloads:1384,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Ovarian germ cell tumors (OGCTs) comprise 20–25% of all ovarian cancers arising from germ cells of ovary. Mature teratoma (dermoid) is the only benign and commonest germ cell tumor. Only 3–5% germ cell tumors are malignant, dysgerminomas being the most common. These tumors occur in adolescents and reproductive age group. Hence, its association with pregnancy is not uncommon. They can be reliably diagnosed with ultrasound imaging. Raised levels of tumor markers in pregnancy should be interpreted with caution. Cystectomy can be done for benign germ cell tumors. However, fertility sparing surgery with surgical staging with or without adjunctive therapy is recommended for malignant germ cell tumors (MOGTs). Surgery is safe in the second trimester of pregnancy. MOGTs are quite sensitive to chemo and radiotherapy. Three to four courses of chemotherapy with bleomycin, etoposide, and platinum is recommended. Prognosis of these germ cell tumors is excellent.",signatures:"Mamta Gupta and Vandana Saini",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58351",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58351",authors:[{id:"221469",title:"Dr.",name:"Mamta",surname:"Gupta",slug:"mamta-gupta",fullName:"Mamta Gupta"},{id:"222224",title:"Dr.",name:"Vandana",surname:"Saini",slug:"vandana-saini",fullName:"Vandana Saini"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7175",title:"Placenta",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"447d49d62164c5437461f3b0aae7a67f",slug:"placenta",bookSignature:"Ahmed R. G.",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7175.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"138555",title:"Prof.",name:"R.G.",surname:"Ahmed",slug:"r.g.-ahmed",fullName:"R.G. Ahmed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7269",title:"Endocrine Disruptors",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"571f5c496c8b0e8db9043204fa58be2a",slug:"endocrine-disruptors",bookSignature:"Ahmed R. G.",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7269.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"138555",title:"Prof.",name:"R.G.",surname:"Ahmed",slug:"r.g.-ahmed",fullName:"R.G. Ahmed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6154",title:"Diabetes and Its Complications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"79f08a2c1cbbcea2d1df2ad075d2f9fa",slug:"diabetes-and-its-complications",bookSignature:"Ahmed R. G.",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6154.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"138555",title:"Prof.",name:"R.G.",surname:"Ahmed",slug:"r.g.-ahmed",fullName:"R.G. Ahmed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8224",title:"Growth Disorders and Acromegaly",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"889cf2b5a21e42ccdf34e5861c1cc0a4",slug:"growth-disorders-and-acromegaly",bookSignature:"Ahmed R.G. and Ahmet Uçar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8224.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"138555",title:"Prof.",name:"R.G.",surname:"Ahmed",slug:"r.g.-ahmed",fullName:"R.G. Ahmed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"76285",slug:"corrigendum-evidence-based-practice-and-trends-in-visual-rehabilitation-for-patients-with-age-related-macular-de",title:"Corrigendum: Evidence-Based Practice and Trends in Visual Rehabilitation for Patients with Age-Related Macular De",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/76285.pdf\r\n",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76285",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76285",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/76285",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/76285",chapter:{id:"75711",slug:"evidence-based-practice-and-trends-in-visual-rehabilitation-for-patients-with-age-related-macular-de",signatures:"Luis Leal Vega, Irene Alcoceba Herrero, Adrián Martín Gutiérrez, Joaquín Herrera Medina, Natalia Martín Cruz, Juan F. Arenillas Lara and María Begoña Coco Martín",dateSubmitted:"October 19th 2020",dateReviewed:"February 24th 2021",datePrePublished:"March 23rd 2021",datePublished:null,book:{id:"10344",title:"Recent Advances and New Perspectives in Managing Macular Degeneration",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Recent Advances and New Perspectives in Managing Macular Degeneration",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Pinakin Gunvant Gunvant Davey",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10344.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"48794",title:"Prof.",name:"Pinakin Gunvant",middleName:"Gunvant",surname:"Davey",slug:"pinakin-gunvant-davey",fullName:"Pinakin Gunvant Davey"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null}},chapter:{id:"75711",slug:"evidence-based-practice-and-trends-in-visual-rehabilitation-for-patients-with-age-related-macular-de",signatures:"Luis Leal Vega, Irene Alcoceba Herrero, Adrián Martín Gutiérrez, Joaquín Herrera Medina, Natalia Martín Cruz, Juan F. Arenillas Lara and María Begoña Coco Martín",dateSubmitted:"October 19th 2020",dateReviewed:"February 24th 2021",datePrePublished:"March 23rd 2021",datePublished:null,book:{id:"10344",title:"Recent Advances and New Perspectives in Managing Macular Degeneration",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Recent Advances and New Perspectives in Managing Macular Degeneration",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Pinakin Gunvant Gunvant Davey",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10344.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"48794",title:"Prof.",name:"Pinakin Gunvant",middleName:"Gunvant",surname:"Davey",slug:"pinakin-gunvant-davey",fullName:"Pinakin Gunvant Davey"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null},book:{id:"10344",title:"Recent Advances and New Perspectives in Managing Macular Degeneration",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Recent Advances and New Perspectives in Managing Macular Degeneration",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Pinakin Gunvant Gunvant Davey",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10344.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"48794",title:"Prof.",name:"Pinakin Gunvant",middleName:"Gunvant",surname:"Davey",slug:"pinakin-gunvant-davey",fullName:"Pinakin Gunvant Davey"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11985",leadTitle:null,title:"Autonomous Vehicles",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book will be a self-contained collection of scholarly papers targeting an audience of practicing researchers, academics, PhD students and other scientists. The contents of the book will be written by multiple authors and edited by experts in the field.",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"c06614cccf990358e3759c9b8873bb27",bookSignature:"",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11985.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 28th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 21st 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 20th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 8th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 7th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:1,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"22",title:"Robotics",slug:"physical-sciences-engineering-and-technology-robotics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"69976",title:"Quasinormal Modes of Dirac Field in Generalized Nariai Spacetimes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89179",slug:"quasinormal-modes-of-dirac-field-in-generalized-nariai-spacetimes",body:'
Quasinormal modes (QNMs) are eigenmodes of dissipative systems. For instance, if a spacetime with an event or cosmological horizon is perturbed from its equilibrium state, QNMs arise as damped oscillations with a spectrum of complex frequencies that do not depend on the details of the excitation. In fact, these frequencies depend just on the charges of the black hole, such as the mass, electric charge, and angular momentum [1, 2]. QNMs have been studied for a long time, and its interest has been renewed by the recent detection of gravitational waves, inasmuch as these are the modes that survive for a longer time when a background is perturbed and, therefore, these are the configurations that are generally measured by experiments [3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29]. Mathematically, this discrete spectrum of QNMs stems from the fact that certain boundary conditions must be imposed to the physical fields propagating in such background [30]. In this chapter, we consider a higher-dimensional generalization of the charged Nariai spacetime [31], namely,
In
where
where
Since any symmetry has been imposed, the general solution of the system of Eq. (2) is some metric and fields in the background this metric
Now, let the pair
where by “small” we mean that we neglect the quadratic and higher-order powers of the perturbation fields. Inserting the above equation into Eq. (2), we are left with a set of linear equations satisfied by the perturbed fields
In what follows, let us consider a specific matter field
where
The radii
where
This spacetime is a locally static solution of Einstein’s equation with a cosmological constant
The coordinates in the metric are also called static, because they do not depend explicitly on the time coordinate
in terms of which the line element Eq. (6) becomes
and the gauge field can be rewritten as
In particular, note that the tortoise coordinate maps the domain between two horizons,
The QNMs accounting for an important class of fields are associated to
Illustration of the boundary condition associated to QNMs in our spacetime. The wavy arrows represent the direction of the perturbation field at the boundaries
From the mathematical of view, since we are assuming that the time dependence of
One interesting feature of this spacetime is that we can compute exactly the QNMs. The exactly solvable systems are usually limits of more realistic systems and allow us to study in detail some properties of a physical process and test some methods which can be used to analyze more complicated systems. Thus they are powerful tools in many research lines. Therefore we expect that the exactly computed QNFs for
Let us present the construction of a solution to the Dirac equation minimally coupled to the electromagnetic field of
where
with
where the index
where
Since the metric
with
Our aim is to separate the Dirac Eq. (14). In order to accomplish this, it is necessary to use a suitable representation for the Dirac matrices. We recall that
are the Hermitian Pauli matrices and
where
which, under the action of the Pauli matrices, satisfy concisely the relations
Indeed, in
where each of the indices
In the representation (Eq. (21)), the operator
where
is the Dirac operator on
where from the first to the second line we have changed the index
All that was seen above are necessary tools to attack our initial problem of separating the general Eq. (14). In order to solve such an equation, we need to separate the degrees of freedom of the field, which can be quite challenging in general. Fortunately, the spacetime considered here is the direct product of two-dimensional spaces of constant curvature, which is exactly the class of spaces studied in Ref. [39]. Indeed, in this latter paper, it is shown that the Dirac equation minimally coupled to an electromagnetic field is separable in such backgrounds. In particular, assuming that the components of the spinor field Eq. (24) can be decomposed in the form
where each index
The separation constant
as demonstrated in Appendix A of Ref. [39]. In our frame of vectors, the only components of the spin connection that are potentially nonvanishing are
and the nonzero components of the gauge field can be written as
Now, since the components of the metric are independents of the coordinate
Inserting this field along with the gauge field Eq. (33), and taking into account the first relation of the Eq. (32) into the Eq. (30), we end up with the following coupled system of differential equations:
In order to solve these equations, we should first decouple the fields
which is a Schrödinger-like equation with
where the parameters
These are known as potentials of Rosen-Morse type, which are generalizations of the Pöschl-Teller potential [37, 38]. It is straightforward to see that this potential satisfies the following properties:
In many cases, the potential function
which clearly is regular. So, we point out that for this potential both limits (Eqs. (39) and (40)) are finite, and thus there is no reason to demand for a regular solution in this point.
Thus, the problem of finding the QNMs is reduced to the searching of the corresponding spectrum of QNFs
In order to solve Eq. (36), let us make the following change of variable
In particular, notice that
with the parameters
the functions
This new variable as well as the Ansatz that we have been using are really interesting because in terms of these, it is immediate to see that the functions
we find that the constants
Such an equation admits two linearly independent solutions whose linear combination furnishes the following general solution:
where
In order to fix the integration constants
Thus, taking into account the latter relation and using the fact that at
On the other hand, in order to apply the boundary conditions at
where
Now, from parameters Eqs. (38) and (43), we find that the constants appearing in the hypergeometric equation can be written as
In particular, the following relations hold
Now we are ready to impose the boundary conditions. Obviously, without loss of generality, we can consider that the spin
Now, Figure 1 tells us that the field is assumed to move toward higher values of
Finally, to satisfy the QNM boundary condition near the boundary at
Using the Eq. (53), we find that these constraints translate to
which are the QNFs of the Dirac field propagating in
Likewise, imposing the boundary condition to the component
In this chapter we have investigated the perturbations on a spinorial field propagating in a generalized version of the charged Nariai spacetime. Besides the separability of the degrees of freedom of these perturbations, one interesting feature of this background is that the perturbations can be analytically integrated. They all obey a Schrödinger-like equation with an integrable potential that is contained in the Rosen-Morse class of integrable potentials. Such an equation admits two linearly independent solutions given in terms of standard hypergeometric functions. This is a valuable property, since even the perturbation potential associated to the humble Schwarzschild background is nonintegrable, despite the fact that it is separable. We have also investigated the QNMs associated to this spinorial field. Analyzing the Eq. (59), namely,
it is interesting to note that the imaginary parts of the QNFs, which represent the decay rates, do not depend on any details of the perturbation; rather, they only depend on the charges of the gravitational background through the dependence on
where
To finish, we believe that a good exercise is to calculate the QNFs of the gravitational field in
Olefins, also known as alkenes, are examples of unsaturated hydrocarbons and are made up of hydrogen and carbon atoms only and contain one or more pairs of carbon–carbon double bonds (CCDB). One CCDB consists of one sigma bond and one pi bond and is stronger than carbon–carbon single bond (611 kJ·mol−1 for C=C vs. 347 kJ·mol−1 for C-C), shorter than carbon–carbon single bond (average bond length: 0.134 nm for C=C vs. 0.154 nm for C-C). Depending on the position of the CCDB, olefins can be divided into terminal olefins, that the double bond is located at the terminal of a linear carbon chain (also called α-alkenes), and internal olefins, that the double bond is taking place at the inner side of carbon chain. It was valuable to study the effects of a CCDB’s migration along the carbon chain on the hydrocarbons’ activity and applications of a CCDB’s migration along the carbon chain in oil drilling, surfactants, lubricants, fine chemicals, agrochemicals, pharmaceuticals, and other fields.
The following discussion will focus mainly on the isomerization of olefin, or migration of CCDB on linear alkenes. The functionalities of olefins, mainly for industrial and pharmaceutical purposes, vary by the location of CCDB on the alkene chains herein. Migration of CCDB is an important atom-economic reaction. New high valuable alkenes can be obtained from some inexpensive ones using the CCDB’s migration along the carbon chain or cis/trans isomerism, as shown in Figure 1.
C=C isomerization of alkenes. R, or R’= -H, -OH, alkyl, alkenyl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, -CHO, -COOH, -COOR etc.
It is difficult for alkenes to synthesize positional or geometrical isomer by the conventional method, while relatively easier by isomerization [1]. In general, there are five methods to realize the olefine isomerization: acid catalysis, basic catalysis, molecular sieves, organometallic chain-walking catalysis, photocatalysis. These catalysis function mechanism varies, has the characteristic respectively. In the rest of the chapters, these five major categories of olefin isomerization methods will be explained in detail.
The terminal linear alkenes generally range of C4 through C20 were isomerized to internal linear alkenes over a selective, strong acid catalyst to improve the positive CCDB isomerization and not catalyze oligomerization, cracking, skeletal isomerization, or alkylation. Firstly, the interaction of CCDB and acidic catalyst creates dissociation proton and then active carbonium ions, then induces dissociation among ortho protons; eventually generating new ectopic CCDB mixed olefin with certain cis/trans (Z/E) ratio in terms of thermodynamically stable.
Since the 1930s, Ipatieff et al. [2] studied isomerization of butene using various catalysts such as phosphoric acid, perchloric acid, toluene-p-sulfonic acid and zinc chloride solutions, shown in Figure 2. In the 1960s, F. Asinger and his co-workers [3] catalyzed isomerization of α-undecene to form internal undecene with homogeneous catalyst like sulfuric acid, perchloric acid and other moderately strong acid, respectively, shown in Figure 3.
C=C isomerization in butene.
C=C isomerization in α-undecene.
α-alkenes can be isomerized into mixed internal olefins isomers under appropriate solvents systems, acidity, temperature, and other reaction conditions that enhance catalysis. As a catalytic system, perchloric acid/anhydride can promote isomerization of α-undecene under 100°C in a high conversion rate with few side reactions (mainly oligomerization) [3]. Other Lewis acids such as boron (tri)fluoride (BF3), aluminum chloride (AlCl3), and borofluoric acid (HBF4) were used to catalyze α-undecene to lead to more α-undecene oligomerization in even less time. However, acidic catalysts used inhomogeneous reactions like those mentioned above are hard to recycle and high in attrition rate. Therefore, recent research mainly focuses on using solid acids Al2O3, SiO2, WO3, Al2O3-SiO2, mesoporous Ti, Nb and Ta oxides, etc., on performing the acidic olefin isomerizations, which are heterogeneous catalysts [4, 5, 6, 7, 8]. Their catalysis efficiencies depend on their acidity in general. To increase the surface acidity and catalytic activities of these heterogeneous catalysts, researchers covered them, aluminum oxides/salts or silicon/silica, by a various set of materials as follows: (1) proton acids (sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, boric acid, hydrofluoric acid); (2) Lewis type acids (AlCl3, SbF5, BF3, and P2O5); (3) ammonium salts (NH4F). (4) Strong chlorinating agents (PCl3 and PCl5); (5) a strong Lewis acid like CH3AlCl2; (6) molecular halogens (Cl2 and I2) [4].
AlCl3, as a Lewis acid, is a problematic catalyst for CCDB isomerization of alkenes which forms more by-product, requires large dosage of catalysts and hard to recycle. Acid sites in γ-Al2O3 as an amphoteric oxide can be used as catalytic center to catalyze isomerization of α-molecule to promote CCDB’s migration and cis-trans isomerism, while non-acidic sites in catalysts can promote other side reactions such as alcohol dehydration; As a heterogeneous catalyst, SiO2-Al2O3-MgO promoted 1-butene isomerized to both cis- and trans-2-butene with the isomerization taking placing via π-complexes on the acidic sites of the catalysts, which are easy to be separated from reaction system, thus gradually replacing the homogeneous catalysts to be applied in olefin isomerization (Table 1).
Sample | pH | Acid amount (mmol·g−1) |
---|---|---|
C12Meso Ti | +3.3 | 2.0 |
C12H2SO4 Meso Ti | +0.8 | 4.7 |
C12Meso Nb | −6.6 | 2.4 |
C12H2SO4 Meso Nb | −8.2 | 31.7 |
C12Meso Ta | −6.6 | 0.4 |
C12H2SO4 Meso Ta | −8.2 | 19.8 |
HY Zeolite | −6.6 | 1.5 |
H-ZSM5 | −4.4 | 16.1 |
Amberlyst 15 | N/A | N/A |
Acid strength and acid amount of solid acid catalysts (measured by Hammett indicators and n-butylamine titration) [9].
Among metals oxide listed in Table 2, either sulfated mesoporous Nb oxides (C12H2SO4 Meso Nb) or Ta oxides (C12H2SO4 Meso Ta) showed higher activities and selectivity than sulfated mesoporous Ti oxides (C12H2SO4 Meso Ti), Amberlyst 15, HY zeolite and H-ZSM5 in CCDB isomerization of 1-hexene. The conversion rate of 1-hexene to trans/cis 2-isomers reaches 95.89% when using C12H2SO4 meso Ta as catalysts in 4 hrs was reported. And the ratio of trans/cis isomers reaches up to 3.7 after 6 hrs, shown in Figure 4. C12H2SO4 meso Ta showed both high activity and selectivity, which can be attributed to its high BET surface area (292.19 m2·g−1), optimal pore size (18.2 Å), and increased concentration of active Brønsted acid sites on the surface of the mesoporous channels [8].
Material | Xi (%) | Si (%) | TOF×103(s−1) |
---|---|---|---|
SAC-13 | 82 | 65 | 36 |
XZO 1251 | 51 | 55 | 27 |
XZO 1251a | 98 | −30 | 120 |
SAPO-11 | 74 | 83 | 2.3 |
ZSM-35 | 74 | 66 | 4.1 |
K2620 | 79 | 70 | 0.81 |
AM-15b | 23 | 78 | 0.41 |
AM-35 | 74 | 76 | 0.75 |
AM-70 | 7.1 | 24 | 0.062 |
AM-XN1010 | 74 | 43 | 1.3 |
BCPR4 | 4.2 | 31 | 1.3 |
BCPR5 | 15 | 74 | 4.2 |
BCNA2 | 0 | N/A | 0 |
Isomerization of α-hexadecenes catalyzed by solid acid catalysts listed [10].
a185°C
b110°C
Xi: Conversion to internal alkene;
Si: Selectivity to internal alkene;
TOF: Turnover frequency based on the measured acid site densities are defined by Eqs. (1)–(3).
The TOFs in Table 2 were determined from the calculated first-order rate constants, although in practice these numbers are very similar to what is found using Eq. (3).
C=C isomerization in α-hexene catalyzed by C12H2SO4 mesoporous Ta oxide.
Heteropoly acids (HPAs) are a unique type of materials that are active both in oxidation–reduction and acid catalysis [9, 11, 12]. The polyoxometalates form heteropoly anions with metal-oxygen octahedra and work as the basic structural unit. The Keggin-type HPAs are the most important in catalysis: the Keggin heteropoly anion has the empirical formula, XM12O40n−, wherein X is a non-metal heteroatom (e.g. P5+, Si4+ or B3+) and M is a metal addenda atom (e.g. MO, W, V, Ce, Zr, Nb, Sb and Ti). Exemplary Keggin heteropoly acids in which X is phosphorus. 12-tungstophosphoric (H3PW12O40, TPA) is the most usual catalyst of choice because of its high acidic strength and relatively high thermal stability. They are strong Brønsted acid catalysts, and are stronger than conventional solid acids like zeolites and mixed oxides.
HPAs can be used either directly as a bulk material or with the supports. The supported form is preferable because of relatively higher surface area compared with the bulk material (5–8 m2·g−1) and better accessibility of reactants to the active sites, on the premise that carriers have little interaction with HPAs. Solid carriers, including acidic (silica, acidic ion-exchange resin) and neutral solids carriers (active carbon), have been reported that are suitable as HPA supports. The molecular structure is shown in Figure 5.
The structure of 12-tungstophosphoric acid.
Zhiping Du et al. [12] used HPAs supported by Al2O3 to catalysis on isomerization of 1-hexene to 2-hexene, 3-hexene, and 1-octene to 2-octene, 3-octene, 4-octene, etc. They investigated the influence of catalyst dosage, time, temperature, reactant purity, activation conditions of the HPAs, and supporting materials on the isomerization efficiency of 1-hexene and 1-octene. Their study showed that HPAs could promote olefin isomerization under a low temperature that CCDB migration and cis-trans isomerization take the main place with little skeleton isomerization.
However, HPAs catalysts for CCDB isomerization of alkenes are not perfect and do have it own problems. A typical issue is the thermal stability of HPAs wasn’t high enough for conventional regeneration by the burning of coke at 500–550°C as routinely used in the case of zeolites and aluminosilicates because susceptibility of these types of catalysts to deactivation during organic isomerization reactions due to the formation of carbonaceous deposits (coke) on the catalyst surface.
Cation exchange resin (CER) [13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20] is a type of solid catalysts in which its catalytic mechanism is the same as homogeneous catalysts, while it does have active sites like silica gel, Al2O3, and zeolite as carriers, brings to CER become a pseudo homogeneous system. CER is used to catalyze gaseous short-chain alkene isomerization (C4∼C7). For example, α-butene could be isomerized to form certain cis/trans ratio 2-butene with yields up to 90% [10, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29]. In general, advantages of CER are: (1) it can be made in different shapes, structures and load capacities for different application purposes; (2) active groups are usually located on the surface of internal holes of CER, which is easy to contact with olefin molecular with faster reaction rate and higher yields; (3) catalysts are pseudo homogeneous, which means separation between catalysts, reactants and products are easier than homogeneous catalysts, for instant, homogenous acid catalysts have to deacidify after the reaction; so that bring to (4) catalyst may be reused for several times to avoid waste liquid’s pollution to environment.
Method | Catalysis System | Olefin and Derivatives | System Features | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Acidic Catalysis | H2SO4, HNO3, HCl, H3PO4, p-H3C-C6H4-SO3H, C6H5-SO3H | Linear α-olefins (C4-C20) | Brønsted Acid, homogeneous catalysis, high reaction rate, conversion rate, selectivity; Poor to recycle, corrosive | [3] |
BF3, HBF4, Tetramethylene sulfone | Lewis Acid, high reaction rate and conversion rate; may causes polymerization of olefins; highly toxic, inflammable, poor to recycle, corrosive | [3] | ||
AlCl3 | Mild reaction rate, conversion rate, and selectivity, inexpensive; may causes polymerization of olefins; heavy dosage, poor to recycle | [3] | ||
Sulfided ion exchange resin | Gas-phase reaction, isomerizing both cis- and trans-β olefins; incapable of long liner olefin isomerization | [5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29] | ||
Cation exchange resin, perfluorinated ion exchange resin | Robustness to deactivate, longevity; slow reaction rate, side reactions | [10, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18] | ||
Al2O3, SiO2, WO3, ZrO2, TiO2, Nb2O5, Ta2O5, and heteropoly acids | Linear α-olefins (C4-C7) | Lewis Acid, slow reaction rate, conversion rate, poor selectivity, heterogeneous catalysis. Heteropoly acids | [21, 22, 23, 24] | |
Basic Catalyst | Na/K-Al2O3, MgO | α-C33H66 | The Shell Higher Olefin Process (SHOP) industrial catalyst, reaction isomerized 11-C33H66, conversion rate>90% | [30] |
γ-Al2O3-NaOH-Na, γ-Al2O3-Na2CO3-Na | Linear α-olefins | Good reaction rate, conversion rate, and selectivity; high temperature required | [30] | |
Na-Al2O3, Potassium tert-butoxide, Ti-Zeigler (X3TiH) | Vinyl Norbornene | Ethylene C=C positional transfer, industrial catalyst in use | [35] | |
Strong base like KOH; KOH/DMSO; other hydroxides/alcohol-salt system | Propenyl aromatic compounds | Promote internal movement of C=C on propylene to form allyl compound; wild applied in perfume and food industry; long reaction time, low conversion rate, hard to purify | [38] | |
Molecula Sieve Catalysis | 0.83Na2O-1.00Al2O3–2.48SiO2 | α-olefins (C6∼C25) | >70% conversion rate in short time under room temperature; low side reaction; longevity catalyst lifetime | [39] |
Mesoporous molecular sieve like MCM-41, SBA-15, and TUD-1 | 92% conversion rate and 90% selectivity using V-SBA-15 to catalysis α-octene isomerization under 600 K | [40] | ||
Non-zeolite molecular sieve(MZMS); MOF-mR: (SixAlyPz)O2 | 1-butene | Synthesis isobutene and 2-butene under 200∼600°C | [41] | |
Non-zeolite molecular sieve(MZMS); MOF-mR: (SixAlyPz)O2 MZMS mR: (MxAlyPz)O2, M=Co, Fe, Zn, Ca, Mn, etc. | 1-butene 2-butene | Synthesis isobutene and 2-butene under 200∼600°C Synthesis 1-butene and isobutene, could be further used to obtain ether for reformulated gasoline | [43] | |
NZMS | 1-butene 1-pentene | Isomerizing into isobutene, few side products. | [44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49] | |
NZMS SAPO-11 | 1-hexene | Reinforce positional isomerism instead of cis-trans isomerism | [50] | |
Zeolite molecular sieve: X, Y, ZSM-5, etc. | Isomerizing 1-hexene into 2- and 3-hexene | [51, 52] | ||
Transition Metal Catalysis | Pd black/PdCl2 | Linear α-olefins, ketenes | A industrialized catalyst to isomerizing α-olefin into stable, internal form. Expensive, toxic, complicate for further processing | [53] |
Ru3(CO)12, Ru3(CO)11((2-pentenyl)PPh2), [Ru(CO)2(MeCO2)2]n, [Ru(CO)4(μ-MeCO2) (CH3CN)2], [Ru2(CO)4(μ-MeCO2)2(μ-dppm)2PF6] | Linear α-olefins | Could isomerize 1-pentene into 2-petene in benzene solution at 80°C | [34, 35, 36, 37, 38] | |
Os3(CO)12, Co2(CO)8, Mo(CO)6 | Could isomerize 1-pentene into 2-petene in benzene solution at 80°C | |||
CoCl2, Grignard reagents with ligands | ||||
Fe(CO)n(n=5,9,12…) | Vinylene olefin | Forms di-substituted internal olefin under 150∼350°C with a minor amount of tri-substituted internal olefin | [61] | |
Fe3(CO)12 | 3-ethyl-1-pentene | Forms 3-ethyl-2-pentene at 25°C, 12 hrs | [62] | |
RhCl3H2O/Methanol/Ethanol; RhCl3/OH−;[Rh(OH)-(COD)]2 | Propenyl aromatic compounds | A very original application study of using Rhodium in C=C migration | [34, 61, 62] | |
Ir(H)2X-(PtBu2Ph)2, X=F, Cl, Br, I, OH or OCH2CF3, polymer carriered irdium catalysis system; R-[(PPh2)2Ir-(H)2THF2]+PF6− | Propenyl C=C migration, intermediates of propenylbenzene with different subsitituded functional group are essential materials for perfume, antibiotics, pesticides, etc. | [54, 55] | ||
RhCl33H2O/Ethanol, RhCl33H2O/PF6-Methanol; RuCl2(PPh3)2, carried by sol–gel method | [56, 57, 58] | |||
Na2Fe(CO)4/CuCl or BrCH2CH2Br | [63] | |||
HCo(CO)4 | [64] | |||
Photo Catalysis | Metal Cluster Compound | Internal Olefin (C4∼C20) | (CnRn)aFebMc(CO)dLe, M=Mo, Ru, Rh, Sc, Ti, Cr, Mn, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn. L=V group ligands. Hihg er | [65] |
Pd@TiO2 | Linear α-olefins | Day light, selective isomerism into E isomer. | [66] | |
Fe(CO)5 | Room temperature, day light, isomerizing 1-propenylbenzene into 2-propenylbenzene, good selectivity | [67] | ||
[HFeM(CO)8L−](M=Cr, Mo; L = CO) | Room temperature, day light, THF solution system, isomerizing 1-propenylbenzene into 2-propenylbenzene, conversion rate >98%, E/Z ratio = 10:1 | |||
Supported heteropolyacid catalyst | Linear α-olefins | Room temperature and pressure, visible light, fully conversion into internal olefin | [68] | |
Supported heteropolyacid catalyst | Oleic acid | Room temperature and pressure, visible light, fully conversion into Ω-3, Ω-6 |
Catalytic system for olefin isomerization.
In base catalysis of olefin isomerization, α-alkenes or their derivatives (1) form secondary (or tertiary) carbanions with the base anions (B−), then (2) rearrange into more stable primary carbanions, which (3) react with base (BH) to form new internal alkenes or their derivatives.
Forming cis-isomers is preferred in base-catalytic isomerization because the allyl intermediate is generated by losing protons from the olefin, and cis-isomer is more stable than trans-isomer.
The Shell Higher Olefin Process (SHOP) is a well-known and important base catalytic method that the Royal Dutch Shell commercialized in 1977 to produce α-olefins with controllable length from ethylene and subsequently to manufacture the corresponding aldehydes and fatty alcohols for producing detergents and surfactants [30]. The SHOP process incorporates the following reactions: oligomerization (Figure 6) [30], double bond isomerization (Figure 7a), and metathesis (Figure 7b) [30, 31, 32].
Oligomerization of ethylene by Ni catalysts under 80–120°C, and 1000-2000psig.
SHOP process steps: a) alkene isomerization and b) metathesis.
Some long chain alkenes isomerization, like isomerizing α-C34H68 to 11-C34H68, is industrially accomplished by Na/K loaded Al2O3 catalyst, or MgO, under reaction temperature at 80–140°C and pressure at 0.34–1.72 MPa [30, 31, 32]. The conversion rate of α-C34H68 into 11-C34H68 is more than 90%. Then subjected to the metathesis reaction, and in which catalysts comprising an alkali metal such as sodium, potassium dispersed on a high surface area, mainly inert, solid supporter, such as Al2O3 were prepared at the temperature between 5 and 50°C and in the molecular-oxygen-containing activating gas of oxygen-to-alkali ratio of 0.01–2 [31]. In the other case, catalyst on CCDB isomerization were those that have little polymerization and cracking, and include supported bauxite, alumina supported cobalt oxide or iron oxide or manganese oxide, and so on [32].
Under the conditions like that of isomerization, higher molecular like 11-C34H68 reacted with lower molecular like butadiene in metathesis reaction to produce a mixture of olefins such as internal C13H26, and C25H50, which are for chemical intermediates required by surfactants and detergents. The oligomerization of ethylene by Ni catalysts in the SHOP process was showed in the follows as Figure 8 [18].
The oligomerization of ethylene by Ni catalysts of the SHOP process.
The industrial manufacturing of co-monomer ethylidene norbornene (ENB) also utilizes the alkene isomerization [33]. The reaction pathway is using Na-loaded-Al2O3 catalyst to the vinyl norbornene, produced from a Diels-Alder reaction, which deprotonated, rearranged, and reprotonated into the ENB (Figure 9).
Ethylidene norbornene formation by catalyzed isomerization of vinyl norbornene.
Sumeet K. Sharma et al. [34] studied the selective double bond isomerization of allyl phenyl ethers catalyzed by ruthenium metal complexes, achieve a conversion rates of methyl chavicol (99.7%) with 95.4% selectivity of trans-anethole and eugenol (99.8%) with 95.6% selectivity of trans-isoeugenol in ethanol using RuCl2(PPh3)3 catalyst. Ruthenium catalysts [35, 36] are relatively expensive, although they present an extraordinary performance on catalysis efficiency, the potential of massive production are very gloomy. On the other hand, inexpensive transition metals catalysts usually have a poorer performance, but it is more likely for industrial scale production after enhancing their efficiency.
Jiraporn Puriwat et al. [37] studied the gas-phase isomerization of 1-butene to 2-butene on the MgO/Mg(OH)2 catalysts containing different basicity sites (i.e. weak, medium, and strong basic sites). The isomerization reactions mainly occur on either the strong or the medium-strength basic sites. In fact, the weak basic sites had little impact on the isomerization activity. The crystalline MgO contained both weak and strong basic sites, while the Mg (OH)2 phase exhibited only the medium strength sites. In the lattice of crystalline MgO, strong basic sites are coming from the presence of oxygen atoms. The medium strength basic sites in Mg (OH)2 risen from the hydroxyl groups in the Mg (OH)2 structure.
Some strong base, like KOH [38], can be used independently in DMSO or alkoxide system, to catalyze position isomerism of propenyl C=C, to produce the intermediate could be applied in the perfume, cosmetic, pharmaceutical, and materials chemistry, and also as intermediates in synthetic sequences for the construction of more complex products. KOH, or NaOH was also a catalyst on C=C isomerization of allyl aromatics estragole and eugenol. Allyl aromatics estragole and eugenol could further turn into the corresponding alkenyl aromatics trans-anethole and trans-isoeugenol, respectively. Under certain conditions, 56% conversion was achieved with modest E:Z in 12 hours. This methodology does have drawbacks including the following as: the use of strong base in stoichiometric amounts, longer reaction times, incomplete conversion of reactant, low selectivity for the trans-isomer, high temperatures, caustic waste, and the likely need to separate the cis-isomer [39, 40].
According to the carrying amount of acid sites or alkaline sites, the molecular sieve can be divided into acid catalyst and base catalyst. Due to their unique structures and a broad prospect in industrial application, taking molecular sieves as an option is unavoidable for studies on catalysis that would like to apply their founds on an industrial scale. For the CCDB isomerization of alkenes, molecular sieves can be further subdivided into zeolite and non-zeolite catalysts. Non-zeolite molecular sieve are those formed by metal skeleton compound MOF, SAPO, etc. [41, 42].
Hu etc. al. [40] reported that mesoporous molecular sieve supported vanadium catalysts such as V-MCM-41, V-SBA-15 and V-TUD-1 with different pore structures and pore sizes were prepared via a post-synthesis grafting method using atomic layer deposition, by means of which the isomerization of 1-heptene was employed as a reaction probe to characterize the acid properties of these catalysts with moderate acid strengths. The results were that conversion yield as high as 92% at 600 K and isomer selectivity over 90% (mainly double bond shift products) over the V-SBA-15 catalyst were achieved.
Gajda et al. [41, 42, 43, 44, 45] developed a series of non-zeolite molecular sieve (NZMS) in succession in 1990s. The composition of synthetic molecular sieves, pore structure, and active component distribution at molecular level is controllable. It successfully catalysis CCDB isomerism of α-butene, α-pentene and other short-chain olefin, to produce tertiary olefins, which can be used to make high octane ether compounds required by reformed gasoline. The preferred NZMS were the silicoaluminophosphate molecular sieves described in the patent [42], which are disclosed as microporous crystalline silicoaluminophosphates. They have a three-dimensional microporous framework structure of PO2+, AlO2− and SiO2 tetrahedral units, and whose empirical chemical composition on an anhydrous basis is:
wherein “R” represents at least one organic templating agent presented in the intracrystalline pore system; “m” represents the moles of “R” present per mole of (SixAlyPz)O2 and has a value of from 0.02 to 0.3; “x”, “y” and “z” represent the mole fractions of silicon, aluminum, and phosphorus present in the oxide moiety. Gajda et al. [46, 47] further developed a method to increase the proportion of isobutene with less by-products, by using a catalyst comprising at least one NZMS, which contains framework tetrahedral units (TO2) of aluminum (AlO2), phosphorus (PO2), and at least one additional element (EL) as a framework tetrahedral unit (ELO2).
A NZMS made up by Ferroaluminophosphates are also presented in patent [48], which has a three-dimensional microporous crystal framework structure of AlO2, FeO2 and PO2 tetrahedral units, and whose empirical chemical composition on an anhydrous basis is:
Or the NZMS were crystalline microporous aluminophosphates in which the substituent metal is one of a mixture of two or more divalent metals of the group magnesium (Mg), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn) and cobalt (Co), presented in patent [49], whose empirical chemical composition on an anhydrous basis is:
Or the NZMS were the MnAPSO molecular sieves [50] which have a framework structure of MnO2, AlO2−, PO2+ and SiO2 tetrahedral units whose empirical chemical composition on an anhydrous basis is:
Zeolite catalysts are aluminosilicate salts, depending on their pore structures and adjustable acidities, they could be divided into X-, Y-, ZSM-5, β-type, etc. [51, 52].
Depending on the element they used, transition metal catalysts can be classified as noble metal catalysts or non-noble metal catalysts. Noble metals, by definition, are metallic elements distributed in group VB, VIB, VIIB, and VIII. Typical examples are Pd, Ru, Rh, Ir, Os, etc. [38, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60]. Their complex compounds catalyze the isomerization by converting the double bonds of the α-alkenes to the β and γ positions, which is different from the acidic catalyst that catalyzes the isomerization reaction by converting the double bonds of both α- and β-alkenes to internal positions further. It also promotes side reactions that include cracking, oligomerization, skeletal isomerization, and alkylation.
Noble metal catalysts, however, are expensive and unrecyclable, which limited their application in the industry. While some common metals like Fe, Cu, Zn, Co, etc. [38, 61, 62, 63, 64] are much cheaper and can promote C=C migration of α-linear olefins to generate internal olefins in high efficiency, too, providing another option. For example, CoCl2 and Grignard reagent can isomerize α-tetradecene to generate (E)-2-, (Z)-2-, 3-tetradecene, and other isomers under 50 Celcius degree [38]. Also, Fe and Co complex compounds can shift the position of the C=C on the allyl benzene side chain, isomerized, and generated into various allyl benzene intermediate. These can be used as intermediate of perfume, antibiotics, insecticides, anti-Leishmania drugs, antifungal, algae inhibitors, anti-inflammatory drugs, antioxidants etc., which leads to a strong industrialized potential.
In 1983, the photocatalytic carbonylation synthesis reaction of aromatic halogenated hydrocarbons was realized, leads the dawn of the application of photocatalysis in organic synthesis. In the few decades, photocatalytic ring-opening polymerization and photocatalytic epoxidation of olefins have been reported, which makes photocatalytic organic synthesis has become an important branch in the field of photocatalysis. Comparing to the thermal catalysis, photocatalysis reactions are relatively environmental friendly, requiring more mild reaction conditions, different selectivity of isomers’ structures. These advantages provide some special merits that brings more options when chooses the reaction routes for both academic studies and industrial manufacturings.
Cirjak and his co-workers [65] used metal clusters (C5R5)aFebMc(CO)dLe as the photocatalyst to catalysis isomerism of olefin, in which the catalyst’s absorption wavelength covers up to 220 nm with a low yield. Except for catalysis on CCDB position migration isomerism of alkenes, some photocatalysts such as Pd@TiO2, could shift the allylic C=C position of the allyl aromatics along allyl chain to form isomers [66]. [HFeM(CO)8L−] or Fe(CO)5 can be used as photocatalyst in THF to catalyze 1-allylbenzene at room temperature under illumination conditions, isomerized into 2-allylbenzene [67]. Under mild conditions, the reaction productivity is over 98%, and the E/Z ratio in product is 10:1 which is a decent selectivity.
Recent years, Ma et al. [68] discovered a series of solid heteropoly acids and their supported zeolite sieves as photocatalyst to catalysis on CCDB isomerization of alkenes. A small amount of catalysts shows a strong catalytic activity on C=C isomerization of linear chain α-olefin (C5-C20) into internal olefins under visible light, in which the conversion rate can be up to 80% in 1 hour, and presents a high isomer selectivity (either E or Z). It was perfectly avoiding the complicated separation of E&Z isomers which is important for some purposes, like pharmaceutically, which do require isomer selectivity. Under ultraviolet irradiation, the catalysts to oleic acid (CH3(CH2)7CHCH(CH2)7COOH, cis), priority to generate 3-trans-, 6-trans-, 11-trans-octadecenic acid and so on, with the conversion rate being up to 80% in 1 hour. The catalytic system also can catalyze a series of phenylpropyl compounds to make CCDB isomerization under ultraviolet irradiation, mild temperature and ordinary pressure to produce certain location isomer, which were widely used in production of high value chemical products applied in the field of medicine, biology and materials science, as shown in Figure 10.
CCDB isomerization of straight chain alkenes (1), oleic acid (2) and Allyl benzene (3).
This type of multifunctional catalyst combined four catalysis: photocatalysis, acid catalysis, molecular sieve catalysis and transition metal catalyzers which synergistically worked to promote C=C double bond migration of olefins and its derivatives. The main problems are as following: narrow catalysis absorption wavelength range, which was mainly in ultraviolet and near ultraviolet regions, low utilization of solar energy; the recombination rate of photo-generated carriers and hole is high, which results in lower quantum efficiency. Thus, we need to modify the structure and component of catalysts at present, such as the control of catalyst’s crystal structure and defects, adjusting the energy band location and surface photosensitization etc.
However, photocatalysis on olefin’s isomerization is not well-known enough which has to clarify the photocatalytic reaction mechanism, especially photo generated carrier separation, transfer and interface shift process, that are essential to further improve the catalytic efficiencies. On another hand, future works may take advantages from some well-studied photocatalysis fields like nanomaterials, semiconductor physics, and photocatalysis organic reaction, to produce novel photocatalytic materials with high efficiency and high catalytic activity.
In this paper we summarized olefin isomerization catalysis in five categories, acidic, basic, molecular sieve, transitionmetal catalysis, and photocatalysis, and under each category, we present some typical catalysts that have been studied. The five categroies differentiates most available catalysis systems by their reaction mechanisms, and they also reflect somehow their properties, like acidic catalysis usually have issuses on products selectivity and catalysts recycling. The Table 3 followed presents all catalysis systems mentioned before, what they are, which category they belong to, applicable reactants and desire products, with their purposes and features, pro and cons, and references of the works.
The work was supported by Beijing Science and Technology Project (code: Z201100008420019), the National natural science foundation of China youth program (NSFC code 21808241) and Fund of the Director of Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences. Many thanks are given to our colleagues in the Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, CAS, as well as the professionals in other institutes for their great help in the complementary and publication of this work.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
",metaTitle:"Open Access Statement",metaDescription:"Book chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0)",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/open-access-statement/",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
License
\\n\\nBook Chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen maintains a very flexible Copyright Policy that ensures that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher. Therefore, Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) and journal articles are distributed under a Creative Commons 4.0 International Licence.
\\n\\n\\n\\nFormats
\\n\\nBased on your preferences and the stage of your scientific projects, you have multiple options for publishing your scientific research with IntechOpen:
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific Works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\nCosts
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model followed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, thus enabling readers to access research at no cost to themselves. In order to sustain these operations, and keep our publications freely accessible, we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee on all manuscripts accepted for publication to help cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books.
\\n\\n\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is dedicated to ensuring the long-term preservation and availability of the scholarly research it publishes.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'License
\n\nBook Chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen maintains a very flexible Copyright Policy that ensures that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher. Therefore, Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) and journal articles are distributed under a Creative Commons 4.0 International Licence.
\n\n\n\nFormats
\n\nBased on your preferences and the stage of your scientific projects, you have multiple options for publishing your scientific research with IntechOpen:
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific Works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing.
\n\n\n\nCosts
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model followed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, thus enabling readers to access research at no cost to themselves. In order to sustain these operations, and keep our publications freely accessible, we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee on all manuscripts accepted for publication to help cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books.
\n\n\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is dedicated to ensuring the long-term preservation and availability of the scholarly research it publishes.
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{regionId:"4",sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",middleName:null,surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58592/images/1664_n.jpg",biography:"Arun K. Shanker is serving as a Principal Scientist (Plant Physiology) with the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) at the Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture in Hyderabad, India. He is working with the ICAR as a full time researcher since 1993 and has since earned his Advanced degree in Crop Physiology while in service. He has been awarded the prestigious Member of the Royal Society of Chemistry (MRSC), by the Royal Society of Chemistry, London in 2015. Presently he is working on systems biology approach to study the mechanism of abiotic stress tolerance in crops. His main focus now is to unravel the mechanism of drought and heat stress response in plants to tackle climate change related threats in agriculture.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Council of Agricultural Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",middleName:"P",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4782/images/system/4782.jpg",biography:"Bishnu P. Pal is Professor of Physics at Mahindra École\nCentrale Hyderabad India since July 1st 2014 after retirement\nas Professor of Physics from IIT Delhi; Ph.D.’1975 from IIT\nDelhi; Fellow of OSA and SPIE; Senior Member IEEE;\nHonorary Foreign Member Royal Norwegian Society for\nScience and Arts; Member OSA Board of Directors (2009-\n11); Distinguished Lecturer IEEE Photonics Society (2005-\n07).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Delhi",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"69653",title:"Dr.",name:"Chusak",middleName:null,surname:"Limsakul",slug:"chusak-limsakul",fullName:"Chusak Limsakul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Prince of Songkla University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"23804",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamzah",middleName:null,surname:"Arof",slug:"hamzah-arof",fullName:"Hamzah Arof",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/23804/images/5492_n.jpg",biography:"Hamzah Arof received his BSc from Michigan State University, and PhD from the University of Wales. Both degrees were in electrical engineering. His current research interests include signal processing and photonics. Currently he is affiliated with the Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Malaya, Malaysia.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"41989",title:"Prof.",name:"He",middleName:null,surname:"Tian",slug:"he-tian",fullName:"He Tian",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"East China University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"33351",title:null,name:"Hendra",middleName:null,surname:"Hermawan",slug:"hendra-hermawan",fullName:"Hendra Hermawan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/33351/images/168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Institut Teknologi Bandung",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"11981",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Ishiguro",slug:"hiroshi-ishiguro",fullName:"Hiroshi Ishiguro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRglaQAC/Profile_Picture_1626411846553",biography:"Hiroshi Ishiguro is an award-winning roboticist and innovator. As the Director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, which is part of the Department of Systems Innovation in the Graduate School of Engineering Science at Osaka University, Japan, Ishiguro concentrates on making robots that are similar as possible to humans to understand the human species. A notable project of his laboratory is the Actroid, a humanoid robot with a lifelike appearance and observable behavior such as facial movements. (Sources: http://www.geminoid.jp/en/index.html, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiroshi_Ishiguro)",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Osaka University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"45747",title:"Dr.",name:"Hsin-I",middleName:null,surname:"Chang",slug:"hsin-i-chang",fullName:"Hsin-I Chang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Chiayi University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"61581",title:"Dr.",name:"Joy Rizki Pangestu",middleName:null,surname:"Djuansjah",slug:"joy-rizki-pangestu-djuansjah",fullName:"Joy Rizki Pangestu Djuansjah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61581/images/237_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"94249",title:"Prof.",name:"Junji",middleName:null,surname:"Kido",slug:"junji-kido",fullName:"Junji Kido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Yamagata University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"12009",title:"Dr.",name:"Ki Young",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"ki-young-kim",fullName:"Ki Young Kim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12009/images/system/12009.jpg",biography:"Http://m80.knu.ac.kr/~doors",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Cheng Kung University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"132595",title:"Prof.",name:"Long",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"long-wang",fullName:"Long Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Peking University",country:{name:"China"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:6583},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5888},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:2381},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:12511},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:1006},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:17529}],offset:12,limit:12,total:12511},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"0",sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish",topicId:"5,6,12,13,18"},books:[{type:"book",id:"11807",title:"Advances in Diptera - Insight, Challenges and Management Tools",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"530031c8ad9b3661090e69f0561e31f0",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Sarita Kumar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11807.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"177117",title:"Prof.",name:"Sarita",surname:"Kumar",slug:"sarita-kumar",fullName:"Sarita Kumar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11609",title:"Fungicides - Application, Technologies, and Materials for the Future of Plant Disease Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"3a8c9d55c21ce8d69d2edc94f9e592f3",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Mizuho Nita",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11609.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"98153",title:"Dr.",name:"Mizuho",surname:"Nita",slug:"mizuho-nita",fullName:"Mizuho Nita"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11648",title:"Current Status and Ecological Aspects of Seabirds",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"7754b354f7deebdb8576189aefbdbc5c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Muhammad Nawaz Rajpar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11648.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"183095",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Nawaz",surname:"Rajpar",slug:"muhammad-nawaz-rajpar",fullName:"Muhammad Nawaz Rajpar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11620",title:"Tomato - From Cultivation to Processing Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"cdc23b5aad5d52bc0f0327c453ac7a1b",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Pranas Viskelis, Dr. Dalia Urbonaviciene and Dr. Jonas Viskelis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11620.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"83785",title:"Prof.",name:"Pranas",surname:"Viskelis",slug:"pranas-viskelis",fullName:"Pranas Viskelis"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11020",title:"Dietary Supplements - Challenges and Future Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2283ae2d0816c17ad46cbedbe4ce5e78",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Venketeshwer Rao and Dr. Leticia Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11020.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11627",title:"Oilseed Crops - Biology, Production and Processing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"010cdbbb6a716d433e632b350d4dcafe",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Mirza Hasanuzzaman and MSc. Kamrun Nahar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11627.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11615",title:"Humus and Humic Substances - Recent Advances",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"a9b75be6b30278fca930c4dd560a8b2b",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Abdelhadi Makan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11615.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"247727",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelhadi",surname:"Makan",slug:"abdelhadi-makan",fullName:"Abdelhadi Makan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11802",title:"Honey - Composition and Properties",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"60482dae5e08f5b22b0c7a2749cdfc02",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Muhammad Imran, Dr. Muhammad Haseeb Ahmad and Dr. Rabia Shabir Ahmad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11802.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"208646",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Imran",slug:"muhammad-imran",fullName:"Muhammad Imran"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10744",title:"Astrocytes in Brain Communication and Disease",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"8b6a8e2bb5f070305768945fdef8eed2",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Denis Larrivee",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10744.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"206412",title:"Prof.",name:"Denis",surname:"Larrivee",slug:"denis-larrivee",fullName:"Denis Larrivee"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11667",title:"Marine Pollution - Recent Developments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"e524cd97843b075a724e151256773631",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Monique Mancuso",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11667.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"318562",title:"Dr.",name:"Monique",surname:"Mancuso",slug:"monique-mancuso",fullName:"Monique Mancuso"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11619",title:"Root Vegetables",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2c5535e66fed5abd8f80ee521b51b2d3",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Prashant Kaushik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11619.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"311935",title:"Dr.",name:"Prashant",surname:"Kaushik",slug:"prashant-kaushik",fullName:"Prashant Kaushik"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11644",title:"Structural and Molecular Aspects of DNA Repair",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"83dfefc2400d2d037281f1e25bbc544b",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Subrata Kumar Dey",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11644.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"31178",title:"Prof.",name:"Subrata",surname:"Dey",slug:"subrata-dey",fullName:"Subrata Dey"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:42},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:21},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:20},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:60},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:27},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:122},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:4}],offset:12,limit:12,total:72},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10584",title:"Engineered Wood Products for Construction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"421757c56a3735986055250821275a51",slug:"engineered-wood-products-for-construction",bookSignature:"Meng Gong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10584.jpg",editors:[{id:"274242",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng",middleName:null,surname:"Gong",slug:"meng-gong",fullName:"Meng Gong"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10222",title:"Demyelination Disorders",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b6c26ceccacdde70c41c587361bd5558",slug:"demyelination-disorders",bookSignature:"Stavros J. Baloyannis, Fabian H. Rossi and Welwin Liu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10222.jpg",editors:[{id:"156098",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Stavros J.",middleName:"J.",surname:"Baloyannis",slug:"stavros-j.-baloyannis",fullName:"Stavros J. Baloyannis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9544",title:"Global Trade in the Emerging Business Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fb8cb09b9599246add78d508a98273d5",slug:"global-trade-in-the-emerging-business-environment",bookSignature:"Muhammad Mohiuddin, Jingbin Wang , Md. Samim Al Azad and Selim Ahmed",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9544.jpg",editors:[{id:"418514",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mohiuddin",slug:"muhammad-mohiuddin",fullName:"Muhammad Mohiuddin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10979",title:"Parenting",subtitle:"Challenges of Child Rearing in a Changing Society",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f345ebcf4fd61e73643c69063a12c7b",slug:"parenting-challenges-of-child-rearing-in-a-changing-society",bookSignature:"Sayyed Ali Samadi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10979.jpg",editors:[{id:"52145",title:"Dr.",name:"Sayyed Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Samadi",slug:"sayyed-ali-samadi",fullName:"Sayyed Ali Samadi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9808",title:"Contemporary Topics in Patient Safety",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fb6371607c2c6c02c6a2af8892765aba",slug:"contemporary-topics-in-patient-safety-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki and Michael S. Firstenberg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9808.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10681",title:"Biodegradation Technology of Organic and Inorganic Pollutants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9a6e10e02788092872fd249436898e97",slug:"biodegradation-technology-of-organic-and-inorganic-pollutants",bookSignature:"Kassio Ferreira Mendes, Rodrigo Nogueira de Sousa and Kamila Cabral Mielke",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10681.jpg",editors:[{id:"197720",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kassio",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira Mendes",slug:"kassio-ferreira-mendes",fullName:"Kassio Ferreira Mendes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10764",title:"Antenna Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2fbf1c7a5d92723f08198fc9b526a8ad",slug:"antenna-systems",bookSignature:"Hussain Al-Rizzo and Said Abushamleh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10764.jpg",editors:[{id:"153384",title:"Prof.",name:"Hussain",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Rizzo",slug:"hussain-al-rizzo",fullName:"Hussain Al-Rizzo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10668",title:"Sustainability of Concrete With Synthetic and Recycled Aggregates",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"55856c6a8bc3a5b21dae5a1af09a56b6",slug:"sustainability-of-concrete-with-synthetic-and-recycled-aggregates",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10668.jpg",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-saleh",fullName:"Hosam Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10803",title:"Reactive Oxygen Species",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"176adcf090fdd1f93cb8ce3146e79ca1",slug:"reactive-oxygen-species",bookSignature:"Rizwan Ahmad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10803.jpg",editors:[{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9032",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f609bf3251d7cc7bae0099a4374adfc3",slug:"corporate-social-responsibility",bookSignature:"Beatrice Orlando",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9032.jpg",editors:[{id:"232969",title:"Prof.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Orlando",slug:"beatrice-orlando",fullName:"Beatrice Orlando"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10351",title:"Enhanced Liposuction",subtitle:"New Perspectives and Techniques",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f08ed6de16da357614586c5b58ed4dfa",slug:"enhanced-liposuction-new-perspectives-and-techniques",bookSignature:"Diane Irvine Duncan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10351.jpg",editors:[{id:"279869",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane Irvine",middleName:null,surname:"Duncan",slug:"diane-irvine-duncan",fullName:"Diane Irvine Duncan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10779",title:"21st Century Nanostructured Materials",subtitle:"Physics, Chemistry, Classification, and Emerging Applications in Industry, Biomedicine, and Agriculture",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"72c67f97f9bef68200df115b5fd79884",slug:"21st-century-nanostructured-materials-physics-chemistry-classification-and-emerging-applications-in-industry-biomedicine-and-agriculture",bookSignature:"Phuong V. Pham",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10779.jpg",editors:[{id:"236073",title:"Dr.",name:"Phuong",middleName:"Viet",surname:"Pham",slug:"phuong-pham",fullName:"Phuong Pham"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:4386},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10584",title:"Engineered Wood Products for Construction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"421757c56a3735986055250821275a51",slug:"engineered-wood-products-for-construction",bookSignature:"Meng Gong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10584.jpg",publishedDate:"April 28th 2022",numberOfDownloads:3665,editors:[{id:"274242",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng",middleName:null,surname:"Gong",slug:"meng-gong",fullName:"Meng Gong"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10222",title:"Demyelination Disorders",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b6c26ceccacdde70c41c587361bd5558",slug:"demyelination-disorders",bookSignature:"Stavros J. Baloyannis, Fabian H. Rossi and Welwin Liu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10222.jpg",publishedDate:"May 4th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1713,editors:[{id:"156098",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Stavros J.",middleName:"J.",surname:"Baloyannis",slug:"stavros-j.-baloyannis",fullName:"Stavros J. Baloyannis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9544",title:"Global Trade in the Emerging Business Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fb8cb09b9599246add78d508a98273d5",slug:"global-trade-in-the-emerging-business-environment",bookSignature:"Muhammad Mohiuddin, Jingbin Wang , Md. Samim Al Azad and Selim Ahmed",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9544.jpg",publishedDate:"April 28th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2481,editors:[{id:"418514",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mohiuddin",slug:"muhammad-mohiuddin",fullName:"Muhammad Mohiuddin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10979",title:"Parenting",subtitle:"Challenges of Child Rearing in a Changing Society",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f345ebcf4fd61e73643c69063a12c7b",slug:"parenting-challenges-of-child-rearing-in-a-changing-society",bookSignature:"Sayyed Ali Samadi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10979.jpg",publishedDate:"May 4th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1107,editors:[{id:"52145",title:"Dr.",name:"Sayyed Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Samadi",slug:"sayyed-ali-samadi",fullName:"Sayyed Ali Samadi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9808",title:"Contemporary Topics in Patient Safety",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fb6371607c2c6c02c6a2af8892765aba",slug:"contemporary-topics-in-patient-safety-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki and Michael S. Firstenberg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9808.jpg",publishedDate:"April 20th 2022",numberOfDownloads:3307,editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10681",title:"Biodegradation Technology of Organic and Inorganic Pollutants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9a6e10e02788092872fd249436898e97",slug:"biodegradation-technology-of-organic-and-inorganic-pollutants",bookSignature:"Kassio Ferreira Mendes, Rodrigo Nogueira de Sousa and Kamila Cabral Mielke",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10681.jpg",publishedDate:"April 20th 2022",numberOfDownloads:3266,editors:[{id:"197720",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kassio",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira Mendes",slug:"kassio-ferreira-mendes",fullName:"Kassio Ferreira Mendes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10764",title:"Antenna Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2fbf1c7a5d92723f08198fc9b526a8ad",slug:"antenna-systems",bookSignature:"Hussain Al-Rizzo and Said Abushamleh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10764.jpg",publishedDate:"April 28th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1868,editors:[{id:"153384",title:"Prof.",name:"Hussain",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Rizzo",slug:"hussain-al-rizzo",fullName:"Hussain Al-Rizzo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10668",title:"Sustainability of Concrete With Synthetic and Recycled Aggregates",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"55856c6a8bc3a5b21dae5a1af09a56b6",slug:"sustainability-of-concrete-with-synthetic-and-recycled-aggregates",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10668.jpg",publishedDate:"May 4th 2022",numberOfDownloads:856,editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-saleh",fullName:"Hosam Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10803",title:"Reactive Oxygen Species",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"176adcf090fdd1f93cb8ce3146e79ca1",slug:"reactive-oxygen-species",bookSignature:"Rizwan Ahmad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10803.jpg",publishedDate:"April 28th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1704,editors:[{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9032",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f609bf3251d7cc7bae0099a4374adfc3",slug:"corporate-social-responsibility",bookSignature:"Beatrice Orlando",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9032.jpg",publishedDate:"March 16th 2022",numberOfDownloads:7489,editors:[{id:"232969",title:"Prof.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Orlando",slug:"beatrice-orlando",fullName:"Beatrice Orlando"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8737",title:"Rabies Virus at the Beginning of 21st Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"49cce3f548da548c718c865feb343509",slug:"rabies-virus-at-the-beginning-of-21st-century",bookSignature:"Sergey Tkachev",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8737.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editors:[{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10861",title:"Furan Derivatives",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fdfc39cecd82f91b0effac994f75c877",slug:"furan-derivatives-recent-advances-and-applications",bookSignature:"Anish Khan, Mohammed Muzibur Rahman, M. Ramesh, Salman Ahmad Khan and Abdullah Mohammed Ahmed Asiri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10861.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editors:[{id:"293058",title:"Dr.",name:"Anish",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"anish-khan",fullName:"Anish Khan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10356",title:"Natural Medicinal Plants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"943e56ccaaf19ff696d25aa638ae37d6",slug:"natural-medicinal-plants",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10356.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10870",title:"Ultrasound Imaging",subtitle:"Current Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2f0bc3733ab226d67fa73759ef0e12ad",slug:"ultrasound-imaging-current-topics",bookSignature:"Felix Okechukwu Erondu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10870.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editors:[{id:"68312",title:"Prof.",name:"Felix",middleName:null,surname:"Okechukwu Erondu",slug:"felix-okechukwu-erondu",fullName:"Felix Okechukwu Erondu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11392",title:"Leadership in a Changing World",subtitle:"A Multidimensional Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"86a6d33cf601587e591064ce92effc02",slug:"leadership-in-a-changing-world-a-multidimensional-perspective",bookSignature:"Muhammad Mohiuddin, Bilal Khalid, Md. Samim Al Azad and Slimane Ed-dafali",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11392.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editors:[{id:"418514",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mohiuddin",slug:"muhammad-mohiuddin",fullName:"Muhammad Mohiuddin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10400",title:"The Application of Ant Colony Optimization",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f4fdfd07ee1ab99fb7c740d6d0c144c6",slug:"the-application-of-ant-colony-optimization",bookSignature:"Ali Soofastaei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10400.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editors:[{id:"257455",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Soofastaei",slug:"ali-soofastaei",fullName:"Ali Soofastaei"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10915",title:"Leadership",subtitle:"New Insights",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0d72e79892f2a020cee66a52d09de5a4",slug:"leadership-new-insights",bookSignature:"Mário Franco",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10915.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editors:[{id:"105529",title:"Dr.",name:"Mário",middleName:null,surname:"Franco",slug:"mario-franco",fullName:"Mário Franco"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10683",title:"Technological Innovations and Advances in Hydropower Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ce7ad8768bd2cad155470fe1fd883f4",slug:"technological-innovations-and-advances-in-hydropower-engineering",bookSignature:"Yizi Shang, Ling Shang and Xiaofei Li",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10683.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editors:[{id:"349630",title:"Dr.",name:"Yizi",middleName:null,surname:"Shang",slug:"yizi-shang",fullName:"Yizi Shang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7102",title:"Pneumonia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9fd70142814192dcec58a176749f1b60",slug:"pneumonia",bookSignature:"Nima Rezaei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7102.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editors:[{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9670",title:"Current Trends in Wheat Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"89d795987f1747a76eee532700d2093d",slug:"current-trends-in-wheat-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9670.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman",middleName:null,surname:"Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman Ansari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"961",title:"Fluid Dynamics",slug:"surface-science-fluid-dynamics",parent:{id:"160",title:"Surface Science",slug:"surface-science"},numberOfBooks:5,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:104,numberOfWosCitations:222,numberOfCrossrefCitations:123,numberOfDimensionsCitations:294,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"961",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"7385",title:"Cavitation",subtitle:"Selected Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"075ee4bb432760777ffcba092d0cffae",slug:"cavitation-selected-issues",bookSignature:"Wojciech Borek, Tomasz Tański and Mariusz Król",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7385.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"186373",title:"Dr.",name:"Wojciech",middleName:null,surname:"Borek",slug:"wojciech-borek",fullName:"Wojciech Borek"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7352",title:"Granularity in Materials Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a451ff13b9bc3b08989979518577594a",slug:"granularity-in-materials-science",bookSignature:"George Kyzas and Athanasios C. Mitropoulos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7352.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"152296",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:"Z.",surname:"Kyzas",slug:"george-kyzas",fullName:"George Kyzas"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6512",title:"Superfluids and Superconductors",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"24385ec1d5de9c6597896900c80ee279",slug:"superfluids-and-superconductors",bookSignature:"Roberto Zivieri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6512.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181334",title:"Prof.",name:"Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Zivieri",slug:"roberto-zivieri",fullName:"Roberto Zivieri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5319",title:"Wetting and Wettability",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"49767cc09f266bd5bdf55f4a5c57792b",slug:"wetting-and-wettability",bookSignature:"Mahmood Aliofkhazraei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5319.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"155413",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood",middleName:null,surname:"Aliofkhazraei",slug:"mahmood-aliofkhazraei",fullName:"Mahmood Aliofkhazraei"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2854",title:"Viscoelasticity",subtitle:"From Theory to Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"63c4a0eddb48f02ebe48d80aa70972de",slug:"viscoelasticity-from-theory-to-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Juan de Vicente",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2854.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99801",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"De Vicente",slug:"juan-de-vicente",fullName:"Juan De Vicente"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:5,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"48816",doi:"10.5772/60824",title:"Wettability and Other Surface Properties of Modified Polymers",slug:"wettability-and-other-surface-properties-of-modified-polymers",totalDownloads:3698,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:36,abstract:"Surface wettability is one of the crucial characteristics for determining of a material’s use in specific application. Determination of wettability is based on the measurement of the material surface contact angle. Contact angle is the main parameter that characterizes the drop shape on the solid surface and is also one of the directly measurable properties of the phase interface. In this chapter, the wettability and its related properties of pristine and modified polymer foils will be described. The wettability depends on surface roughness and chemical composition. Changes of these parameters can adjust the values of contact angle and, therefore, wettability. In the case of pristine polymer materials, their wettability is unsuitable for a wide range of applications (such as tissue engineering, printing, and coating). Polymer surfaces can easily be modified by, e.g., plasma discharge, whereas the bulk properties remain unchanged. This modification leads to oxidation of the treated layer and creation of new chemical groups that mainly contain oxygen. Immediately after plasma treatment, the values of the contact angles of the modified polymer significantly decrease. In the case of a specific polymer, the strongly hydrophilic surface is created and leads to total spreading of the water drop. Wettability is strongly dependent on time from modification.",book:{id:"5319",slug:"wetting-and-wettability",title:"Wetting and Wettability",fullTitle:"Wetting and Wettability"},signatures:"Nikola Slepickova Kasalkova, Petr Slepicka, Zdenka Kolska and\nVaclav Svorcik",authors:[{id:"144929",title:"Prof.",name:"Vaclav",middleName:null,surname:"Svorcik",slug:"vaclav-svorcik",fullName:"Vaclav Svorcik"},{id:"146297",title:"Dr.",name:"Petr",middleName:null,surname:"Slepicka",slug:"petr-slepicka",fullName:"Petr Slepicka"},{id:"147600",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nikola",middleName:null,surname:"Slepičková Kasálková",slug:"nikola-slepickova-kasalkova",fullName:"Nikola Slepičková Kasálková"},{id:"153983",title:"Dr.",name:"Zdeňka",middleName:null,surname:"Kolská",slug:"zdenka-kolska",fullName:"Zdeňka Kolská"}]},{id:"48822",doi:"10.5772/60808",title:"Wettability of Nanostructured Surfaces",slug:"wettability-of-nanostructured-surfaces",totalDownloads:3122,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:31,abstract:"There are many studies in literature concerning contact angle measurements on different materials/substrates. It is documented that textiles can be coated with multifunctional materials in form of thin films or nanoparticles to acquire characteristics that can improve the protection and comfort of the wearer. The capacity of oxide nanostructures to inhibit fungal development and neutralize bacteria is a direct consequence of their wetting behavior [1–6]. Moreover, the radical modification of wetting behavior of nanostructures from hydrophilic to hydrophobic when changing the pulsed laser deposition (PLD) ambient will be thoroughly discussed.",book:{id:"5319",slug:"wetting-and-wettability",title:"Wetting and Wettability",fullTitle:"Wetting and Wettability"},signatures:"L. Duta, A.C. Popescu, I. Zgura, N. Preda and I.N. Mihailescu",authors:[{id:"17636",title:"Prof.",name:"Ion N.",middleName:null,surname:"Mihailescu",slug:"ion-n.-mihailescu",fullName:"Ion N. Mihailescu"},{id:"23532",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrei",middleName:null,surname:"Popescu",slug:"andrei-popescu",fullName:"Andrei Popescu"},{id:"174343",title:"Dr.",name:"Liviu",middleName:null,surname:"Duta",slug:"liviu-duta",fullName:"Liviu Duta"},{id:"174344",title:"Dr.",name:"Irina",middleName:null,surname:"Zgura",slug:"irina-zgura",fullName:"Irina Zgura"},{id:"174345",title:"Dr.",name:"Ligia",middleName:null,surname:"Frunza",slug:"ligia-frunza",fullName:"Ligia Frunza"}]},{id:"49090",doi:"10.5772/61205",title:"The Wetting of Leaf Surfaces and Its Ecological Significances",slug:"the-wetting-of-leaf-surfaces-and-its-ecological-significances",totalDownloads:3519,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Leaf wettability, indicating the affinity for water on leaf surfaces, is a common phenomenon for plants in a wide variety of habitats. The contact angle (θ) of water on leaves measured at the gas, solid and liquid interface is an index of surface wettability. Leaves are termed as “super-hydrophilic” if θ < 40°, “highly wettable” if θ < 90°, and “wettable” if θ < 110°. If θ > 110°, the leaves are classified as being non-wettable, while θ > 130° for highly non-wettable and θ > 150° for super-hydrophobic. Both internal and external factors can influence leaf wettability. The chemical composition and structure of leaf surfaces are internal causes, but the external environment can also influence wettability by affecting the structure and composition of the surface. The main internal factors that affecting leaf wettability include the content and microstructure of the epidermal wax, the number, size and pattern of trichomes, stomatal density, the shape of epidermal cells, and leaf water status. The leaf contact angles increased with the increasing of leaf wax content. However, studies have shown that the contact angles were more dependent on the complexity of wax structure than on the absolute amount. For trichomes, there are three types of interaction between trichomes and water droplets, including (1) low trichomes density: no apparent influence of trichomes on the location of surface moisture, droplet formation and retention ; (2) medium trichomes density: trichomes appear to circle surface moisture into patches; (3) high trichomes density: trichomes appear to hold water droplets above the trichomes. In some cases, a higher stomatal density was accompanied with a higher contact angles. While, it was also observed that there was no significant correlation between contact angle and stomatal density for some species. For the effects of epidermal cells on leaf wettability, it was generally considered that the combination of a dense layer of surface wax and the convex epidermal cells was what created a hydrophobic leaf surface. However, the influence of leaf water content on contact angle of water droplets on different leaf surfaces was complex, e.g., contact angles increased with decreasing of leaf water content, contact angle remained to be constant with different leaf water content.",book:{id:"5319",slug:"wetting-and-wettability",title:"Wetting and Wettability",fullTitle:"Wetting and Wettability"},signatures:"Huixia Wang, Hui Shi and Yanhui Wang",authors:[{id:"173921",title:"Dr.",name:"Huixia",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"huixia-wang",fullName:"Huixia Wang"}]},{id:"40738",doi:"10.5772/49979",title:"Viscoelastic Properties of Biological Materials",slug:"viscoelastic-properties-of-biological-materials",totalDownloads:5567,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:null,book:{id:"2854",slug:"viscoelasticity-from-theory-to-biological-applications",title:"Viscoelasticity",fullTitle:"Viscoelasticity - From Theory to Biological Applications"},signatures:"Naoki Sasaki",authors:[{id:"140935",title:"Prof.",name:"Naoki",middleName:null,surname:"Sasaki",slug:"naoki-sasaki",fullName:"Naoki Sasaki"}]},{id:"40741",doi:"10.5772/50137",title:"Die Swell of Complex Polymeric Systems",slug:"die-swell-of-complex-polymeric-systems",totalDownloads:6066,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:null,book:{id:"2854",slug:"viscoelasticity-from-theory-to-biological-applications",title:"Viscoelasticity",fullTitle:"Viscoelasticity - From Theory to Biological Applications"},signatures:"Kejian Wang",authors:[{id:"141238",title:"Prof.",name:"Kejian",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"kejian-wang",fullName:"Kejian Wang"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"48768",title:"TiO2 -Based Surfaces with Special Wettability – From Nature to Biomimetic Application",slug:"tio2-based-surfaces-with-special-wettability-from-nature-to-biomimetic-application",totalDownloads:5008,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Super-wetting/antiwetting surfaces with extremely high contrast of surface energy and liquid adhesion have attracted a lot of interest in both fundamental research and industry. Various types of special wetting surfaces can be constructed by adjusting the topographical structure and chemical composition. In this chapter, recent advance of the super-wetting/antiwetting surfaces with special solid/liquid adhesion has been reviewed, with a focus on the biomimetic fabrication and applications of TiO2-based surfaces. Special super-wettability examples include lotus-leaf-inspired surfaces with low adhesion, rose-petal-inspired surfaces with high adhesion, spider silk bio-inspired surfaces with directional adhesion, fish-scale-inspired underwater superoleophobic surface, and artificial surfaces with controllable or stimuli-responsive liquid adhesion. In addition, we will review some potential applications related to artificial antiwetting surface with controllable adhesion, e.g., self-cleaning, antifogging/anti-icing, micro-droplet manipulation, fog/water collection, water/oil separation, anti-bioadhesion, micro-template for patterning, and friction reduction. Finally, the difficulty and prospects of this renascent and rapidly developing field are also briefly proposed and discussed.",book:{id:"5319",slug:"wetting-and-wettability",title:"Wetting and Wettability",fullTitle:"Wetting and Wettability"},signatures:"Jian-Ying Huang and Yue-Kun Lai",authors:[{id:"175512",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuekun",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"yuekun-lai",fullName:"Yuekun Lai"}]},{id:"62882",title:"Inside the Phenomenological Aspects of Wet Granulation: Role of Process Parameters",slug:"inside-the-phenomenological-aspects-of-wet-granulation-role-of-process-parameters",totalDownloads:1424,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Granulation is a size-enlargement process by which small particles are bonded, by means of various techniques, in coherent and stable masses (granules), in which the original particles are still identifiable. In wet granulation processes, the powder particles are aggregated through the use of a liquid phase called binder. The main purposes of size-enlargement process of a powder or mixture of powders are to improve technological properties and/or to realize suitable forms of commercial products. A modern and rational approach in the production of granular structures with tailored features (in terms of size and size distribution, flowability, mechanical and release properties, etc.) requires a deep understanding of phenomena involved during granules formation. By this knowledge, suitable predictive tools can be developed with the aim to choose right process conditions to be used in developing new formulations by avoiding or reducing costs for new tests. In this chapter, after introductive notes on granulation process, the phenomenological aspects involved in the formation of the granules with respect to the main process parameters are presented by experimental demonstration. Possible mathematical approaches in the granulation process description are also presented and the one involving the population mass balances equations is detailed.",book:{id:"7352",slug:"granularity-in-materials-science",title:"Granularity in Materials Science",fullTitle:"Granularity in Materials Science"},signatures:"Veronica De Simone, Diego Caccavo, Annalisa Dalmoro, Gaetano\nLamberti, Matteo d’Amore and Anna Angela Barba",authors:[{id:"140173",title:"Prof.",name:"Anna Angela",middleName:null,surname:"Barba",slug:"anna-angela-barba",fullName:"Anna Angela Barba"},{id:"143947",title:"Prof.",name:"Matteo",middleName:null,surname:"D'Amore",slug:"matteo-d'amore",fullName:"Matteo D'Amore"},{id:"176104",title:"Prof.",name:"Gaetano",middleName:null,surname:"Lamberti",slug:"gaetano-lamberti",fullName:"Gaetano Lamberti"},{id:"176239",title:"MSc.",name:"Diego",middleName:null,surname:"Caccavo",slug:"diego-caccavo",fullName:"Diego Caccavo"},{id:"181500",title:"Dr.",name:"Annalisa",middleName:null,surname:"Dalmoro",slug:"annalisa-dalmoro",fullName:"Annalisa Dalmoro"},{id:"260822",title:"MSc.",name:"Veronica",middleName:null,surname:"De Simone",slug:"veronica-de-simone",fullName:"Veronica De Simone"}]},{id:"49177",title:"Influence of Wettability and Reactivity on Refractory Degradation – Interactions of Molten Iron and Slags with Steelmaking Refractories at 1550°C",slug:"influence-of-wettability-and-reactivity-on-refractory-degradation-interactions-of-molten-iron-and-sl",totalDownloads:2067,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Refractories, materials that can withstand high temperatures, play an important role in the iron and steel sector which alone accounts for ~70% of total refractories produced. In this chapter, detailed wettability and interfacial phenomena investigations on alumina-carbon and zirconia-carbon refractories at steelmaking temperatures. The wettability between refractory substrates and molten iron/slags was investigated at 1550°C using the sessile drop approach in a horizontal tube furnace equipped with a CCD camera. Detailed experimental results were obtained on alumina-carbon/molten iron system at high temperatures. Alumina is known to be non-wetting to molten iron while carbon can be easily wetted. Observed contact angles were found to depend strongly on the substrate composition and contact time. While the refractory substrates containing 50 and 60% carbon were found to be non-wetting to molten iron, the substrates containing higher amounts of C (≥ 70%) were found to become increasingly wetting. Molten iron droplets were seen to spread on these substrates.",book:{id:"5319",slug:"wetting-and-wettability",title:"Wetting and Wettability",fullTitle:"Wetting and Wettability"},signatures:"R. Khanna, M. Ikram-ul-Haq and V. Sahajwalla",authors:[{id:"19010",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Khanna",slug:"rita-khanna",fullName:"Rita Khanna"}]},{id:"48822",title:"Wettability of Nanostructured Surfaces",slug:"wettability-of-nanostructured-surfaces",totalDownloads:3122,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:31,abstract:"There are many studies in literature concerning contact angle measurements on different materials/substrates. It is documented that textiles can be coated with multifunctional materials in form of thin films or nanoparticles to acquire characteristics that can improve the protection and comfort of the wearer. The capacity of oxide nanostructures to inhibit fungal development and neutralize bacteria is a direct consequence of their wetting behavior [1–6]. Moreover, the radical modification of wetting behavior of nanostructures from hydrophilic to hydrophobic when changing the pulsed laser deposition (PLD) ambient will be thoroughly discussed.",book:{id:"5319",slug:"wetting-and-wettability",title:"Wetting and Wettability",fullTitle:"Wetting and Wettability"},signatures:"L. Duta, A.C. Popescu, I. Zgura, N. Preda and I.N. Mihailescu",authors:[{id:"17636",title:"Prof.",name:"Ion N.",middleName:null,surname:"Mihailescu",slug:"ion-n.-mihailescu",fullName:"Ion N. Mihailescu"},{id:"23532",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrei",middleName:null,surname:"Popescu",slug:"andrei-popescu",fullName:"Andrei Popescu"},{id:"174343",title:"Dr.",name:"Liviu",middleName:null,surname:"Duta",slug:"liviu-duta",fullName:"Liviu Duta"},{id:"174344",title:"Dr.",name:"Irina",middleName:null,surname:"Zgura",slug:"irina-zgura",fullName:"Irina Zgura"},{id:"174345",title:"Dr.",name:"Ligia",middleName:null,surname:"Frunza",slug:"ligia-frunza",fullName:"Ligia Frunza"}]},{id:"62615",title:"Nanolevel Surface Processing of Fine Particles by Waterjet Cavitation and Multifunction Cavitation to Improve the Photocatalytic Properties of Titanium Oxide",slug:"nanolevel-surface-processing-of-fine-particles-by-waterjet-cavitation-and-multifunction-cavitation-t",totalDownloads:1161,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Titanium oxide particles were treated by water jet cavitation (WJC) generated and multifunction cavitation (MFC) using an ejector nozzle. Generation, growth, and collapse of cavitation are repeated with the particles of titanium oxide and platinum. Because the cavitation has an extremely high collapse pressure, the surface of the titanium oxide particles is processed by the microjets of cavitation in a reactor comprising the ejector nozzle. In the multifunction cavitation, ultrasonic irradiation of a waterjet during floating cavitation was used to generate microjets with hot spots. Hot working can be performed at the nanoscale on a material surface using this MFC process, resulting in morphological changes and variations in the surface electrochemical characteristics. The fundamental characteristics of multifunction cavitation were investigated theoretically and experimentally. Furthermore, the additional nozzle was put on the ejector nozzle in order to increase the temperature and pressure of bubble and the mechanism was clarified. The quantities of hydrogen and oxygen generated from titanium dioxide particles treated by multifunction cavitation in response to UV and visible light irradiation were remarkably increased compared to the amounts produced by particles treated by WJC processing. In this chapter, the methods and their results of processing particles by cavitation are introduced.",book:{id:"7385",slug:"cavitation-selected-issues",title:"Cavitation",fullTitle:"Cavitation - Selected Issues"},signatures:"Toshihiko Yoshimura, Kumiko Tanaka and Masataka Ijiri",authors:[{id:"246052",title:"Dr.",name:"Masataka",middleName:null,surname:"Ijiri",slug:"masataka-ijiri",fullName:"Masataka Ijiri"},{id:"246359",title:"Prof.",name:"Toshihiko",middleName:null,surname:"Yoshimura",slug:"toshihiko-yoshimura",fullName:"Toshihiko Yoshimura"},{id:"246433",title:"Dr.",name:"Kumiko",middleName:null,surname:"Tanaka",slug:"kumiko-tanaka",fullName:"Kumiko Tanaka"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"961",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:101,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517",scope:"Paralleling similar advances in the medical field, astounding advances occurred in Veterinary Medicine and Science in recent decades. These advances have helped foster better support for animal health, more humane animal production, and a better understanding of the physiology of endangered species to improve the assisted reproductive technologies or the pathogenesis of certain diseases, where animals can be used as models for human diseases (like cancer, degenerative diseases or fertility), and even as a guarantee of public health. Bridging Human, Animal, and Environmental health, the holistic and integrative “One Health” concept intimately associates the developments within those fields, projecting its advancements into practice. This book series aims to tackle various animal-related medicine and sciences fields, providing thematic volumes consisting of high-quality significant research directed to researchers and postgraduates. It aims to give us a glimpse into the new accomplishments in the Veterinary Medicine and Science field. By addressing hot topics in veterinary sciences, we aim to gather authoritative texts within each issue of this series, providing in-depth overviews and analysis for graduates, academics, and practitioners and foreseeing a deeper understanding of the subject. Forthcoming texts, written and edited by experienced researchers from both industry and academia, will also discuss scientific challenges faced today in Veterinary Medicine and Science. In brief, we hope that books in this series will provide accessible references for those interested or working in this field and encourage learning in a range of different topics.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/13.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 14th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"38652",title:"Dr.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo is a Professor at the Department of Engineering of the University of Naples “Parthenope”, Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plant, logistics, manufacturing and safety. She serves as an Associate Editor for the International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process. She is a member of AHP Academy and a member of several editorial boards. She has over 160 Scientific Publications in International Journals and Conferences and she is the author of 5 books on Innovation and Decision Making in Industrial Applications and Engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Parthenope University of Naples",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"92",title:"Health and Wellbeing",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/92.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"348225",title:"Prof.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Hemingway",slug:"ann-hemingway",fullName:"Ann Hemingway",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035LZFoQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-11T14:55:40.jpg",biography:"Professor Hemingway is a public health researcher, Bournemouth University, undertaking international and UK research focused on reducing inequalities in health outcomes for marginalised and excluded populations and more recently focused on equine assisted interventions.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bournemouth University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"93",title:"Inclusivity and Social Equity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/93.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"210060",title:"Prof. Dr.",name:"Ebba",middleName:null,surname:"Ossiannilsson",slug:"ebba-ossiannilsson",fullName:"Ebba Ossiannilsson",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6LkBQAU/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:31:48.png",biography:'Professor Dr. Ebba Ossiannilsson is an independent researcher, expert, consultant, quality auditor and influencer in the fields of open, flexible online and distance learning (OFDL) and the "new normal". Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. She is regularly invited as a keynote speaker at conferences. She is a guest editor for several special issues and a member of the editorial board of several scientific journals. She has published more than 200 articles and is currently working on book projects in the field of OFDL. Ossiannilsson is a visiting professor at several international universities and was recently appointed Professor and Research Fellow at Victoria University of Wellington, NZ. Ossiannilsson has been awarded the following fellowships: EDEN Fellows, EDEN Council of Fellows, and Open Education Europe. She is a ICDE OER Ambassador, Open Education Europe Ambassador, GIZ Ambassador for Quality in Digital Learning, and part of the Globe-Community of Digital Learning and Champion of SPARC Europe. On a national level, she is a quality developer at the Swedish Institute for Standards (SIS) and for ISO. She is a member of the Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition Sweden and Vice President of the Swedish Association for Distance Education. She is currently working on a government initiative on quality in distance education at the National Council for Higher Education. She holds a Ph.D. from the University of Oulu, Finland.',institutionString:"Swedish Association for Distance Education, Sweden",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"94",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/94.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,editor:null,editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"95",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/95.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"181079",title:"Dr.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Lüthi",slug:"christoph-luthi",fullName:"Christoph Lüthi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHSqQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-12T15:51:33.png",biography:"Dr. Christoph Lüthi is an urban infrastructure planner with over 25 years of experience in planning and design of urban infrastructure in middle and low-income countries. He holds a Master’s Degree in Urban Development Planning from the University College of London (UCL), and a Ph.D. in Urban Planning & Engineering from TU Berlin. He has conducted applied research on urban planning and infrastructure issues in over 20 countries in Africa and Asia. In 2005 he joined Eawag-Sandec as Leader of the Strategic Environmental Sanitation Planning Group. Since 2015 he heads the research department Sanitation, Water and Solid Waste for Development (Sandec) at the Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Research and Technology (Eawag).",institutionString:"Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Switzerland",institution:null},editorTwo:{id:"290571",title:"Dr.",name:"Rui Alexandre",middleName:null,surname:"Castanho",slug:"rui-alexandre-castanho",fullName:"Rui Alexandre Castanho",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/290571/images/system/290571.jpg",biography:"Rui Alexandre Castanho has a master\\'s degree in Planning, Audit, and Control in Urban Green Spaces and an international Ph.D. in Sustainable Planning in Borderlands. Currently, he is a professor at WSB University, Poland, and a visiting professor at the University of Johannesburg, South Africa. Dr. Castanho is a post-doc researcher on the GREAT Project, University of Azores, Ponta Delgada, Portugal. He collaborates with the Environmental Resources Analysis Research Group (ARAM), University of Extremadura (UEx), Spain; VALORIZA - Research Center for the Enhancement of Endogenous Resources, Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre (IPP), Portugal; Centre for Tourism Research, Development and Innovation (CITUR), Madeira, Portugal; and AQUAGEO Research Group, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Brazil.",institutionString:"University of Johannesburg, South Africa and WSB University, Poland",institution:{name:"University of Johannesburg",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:9,paginationItems:[{id:"81493",title:"Rust Disease Classification Using Deep Learning Based Algorithm: The Case of Wheat",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104426",signatures:"Shivani Sood, Harjeet Singh and Suruchi Jindal",slug:"rust-disease-classification-using-deep-learning-based-algorithm-the-case-of-wheat",totalDownloads:35,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Food Systems Resilience",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10897.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}},{id:"81428",title:"Observatory of Sustainable Development in Postgraduate Study Programs in Baja California",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104641",signatures:"Rodolfo Martinez-Gutierrez, Maria Marcela Solis-Quinteros, Maria Esther Ibarra-Estrada and Angel Ernesto Jimenez-Bernardino",slug:"observatory-of-sustainable-development-in-postgraduate-study-programs-in-baja-california",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Globalization and Sustainability - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Emerging Issues",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11476.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}},{id:"81235",title:"Global Food System Transformation for Resilience",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102749",signatures:"Jasper Okoro Godwin Elechi, Ikechukwu U. Nwiyi and Cornelius Smah Adamu",slug:"global-food-system-transformation-for-resilience",totalDownloads:30,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Food Systems Resilience",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10897.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}},{id:"80749",title:"Analysis of the Nexus Between Coping Strategies and Resilience to Food Insecurity Shocks: The Case of Rural Households in Boricha Woreda, Sidama National Regional State, Ethiopia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102613",signatures:"Adane Atara Debessa, Degefa Tolossa and Berhanu Denu",slug:"analysis-of-the-nexus-between-coping-strategies-and-resilience-to-food-insecurity-shocks-the-case-of",totalDownloads:45,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Food Systems Resilience",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10897.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"11671",title:"Importance of Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant System in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11671.jpg",hash:"2bd98244cd9eda2107f01824584c1eb4",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,submissionDeadline:"March 17th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"270856",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Suna",surname:"Sabuncuoglu",slug:"suna-sabuncuoglu",fullName:"Suna Sabuncuoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11669",title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",hash:"9117bd12dc904ced43404e3383b6591a",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 3rd 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"415310",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Erik",surname:"Froyen",slug:"erik-froyen",fullName:"Erik Froyen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11672",title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",hash:"c00855833476a514d37abf7c846e16e9",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 6th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"14794",title:"Prof.",name:"Murat",surname:"Şentürk",slug:"murat-senturk",fullName:"Murat Şentürk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11674",title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",hash:"5d7d49bd80f53dad3761f78de4a862c6",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 6th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"238047",title:"Dr.",name:"Gaia",surname:"Favero",slug:"gaia-favero",fullName:"Gaia Favero"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11670",title:"Chitin-Chitosan - Isolation, Properties, and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11670.jpg",hash:"69f009be08998711eecfb200adc7deca",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"May 26th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"176093",title:"Dr.",name:"Brajesh",surname:"Kumar",slug:"brajesh-kumar",fullName:"Brajesh Kumar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11673",title:"Stem Cell Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11673.jpg",hash:"13092df328080c762dd9157be18ca38c",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"June 8th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"203598",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Diana",surname:"Kitala",slug:"diana-kitala",fullName:"Diana Kitala"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:25,paginationItems:[{id:"81793",title:"Canine parvovirus-2: An Emerging Threat to Young Pets",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104846",signatures:"Mithilesh Singh, Rajendran Manikandan, Ujjwal Kumar De, Vishal Chander, Babul Rudra Paul, Saravanan Ramakrishnan and Darshini Maramreddy",slug:"canine-parvovirus-2-an-emerging-threat-to-young-pets",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"81271",title:"The Diversity of Parvovirus Telomeres",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102684",signatures:"Marianne Laugel, Emilie Lecomte, Eduard Ayuso, Oumeya Adjali, Mathieu Mével and Magalie Penaud-Budloo",slug:"the-diversity-of-parvovirus-telomeres",totalDownloads:23,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"80187",title:"Potential Utilization of Insect Meal as Livestock Feed",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101766",signatures:"Sipho Moyo and Busani Moyo",slug:"potential-utilization-of-insect-meal-as-livestock-feed",totalDownloads:101,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Animal Feed Science and Nutrition - Production, Health and Environment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10830.jpg",subseries:{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition"}}},{id:"79909",title:"Cryopreservation Methods and Frontiers in the Art of Freezing Life in Animal Models",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101750",signatures:"Feda S. Aljaser",slug:"cryopreservation-methods-and-frontiers-in-the-art-of-freezing-life-in-animal-models",totalDownloads:160,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Animal Reproduction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10664.jpg",subseries:{id:"28",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology"}}},{id:"79866",title:"Ruminal Microbiome Manipulation to Improve Fermentation Efficiency in Ruminants",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101582",signatures:"Yosra Ahmed Soltan and Amlan Kumar Patra",slug:"ruminal-microbiome-manipulation-to-improve-fermentation-efficiency-in-ruminants",totalDownloads:216,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,authors:null,book:{title:"Animal Feed Science and Nutrition - Production, Health and Environment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10830.jpg",subseries:{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition"}}},{id:"79782",title:"Avian Reproduction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101185",signatures:"Kingsley Omogiade Idahor",slug:"avian-reproduction",totalDownloads:149,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Kingsley O.",surname:"Idahor"}],book:{title:"Animal Reproduction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10664.jpg",subseries:{id:"28",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology"}}},{id:"78802",title:"Intraovarian Gestation in Viviparous Teleosts: Unique Type of Gestation among Vertebrates",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100267",signatures:"Mari-Carmen Uribe, Gabino De la Rosa-Cruz, Adriana García-Alarcón and Juan Carlos Campuzano-Caballero",slug:"intraovarian-gestation-in-viviparous-teleosts-unique-type-of-gestation-among-vertebrates",totalDownloads:183,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Animal Reproduction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10664.jpg",subseries:{id:"28",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology"}}},{id:"79209",title:"Virtual Physiology: A Tool for the 21st Century",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99671",signatures:"Carmen Nóbrega, Maria Aires Pereira, Catarina Coelho, Isabel Brás, Ana Cristina Mega, Carla Santos, Fernando Esteves, Rita Cruz, Ana I. Faustino-Rocha, Paula A. Oliveira, João Mesquita and Helena Vala",slug:"virtual-physiology-a-tool-for-the-21st-century",totalDownloads:136,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"78849",title:"Application of Vermicompost Fertilizer in Aquaculture Nutrition: Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100326",signatures:"Sonnia Nzilani Musyoka and Rita Nairuti",slug:"application-of-vermicompost-fertilizer-in-aquaculture-nutrition-review",totalDownloads:67,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Animal Nutrition - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11416.jpg",subseries:{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition"}}},{id:"78998",title:"Effect of Various Feed Additives on the Methane Emissions from Beef Cattle Based on an Ammoniated Palm Frond Feeds",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100142",signatures:"Mardiati Zain, Rusmana Wijaya Setia Ningrat, Heni Suryani and Novirman Jamarun",slug:"effect-of-various-feed-additives-on-the-methane-emissions-from-beef-cattle-based-on-an-ammoniated-pa",totalDownloads:143,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,authors:null,book:{title:"Animal Feed Science and Nutrition - Production, Health and Environment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10830.jpg",subseries:{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition"}}}]},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[{caption:"Animal Nutrition",value:20,count:7,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",value:28,count:7,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Animal Science",value:19,count:11,group:"subseries"}],publishedBooks:{paginationCount:9,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"8737",title:"Rabies Virus at the Beginning of 21st Century",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8737.jpg",slug:"rabies-virus-at-the-beginning-of-21st-century",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Sergey Tkachev",hash:"49cce3f548da548c718c865feb343509",volumeInSeries:9,fullTitle:"Rabies Virus at the Beginning of 21st Century",editors:[{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61139/images/system/61139.png",institutionString:"Russian Academy of Sciences",institution:{name:"Russian Academy of Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10496",title:"Advanced Studies in the 21st Century Animal Nutrition",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10496.jpg",slug:"advanced-studies-in-the-21st-century-animal-nutrition",publishedDate:"December 8th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"László Babinszky, Juliana Oliveira and Edson Mauro Santos",hash:"8ffe43a82ac48b309abc3632bbf3efd0",volumeInSeries:8,fullTitle:"Advanced Studies in the 21st Century Animal Nutrition",editors:[{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.png",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Hungary"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10497",title:"Canine Genetics, Health and Medicine",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10497.jpg",slug:"canine-genetics-health-and-medicine",publishedDate:"June 2nd 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Catrin Rutland",hash:"b91512e31ce34032e560362e6cbccc1c",volumeInSeries:7,fullTitle:"Canine Genetics, Health and Medicine",editors:[{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",publishedDate:"January 20th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",hash:"13aaddf5fdbbc78387e77a7da2388bf6",volumeInSeries:6,fullTitle:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/25600/images/system/25600.jpg",institutionString:"Independent Researcher",institution:{name:"Harran University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9081",title:"Equine Science",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9081.jpg",slug:"equine-science",publishedDate:"September 23rd 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Catrin Rutland and Albert Rizvanov",hash:"ac415ef2f5450fa80fdb9cf6cf32cd2d",volumeInSeries:5,fullTitle:"Equine Science",editors:[{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8460",title:"Reproductive Biology and Technology in Animals",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8460.jpg",slug:"reproductive-biology-and-technology-in-animals",publishedDate:"April 15th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi and Katy Satué Ambrojo",hash:"32ef5fe73998dd723d308225d756fa1e",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Reproductive Biology and Technology in Animals",editors:[{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",institutionString:"Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, Spain",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8524",title:"Lactation in Farm Animals",subtitle:"Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements, and Modelization",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8524.jpg",slug:"lactation-in-farm-animals-biology-physiological-basis-nutritional-requirements-and-modelization",publishedDate:"January 22nd 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Naceur M'Hamdi",hash:"2aa2a9a0ec13040bbf0455e34625504e",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Lactation in Farm Animals - Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements, and Modelization",editors:[{id:"73376",title:"Dr.",name:"Naceur",middleName:null,surname:"M'Hamdi",slug:"naceur-m'hamdi",fullName:"Naceur M'Hamdi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/73376/images/system/73376.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7144",title:"Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7144.jpg",slug:"veterinary-anatomy-and-physiology",publishedDate:"March 13th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Catrin Sian Rutland and Valentina Kubale",hash:"75cdacb570e0e6d15a5f6e69640d87c9",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",editors:[{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7233",title:"New Insights into Theriogenology",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7233.jpg",slug:"new-insights-into-theriogenology",publishedDate:"December 5th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rita Payan-Carreira",hash:"74f4147e3fb214dd050e5edd3aaf53bc",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"New Insights into Theriogenology",editors:[{id:"38652",title:"Dr.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Animal Nutrition",value:20,count:1},{group:"subseries",caption:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",value:28,count:3},{group:"subseries",caption:"Animal Science",value:19,count:5}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:1},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:1},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]}},subseries:{item:{id:"12",type:"subseries",title:"Human Physiology",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. The endocrine and nervous systems play important roles in maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Integration, which is the biological basis of physiology, is achieved through communication between the many overlapping functions of the human body's systems, which takes place through electrical and chemical means. Much of the basis of our knowledge of human physiology has been provided by animal experiments. Because of the close relationship between structure and function, studies in human physiology and anatomy seek to understand the mechanisms that help the human body function. The series on human physiology deals with the various mechanisms of interaction between the various organs, nerves, and cells in the human body.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11408,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"213786",title:"Dr.",name:"Henrique P.",middleName:null,surname:"Neiva",slug:"henrique-p.-neiva",fullName:"Henrique P. Neiva",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/213786/images/system/213786.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Beira Interior",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"39275",title:"Prof.",name:"Herbert Ryan",middleName:null,surname:"Marini",slug:"herbert-ryan-marini",fullName:"Herbert Ryan Marini",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/39275/images/9459_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Messina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"196218",title:"Dr.",name:"Pasquale",middleName:null,surname:"Cianci",slug:"pasquale-cianci",fullName:"Pasquale Cianci",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196218/images/system/196218.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Foggia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:19,paginationItems:[{id:"81067",title:"Encapsulation of Essential Oils and Their Use in Food Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103147",signatures:"Hamdy A. Shaaban and Amr Farouk",slug:"encapsulation-of-essential-oils-and-their-use-in-food-applications",totalDownloads:46,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"80959",title:"Biological Application of Essential Oils and Essential Oils Components in Terms of Antioxidant Activity and Inhibition of Cholinesterase Enzymes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102874",signatures:"Mejra Bektašević and Olivera Politeo",slug:"biological-application-of-essential-oils-and-essential-oils-components-in-terms-of-antioxidant-activ",totalDownloads:46,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"80859",title:"Antioxidant Effect and Medicinal Properties of Allspice Essential Oil",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103001",signatures:"Yasvet Yareni Andrade Avila, Julián Cruz-Olivares and César Pérez-Alonso",slug:"antioxidant-effect-and-medicinal-properties-of-allspice-essential-oil",totalDownloads:33,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"80777",title:"Starch: A Veritable Natural Polymer for Economic Revolution",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102941",signatures:"Obi P. Adigwe, Henry O. Egharevba and Martins O. Emeje",slug:"starch-a-veritable-natural-polymer-for-economic-revolution",totalDownloads:43,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Starch - Evolution and Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10798.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"80673",title:"Teucrium ramosissimum Derived-Natural Products and Its Potent Effect in Alleviating the Pathological Kidney Damage in LPS-Induced Mice",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102788",signatures:"Fatma Guesmi and Ahmed Landoulsi",slug:"teucrium-ramosissimum-derived-natural-products-and-its-potent-effect-in-alleviating-the-pathological",totalDownloads:35,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"80600",title:"Essential Oil as Green Preservative Obtained by Ecofriendly Extraction Techniques",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103035",signatures:"Nashwa Fathy Sayed Morsy",slug:"essential-oil-as-green-preservative-obtained-by-ecofriendly-extraction-techniques",totalDownloads:57,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Nashwa",surname:"Morsy"}],book:{title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"79875",title:"Comparative Study of the Physiochemical Composition and Techno-Functional Properties of Two Extracted Acorn Starches",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101562",signatures:"Youkabed Zarroug, Mouna Boulares, Dorra Sfayhi and Bechir Slimi",slug:"comparative-study-of-the-physiochemical-composition-and-techno-functional-properties-of-two-extracte",totalDownloads:49,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Starch - Evolution and Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10798.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"80395",title:"History, Evolution and Future of Starch Industry in Nigeria",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102712",signatures:"Obi Peter Adigwe, Judith Eloyi John and Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"history-evolution-and-future-of-starch-industry-in-nigeria",totalDownloads:51,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Starch - Evolution and Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10798.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"80168",title:"Benzimidazole: Pharmacological Profile",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102091",signatures:"Mahender Thatikayala, Anil Kumar Garige and Hemalatha Gadegoni",slug:"benzimidazole-pharmacological-profile",totalDownloads:73,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Benzimidazole",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10840.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"80122",title:"Pharmaceutical and Therapeutic Potentials of Essential Oils",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102037",signatures:"Ishrat Nazir and Sajad Ahmad Gangoo",slug:"pharmaceutical-and-therapeutic-potentials-of-essential-oils",totalDownloads:123,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"80130",title:"Exploring the Versatility of Benzimidazole Scaffolds as Medicinal Agents: A Brief Update",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101942",signatures:"Gopakumar Kavya and Akhil Sivan",slug:"exploring-the-versatility-of-benzimidazole-scaffolds-as-medicinal-agents-a-brief-update",totalDownloads:55,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Benzimidazole",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10840.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"80018",title:"Potato Starch as Affected by Varieties, Storage Treatments and Conditions of Tubers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101831",signatures:"Saleem Siddiqui, Naseer Ahmed and Neeraj Phogat",slug:"potato-starch-as-affected-by-varieties-storage-treatments-and-conditions-of-tubers",totalDownloads:90,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Starch - Evolution and Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10798.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"80023",title:"Binary Interactions and Starch Bioavailability: Critical in Limiting Glycemic Response",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101833",signatures:"Veda Krishnan, Monika Awana, Debarati Mondal, Piyush Verma, Archana Singh and Shelly Praveen",slug:"binary-interactions-and-starch-bioavailability-critical-in-limiting-glycemic-response",totalDownloads:73,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Starch - Evolution and Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10798.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"79964",title:"The Anticancer Profile of Benzimidazolium Salts and their Metal Complexes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101729",signatures:"Imran Ahmad Khan, Noor ul Amin Mohsin, Sana Aslam and Matloob Ahmad",slug:"the-anticancer-profile-of-benzimidazolium-salts-and-their-metal-complexes",totalDownloads:90,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Benzimidazole",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10840.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"79835",title:"Advances of Benzimidazole Derivatives as Anticancer Agents: Bench to Bedside",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101702",signatures:"Kashif Haider and Mohammad Shahar Yar",slug:"advances-of-benzimidazole-derivatives-as-anticancer-agents-bench-to-bedside",totalDownloads:105,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Benzimidazole",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10840.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"79856",title:"Starch-Based Hybrid Nanomaterials for Environmental Remediation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101697",signatures:"Ashoka Gamage, Thiviya Punniamoorthy and Terrence Madhujith",slug:"starch-based-hybrid-nanomaterials-for-environmental-remediation",totalDownloads:101,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Starch - Evolution and Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10798.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}}]},publishedBooks:{paginationCount:9,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"9959",title:"Biomedical Signal and Image Processing",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9959.jpg",slug:"biomedical-signal-and-image-processing",publishedDate:"April 14th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Yongxia Zhou",hash:"22b87a09bd6df065d78c175235d367c8",volumeInSeries:10,fullTitle:"Biomedical Signal and Image Processing",editors:[{id:"259308",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongxia",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"yongxia-zhou",fullName:"Yongxia Zhou",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259308/images/system/259308.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Southern California",institution:{name:"University of Southern California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9973",title:"Data Acquisition",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Applications in Biomedical Engineering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9973.jpg",slug:"data-acquisition-recent-advances-and-applications-in-biomedical-engineering",publishedDate:"March 17th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",hash:"75ea6cdd241216c9db28aa734ab34446",volumeInSeries:9,fullTitle:"Data Acquisition - Recent Advances and Applications in Biomedical Engineering",editors:[{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9905",title:"Biometric Systems",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9905.jpg",slug:"biometric-systems",publishedDate:"February 10th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Muhammad Sarfraz",hash:"c730560dd2e3837a03407b3a86b0ef2a",volumeInSeries:8,fullTitle:"Biometric Systems",editors:[{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Kuwait"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8622",title:"Peptide Synthesis",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8622.jpg",slug:"peptide-synthesis",publishedDate:"December 18th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Jaya T. Varkey",hash:"de9fa48c5248dbfb581825b8c74f5623",volumeInSeries:0,fullTitle:"Peptide Synthesis",editors:[{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7497",title:"Computer Vision in Dentistry",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7497.jpg",slug:"computer-vision-in-dentistry",publishedDate:"September 18th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Monika Elzbieta Machoy",hash:"1e9812cebd46ef9e28257f3e96547f6a",volumeInSeries:7,fullTitle:"Computer Vision in Dentistry",editors:[{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8633",title:"Novel Diagnostic Methods in Ophthalmology",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8633.jpg",slug:"novel-diagnostic-methods-in-ophthalmology",publishedDate:"September 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Anna Nowinska",hash:"da2c90e8db647ead30504defce3fb5d3",volumeInSeries:6,fullTitle:"Novel Diagnostic Methods in Ophthalmology",editors:[{id:"261466",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",middleName:"Karolina",surname:"Nowińska",slug:"anna-nowinska",fullName:"Anna Nowińska",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261466/images/system/261466.jpeg",institutionString:"Medical University of Silesia",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7560",title:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods",subtitle:"Image Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7560.jpg",slug:"non-invasive-diagnostic-methods-image-processing",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mariusz Marzec and Robert Koprowski",hash:"d92fd8cf5a90a47f2b8a310837a5600e",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods - Image Processing",editors:[{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7218",title:"OCT",subtitle:"Applications in Ophthalmology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7218.jpg",slug:"oct-applications-in-ophthalmology",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Michele Lanza",hash:"e3a3430cdfd6999caccac933e4613885",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"OCT - Applications in Ophthalmology",editors:[{id:"240088",title:"Prof.",name:"Michele",middleName:null,surname:"Lanza",slug:"michele-lanza",fullName:"Michele Lanza",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240088/images/system/240088.png",institutionString:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institution:{name:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"6692",title:"Medical and Biological Image Analysis",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6692.jpg",slug:"medical-and-biological-image-analysis",publishedDate:"July 4th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Robert Koprowski",hash:"e75f234a0fc1988d9816a94e4c724deb",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Medical and Biological Image Analysis",editors:[{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",slug:"robert-koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},testimonialsList:[{id:"27",text:"The opportunity to work with a prestigious publisher allows for the possibility to collaborate with more research groups interested in animal nutrition, leading to the development of new feeding strategies and food valuation while being more sustainable with the environment, allowing more readers to learn about the subject.",author:{id:"175967",name:"Manuel",surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",institution:{id:"6221",name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",country:{id:null,name:"Mexico"}}}},{id:"8",text:"I work with IntechOpen for a number of reasons: their professionalism, their mission in support of Open Access publishing, and the quality of their peer-reviewed publications, but also because they believe in equality.",author:{id:"202192",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",slug:"catrin-rutland",institution:{id:"134",name:"University of Nottingham",country:{id:null,name:"United Kingdom"}}}},{id:"18",text:"It was great publishing with IntechOpen, the process was straightforward and I had support all along.",author:{id:"71579",name:"Berend",surname:"Olivier",institutionString:"Utrecht University",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71579/images/system/71579.jpg",slug:"berend-olivier",institution:{id:"253",name:"Utrecht University",country:{id:null,name:"Netherlands"}}}}]},submityourwork:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:101,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],subseriesList:[{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment"},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 7th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfPublishedChapters:96,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. Osma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDv7QAG/Profile_Picture_1626602531691",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad de Los Andes",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Colombia"}}},{id:"69697",title:"Dr.",name:"Mani T.",middleName:null,surname:"Valarmathi",fullName:"Mani T. Valarmathi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/69697/images/system/69697.jpg",institutionString:"Religen Inc. | A Life Science Company, United States of America",institution:null},{id:"205081",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:"Vinícius",surname:"Chaud",fullName:"Marco Chaud",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDGeQAO/Profile_Picture_1622624307737",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Sorocaba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/225906",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"225906"},fullPath:"/profiles/225906",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var m;(m=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(m)}()