IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\n
Designed to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\n
After a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
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Our innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\n
\n\t
Topic Focused Publications - Each topic showcases high impact subject areas
\n\t
Renowned Editorial Expertise - Series Editors, Topic Editors, and a team of international Board Members that permanently support each Book Series
\n\t
Fast Publishing - quick turnaround which is unique for book publishing
\n\t
The benefit of ISSN and ISBN for increased citation and indexing possibilities
\n
\n\n\n\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\n
IntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
We invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\n
Note: Edited in October 2021
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The book was constructed using 10 contributions from experts in diversified fields of condensed matter and material physics and its technology from over 15 research institutes across the globe.",isbn:"978-1-83880-555-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-554-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-327-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85564",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"advances-in-condensed-matter-and-materials-physics-rudimentary-research-to-topical-technology",numberOfPages:200,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"3aebac680de7d3af200eadd0a0b2f737",bookSignature:"Jagannathan Thirumalai and Sergey Ivanovich Pokutnyi",publishedDate:"May 6th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9414.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:6681,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:9,numberOfDimensionsCitations:15,numberOfTotalCitations:24,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 2nd 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 8th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 7th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 25th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 25th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"99242",title:"Prof.",name:"Jagannathan",middleName:null,surname:"Thirumalai",slug:"jagannathan-thirumalai",fullName:"Jagannathan Thirumalai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99242/images/system/99242.png",biography:"Dr. J. Thirumalai received his Ph.D. from Alagappa University, Karaikudi in 2010. He was also awarded the Post-doctoral Fellowship from Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Republic of Korea, in 2013. He worked as Assistant Professor of Physics, B.S. Abdur Rahman University, Chennai, India (2011 to 2016). Currently, he is working as Senior Assistant Professor of Physics, Srinivasa Ramanujan Centre, SASTRA Deemed University, Kumbakonam (T.N.), India. His research interests focus on luminescence, self-assembled nanomaterials, and thin film opto-electronic devices. He has published more than 60 SCOPUS/ISI indexed papers and 11 book chapters, edited 4 books and member in several national and international societies like RSC, OSA, etc. Currently, he served as a principal investigator for a funded project towards the application of luminescence based thin film opto-electronic devices, funded by the Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB), India. 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1. Introduction
The term “glucocorticoids” (GCs) represents both naturally secreted hormones by adrenal cortex and anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive agents. Since the successful use of hydrocortisone (cortisol), the principal glucocorticoid of the human adrenal cortex, in the suppression of the clinical manifestations of rheumatoid arthritis, many synthetic compounds with glucocorticoid activity have been manufactured and tested [1]. The differences between pharmacologic effects of synthetic GCs (SGCs) result from structural variations of their basic steroid nucleus and its side groups. These structural variations may affect the bioavailability of SGCs. These include gastrointestinal or parenteral absorption, plasma half-life, and metabolism in the liver, fat, or target tissues—and their abilities to interact with the glucocorticoid receptor and to modulate the transcription of glucocorticoid—responsive genes [2]. Structural variations reduce the natural cross-reactivity of SGCs with the mineralocorticoid receptor (MR), eliminating the offending salt-retaining effect. In addition to these, some variations increase SGCs’ water solubility for parenteral administration or decrease their water solubility to improve topical potency [3, 4]. The main SGCs used in clinical practice together with their relative biological potencies and their plasma and biological half-lives are listed in Table 1.
Glucocorticoids
Equivalent dose (mg)
Glucocorticoid potency
HPA suppression
Mineralocorticoid potency
Plasma half-life (min)
Biologic half-life (h)
Short-acting
Cortisol
20.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
90
8–12
Cortisone
25.0
0.8
0.8
80–118
8–12
Intermediate-acting
Prednisone
5.0
4.0
4.0
0.3
60
18–36
Prednisolone
5.0
5.0
0.3
115–200
18–36
Triamcinolone
4.0
5.0
4.0
0
30
18–36
Methylprednisolone
4.0
5.0
4.0
0
180
18–36
Long-acting
Dexamethasone
0.75
30
17
0
200
36–54
Betamethasone
0.6
25–40
0
300
36–54
Mineralocorticoids
Fludrocortisone
2.0
10
12.0
250
200
18–36
Desoxycorticosterone acetate
0
20
70
Table 1.
Glucocorticoid equivalencies (adapted from [5, 6, 7]).
GCs are 21-carbon steroid hormones. The delta-4,3-keto-11-beta,17-alpha,21-trihydroxyl configuration is required for glucocorticoid activity and is present in all natural and synthetic GCs. Approximately 90% of endogenous cortisol in serum is bound to proteins, primarily corticosteroid-binding globulin (CBG) and albumin. Conversely synthetic GCs other than prednisolone either bind weakly to albumin or circulate as free steroids, because they have little or no affinity for CBG. The free form of the GCs can easily diffuse through the membrane and can bind with high affinity to intracytoplasmic glucocorticoid receptors. GCs perform most of their effects owing to specific, immanent distributed intracellular receptors. Binding of the GCs to this receptor creates a complex, which then translocates into the nucleus, where it can interact directly with specific DNA sequences (glucocorticoid-responsive elements [GREs]) and other transcription factors. GCs are metabolized in the liver. The kidney excretes 95% of the conjugated metabolites, and the remainder is lost in the gut. Exogenous GCs have the same metabolic processes as endogenous GCs. The half-lives of synthetic GCs are generally longer than that of cortisol, which is approximately 80 minutes [8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13]. The mechanisms of actions of GCs are shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1.
The mechanisms of actions of GCs.
GCs are used in nearly all medical specialties for systemic therapies. GCs represent the standard therapy for reducing inflammation and immune activation in asthma, as well as allergic, rheumatoid, collagen, vascular, hematological, neurological disorders, and inflammatory bowel diseases. Also GCs are used in renal, intestinal, liver, eye, and skin diseases and in the suppression of the host-vs.-graft or graft-vs.-host reactions following organ transplantation. SGCs administered as replacement therapy in primary or secondary adrenal insufficiency (AI), and as adrenal suppression therapy in glucocorticoid resistance and congenital adrenal hyperplasia. They are also used for some diagnostic purposes, such as in establishing Cushing’s syndrome. Acute pharmacologic doses of GCs can be used in a small number of nonendocrine diseases, such as for patients suffering from acute traumatic spinal cord injury, with severe neurological deficits and bone pain even after surgery and critical illness-related cortisol insufficiency. In addition, all fetuses between 24 and 34 week gestation at risk of preterm delivery should be considered as candidates for antenatal treatment with GCs. Benefits of GCs have been showed in a number of other patients including high-risk cardiac surgery, liver failure, post-traumatic stress disorder, community acquired pneumonia, and weaning from mechanical ventilation [3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18]. Common clinical uses of systemic GCs are shown in Table 2.
Field of medicine
Disorder(s)
Allergy and respirology
Moderate to severe asthma exacerbations
cAute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
Allergic rhinitis
Atopic dermatitis
Urticaria/angioedema
Anaphylaxis
Food and drug allergies
Nasal polyps
Hypersensitivity pneumonitis
Sarcoidosis
Acute and chronic eosinophilic pneumonia
Interstitial lung disease
Dermatology
Pemphigus vulgaris
Acute, severe contact dermatitis
Endocrinology
Adrenal insufficiency
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia
Gastroenterology
Ulcerative colitis
Crohn’s disease
Autoimmune hepatitis
Hematology
Lymphoma/leukemia
Hemolytic anemia
Idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura
Rheumatology/immunology
Rheumatoid arthritis
Systemic lupus erythematosus
Polymyalgia rheumatica
Polymyositis/dermatomyositis
Polyarteritis
Vasculitis
Ophthalmology
Uveitis
Keratoconjunctivitis
Other
Multiple sclerosis
Organ transplantation
Nephrotic syndrome
Chronic active hepatitis
Cerebral edema
Table 2.
Common clinical uses of systemic GCs (adapted from [19]).
This comprehensive article aims to highlight the common side effects of systemic (oral and parenteral) GCs. First of all, the mechanisms of action of GCs will be described. Then the side effects of GCs will be discussed along with the pathophysiological mechanisms. While this section was being written, current literature and databases have been utilized.
2. Mechanism of actions
GCs affect many, if not all, cells and tissues of the human body, thus awakening a wide variety of changes that involve several cell types concurrently [20].
2.1. Gene transcription
Binding of the receptor to GREs may cause either enhancement or suppression of transcription of responsive downstream genes. GCs inhibit the synthesis of almost all known inflammatory cytokines [21, 22].
2.2. Post-translational events
GCs also inhibit secretion and synthesis of inflammatory molecules (IL-1, IL-2, IL-6, IL-8, tumor necrosis factor, inflammatory eicosanoids, and cyclooxygenase-2) by affecting post-translational events [23].
2.3. Effect on the distribution of blood cells
The administration of glucocorticoids predictably results in neutrophilic leukocytosis, dramatic reductions in circulating eosinophils and basophils, transient minor reductions in monocytes and total lymphocytes. Acute lymphopenia normalizes by 24–48 hours. GCs have no direct effects on erythrocyte and platelet counts. But anemia and thrombocytosis can heal with improvement of chronic inflammation [24, 25].
3. Changes in cell function and survival
3.1. Neutrophils
The most important effect of GCs on neutrophils is the inhibition of neutrophil adhesion to endothelial cells. This effect reduces trapping of neutrophils in the inflamed region and probably is responsible for the characteristic hematological change—neutrophilia. GCs at pharmacologic doses, only modestly impair neutrophil functions, such as lysosomal enzyme release, the respiratory burst, and chemotaxis to the inflamed region. Lower doses do not affect these functions [26, 27].
3.2. Monocytes and macrophages
GCs antagonize macrophage differentiation and inhibit many of their functions. GCs (1) supress myelopoiesis and inhibit expression of class II major histocompatibility complex antigens induced by interferon-γ; (2) block the release of numerous cytokines, such as interleukin-1, interleukin-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α; (3) suppress production and release of pro-inflammatory prostaglandins (PGs) and leukotrienes; (4) suppress phagocytic and microbicidal activities of activated macrophages; (5) reduce the clearance of opsonized bacteria by the reticuloendothelial system; (6) reduce accumulation of monocytes and macrophages in the tissues [28, 29, 30, 31].
3.3. Eosinophils, basophils, and mast cells
GCs support eosinophil apoptosis. In addition to this, GCs decrease the accumulation of eosinophils and mast cells to the allergic reaction sites. Also, GCs inhibit IgE-dependent release of histamine and leukotriene C4 from basophils, and they also inhibit degranulation both production of cytokines and degranulation of mast cells and eosinophils [26, 32, 33].
3.4. Natural killer cells (NKC)
Total numbers of circulating NKC are not significantly altered following administration of GCs. But, sustained upregulation of NKC activation genes were observed [34].
3.5. Endothelial cells
GCs have profound effects on the activation/function of endothelial cells and certainly inhibit vascular permeability. GCs inhibit directly the expression of adhesion molecules on both leukocytes and endothelial cells. GCs inhibit endothelial adhesion, as well as indirect effects due to the inhibition of transcription on cytokines (interleukin-1 and tumor necrosis factor) which upregulate endothelial adhesion molecule expression [25].
3.6. T lymphocytes
Administration of the GCs causes a dramatic diminution of in vitro antigen responsiveness of T lymphocytes. The generation, proliferation, and function of helper and suppressor T cells and cytotoxic T cell responses are inhibited by GCs. These effects are due to the inhibition of the release of certain cytokines. GCs also inhibit the acute generation of both T helper type 1- and T helper type 2-derived cytokines by activated T cells. But the inhibitory effect on expression of T helper type 1-derived cytokines is greater [35, 36, 37, 38].
3.7. B lymphocytes and immunoglobulin levels
GCs have gradual effects on B cell activation, proliferation, and differentiation. B lymphocytes are relatively resistant to the immunosuppressive effects of GCs in contrast to T lymphocytes. Once B cells are activated, they differentiate into immunoglobulin-secreting plasma cells. But GCs have only minimal effects on this differentiation process. The most important effect of GCs on B lymphocytes relevant with immunoglobulin production and secretion. GCs also increase immunoglobulin catabolism. A short course of treatment with GCs causes an evident and permanent decrease in serum IgG. In contrast, immunoglobulin E (IgE) levels may increase. Whether GCs inhibit immunoglobulin gene expression is not known. Consequently, low-dose GCs inhibits leukocyte traffic and cellular immune responses. But to suppress the functions of leukocytes and the humoral immune response, higher doses of GCs are needed. This variability of drug response is also obvious among different patients and diseases [39, 40, 41, 42, 43].
3.8. Dendritic cells and antigen presentation
GCs causes a significant reduction in circulating dendritic cells. Dendritic are the major stimulants of naïve T cells by presenting antigens. As a result, GCs impair the development of immunity to first encountered antigens [44].
3.9. Fibroblasts
At supraphysiological concentrations, GCs suppress proliferation of fibroblasts and growth factor-induced DNA synthesis and protein synthesis, including synthesis of collagen and glycosaminoglycan. Also GCs have been shown to interact with two mediators of fibroplasia; transforming growth factor-β and vascular endothelial growth factor. Furthermore GCs induce fibronectin messenger RNA transcription, inhibit interleukin-1, tumor necrosis factor-α-induced metalloproteinase synthesis, and arachidonic acid metabolite synthesis [20, 28, 45, 46].
3.10. Prostaglandins
Suppression of inflammatory prostaglandins (PGs) is a major factor in the anti-inflammatory action of the GCs. The suppression of phospholipase A2 activity with GCs is mediated by the activation of inhibitors of the enzyme itself or by inhibition of enzyme synthesis. The glucocorticoid-linked lipocortin/annexin family of proteins may be involved in this process. A second step in prostaglandin synthesis is the formation of prostaglandin H2 from arachidonic acid by enzymes called cyclooxygenases. The COX-2 gene and protein are strongly upregulated in endothelial cells, fibroblasts, and macrophages, and by mediators, such as endotoxin and interleukin-1. But GCs strongly suppress the expression of COX-2 induced by inflammatory stimuli. Later, D’Adamio et al. identified a glucocorticoid-induced leucine zipper (GILZ). GILZ is a member of the leucine zipper protein family which belongs to the transforming growth factor β-stimulated clone-22 family of transcription factors. GILZ inhibits inflammatory cytokine-induced expression of COX-2, by this way mediates the anti-inflammatory effects of GCs [47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53].
4. Side effects of systemic glucocorticoids
Toxicity of GCs is one of the most common causes of iatrogenic illness associated with chronic inflammatory disorders. The side effects of GCs have been known for decades. But the exact risk-benefit ratio is incomplete and/or inconsistent, because usually it is difficult to differentiate the effects of GCs from the effects of the underlying accompanying diseases, other comorbidities, or the other medications. GCs associated side effects are dependent on both the average dose and the duration of therapy. Overall, it can be stated that prolonged application is a high-risk factor, whereas total dose is of secondary importance. Even in low-dose therapy, GCs could lead to serious side effects. The severity ranges from more cosmetic aspects (e.g. teleangiectasia, hypertrichosis) to serious disabling and even life-threatening situations (e.g. gastric hemorrhage). Single or multiple side effects can occur [12, 54, 55]. The side effects of GCs are the major limiting factor for the use of these agents. An overview of the most common and serious side effects of GCs is summarized in Table 3.
Onset early in therapy, essentially unavoidable
Emotional lability
Enhanced appetite, weight gain, or both
Insomnia
Enhanced in patients with underlying risk factors or concomitant use of other drug
Glucocorticoid-related acne
Diabetes mellitus
Hypertension
Peptic ulcer disease
When supraphysiologic treatment is sustained
Cushingoid appearance
Hypothalmic-pituitary-adrenal suppression
Impaired wound healing
Myopathy
Osteonecrosis
Increased susceptibility to infections
Delayed and insidious, probably dependent on cumulative dose
Atherosclerosis
Cataracts
Fatty liver
Growth retardation
Osteoporosis
Skin atrophy
Rare and unpredictable
Glaucoma
Pancreatitis
Pseudotumor cerebri
Psychosis
Table 3.
The most common and serious side effects of GCs (adapted from [56]).
5. Adrenal insufficiency (AI)
The most common cause of AI is the chronic administration of high doses of GCs. This is called iatrogenic or tertiary AI. Exogenous GCs causes a significant suppression of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) even in small doses for only few days. Consequently, the adrenal cortex loses the ability to produce cortisol in the absence of adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH). When the suppression of ACTH levels prolonges, this situation causes atrophy of the adrenal cortex and secondary adrenal insufficiency. The use of systemic GCs results in higher systemic levels of corticosteroids than in cases of compartmental use, as a result leads to higher percentages of AI. Adrenal suppression is more likely in the following situations: (1) longer duration of treatment. The influence of smaller doses over longer durations is highly variable. After long-term systemic therapy with GCs (more than 1 year), AI has to be expected in 100% of the patients. (2) Supraphysiologic doses, stronger formulations, and longer acting formulations (Table 4). If the patients are taking doses of prednisone of ≥20 mg daily for ≥3 weeks, this situation should be considered as adrenal suppression. AI lasting for more than 4 weeks has been demonstrated after treatment with high-dose dexamethasone for 28 days [57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64].
Dose
Definition
Low dose
≤7.5 mg prednisone equivalent/day
Medium
>7.5 mg but ≤30 mg prednisone equivalent/day
High
>30 mg but ≤100 mg prednisone equivalent/day
Very high
>100 mg prednisone equivalent/day
Pulse therapy
≥250 mg prednisone equivalent/day for 1 day or a few days
Table 4.
The supraphysiologic dosing and interconversion of SGCs (adapted from [66, 67, 69]).
Prednisone or prenisolone 5 mg≈/hydrocortisone 20 mg≈/dexamethasone 0.75 mg.
Adrenal suppression is less likely in the following situations: (1) regimens that mimic the diurnal rhythm of cortisol (higher dose in the morning, lower dose in the afternoon) and (2) alternate-day dosing of steroids. The possible risk of this side effect is unknown. At the same time, individual responses to GCs may be highly different. The clinical presentation of AI is variable; many of the signs and symptoms are non-specific and can be mistaken for symptoms of intercurrent illness or the underlying condition being treated with GCs. Signs and symptoms of AI and adrenal crisis are listed in Table 5. AI often occurs when the exogenous GCs are withdrawn too rapidly or, in the case of stressful conditions (e.g. surgery and infection), when higher levels of GCs may be required. In addition to AI and adrenal crisis decreased ACTH level related with the suppression of the HPA axis, leads to reduced general steroid-hormone production. This situation favors further side effects, such as hypogonadism and osteoporosis [55, 65, 66, 67, 68].
Adrenal suppression
Weakness/fatigue
Malaise
Nausea
Vomiting
Diarrhea
Abdominal pain
Headache (usually in the morning)
Fever
Anorexia/weight loss
Myalgia
Arthralgia
Psychiatric symptoms
Poor linear growth in children
Poor weight gain in children
Clinical signs of Cushing syndrome
Adrenal crisis
Hypotension
Decreased consciousness
Lethargy
Unexplained hypoglycemia
Hyponatremia
Seizure
Coma
Table 5.
Signs and symptoms of adrenal insufficiency and adrenal crisis (adapted from [72]).
5.1. Steroid withdrawal or adrenal insufficiency?
When GCs are tapered and their effects decline, patients might experience lethargy, myalgias, nausea, vomiting, and postural hypotension. In this situation, increasing the dose of GCs to prevent AI may delay recovery of the adrenal function. The treatment plan should be made by evaluating the risk/benefit ratio. At this point, patients may just need reassurance, symptomatic treatment, or if necessary, a brief (1-week) increase of the previous lowest dose, followed by reevaluation. Maximal caution is advised with any taper. Fortunately, the adrenal cortex repairs the ability to secrete sufficient amounts of cortisol for some period of time. Repair of endogenous cortisol secretion is expected after stopping the exogenous GCs. But the recovery time may vary among patients. The inhibition of the HPA axis function induced by exogenous GCs may persist for 6–12 months after treatment is withdrawn. In conclusion, all patients using GCs are at risk for AI. Clinicians should inform patients about the risk, signs, and symptoms of AI; and consider testing patients after cessation of high dose or long-term treatment with GCs [68].
6. Weight gain and lipodystrophy
GCs have reciprocal effects on adipose tissue metabolism, promoting both lipolysis and lipogenesis/adipogenesis, inducing irregularity of adipose tissue distribution (i.e. lipodystrophy). These effects are shown in Figure 2 (adapted from [69]). About 60–70% of patients treated with GCs for a long-term period report weight gain. This is different from classical weight gain. A central hypertrophy of adipose tissue develops. Characteristic findings are facial adipose tissue (moon face), truncal obesity and dorsocervical adipose tissue (buffalo hump). In contrast, peripheral and subcutaneous adipose tissues get thinner. This specific changes are called Cushingoid features and related with lipodystrophy induced by GCs. Weight gain is the most common self-reported side effect. About two-thirds of patients exhibit Cushingoid features within the first 2 months of therapy with GCs. These side effects are dependent on both the dose and duration of GCs. The risk of weight gain increases from the use of 5 to 7.5 mg per day of prednisone (or an equivalent). The risk of these side effects are higher in younger patients, females, those with a higher baseline body mass index, those with a higher initial caloric intake (>30 kcal/kg/day), and those with a baseline higher leptin and lower resistin levels. More importantly, these side effects are related with high blood pressure, blood glucose and triglyceride levels, and low high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels (cardiovascular risk factors). Therefore, treatment with GCs increases the risk of coronary heart disease, cardiac insufficiency, and stroke [70, 71, 72, 73, 74].
7. Cardiovascular disease
GCs have complex, and often conflicting, influences on cardiovascular disease (CVD) and cardiovascular risk. Patients chronically using exogenous GCs are at higher risk of CVD, such as coronary artery disease, heart failure, and stroke. In patients with rheumatoid arthritis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and other conditions who were exposed to chronic exogenous GCs, a case-control study found a dose-response relationship between daily glucocorticoid dose and the risk of heart failure. The risk of ischemic heart disease was also increased. Patients taking ≥7.5 mg of prednisone per day or the equivalent had a significantly higher mixed risk of myocardial infarction, angina, coronary revascularization, hospitalization for heart failure, transient ischemic attack, and stroke. Exposure to GCs within the preceding 6 months was related with increased cardiovascular risks. The risks were higher with continuous use than intermittent use. The relationship between cardiovascular risk and GCs is confounded by the underlying inflammatory disease (e.g. rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus). Because of chronic inflammation and treatment with higher doses of GCs, chronic inflammatory conditions may further increase the incidence of CVD. This increased risk is cumulative and dose-dependent, is mainly observed during the first month of treatment and is reduced when treatment is interrupted. In patients with inflammatory arthritis, increased mortality from heart disease has been established. Moreover, an association between GCs and the risk for atrial fibrillation and flutter has been established by several studies. Pulse GCs are additionally related with CVD. Sudden death caused by pulse dose GCs has been reported. But this tends to occur in patients with underlying CVD. Therefore, patients with underlying severe cardiac and renal disease should be closely monitored during pulse therapy with GCs [75, 76, 77, 78].
Cardiovascular side effects of GCs can be explained by two mechanisms: (1) direct influence on the function of the heart and vasculature and (2) increasing cardiovascular risk factors. Glucocorticoid receptor is known to be expressed in the heart. By this way GCs exert direct effects on cardiomyocytes. The interaction of GCs with the vascular wall is impaired in CVD. Some well-known cardiovascular risk factors, such as hypertension, insulin resistance, hyperglycemia, and dyslipidemia are more commonly observed in glucocorticoid exposed people. The main effects of GCs on cardiovascular risk are likely due to interaction with the kidney, liver, adipose tissue, and central nervous system. The effects of GCs on homeostasis are presumably due to renal sodium retention and intravascular volume overload. There is also evidence for additional, non-renal mechanisms. This confirms that GCs can interact directly with the cells of the heart and vascular wall. By this way, GCs may alter their function and structure. In patients with chronic inflammatory disease, carotid plaque and arterial distensibility (independent of cardiovascular risk factors and clinical manifestations) have been established. In patients with systemic lupus erythematosus administration of GCs decreased the effectiveness of pravastatin [79, 80, 81, 82, 83].
8. Hyperglycemia and diabetes
GCs are the most common cause of drug-induced hyperglycemia and diabetes. Hyperglycemia and diabetes induced by GCs, is defined as an abnormal increase in blood glucose associated with the use of GCs in a patient with or without a prior history of hyperglycemia or diabetes. GCs cause an exaggerated postprandial hyperglycemia and insensitivity to exogenous insulin. Thus, GCs have a greater effect on postprandial compared to fasting glucose. Postprandial hyperglycemia (defined as blood glucose 200 mg/dL 2 hours after a meal) is a much more sensitive indicator for hyperglycemia and diabetes induced by GCs. The exact prevalence is not known. The incidence of hyperglycemia and diabetes in hospitalized patients treated with GCs without a known history of diabetes is >50%. GCs increases by two- to fourfold the risk of hyperglycemia and diabetes in non-diabetic subjects. Treatment with exogenous GCs disrupts the glycemic balance of known diabetics [84, 85, 86, 87].
Development of glucocorticoid-induced diabetes depends on the dose and duration of exposure. A study found that the risk for hyperglycemia increased substantially with increasing daily steroid dose. The risk may change with the type of the GCs, related with biochemical properties (e.g. potency of the anti-inflammatory and metabolic effects and duration of the effects). But, there is little difference between the GCs most frequently used (i.e. prednisone, prednisolone, and methylprednisolone). The effects of GCs on glucose excursions are observed within hours (6–8 hours) of exposure. The predisposing factors for hyperglycemia and diabetes induced by GCs have been suggested to be overweight, old age, non-white ethnicity, previous glucose intolerance, reduced sensitivity to insulin or impaired insulin secretion stimulated by glucose, female sex, Down syndrome, puberty, the severity of the disease itself, a family history of diabetes, type A30, B27, and Bw42 human leukocyte antigens (HLA); and receiving a kidney transplant from a deceased donor. Solid organ transplant patients treated with GCs, 10–20% of them develop diabetes, especially within the first months of exposure. Other immunosuppressive agents can also disrupt glycemic control through other mechanisms. Usually, hyperglycemia and diabetes induced by GCs improves with dose reductions and usually reverses when therapy is discontinued, but patients with high risk may develop persistent diabetes [88, 89, 90, 91].
The pathophysiology of glucocorticoid-induced diabetes involves (1) increase in insulin resistance and (2) reduced glucose uptake in muscle and adipose tissue (via insulin-sensitive glucose transporter type 4) as a consequence GCs cause decreasing glucose uptake and glycogen synthesis. On the other hand GCs have profound and reciprocal effects on glyceroneogenesis in liver and adipose tissue. GCs increase the amount of fatty acids released into the blood. Increased fatty acids interfere with glucose utilization and causes insulin resistance, particularly in skeletal muscle. (3) Increased glucose production, increased hepatic gluconeogenesis via peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α. (4) Direct effects on pancreatic β cells including inhibition of the production and secretion of insulin, a proapoptotic effect on β cells, a reduction in insulin biosynthesis, and β cell failure. (5) GCs may modulate the expression and activity of adipokines, such as adiponectin, leptin, and resistin. By this way GCs may disrupt insulin sensitivity and may also reduce the insulinotropic effects of glucagon-like peptide-1 [92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97].
9. Osteoporosis and osteonecrosis
9.1. Osteoporosis
GCs are the most common cause of secondary osteoporosis and nontraumatic osteonecrosis. GCs increase fracture risk in both adult men and women, regardless of bone mineral density (BMD) and prior fracture history. But fracture risk is related to the dose and duration of GCs, age, and body weight. Risk factors for osteoporosis induced by GCs are shown in Table 6. GCs cause significantly stronger losses of trabecular than of cortical bone. Fractures are most common in regions of the skeleton that are predominantly cancellous, such as the vertebral bodies and ribs. After discontinuation of GCs, fracture risk gradually declines to baseline over a year or two [98, 99, 100].
Risk factor
Explanation
Advancing age
Elderly patients receiving glucocorticoid therapy have a 26-fold higher risk of vertebral fractures than younger patients and a shorter interval between initiation of treatment and the occurrence of fracture
Low body mass index
Significant risk factor for GIO and probably fractures as well
Underlying disease
Rheumatoid arthritis, polymyalgia rheumatica, inflammatory bowel disease, chronic pulmonary disease, and transplantation are independent risk factors
Family history of hip fracture, prevalent fractures, smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, frequent falls
All are independent risk factors for osteoporosis but have not been well studied in patients receiving glucocorticoids
Glucocorticoid receptor genotype
Individual glucocorticoid sensitivity may be regulated by polymorphisms in the glucocorticoid receptor gene
11β-HSD isoenzymes
11β-HSD1 expression increases with aging and glucocorticoid administration and thereby enhances glucocorticoid activation
Glucocorticoid dose (peak, current, or cumulative, duration of therapy, interval)
There may be no safe dose, although this is somewhat controversial. However, the risk of fracture unarguably escalates with increased doses and duration of therapy. Alternate day or inhalation therapy does not spare the skeleton
Low BMD
Glucocorticoid-induced fractures occur independently of a decline in bone mass but patients with very low bone density may be at higher risk
Table 6.
Risk factors for glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis (adapted from [99]).
11β-HSD, 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase; BMD, bone mineral density.
GCs induce osteoclastic activity initially (first 6–12 months), followed by a decrease in bone formation. GCs decrease bone formation by inhibiting osteoblastic activity in the bone marrow, suppressing osteoblast function, decreasing osteoblast life span, and promoting the apoptosis of osteoblasts and osteocytes. The effect of GCs on bone turnover is complex and can be divided into two groups (Table 7) [101, 102, 103].
Direct effects
Indirect effects
Decreased bone formation
Inhibition of osteoblasts replication
Inhibition of osteoblastic apoptosis
Inhibition of bone matrix synthesis
Increased bone reabsorbtion
Stimulation of osteoclast synthesis
Decrease in net intestinal Ca2+ absorbtion
Inhibition of renal Ca2+ re-absorbtion
Stimulation of parathyroid hormone secretion
Inhibition of growth hormone secretion
Table 7.
Effects of glucocorticoids on bone metabolism (adapted from [103]).
9.2. Osteonecrosis
The most common joint involved is the hip and GCs are the second most common cause. The incidence of osteonecrosis induced by GCs increase with higher doses and prolonged treatment. But can be seen with short-term exposure to high doses, and without osteoporosis. Osteonecrosis develops in 9–40% of adult patients receiving long-term GCs. Risk factors are shown in Table 8 [104, 105, 106].
Dose and duration of therapy
Intra-articular administration
Polymorphisms in VEGF, GR, 11β-HSD2, COL2A1, PAI1, P-glycoprotein
Glucocorticoid-induced elevation in blood pressure is classified as secondary hypertension and is a major risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. Blood pressure in humans is subjected to tight control by several physiologic systems that have pleiotropic effects and interact together in a complex fashion. GCs can cause hypertension by influencing these systems in different ways. One possible mechanism is the in vitro affinity of the non-selective mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) for the GCs. As a result, stimulation of the MR by exogenous GCs leads to renal Na+ retention, volume expansion, and finally to an increase in blood pressure. Vascular tone (imbalance between vasoconstriction and vasodilation), centrally mediated mechanisms, renin-angiotensin system activation, cardiac hypercontractility, and endothelial cell dysfunction may also play a role. Enhanced reactive oxygen species and reduced nitric oxide (NO) bioavailability are the most important factors for endothelial cell dysfunction. The risk of hypertension is 2.2 times higher in patients treated with GCs, whatever the duration of exposure. The risk seems to increase with duration of exposure and daily dosage. A family history of essential hypertension may also predispose hypertension induced by GCs. People with glucocorticoid-induced lipodystrophy are at higher risk [107, 108, 109, 110].
11. Dyslipidemia
GCs have a very important role in energy homeostasis and on lipid metabolism. Chronic exposure to exogenous GCs is a secondary cause of dyslipidemia. But the degree of lipid abnormalities in different clinical conditions is quite variable. These variabilities are related with the heterogeneity of the populations treated in terms of age, sex, underlying condition, glucocorticoid dose, and concomitant medications. All possible changes in lipid profile (i.e. isolated increase of triglyceride levels, increase of both cholesterol and triglycerides levels, absence of changes in lipid parameters, and improvement in lipid profile with increased HDL cholesterol) have been reported, excluding organ transplant recipients. Because transplanted patients concomitantly treated with other immunosuppressive drugs with side effects on the lipid metabolism (e.g. cyclosporine), which is a confounding factor. People with glucocorticoid-induced lipodystrophy are more likely to develop an unfavorable lipid profile. But interestingly, findings from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey suggest that GCs may have a beneficial effect on lipid profile in adults ≥60 years of age. GCs stimulate lipolysis and modulate free fatty acid (FFA) mobilization through various mechanisms. These mechanisms are summarized in Figure 2. Stimulation of lipolysis depends on dose and duration. Therefore in patients treated with GCs at high doses or for prolonged periods, regular monitoring of lipid profile is recommended [111, 112, 113, 114] (Figure 3).
Figure 2.
Mechanisms of glucocorticoid-induced weight gain and lipodystrophy.
Figure 3.
Effects of glucocorticoids on adipose tissue and hepatic fatty acid metabolism (adapted from [115]).
12. Gastrointestinal side effects
Side effects of GCs on the gastrointestinal system include peptic ulcers (PU), upper gastrointestinal bleeding (UGB), and pancreatitis.
12.1. PU
There is conflicting evidence related with the risk of PU for patients treated with glucocorticoid monotherapy. In a case-control study, there was no increased risk of PU at any dose or duration of glucocorticoid monotherapy. But in the same study, the combination of GCs with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID), there was a significantly increased risk of peptic ulcer. Treatment with GCs may cause gastric irritation, more than PU [116, 117].
12.2. UGB
The incidence of UGB is low in patients treated with GCs alone and without a prior history of bleeding, but notably higher in patients receiving concomitantly anticoagulants and NSAIDs, and those with a history of bleeding. In the presence of different underlying diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, treatment with GCs may represent a more important risk factor for gastrointestinal complications than NSAIDs. In animal studies, GCs have been shown to increase gastric acid secretion, to reduce gastric mucus, to cause gastrin and parietal cell hyperplasia, and to delay the healing of ulcers [118, 119, 120].
12.3. Pancreatitis
Although the exact mechanism is unknown, incidence of GCs induced pancreatitis is well established in the medical literature. One case-control study showed that the risk of acute pancreatitis was increased among current users of oral GCs compared with nonusers. This risk was highest 4–14 days after drug dispensation and the risk gradually decreased thereafter. Pancreatitis, commonly reported in chronic exposure to GCs, especially in large doses for a wide variety of diseases [121].
13. Ocular side effects
13.1. Glaucoma
GCs induce morphological and functional changes in the trabecular meshwork (TM). These mechanisms are considered to be the leading cause of increased intraocular pressure during treatment with GCs. Systemic GCs are associated with a high incidence of glaucoma. All doses of GCs increase the risk for glaucoma. Nevertheless, doses of hydrocortisone 40 mg per day (prednisone 10 mg equivalent) were associated with an almost twofold increased risk. In patients over 40 years of age and with certain systemic diseases (e.g. diabetes mellitus, high myopia, connective tissue disease particularly rheumatoid arthritis), as well as relatives of patients with primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG), the risk for glaucoma induced by GCs increases. Glaucoma may lead to increased intraocular pressure, optic disc cupping, severe optic nerve damage, but considered a silent disease. Because there are no evident symptomsuntil visual loss. Discontinuation of GCs leads to reversal of intraocular hypertension within a few weeks, but the optic nerve damage is often permanent [122, 123].
13.2. Cataracts
Posterior subcapsular cataracts (PSC) induced by GCs appears bilaterally and is distinguishable from the more common types of cataract. Increased glucose levels, caused by an increased gluconeogenesis rate; inhibition of Na+/K+-ATPase; increased cation permeability; inhibition of glucose-6-phosphate-dehydrogenase; inhibition of RNA synthesis; loss of ATP; and covalent binding of steroids to lens proteins are the possible mechanisms. These changes are specific for PSC induced by GCs. The risk appears to be both duration and dose-dependent. PSC is more likely to occur at higher doses of GCs. But as with other side effects, lower doses (<5 mg prednisone per day) have been linked to PSC [123, 124].
13.3. Central serous chorioretinopathy (CSCR)
CSCR is also associated with systemic GCs. Symptoms are central visual blur and reduced visual acuity. GCs should be used cautiously in patients with a history of CSCR [125].
Exophthalmos and chorioretinopathy rarely occur. Consequently, before treatment with GCs, clinicians should ask about the history of glaucoma, cataracts, and CSCR; and patients with risk factors should be referred to ophthalmologic examination.
14. Immunosuppression and risk of infection
There are multiple anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects of GCs (Table 9) [126]. These mechanisms may predispose patients to infections. The overall risk of infections is 50–60% higher in the patients exposed to GCs. The risk of infections can be related with dose and duration of GCs. Infection rates were not increased in patients given a daily dose of <10 mg or a cumulative dose of <700 mg of prednisone. But the exact dosages and duration that substantially change the benefit-risk ratio for GCs varies by the personal and the underlying risk factors. The risk factors for infections are the underlying disorders (especially rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus), patient age, lower functional status, and concomitant use of immunosuppressive or biologic therapies. In addition, a low albumin level is strongly associated with the risk of infection, because of direct (i.e. as an etiological factor) or indirect (i.e. by being a marker of the malnutrition-inflammation syndrome) effects. Furthermore, a low albumin level is associated with a higher free glucocorticoid fraction. Due to the inhibition of cytokine release and associated reduction in inflammatory and febrile responses, patients treated with GCs may not be presented with obvious signs and symptoms of infection. Therefore, it may be difficult to detect infections at an early stage. In addition to serious bacterial infections, the increase in risk is much higher for opportunistic infections (e.g. Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia, herpes zoster tuberculosis, listeriosis, aspergillosis, nontuberculous mycobacterial disease, invasive fungal infections), and in specific populations (e.g. allogeneic bone marrow transplant and solid organ transplant). Reactivation of cytomegalovirus with GCs is a serious problem especially in solid organ transplant recipients [127, 128, 129, 130, 131].
Attenuation of clinical (i.e. fever) and radiological signs of infection
Potential delay of diagnosis
Table 9.
Immunosuppressive effects of glucocorticoids (adapted from [126]).
15. Myopathy
GCs have direct catabolic effects on skeletal muscles. These catabolic effects are mediated by several cellular mechanisms. GCs inhibit the glucose uptake in skeletal muscles, by this way stimulate protein catabolism and inhibit protein synthesis in muscles. These direct effects causes muscle weakness. Besides, it was shown that GCs increase the transcription of genes encoding components of the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway, thereby increasing the proteolytic capacity of muscle cells. Transactivation of certain genes through glucocorticoid receptors also contributes to muscle atrophy. GCs inhibit the production by the muscle of IGF-I, a growth factor that stimulates the development of muscle mass by increasing protein synthesis and myogenesis, while decreasing proteolysis and apoptosis. In addition, GCs stimulate the production of myostatin, a growth factor that inhibits the muscle mass development by downregulating the proliferation and protein synthesis [132, 133, 134, 135].
Myopathy usually develops over several weeks to months with the use of GCs. The typical clinical features are proximal muscle weakness and atrophy in both the upper and lower extremities. Quadriceps and other pelvic girdle muscles are more severely affected. Myalgias and muscle tenderness are not seen. Although there is some variation in the dose and duration of GCs prior to the onset of muscle weakness, the higher the dose of GCs used related with the more rapid the onset. But it is more common in patients treated with ≥10 mg/day of prednisone or equivalent. The severity and the mechanism for the catabolic effect of GCs may differ with age. Creatine phosphokinase, aldolase, aspartate aminotransferase, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), LDH isoenzymes, and changes in urinary excretion of creatine neither correlate with the degree of muscle weakness, nor discriminate between patients receiving small and large doses of GCs. So there is no definitive diagnostic test for myopathy induced by GCs. Diagnosis is to exclude other possible etiologic factors. Weakness of peripheral and respiratory muscles may have significant clinical effects, such as loss of quality of life, fatigue, impaired wound healing, compromised lung function, and poor immune response. Treatment is discontinuation of GCs or dose reductions immediately. Symptoms generally improve within 3–4 weeks of dose reductions, and often resolve after discontinuation of GCs [136, 137, 138].
16. Cutaneous side effects
The most important cutaneous side effects of systemic GCs are skin atrophy-fragility, irreversible striae rubrae distensae (red striae), purpura, and delayed wound healing. A rare but unimportant side effect is hypertrichosis. Fortunately, hypertrichosis is usually reversible and disappears after discontinuation of GCs. The potency and duration of therapy determine the occurrence and severity of cutaneous lesions.
16.1. Skin atrophy
All parts of the skin involved become thin and fragile. Women seem to be more susceptible to this side effect. Suppression of cutaneous cell proliferation and protein synthesis causes skin atrophy. Further effects of GCs on the skin are a decreased synthesis of epidermal lipids, as well as an increased transepidermal water loss [139, 140].
16.2. Striae
These are visible linear scars that form in areas of dermal damage, presumably during mechanical stress. Stria means scar tissue. For this reason, once developed, they are permanent. In the differential diagnosis, excessive weight gain and pregnancy should be excluded [141].
16.3. Delayed wound healing
The effects of GCs on wound healing are multifactorial. GCs prevent the early inflammatory phase, which is essential for wound repair. GCs also affect keratinocytes (epidermal atrophy and delayed reepithelialization), fibroblasts (reduced collagen and ground substance, resulting in dermal atrophy, and striae), and vascular connective tissue support (telangiectasia, purpura, and easy bruising). According to delayed granulation, tissue formation of GCs impairs angiogenesis. Furthermore GCs have impact on wound healing by the regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines, growth factors, matrix proteins, and matrix proteases [142].
16.4. Purpura
When severe dermal atrophy and loss of intercellular substance occur by GCs, blood vessels lose their surrounding dermal matrix. The fragility of dermal vessels causes purpura. The dorsum of the hands, forearms, sides of the neck, face, and lower legs (sun exposed areas) are the most common affected sites [143].
17. Psychiatric and cognitive disturbances
Systemic GCs induce dose-dependent a wide range of psychiatric and cognitive disturbances, including memory impairment, agitation, anxiety, fear, hypomania, insomnia, irritability, lethargy, mood lability, and even psychosis [144].
17.1. Behavioral effects
Increase in appetite resulting with weight gain is the most common behavioral side effect of long-term exposure to GCs. Weight gain does not correlate with the cumulative dose. Sleep disturbances are the second most common behavioral side effects of GCs and dose-dependent. The evening dose induces sleeplessness [145, 146].
17.2. Psychic effects
Psychic side effects (PSE) of GCs are quantitatively/qualitatively distinct forms. Symptoms range from an initial slight increase in the overall sense of well-being (independent of improvement in their underlying disease activity) or low-grade mood changes, such as euphoria, grandiosity, emotional lability, depressed or elated mood, up to severe psychiatric disorders, and suicidality. The frequency ranges from 1.3 to 62% in adults. The predicted threshold dose for PSE is ≥20 mg/day of prednisone (or equivalent), but can be seen at very low dosages. PSE commonly develop within the first weeks of exposure, but may occur within few days or at any point during treatment, including withdrawal (especially after long-term and high dose exposures). A family history of depression, previous neuropsychiatric disorders, and alcoholism has also been reported as risk factors for the development of PSE. Women were more likely to develop depression, whereas men were more likely to develop mania. The risk of depression, mania, delirium, confusion, and disorientation increases, but suicidal behavior and panic disorder decreases with age. PSE often disappears shortly after dose reduction or discontinuation. Switching to alternative GCs may be helpful. Clinicians should ask about a prior history of psychiatric disorder and refer patients to a psychiatrist [147, 148, 149].
17.3. Cognitive effects
Cognitive impairment is a common, dose-dependent side effect of GCs. Common symptoms are deficits in attention, concentration, memory retention, mental speed, and efficiency. Prolonged exposure to moderate/high doses of GCs may cause cumulative and long-lasting effects on specific brain areas. Low doses of GCs do not affect adult cognitive functions in both short- and long-term exposure. Older patients appear to be more sensitive to memory impairment with short-term exposure [149].
18. Monitoring and prevention of side effects
The same total dose of GCs among systemic treatments has different side effects. Split-dose regimens are more toxic than single daily-dose protocols. Both these protocols are more toxic than alternate-day treatment programs. In daily treatment regimens, SGCs with long biologic half-lives (e.g. dexamethasone) have a greater potential for side effects than analogs do with intermediate biologic half-lives (e.g. prednisone). High doses of systemic GCs can be administered for less than a week with partial safety, even though the same dose of drug administered for a more prolonged period will result in presumably, clinically significant side effects. The lowest dose of GCs should be used for the shortest period of time that is needed to achieve the treatment goals. Preexisting comorbid conditions (diabetes mellitus, hypertension, dyslipidemia, heart failure, cataract or glaucoma, peptic ulcer disease, use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, low bone density, or osteoporosis) may increase risk when GCs are required. To provide an optimal therapy, patient education is very important. Patients should be informed about the side effects of GCs. GCs generally stimulate the appetite, causes weight gain, elevated blood pressure, and glucose levels. Therefore, patients should be informed about the importance of diet when therapy is begun. The symptoms and signs of side effects related with GCs, should also be explained to the patients [32, 51, 52, 53]. For systemic therapy, the choice of specific GCs depends, partially, on clinical variables like underlying or accompanying diseases. Hydrocortisone is usually used for physiologic replacement and “stress” coverage in patients with HPA suppression. Hydrocortisone has a short biologic half-life and causes sodium and potassium retention. Thus, this agent is not commonly used for systemic immunosuppressive or anti-inflammatory treatment. Fluorinated analogs, such as dexamethasone, have a long biologic half-life and little sodium-retaining potency. But long biologic half-life, may be associated with a greater potential for side effects. As a result, this group of SGCs is not commonly used in prolonged daily therapy regimens [54].
19. Concluding remarks
To reduce the incidence and severity of these side effects (described above); they should be well known. Besides, dose of GCs should be decreased carefully. According to the patients’ risk factors taking general preventive measures are important.
\n',keywords:"glucocorticoids, systemic, mechanisms of actions, therapeutic use, side effects",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/58357.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/58357.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58357",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58357",totalDownloads:2098,totalViews:331,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:7,impactScorePercentile:96,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"April 25th 2017",dateReviewed:"October 27th 2017",datePrePublished:"December 20th 2017",datePublished:"May 23rd 2018",dateFinished:"December 21st 2017",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Glucocorticoids represent the most important and frequently used class of drugs in the management of many inflammatory and immunologic conditions. Beside these beneficial effects, glucocorticoids are also associated with serious side effects. Cushing’s syndrome, adrenal suppression, hyperglycemia, dyslipidemia, cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis, psychiatric disturbances, and immunosuppression are among the most important side effects of systemic glucocorticoids. These side effects are especially noticeable at high doses for prolonged periods. Even in low-dose therapy, glucocorticoids could lead to serious side effects. The underlying molecular mechanisms of side effects of glucocorticoids are complex, distinct, and frequently only partly understood. This comprehensive article reviews the current knowledge of the most important side effects of glucocorticoids from a clinical perspective.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/58357",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/58357",book:{id:"6192",slug:"pharmacokinetics-and-adverse-effects-of-drugs-mechanisms-and-risks-factors"},signatures:"Irmak Sayın Alan and Bahadır Alan",authors:[{id:"159628",title:"Dr.",name:"Irmak",middleName:null,surname:"Sayin Alan",fullName:"Irmak Sayin Alan",slug:"irmak-sayin-alan",email:"irmaksayin@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/159628/images/3375_n.jpg",institution:{name:"Okan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"209924",title:"Dr.",name:"Bahadir",middleName:null,surname:"Alan",fullName:"Bahadir Alan",slug:"bahadir-alan",email:"bahadiralan@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Mechanism of actions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Gene transcription",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Post-translational events",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Effect on the distribution of blood cells",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Changes in cell function and survival",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1. Neutrophils",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.2. Monocytes and macrophages",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.3. Eosinophils, basophils, and mast cells",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.4. Natural killer cells (NKC)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.5. Endothelial cells",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.6. T lymphocytes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.7. B lymphocytes and immunoglobulin levels",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"3.8. Dendritic cells and antigen presentation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"3.9. Fibroblasts",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"3.10. Prostaglandins",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17",title:"4. Side effects of systemic glucocorticoids",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"5. Adrenal insufficiency (AI)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"5.1. Steroid withdrawal or adrenal insufficiency?",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20",title:"6. Weight gain and lipodystrophy",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21",title:"7. Cardiovascular disease",level:"1"},{id:"sec_22",title:"8. Hyperglycemia and diabetes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_23",title:"9. Osteoporosis and osteonecrosis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_23_2",title:"9.1. Osteoporosis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_24_2",title:"9.2. Osteonecrosis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_26",title:"10. Hypertension",level:"1"},{id:"sec_27",title:"11. Dyslipidemia",level:"1"},{id:"sec_28",title:"12. Gastrointestinal side effects",level:"1"},{id:"sec_28_2",title:"12.1. PU",level:"2"},{id:"sec_29_2",title:"12.2. UGB",level:"2"},{id:"sec_30_2",title:"12.3. Pancreatitis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_32",title:"13. Ocular side effects",level:"1"},{id:"sec_32_2",title:"13.1. Glaucoma",level:"2"},{id:"sec_33_2",title:"13.2. Cataracts",level:"2"},{id:"sec_34_2",title:"13.3. Central serous chorioretinopathy (CSCR)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_36",title:"14. Immunosuppression and risk of infection",level:"1"},{id:"sec_37",title:"15. Myopathy",level:"1"},{id:"sec_38",title:"16. Cutaneous side effects",level:"1"},{id:"sec_38_2",title:"16.1. Skin atrophy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_39_2",title:"16.2. Striae",level:"2"},{id:"sec_40_2",title:"16.3. Delayed wound healing",level:"2"},{id:"sec_41_2",title:"16.4. Purpura",level:"2"},{id:"sec_43",title:"17. Psychiatric and cognitive disturbances",level:"1"},{id:"sec_43_2",title:"17.1. Behavioral effects",level:"2"},{id:"sec_44_2",title:"17.2. Psychic effects",level:"2"},{id:"sec_45_2",title:"17.3. Cognitive effects",level:"2"},{id:"sec_47",title:"18. Monitoring and prevention of side effects",level:"1"},{id:"sec_48",title:"19. 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American Journal of Roentgenology. 2011;196:1011-1018'},{id:"B106",body:'Barr RD, Sala A. Osteonecrosis in children and adolescents with cancer. Pediatric Blood & Cancer. 2008;50(2 Suppl):483-485'},{id:"B107",body:'WHO. World Health Organization (WHO): Fact sheet #317: Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs); 2013'},{id:"B108",body:'Ferrari P, Krozowski Z. Role of the 11b-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 in blood pressure regulation. Kidney International. 2000;57:1374-1381'},{id:"B109",body:'Baum M, Moe OW. Glucocorticoid-mediated hypertension: Does the vascular smooth muscle hold all the answers? Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. 2008;19:1251-1253'},{id:"B110",body:'Sato A, Funder JW, Okubo M, Kubota E, Saruta T. Glucocorticoid-induced hypertension in the elderly. Relation to serum calcium and family history of essential hypertension. American Journal of Hypertension. 1995;8(8):823-828'},{id:"B111",body:'Choi HK, Seeger JD. Glucocorticoid use and serum lipid levels in US adults: The third National Health and nutrition examination survey. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 2005;53(4):528-535'},{id:"B112",body:'Zimmerman J, Fainaru M, Eisenberg S. The effects of prednisone therapy on plasma lipoproteins and apolipoproteins: A prospective study. Metabolism, Clinical and Experimental. 1984;33(6):521-526'},{id:"B113",body:'Ettinger WH, Klinefelter HF, Kwiterovitch PO. Effect of shortterm, low-dose corticosteroids on plasma lipoprotein lipids. Atherosclerosis. 1987;63(2-3):167-172'},{id:"B114",body:'Svenson KL, Lithell H, Hällgren R, Vessby B. Serum lipoprotein in active rheumatoid arthritis and other chronic inflammatory arthritides. II. Effects of anti-inflammatory and disease-modifying drug treatment. Archives of Internal Medicine. 1987;147:1917-1920'},{id:"B115",body:'Arnaldi G, Scandali VM, Trementino L, Cardinaletti M, Appolloni G, Boscaro M. Pathophysiology of Dyslipidemia in Cushing’s syndrome. Neuroendocrinology. 2010;92(suppl 1):86-90'},{id:"B116",body:'Piper JM, Ray WA, Daugherty JR, Griffin MR. Corticosteroid use and peptic ulcer disease: Role of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Annals of Internal Medicine. 1991;114:735-740'},{id:"B117",body:'Conn HO, Poynard T. Corticosteroids and peptic ulcer: Meta-analysis of adverse events during steroid therapy. Journal of Internal Medicine. 1994;236:619-632'},{id:"B118",body:'Richardson CT. Pathogenetic factors in peptic ulcer disease. The American Journal of Medicine. 1985;79:1-7'},{id:"B119",body:'Narum S, Westergren T, Klemp M. Corticosteroids and risk of gastrointestinal bleeding: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open. 2014;4:e004587'},{id:"B120",body:'Hernández-Díaz S, Rodríguez LA. Steroids and risk of upper gastrointestinal complications. American Journal of Epidemiology. 2001;153:1089-1093'},{id:"B121",body:'Sadr-Azodi O, Mattsson F, Bexlius TS, Lindblad M, Lagergren J, Ljung R. 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Glucocorticoids and invasive fungal infections. Lancet. 2003 Nov 29;362(9398):1828-1838'},{id:"B127",body:'Stuck AE, Minder CE, Frey FJ. Risk of infectious complications in patients taking glucocorticosteroids. Reviews of Infectious Diseases. 1989;11:954-963'},{id:"B128",body:'Saag KG, Furst DE: Major side effects of systemic glucocorticoids, Up To Date 2012; 2013'},{id:"B129",body:'Saag KG. Short-term and long-term safety of glucocorticoids in rheumatoid arthritis. Bulletin of the NYU Hospital for Joint Diseases. 2012;70(Suppl 1):21-25'},{id:"B130",body:'Czock D, Keller F, Rasche FM, Häussler U. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of systemically administered glucocorticoids. Clinical Pharmacokinetics. 2005;44:61-98'},{id:"B131",body:'Brassard P, Bitton A, Suissa A, Sinyavskaya L, Patenaude V, Suissa S. Oral corticosteroids and the risk of serious infections in patients with elderly-onset inflammatory bowel diseases. The American Journal of Gastroenterology. 2014;109:1795-1802'},{id:"B132",body:'LaPier TK. GC-induced muscle atrophy. The role of exercise in treatment and prevention. Journal of Cardiopulmonary Rehabilitation. 1997;17:76-84'},{id:"B133",body:'Price SR, Du JD, Bailey JL, Mitch WE. Molecular mechanisms regulating protein turnover in muscle. American Journal of Kidney Diseases. 2001;37(1 suppl. 2):S112-S114'},{id:"B134",body:'Frost RA, Lang CH. Regulation of insulin-like growth factor-I in skeletal muscle and muscle cells. Minerva Endocrinologica. 2003 Mar;28(1):53-73'},{id:"B135",body:'Ma K, Mallidis C, Bhasin S, Mahabadi V, Artaza J, Gonzalez-Cadavid N, Arias J, Salehian B. Glucocorticoid-induced skeletal muscle atrophy is associated with upregulation of myostatin gene expression. American Journal of Physiology Endocrinology and Metabolism. 2003 Aug;285(2):E363-E371'},{id:"B136",body:'Miller ML. Glucocorticoid-induced myopathy, UpToDate 2013'},{id:"B137",body:'Dardevet D, Sornet C, Savary I, Debras E, Patureau-Mirand P, Grizard J. Glucocorticoid effects on insulin- and IGF-I-regulated muscle protein metabolism during aging. The Journal of Endocrinology. 1998 Jan;156(1):83-89'},{id:"B138",body:'LaPier TK. Glucocorticoid-induced muscle atrophy. The role of exercise in treatment and prevention. Journal of Cardiopulmonary Rehabilitation. 1997;17:76-84'},{id:"B139",body:'Oikarinen A, Autio P, Kiistala U, Risteli L, Risteli J. A new method to measure type I and III collagen synthesis in human skin in vivo: Demonstration of decreased collagen synthesis after topical GC treatment. The Journal of Investigative Dermatology. 1992 Feb;98(2):220-225'},{id:"B140",body:'Kolbe L, Kligman AM, Schreiner V, Stoudenmayer T. Corticosteroid-induced atrophy and barrier impairment measured by non-invasive methods in human skin. Skin Research and Technology. 2001 May;7(2):73-77'},{id:"B141",body:'Ammar NM, Rao B, Schwartz RA, Janniger CK. Cutaneous striae. Cutis. 2000;65:69-70'},{id:"B142",body:'Truhan AP, Ahmed AR. Corticosteroids: A review with emphasis on complications of prolonged systemic therapy. Annals of Allergy. 1989;62:375-391'},{id:"B143",body:'Colomb D. Stellate spontaneous pseudoscars. Senile and presenile forms: Especially those forms caused by prolonged corticoid therapy. Archives of Dermatology. 1972;105:551-554'},{id:"B144",body:'Wolkowitz OM. Prospective controlled studies of the behavioral and biological effects of exogenous corticosteroids. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 1994;19:233-255'},{id:"B145",body:'Curtis JR, Westfall AO, Allison J, et al. Population-based assessment of adverse events associated with long-term glucocorticoid use. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 2006;55:420-426'},{id:"B146",body:'Wung PK, Anderson T, Fontaine KR, et al. Effects of glucocorticoids on weight change during the treatment of Wegener’s granulomatosis. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 2008;59:746-753'},{id:"B147",body:'Fietta P, Fietta P, Delsante G. Central nervous system effects of natural and synthetic glucocorticoids. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences. 2009 Oct;63(5):613-622'},{id:"B148",body:'Minden SL, Orav J, Schildkraut JJ. Hypomanic reactions to ACTH and prednisone treatment for multiple sclerosis. Neurology. 1988;38:1631-1634'},{id:"B149",body:'Fardet L, Petersen I, Nazareth I. Suicidal behavior and severe neuropsychiatric disorders following glucocorticoid therapy in primary care. The American Journal of Psychiatry. 2012;169:491-497'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Irmak Sayın Alan",address:"irmaksayin@yahoo.com",affiliation:'
Okan University, Medical Faculty, Department of Internal Medicine, Turkey
Okan University, Medical Faculty, Department of Cardiology, Turkey
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1. Introduction
The new-millennium has witnessed the appearance of an infinite number of developments in strategic administration-thinking as a result of the “information technology revolution”, and the appearance of the term “knowledge economy”, which looks at the institution’s excellence not only in terms of quantitative or qualitative productivity, but also in terms of the quality of knowledge that exists in its human assets, represented as talent. Therefore, management as a contemporary science has changed its language to focus on mental abilities where talented individuals institute a strategic resource in an institution [1]. Talent is a primary source of competitive advantage for institutions [2, 3, 4, 5, 6]. As a result, there are many practical benefits for institutions that focus on talents [5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. For example, talent assists in increasing rankings and profits of higher education institutions [8, 9]. To explain, universities’ rankings are aligned with the talent of high-performing employees [8, 9, 10, 11, 12]. These talented individuals contribute significantly to a university’s performance by attracting new students, conducting high-quality teaching and learning, conducting high-level research and securing funds for further research [8, 9, 10, 11, 12].
Over the past two decades, there has been a dramatic increase in TM studies [13]. TM has become a common term since the McKinsey group first mentioned it in their 1997 report ‘The War for Talent’ [14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21]. Then, Michaels et al. [22] discussed TM in more detail in their book [19, 23, 24]. Since then, the topic has attracted enthusiastic interest from scholars in various fields and sectors [17, 21]. In the higher education sector as an industry, TM as a primary component of strategic human resource management can improve a university’s performance over the long term by advancing its strategy and enact it through its talented individuals [12, 25, 26]. Thus, TM is a key for institutional success by making it possible for institutional systems to achieve higher goals [27, 28, 29, 30]. Consequently, it is considered a core resource of innovation and social development [12, 21].
Nonetheless, new research in the strategic human resource area is urgently needed and rapidly expanding, as institutions have encountered significant challenges associated with TM [21, 26, 31]. These key challenges are faced by higher education institutions which need to give high-quality assurance in their technical expertise and activities [32, 33, 34, 35, 36] and their ability to be a leading exporter of international education [35, 36, 37, 38]. Bradley [12] has suggested that a key solution to meet these challenges in Australian higher education could be the application of TM programmes. Such programmes include processes such as attraction, development and retention of talent, which are keys to growth and success of higher education institutions within their industry [12, 26, 39, 40, 41].
The review of the chapter is covered into five sections. The introduction of the chapter is provided in Section 1. Next, the TM theory and a brief explanation of this concept are provided. It discusses the conceptual identity and intellectual frameworks of TM. Talent management practices (TMPs) are reviewed and addressed in Section 3. Here, the practices that are included in the review are attraction, development and retention of talent. Section 4 discusses the innovations of TM in higher education. Finally, Section 5 concludes this chapter.
2. Method
The authors adopted both theoretical and practical approaches. Theoretically, a systematic review that includes empirical and theoretical studies on TM which have been published between 2007 and 2017 in scholarly research has been adopted. A total of 35 academic works were involved in the review [42]. Practically, the authors carried out an empirical qualitative study in six Australian universities to understand the best processes that are currently used in managing talent in the higher education sector [43, 44]. It comprised qualitative multi-method studies including (i) a brainstorming session to develop sets of questions, (ii) a focus group session to define the scope of individual interviews and (iii) individual interviews to obtain an in-depth understanding on the subject [45, 46, 47]. Qualitative methods were enough to comprehend the best practices of innovation that are currently utilised in managing talent in the higher education environment. The sample consisted of 6 participants for brainstorming, 11 in the focus group session and 6 individual interviews.
3. The conception of talent management
In today’s business world, talents are considered strategic resources for meeting institutional demand for increased competitiveness [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 41, 48, 49]. Prior to reviewing TM, it is essential to describe the term talent [21, 50]. Iles et al. [14], Barron [51], Blass [52], Li and Devos [53], Cannon and McGee [54], Tansley et al. [55], Festing and Schäfer [56] and Naim et al. [57] all introduce talent as high-performing employees who have been considered to have significantly contributed to the progress of an organisation and its future development. Others like Rudhumbu and Maphosa [39], Harstad [58] and Sparrow and Makram [59] consider these as employees who are capable to add value by increasing organisational production. Having experience, mastery, knowledge, the skills, ability and the potential for development are all considered by Silzer and Church [60], Gümüş et al. [61], Beardwell and Thompson [62], Silzer and Dowell [63] and D’Annunzio-Green [64] as indications of talent.
Similarly, Baublyte [65] and Macfarlane et al. [66] have defined talent as those who exhibit leadership qualities that play a pivotal function within the organisation and show superior behaviour. Some other characteristics ascribed to the talent of human capital are that it is beneficial, unique [67, 68] and a major institutional resource [69, 70]. According to Scaringella and Malaeb [31], Ross [71] and Butter et al. [72], talent is an innate ability to learn things in an effortless and skilful manner inherent in these intelligent and creative individuals. Other researchers, such as Murongazvombo [73], Chuai [74], Kravtsova [75], Kramer et al. [76] and Kaliannan et al. [77], have defined talent as an essential driver and success element for an institution both short and long term [21].
As a concept, in the higher education environment, TM as a primary component of the strategic human resource management can improve a university’s performance over the long term by understanding the strategy enacted through its talented individuals [12, 25, 26]. This is a key for institutional success by making it possible for institutional systems to achieve higher goals [27, 28, 29, 30]. In the literature, there are six common perspectives on TM, which are [21] (1) process, (2) strategic, (3) developmental, (4) cultural, (5) competitive and (6) human resource planning perspectives [53, 65, 78].
4. The process perspective
This was defined by Iles et al. [14], Blass [52] and Cappelli [79], for whom TM appears as a complex set of processes that operate in large institutions so that the institutions and individuals within them can meet current and future needs with overall benefits for the institution. In a similar vein, Dessler [80], Tansley et al. [81], Blackman and Kennedy [82] and Ali et al. [83] portray the TM process as needing full integration, in order to become a standard practice to attract individuals who have high potential for creative development and to retain them in order to generate a unique value to the institution. In other words, it is a specific method for attracting and retaining abilities and essential knowledge for the future [80, 81, 82, 83].
5. The strategic perspective
TM is a strategy to attract the right talent and provide workers with potential contributions via strategic workforce planning and high-quality development experiences that build institutional capabilities [59, 84]. In the same way, it is a strategic function for identifying talent gaps and managing succession planning, along with attracting [85], selecting, motivating, developing and maintaining highly qualified individuals [86, 87]. TM can be useful in empowering employees to understand their essential capabilities and to produce an effective climate which professionally empowers them to underpin, capture and develop these talents into individual productivity [59, 71]. Therefore, TM should inform the selection of high-performance incumbents to fill positions [88, 89].
6. The developmental perspective
TM is a strategic priority for business institutions and is perceived as a crucial driver in developing institutional performance [90, 91]. Similarly, Cannon and McGee [54], Silzer and Dowell [63] and Moczydłowska [92] explain TM as a set of procedures, programmes and activities applied to highly qualified employees who are characterised by high potential in their development in order to achieve an institution’s goals now and in the future. The reason for this is that, if an institution fails to provide talented development and training, it may lose available talent [93].
7. The competitive perspective
As perceived by Beamond et al. [94], Tomany [95] and Meyers and Van Woerkom [96], TM is an engine of sustainable competitive advantage, which is tricky to simulate, is rare and valuable and cannot be replaced by competitors. From the same perspective, Iles et al. [14], Al Haidari [50], Gelens et al. [68], Collings and Mellahi [88], Waheed et al. [97] and Yap [98] define it as activities, processes and development of skills which require individuals to achieve a sustainable competitive advantage and institutional success by providing competent and highly qualified individuals who are more capable than competitors in other institutions.
8. The human resource planning perspective
Cui et al. [17], Beardwell and Thompson [62], Cappelli [79], Nissler [99] and Lewis and Heckman [100] introduce TM as a tool of human resource planning to develop a plan to meet institutional human resource needs, in order to attract employees with the appropriate skills in the appropriate areas of work. This involves a number of procedures designed to attract, develop and retain extremely talented staff to meet institutional needs. In other words, TM anticipates the necessity for human resources and then builds a strategy to meet it.
9. The cultural perspective
According to this perspective, TM focuses on social and cultural contexts of available human resources within a range of qualities [101]. These qualities include innate ability, intelligence and creative skills [31, 71, 72, 102]. Proponents of this perspective propose that individuals are successful only when they have sufficient talent and believe that the success of institutional work will be followed by their own success [101, 103]. Table 1 shows a summary of perspectives on TM.
The TMPs according to the opinions of authors and researchers.
Source: Prepared by the researcher based on the above sources.
To conclude this section, the scope of TM is restricted to the strategic perspective for three reasons. First of all, the strategic perspective includes all the perspectives above [104]. Secondly, this perspective outlines how an institution can efficiently implement TMPs [104, 105]. Finally, TM is a function of attraction, development and retention processes which contribute strategically to an institution’s success [105, 106, 107].
10. Talent management practices: a critical review
In the twenty-first century, TM has become more important and has received attention from institutions that seek a foothold in the institutional map of excellence. High-performing institutions are identifiable by their talented individuals who are able to show initiative, creativity and excellence in performance [27, 28, 29]. In higher education environments where high-performing organisations are identifiable by their talented individuals who are able to show initiative, creativity and excellence in performance. TMPs assist higher education institutions regarding such as the development of the talent pool, improvement of the productivity of individuals, support for effective planning and improvement of human resource management [40, 41]. Besides, attraction, development and retention of talent are strategically the keys to growth and success of higher education institutions [12]. The reason for this is that competitive advantage can be maintained by attracting, developing and retaining highly qualified individuals in key positions [3, 41, 49, 108]. Therefore, a majority of institutions have started to rethink their procedures and policies to achieve better acquisition and retention of individual talents. It is obvious that there is a strong competition between institutions in a technology-driven modern era, which has caused an increase in knowledge workers along with vast market changes [27, 28, 29]. In the scope of TM literature, several studies through the period 2007–2017 have shown in Table 1.
As shown in Table 1, it is obvious that many scholars have focused their empirical and theoretical attention on attraction, retention, and development of talent. Of all articles reviewed, talent retention is the dominant process with 25 articles (68.5%) of TMPs research have concentrated on, followed by both talent attraction and development with 68.5 per cent (24 articles), and talent attraction with 22 articles (73.3%). The least attention was paid to the TMPs of leadership development, talent acquisition, skills gap analysis, workforce and talent planning and performance management with two or three articles each.
Overall, as mentioned in the method section of this chapter, the authors carried out an empirical qualitative study in six Australian universities to understand the best processes that are currently used in managing talent in the higher education sector [43, 44]. This study explored the best TMPs of innovation in the aforementioned sector. (1) Talent attraction (social domain and institutional excellence), (2) talent development (performance management, coaching talent and leadership development) and (3) talent retention (benchmarking, job satisfaction, nonmonetary rewards, employee empowerment and employee motivation) were selected as best processes of TM in the higher education sector.
10.1 Talent attraction
In modern knowledge-based institutions, talent attraction is one of the most essential success elements [105, 136, 137]. Higher education institutions, for example, are strongly based on the attraction of experienced staff to fill key positions [9, 12, 36]. They primarily aim to attract talented candidates from the internal or external labour market [130]. However, there are some difficulties and challenges in attracting qualified staff to higher education institutions [9, 36]. These issues include safety and security, workloads [36] and conflicting opinions [9]. To meet these challenges, Beardwell and Thompson [62] highlight the following approaches that have been identified as effective for attracting talent:
The job-based approach: this includes writing a comprehensive description of a job which is filled by an employee, and then creates the desired person specification, which is based on that job description. However, this approach is inflexible because the changes that can occur in the main tasks or list of responsibilities of the main job are not taken into consideration.
The person-based approach: this focuses on identifying individual attitudes sought by an institution. It can be adopted in order to recruit individuals to fill a vacant job and participate in achieving the broader business targets of the institution.
The competency-based approach: this tries to recruit people by, for example, specifications, knowledge, experiences, skills and personal values that are attached to a job and used as a guide for an individual. However, this approach can encounter practical implementation difficulties and therefore may not achieve the institution’s goals.
Talent attraction can be divided into two sub-variables: (1) social domain and (2) institutional excellence. Throughout the chapter, the term ‘social domain’ is used to refer to support in difficult times, social innovation and work-life balance. An institution can attract more talented employees by providing them with social support in critical areas, for example, motherhood and monetary difficulties [138]. In regard to work-life balance, the last decade has seen a growing trend towards family-friendly workplaces [139]. Thompson [137] defines work-life balance as a personal perspective that is related to compatibility for talented employees inside and outside their workplace. Socialising with colleagues, lifestyle opportunities or appropriate locations are determinant factors for attracting new talented individuals, because they add work-life balance to institutions, which in turn contributes increasingly to their productivity [98, 136, 137, 139].
In the literature, the term ‘institutional excellence’ is generally understood to mean a strong tool and a key driver that assists institutions to achieve their strategic and operational aims [140, 141]. Excellent institutions adopt managerial attitudes that focus on total quality in all internal processes to attract high-quality individuals [53, 142]. As previously stated, the qualitative study explores a number of excellence-related factors that contribute to attracting new talents to higher education institutions. These factors include talent branding, the reputation of an institutions, institutional culture, institutional climate and work environment.
Talent branding as a key element of talent attraction enables institutions to manage talent of employees through an institutions’ identity, loyalty and culture, as a means of attracting high-potential individuals [53, 142, 143, 144, 145]. Institutional branding depends on the available resources for employees’ recruitment. In order to achieve financial and time goals, institutions have to consider particular resources in terms of where to obtain the profile required. In order to be excellent and successful in attracting talent, institutions need to follow appropriate strategies, adopt ethical principles in each phase of their current practices and build a strong and distinctive reputation in the labour market to be competitive [74, 123]. There are two different strategies for recruiting talent to an institution [53, 80, 146, 147]:
(1) Internal brands: An institution relies on its candidates. This will decrease the risks connected with the recruitment process and will save costs. An institution may know or can observe a candidate’s strengths and weaknesses as well as the fact that current employees are possibly more committed to the institution. In particular, avoiding external advertisements enables institutions to save costs of external channels. However, Dessler [80] argues that rejected applicants may become discontented, and it can also waste time since often the manager already knows whom they want to hire.
(2) External brands: Institutions cannot always get all the employees they need from their current staff and therefore need to tap into external sources to find candidates [53, 80]. However, online recruitment channels may encourage excessive numbers of applications to reach a limited audience (online job search), or the process is seen as too impersonal, discouraging some candidates [62, 80]. Therefore, institutions should develop a strong and distinguishable employer brand, which links institutional values to the employee management strategy and the institution’s brand [62, 121]. This can attract the best possible talent by promoting a unique combination of mental and practical benefits in the work place [62, 121].
Indeed, an institution that has excellence in its activities builds a good reputation, which then allows it to attract the best talents [125, 145, 148, 149]. This view is supported by Horseman [10] and Cruz-Castro et al. [150] who write that reputation and university ranking are key elements of institutional excellence to attract talented individuals. Furthermore, a desirable institutional climate is a determinant of attracting new talented employees [125, 137, 151]. Similarly, a supportive institutional culture with innovation can be an excellence-related factor for attracting qualified employees [140]. In regard to consideration of the work environment, this is a driving force for attracting talent [98, 125]. Working environment factors such as improved health, stress reduction, autonomy, job security and satisfaction within an institution are considered determining aspects for attracting talent to the institution [136, 137, 139, 151].
In summary, it has been demonstrated in this review that talent attraction is a basic factor of innovation and success in various sectors in general and in the higher education sector specifically, because of the key role that talent attraction plays in the functioning of higher education institutions. Thus, talent attraction in educational institutions is a function of social domain and institutional excellence.
10.2 Talent development
In a perfect business world, because of strong competition, institutions should develop their talented employees to enable them to become productive more rapidly [152]. Hence, the talent development process needs to be embedded within staffing progress and be regarded as a successful measure for institutions to improve the skills of their highly qualified individual staff members [40, 74, 142, 153]. Talent development is considered a critical resource of differentiation and sustainable competitive advantage [62, 153]. It is strategically important for an institution’s success [ 108, 153, 154]. For instance, the development of talent working within higher education institution also assists in retaining talented employees [153], which in turn assists in increasing university rankings and profits [8, 9]. University rankings are aligned with the talent of high-performing employees, and these talented individuals contribute significantly to a university’s performance by recruiting new students, conducting professional teaching, conducting high-level research and securing research funding [8, 9, 10, 11, 12].
The development process of talent involves three elements: (1) performance management, (2) coaching talent and (3) leadership development.
Performance management—As one of the key processes of talent development, this assists in filling the gap between the current and planned performances of highly qualified employees [153, 154, 155, 156]. It evaluates the current performance of talents to assist them in identifying their competency level and then developing their capabilities [125, 130]. Through this process, training needs can be identified to develop talent [156, 157]. Institutions should offer their experienced staff appropriate development strategies to improve their strong points and hence improve their total performance, including particular competencies, strengthening their motivation and boosting their career development [40, 158, 159].
Coaching talent—This is the second sub-variable of talent development. The existing literature on coaching talent is extensive and focuses on learning and development of talent [160, 161]. Even though coaching talent can be a significant tool for achieving high talent development through learning skills and creating knowledge, the difficulty in transforming these skills from outside an institution has been a disadvantage [142, 162]. Coaching talent through internal job rotation can develop individual knowledge and experience from different departments and divisions within an institution [163, 164, 165]. Training and mentoring programmes are valuable tools for developing talent [160, 166, 167]. These programmes can be offered online [130] and can also include face-to-face learning and teaching courses for academic staff [168] to gain required knowledge and skills [130, 168]. In addition, leading institutions provide their talented employees with career development opportunities [98, 104, 161, 169].
Leadership development—This is a key process of talent development [153]. It assists institutions in achieving overall institutional sustainability [160, 169, 170]. Effective and developed leadership is a key element of institutional sustainability [171]. Institutional sustainability through leadership assists institutions to strategically generate intrinsic values and wellbeing for all stakeholders [171]. The leadership development process includes ‘coaching, multi-source feedback, stretch assignments, mentoring, international job assignments and formal development programmes’ [169], as well as succession planning [164, 172, 173]. In academic institutions, high-level leadership provides talented individuals with sufficient opportunities in regard to functional planning programmes [12, 154]. Conversely, a lack of formalised institutional leadership training could negatively affect employees from achieving their advancement potential [166]. Therefore, the leadership development process enables leaders to obtain the skills and competencies necessary to be effective through role assignment leadership programmes [169, 170].
In brief, it has been shown in this review that talent development is a critical source of innovation and sustainable competitive priority in various sectors in general and in the higher education sector specifically. It assists in retaining highly qualified employees and increasing university rankings and profits. Thus, talent development in academic institutions is a function of performance management, coaching talent and leadership development.
10.3 Talent retention
Talent retention becomes a progressively worthwhile process of building an institution’s ability to acquire and maintain a competitive advantage [118, 174, 175]. It is focused on retaining talent among an institution’s staff so they remain with an institution [130]. Due to fierce competition to attract talent among leading institutions in all sectors in general and particularly in the higher education sector, the retention of talented staff in higher education institutions is problematic [12, 166, 176, 177]. This is partly due to constant growth in the economy that makes job opportunities for academic talent almost unlimited [12, 177]. Retention of talented individuals is mainly aimed at enabling an institution to keep a high-value workforce and to build a unique source of competitive advantage, which can lead to institutional growth and success [124, 178]. Talent retention is constructed using five sub-variables: (1) benchmarking, (2) job satisfaction, (3) nonfinancial rewards, (4) employee empowerment and (5) employee motivation.
First of all, benchmarking can broadly be defined as a key tool for setting aims by utilising learning and external standards from other institutions, which can act as the best practice for performance [10]. This tool has received considerable attention within Australian institutions [179]. It is seen as a beneficial way of retaining talented staff within higher education institutions through assessing the current strategies of talent retention from the best performing institutions [10, 180]. There are several types of benchmarking within the higher education sector [10]: internal benchmarking compares performance to other divisions of the university, competitive benchmarking compares performance against a chosen group of peer universities, sector benchmarking is a comparison with all universities in the same country and strategic benchmarking involves a comparison with overseas universities. Competitive compensation is considered as an essential element of success towards retaining highly qualified individuals within an institution that seeks to achieve a competitive advantage [181, 182]. Thus, institutions should have a competitive benchmarking system, which is a determining factor for retaining their highly qualified staff [125, 142, 182]. The second sub-variable of talent retention is job satisfaction. It was not until the late 1930s that historians began to consider job satisfaction as worthy of scholarly attention [183]. Job satisfaction involves a positive emotional attitude in workplaces to assist higher education institutions to retain experienced staff and achieve a competitive advantage [11, 166, 184, 185, 186]. It can be understood in terms of work environments, work conditions, relationships with supervisors and career opportunities [177, 184, 186]. Existing high-quality working environments and conditions promote job satisfaction, which assists the improvement of performance at both individual and institutional levels [166, 177, 184]. Therefore, high job satisfaction of talented individuals in academic workplaces is a reflection of existing effective retention strategies [166, 177].
Thirdly, nonfinancial rewards can play a crucial role in assisting an institution in retaining its talented staff through increasing productive time and engagement among individuals and consequently improving their overall productivity [125, 158, 187, 188, 189]. Nonmonetary rewards improve retention rates of highly qualified employees working in higher education institutions [176]. Those rewards involve certification, genuine appreciation and recognition [158]. Likewise, Hina et al. [188] hold the view that nonfinancial rewards include personal growth, interesting work, participation, flexibility, acknowledgement, significance of a role and achievement. Nonfinancial rewards in higher education institutions constitute funding external education, promotion and participation [190]. Employee empowerment is the fourth element of the talent retention construct. A large and growing body of literature about ‘human relations movement’ has been developed since the 1990s [175, 191, 192]. Employee empowerment practices are an essential element of motivating and retaining highly qualified employees for a long time within an institution [83, 193, 194]. Employee empowerment in academic workplaces assists in retaining talented staff, both academic and professional [192, 193]. It improves the satisfaction levels of an institution’s employees through granting them self-efficacy in their workplaces [195, 196]. Successful institutions that seek to increase their productivity should empower employees through encouraging creative ideas and involvement in decision-making [175, 189, 194, 197]. Thus, employee empowerment is a process which values employees by providing them with sufficient responsibility and authority to manage their work professionally [194]. The fifth and final sub-variable of talent retention is employee motivation. Motivational and valued work, professional advancement and supportive learning environments are seen as the key to retaining talented employees [11, 123]. In higher education environments, employee motivation plays a key role in retaining valued staff [11, 166, 177, 198]. An institution should offer proper financial rewards to its employees to ensure employee motivation [159, 199]. Career advancement is a creation of opportunities for highly qualified individuals that could lead them to improve and develop their career paths [137, 152]. These created opportunities are essential for retaining talented individuals [98, 104, 161, 169].
In summary, it has been shown in this review that talent retention is a main area of interest within the field of TM. It is a key source for innovation and sustaining competitive advantage in various institutions in general and educational institutions specifically. Thus, talent retention is a function of benchmarking, job satisfaction, employee empowerment, employee motivation and nonfinancial rewards.
To conclude this section, a review of the TM literature identifies a number of processes in various sectors and institutions. The most common practices of TM are attraction, development and retention. This view is supported by the outcomes of the qualitative study that has been conducted in a case of the higher education sector in Queensland, Australia [43].
11. Discussion
TM is considered a form of investment because talented individuals are viewed as the core source of innovation and social development [12]. The practices of TM are positively associated with improving innovation of institutional performance [200, 201, 202]. These practices play an essential role in nurturing the appropriate conditions for channelling and motivating employees towards the improvement of innovation activities [202]. Consequently, when an organisation fails to redefine its staff value proposition, it will continually have issues in attracting, developing and retaining talent [39]. Thus, TM can provide considerable benefits to an institution [5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. For example, it improves the institution’s overall performance, its ethos, its competitiveness and talent retention, which in turn prevent risks to the institution [203]. TM assists development of the talent pool, improvement of the productivity of individuals, support for effective planning and improvement of human resources management [40, 41]. Furthermore, attraction, development and retention as key practices of TM are strategically the keys of innovation to growth and success of the higher education industry [12], as a competitive advantage can be maintained by attracting, developing and retaining highly qualified individuals in key positions [3, 41, 49, 108].
TM can affect and adjust the behaviours and abilities of individuals to innovate [202]. Talented individuals have become a competitive weapon and resource of innovation for institutions in obtaining a sustainable competitive advantage [204, 205, 206]. A majority of higher education organisations have realised that talented individuals are strategic assets because they play a key role in the success, innovation and growth of the higher education institutions over the long term [9, 12, 39, 40]. These individuals assist higher education organisations with cultural adaption through identifying the challenges of public perception and the development of active learning environments [26, 89, 207]. Highly qualified employees constitute a critical resource of creativity, innovation and therefore future revenues for institutions [12, 106]. In addition, increase in the strategic importance of human resources management for competitive advantage can be achieved by talented individuals [206, 208, 209]. As a result, innovation is a complicated task, which requires high professional ability in knowledge-intensive positions [202]. Hence, talented individuals play a significant role in an institution’s survival and innovation in a dynamic environment [201, 208, 210, 211].
This study provides a clear and inclusive outline of the extant scholarly research from the period 2007–2017. Reviews in this period provide an opportunity to learn from prior experiences in TM. Most importantly, this empirical research is one of the first few studies that extended the previous investigation of TMPs in various sectors to the higher education sector. Both empirical qualitative research represented by the case study in the higher education sector and previous research of TM confirm that the key practices of TM are considered as attraction, development and retention of talent. Looking to Table 1, it is apparent that the vast majority of research is outside the higher education sector; the few studies from within are in non-Australian contexts. This finding is supported by the previous studies. For example, Paisey and Paisey [25] find that TM studies in the higher education sector are limited. The majority of TM studies focus on theoretical frameworks with little focus on pragmatic studies [95, 212, 213, 214]. Furthermore, practical studies on TM are either quantitative or qualitative [20, 213]. On the other side, the findings of Table 1 is supported by the previous research that TMPs ‘can be grouped into five core groups: (i) recruitment, attraction and selection; (ii) training and development; (iii) retention; (iv) identification and (v) performance management of talent’ [21, 53, 116, 126, 213].
Observing at Table 1, many scholars have given empirical attention on retention, development and attraction of talent [121, 131, 205, 206, 213, 215, 216, 217, 218]. One of the key reasons behind this attention is that talent attraction, retention and development are strategically very essential in today’s ephemeral knowledge economy, as they firstly assist an institution to achieve strategic business goals and meet basic business requirements and they form the foundation for the implementation of business strategies [21, 97, 106, 165, 172, 218, 219, 220]. Secondly, institutions that establish their principal competence in talent attraction, talent development and talent retention guarantee their own steadiness and growth among other competitive institutions in the same business sector [21, 107, 108, 221]. Finally, attraction, development and retention of talent are essential for growth and success of higher education institutions over the long term by enacting their strategy through their highly qualified employees [12, 21, 39, 40]. In addition, Table 1 shows that the least attention was paid to the TMPs of acquisition, leadership development, skills gap analysis, workforce and talent planning with one or two articles each.
In general, the results of the three core themes of TM above are in line with Bradley [12], Kamal [26], Rudhumbu and Maphosa [39] and Wu et al. [40] who emphasise that attraction, development and retention of talent are strategically essential for educational success and growth. This view is supported by Waheed et al. [97], Kim et al. [106], Tatoglu et al. [165], Hejase et al. [172], Ford [218], Rothwell [219] and Rothwell et al. [220] who point out that ‘attraction, development, and retention of talent are strategically more important in today’s volatile knowledge economy; because they help an institution achieve strategic business aims, meet basic business requirements, and form the foundation to implement business strategy’ [21]. Similarly, van den Broek et al. [107], Mwangi et al. [108], Xue [127] and Kataike [221] state that an institution ‘that established its core competence in attraction, development, and retention of talent guarantees its own stability and success among other competitors in the industry’ [21].
Overall, although the findings of our case study are consistent with some of the prior studies, there are major variances. This study is one of the first studies that examine TMPs in Australian higher education. The consistency with the previous research was partially conceptual, theoretical or regarding methodological matters. In conclusion, this section has attempted to provide a discussion of both an empirical case study and literature relating to the innovations of TM in the higher education sector. TM is a strategic source for sustaining competitive advantage in all kinds of institutions. Therefore, talent is an essential management for innovative institutions [21, 222, 223, 224].
12. Conclusion
This chapter has attempted to provide a clear explanation of the literature relating to TM. It aims to improve the theoretical and practical understanding of TM research in the higher education sector. The principal conclusion of the empirical study is that higher education institutions are aware of innovation sources that are currently used in managing talent in their divisions and faculties. These were (1) talent attraction (social domain and organisational excellence), (2) talent development (performance management, coaching talent and leadership development) and (3) talent retention (benchmarking, employee motivation, employee empowerment, nonmonetary rewards and job satisfaction). As a result, those individuals contribute significantly to a university’s performance by attracting new students and securing funds for further research. These themes are positively associated with innovation speed of the higher education institutions. TM is an integrated management system that starts with the practices of attracting, developing and retaining talents. So that institutions can benefit from this in the form of products (commodities/services) that have difficult characteristics of imitation and competition. This is because of the expertise and knowledge possessed by their efficient human resources. Although the scholars and researchers differ in determining a unified concept of talent, the specialised literature produces two trends in its definition, some of which are traditionally based on high intelligence, while the modern trend is based on excellent performance, mental ability, technical and dynamic skills, creative thinking and leadership abilities. In addition, the review of literature included various views of talent, but all the scholars and researchers agree that talent is a valuable resource of innovation for all institutions. The literature also identified six common perspectives on TM. From the literature, the strategic perspective was identified as most relevant to achieving the research objectives.
The generalisability of these findings is limited to the Australian university sector in Queensland. This study recommends that there is further research to be done in the higher education area, especially in relation to talent using empirical methodologies. More specifically, mixed method research should be used to fill the gap in the TM literature. As the least attention was paid to the practices of leadership development, talent acquisition, skills gap analysis, workforce and talent planning, and performance management with two or three articles each. This requires more attention in the future research to fill the gap in the TM literature. It would be useful to investigate the current methodology and topic of this research in other countries in order to generalise the findings within the global context.
\n',keywords:"talent management, talent attraction, talent development, talent retention, higher education",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/64542.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/64542.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64542",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64542",totalDownloads:1318,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:"May 28th 2018",dateReviewed:"September 7th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 27th 2018",datePublished:"June 24th 2020",dateFinished:"November 27th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"In the new millennium, talent management (TM) has become more important and has received attention from institutions that seek a foundation on the map institutions of excellence. Higher education institutions are represented by their possession of highly qualified employees who are able to show initiative, creativity and excellence in performance. Those individuals are the core resources of innovation and social development. It is apparent that there is a great competition among institutions in this modern technology era, driving an increase in knowledgeable employees along with vast market changes. Consequently, academic institutions have started to rethink their procedures and policies to achieve better attraction, development and retention of those employees. Therefore, this chapter aims to improve the theoretical and pragmatic comprehension of TM as an essential source of innovative and educational development. Through pragmatic use of elements of previous research approaches combined with a comprehensive qualitative study, this study concludes that higher education institutions are aware of innovation sources that are currently used in managing talent in their divisions and faculties. These were talent attraction, talent development, and talent retention. Both empirical research represented by the case study in the higher education sector and previous research confirm that the best practices of TM are considered as attraction, development and retention of talent.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/64542",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/64542",signatures:"Atheer Abdullah Mohammed, Abdul Hafeez-Baig and Raj Gururajan",book:{id:"8283",type:"book",title:"Innovations in Higher Education",subtitle:"Cases on Transforming and Advancing Practice",fullTitle:"Innovations in Higher Education - Cases on Transforming and Advancing Practice",slug:"innovations-in-higher-education-cases-on-transforming-and-advancing-practice",publishedDate:"June 24th 2020",bookSignature:"Dominique Parrish and Joanne Joyce-McCoach",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8283.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83881-047-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-048-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-044-3",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"197795",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Dominique",middleName:null,surname:"Parrish",slug:"dominique-parrish",fullName:"Dominique Parrish"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"260495",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Atheer Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammed",fullName:"Atheer Abdullah Mohammed",slug:"atheer-abdullah-mohammed",email:"atheerabdullahmohammed.mohammed@usq.edu.au",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"260498",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdul Hafeez",middleName:null,surname:"Baig",fullName:"Abdul Hafeez Baig",slug:"abdul-hafeez-baig",email:"abdul.hafeez-baig@usq.edu.au",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Southern Queensland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"260499",title:"Prof.",name:"Raj",middleName:null,surname:"Gururajan",fullName:"Raj Gururajan",slug:"raj-gururajan",email:"raj.gururajan@usq.edu.au",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Southern Queensland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Method",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. The conception of talent management",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. The process perspective",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. The strategic perspective",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. The developmental perspective",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. The competitive perspective",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. The human resource planning perspective",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"9. The cultural perspective",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"10. Talent management practices: a critical review",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"10.1 Talent attraction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"10.2 Talent development",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"10.3 Talent retention",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"11. Discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"12. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Allal-Chérif O, Makhlouf M. Using serious games to manage knowledge: The SECI model perspective. 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Journal of Economics and International Finance. 2013;5(5):199-211'},{id:"B188",body:'Hina Q, Zamir S, Nudrat S. Impact of employee benefits on job satisfaction of teachers at higher level. Journal of Education and Practice. 2014;5(7):122-129'},{id:"B189",body:'Bhatnagar J. Talent management strategy of employee engagement in Indian ITES employees: Key to retention. Employee relations. 2007;29(6):640-663'},{id:"B190",body:'Belleflamme P, Jacqmin J. An economic appraisal of MOOC platforms: Business models and impacts on higher education. CESifo Economic Studies. 1 March 2016;62, 2016(1):148-169'},{id:"B191",body:'Kim SY, Fernandez S. Employee empowerment and turnover intention in the US federal bureaucracy. The American Review of Public Administration. 2017;47(1):4-22'},{id:"B192",body:'Chitorelidze S. Empowerment in Academia: Non-Academic Professional Staff\'s Perspectives on Employee Empowerment. Master of Arts. Columbia, USA: The Graduate School, University of Missouri; 2017'},{id:"B193",body:'Tsai MC-H. An empirical study of the conceptualization of overall organizational justice and its relationship with psychological empowerment, organizational commitment and turnover intention in higher education. Doctor of Philosophy Doctor of philosophy. Washington, USA: College of Education, University of Washington; 2012'},{id:"B194",body:'Sandhya K, Kumar DP. Employee retention by motivation. Indian Journal of Science and Technology. 2011;4(12):1778-1782'},{id:"B195",body:'Saleem A, Nisar QA, Imran A. Organization citizenship behaviour, psychological empowerment and demographic characteristics: Teachers’ perspective. International Journal of Advanced and Applied Sciences. 2017;4(7):129-135'},{id:"B196",body:'Twyman-Abrams B. Strategies to sustain positive leader-employee relationships to increase productivity. Doctor of Philosophy in Business Administration. 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Talent management and its relationship to successful veteran transition into the civilian workplace: Practical integration strategies for the HRD professional. Advances in Developing Human Resources. 2017;19(1):36-53'},{id:"B219",body:'Rothwell WJ. Invaluable knowledge securing your company\'s technical expertise, New York: AMACOM/American Management Association [Online]. 2011. Available from: http://ezproxy.usq.edu.au/login?url=http://library.books24x7.com/library.asp'},{id:"B220",body:'Rothwell WJ, Zaballero AG, Park JG. Optimizing Talent in the Federal Workforce. Leasburg Pike, USA: Management Concepts Press; 2014. p. 304'},{id:"B221",body:'Kataike S. Relationship between talent management and employee retention in commercial banks in Kenya, Master of Business Administration. Nairobi, Kenya: University of Nairobi; 2013'},{id:"B222",body:'Orlova LV, Afonin YA, Voronin VV. Talent management and knowledge: theory, methodology, models. 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School of Management and Enterprise, University of Southern Queensland, Australia
The Industrial Management Department College of Administration and Economic University of Baghdad, Baghdad, Iraq
School of Management and Enterprise, University of Southern Queensland, Australia
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She is the author of several books, chapters of books, and articles on an international level. In the last 5 years, she has published in the following journals: Bordón, Revista de Educación, Revista Electrónica interuniversitaria de formación del profesorado, Rivista Civitas Educationis, Intercultural Education, Hipatia Press, British Journal of Religious Education, etc. And she has published in the following editorials: Peter Lang, McGraw-Hill, Pirámide, and Milenio.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Lleida",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"193391",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Olga",surname:"Bernad-Cavero",slug:"olga-bernad-cavero",fullName:"Olga Bernad-Cavero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/193391/images/7552_n.png",biography:"Olga Bernad Cavero is an adjunct lecturer at the University of Lleida and she has Ph.D. in Sociology of Education. 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Corresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
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CSIC affiliated authors can also take advantage of a central Open Access fund (amounting to 10,000 EUR) to cover up to 50% of the rest of the OAPF until it expires. Effective for chapters accepted from January 1, 2020.
Corresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
Corresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
Corresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
The Claremont Colleges are pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
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Corresponding authors will receive a 15% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
The University of Massachusetts, Amherst is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
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Corresponding authors will receive a 10% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
The University of Surrey is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
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Corresponding authors will receive a 10% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
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Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Corresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\n\n
CSIC affiliated authors can also take advantage of a central Open Access fund (amounting to 10,000 EUR) to cover up to 50% of the rest of the OAPF until it expires. Effective for chapters accepted from January 1, 2020.
Corresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
Corresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
Corresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
The Claremont Colleges are pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\n\n
Corresponding authors will receive a 15% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
The University of Massachusetts, Amherst is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\n\n
Corresponding authors will receive a 10% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
The University of Surrey is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\n\n
Corresponding authors will receive a 10% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\n\n
\n\t
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Important: You must be a member or grantee of the above listed institutions in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
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\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
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In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},subseries:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",keywords:"Machine Learning, Intelligence Algorithms, Data Science, Artificial Intelligence, Applications on Applied Intelligence",scope:"This field is the key in the current industrial revolution (Industry 4.0), where the new models and developments are based on the knowledge generation on applied intelligence. The motor of the society is the industry and the research of this topic has to be empowered in order to increase and improve the quality of our lives.",annualVolume:11418,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"13633",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelhamid",middleName:null,surname:"Mellouk",fullName:"Abdelhamid Mellouk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13633/images/1567_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Paris 12 Val de Marne University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"109268",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Ataby",fullName:"Ali Al-Ataby",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109268/images/7410_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Liverpool",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"3807",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmelo",middleName:"Jose Albanez",surname:"Bastos-Filho",fullName:"Carmelo Bastos-Filho",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/3807/images/624_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Pernambuco",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"38850",title:"Dr.",name:"Efren",middleName:null,surname:"Gorrostieta Hurtado",fullName:"Efren Gorrostieta Hurtado",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/38850/images/system/38850.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"239041",title:"Prof.",name:"Yang",middleName:null,surname:"Yi",fullName:"Yang Yi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/239041/images/system/239041.jpeg",institutionString:"Virginia Tech",institution:{name:"Virginia Tech",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",keywords:"Single-Neuron Modeling, Sensory Processing, Motor Control, Memory and Synaptic Pasticity, Attention, Identification, Categorization, Discrimination, Learning, Development, Axonal Patterning and Guidance, Neural Architecture, Behaviours and Dynamics of Networks, Cognition and the Neuroscientific Basis of Consciousness",scope:"Computational neuroscience focuses on biologically realistic abstractions and models validated and solved through computational simulations to understand principles for the development, structure, physiology, and ability of the nervous system. This topic is dedicated to biologically plausible descriptions and computational models - at various abstraction levels - of neurons and neural systems. This includes, but is not limited to: single-neuron modeling, sensory processing, motor control, memory, and synaptic plasticity, attention, identification, categorization, discrimination, learning, development, axonal patterning, guidance, neural architecture, behaviors, and dynamics of networks, cognition and the neuroscientific basis of consciousness. Particularly interesting are models of various types of more compound functions and abilities, various and more general fundamental principles (e.g., regarding architecture, organization, learning, development, etc.) found at various spatial and temporal levels.",annualVolume:11419,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"13818",title:"Dr.",name:"Asim",middleName:null,surname:"Bhatti",fullName:"Asim Bhatti",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13818/images/system/13818.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Deakin University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"151889",title:"Dr.",name:"Joao Luis Garcia",middleName:null,surname:"Rosa",fullName:"Joao Luis Garcia Rosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/151889/images/4861_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",keywords:"Image Analysis, Scene Understanding, Biometrics, Deep Learning, Software Implementation, Hardware Implementation, Natural Images, Medical Images, Robotics, VR/AR",scope:"The scope of this topic is to disseminate the recent advances in the rapidly growing field of computer vision from both the theoretical and practical points of view. Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",annualVolume:11420,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"1177",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:"J. R.",surname:"Neves",fullName:"Antonio Neves",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1177/images/system/1177.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"220565",title:"Dr.",name:"Jucheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",fullName:"Jucheng Yang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/220565/images/5988_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tianjin University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"29299",title:"Prof.",name:"Serestina",middleName:null,surname:"Viriri",fullName:"Serestina Viriri",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYOalQAG/Profile_Picture_1620817405517",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of KwaZulu-Natal",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"315933",title:"Dr.",name:"Yalın",middleName:null,surname:"Baştanlar",fullName:"Yalın Baştanlar",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002qpr7hQAA/Profile_Picture_1621430127547",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",keywords:"Genetic Algorithms, Genetic Programming, Evolutionary Programming, Evolution Strategies, Hybrid Algorithms, Bioinspired Metaheuristics, Ant Colony Optimization, Evolutionary Learning, Hyperparameter Optimization",scope:"Evolutionary computing is a paradigm that has grown dramatically in recent years. This group of bio-inspired metaheuristics solves multiple optimization problems by applying the metaphor of natural selection. It so far has solved problems such as resource allocation, routing, schedule planning, and engineering design. Moreover, in the field of machine learning, evolutionary computation has carved out a significant niche both in the generation of learning models and in the automatic design and optimization of hyperparameters in deep learning models. This collection aims to include quality volumes on various topics related to evolutionary algorithms and, alternatively, other metaheuristics of interest inspired by nature. For example, some of the issues of interest could be the following: Advances in evolutionary computation (Genetic algorithms, Genetic programming, Bio-inspired metaheuristics, Hybrid metaheuristics, Parallel ECs); Applications of evolutionary algorithms (Machine learning and Data Mining with EAs, Search-Based Software Engineering, Scheduling, and Planning Applications, Smart Transport Applications, Applications to Games, Image Analysis, Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition, Applications to Sustainability).",annualVolume:11421,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"111683",title:"Prof.",name:"Elmer",middleName:"P.",surname:"Dadios",fullName:"Elmer Dadios",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/111683/images/system/111683.jpg",institutionString:"De La Salle University",institution:{name:"De La Salle University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Philippines"}}},{id:"106873",title:"Prof.",name:"Hongwei",middleName:null,surname:"Ge",fullName:"Hongwei Ge",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"171056",title:"Dr.",name:"Sotirios",middleName:null,surname:"Goudos",fullName:"Sotirios Goudos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9IuQAK/Profile_Picture_1622623673666",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aristotle University of Thessaloniki",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"15895",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Takashi",middleName:null,surname:"Kuremoto",fullName:"Takashi Kuremoto",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLrqQAG/Profile_Picture_1625656196038",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nippon Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"125844",title:"Prof.",name:"Wellington",middleName:"Pinheiro Dos",surname:"Santos",fullName:"Wellington Santos",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125844/images/4878_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Pernambuco",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence",scope:"The scope of machine learning and data mining is immense and is growing every day. It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",annualVolume:11422,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"43680",title:"Prof.",name:"Ciza",middleName:null,surname:"Thomas",fullName:"Ciza Thomas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/43680/images/system/43680.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government of Kerala",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"16614",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan Ignacio",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrero Alonso",fullName:"Juan Ignacio Guerrero Alonso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6HB8QAM/Profile_Picture_1627901127555",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/3095/images/1592_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Chicago",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"214067",title:"Dr.",name:"W. David",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",fullName:"W. David Pan",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSEI9QAO/Profile_Picture_1623656213532",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alabama in Huntsville",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",middleName:"Philippe",surname:"Rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72920/images/system/72920.jpeg",institutionString:"Dalarna University, Faculty of Data and Information Sciences",institution:{name:"Dalarna University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}}]},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",annualVolume:11423,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"275140",title:"Dr.",name:"Dinh Hoa",middleName:null,surname:"Nguyen",fullName:"Dinh Hoa Nguyen",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRbnKQAS/Profile_Picture_1622204093453",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kyushu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"20259",title:"Dr.",name:"Hongbin",middleName:null,surname:"Ma",fullName:"Hongbin Ma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRhDJQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-05-02T08:25:21.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"28640",title:"Prof.",name:"Yasushi",middleName:null,surname:"Kambayashi",fullName:"Yasushi Kambayashi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYOQxQAO/Profile_Picture_1625660525470",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nippon Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/221512",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"221512"},fullPath:"/profiles/221512",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()