\r\n\tThe idea of cyberspace is relatively new to this world, considering that the cyberspace realm is virtual and intangible. The book is intended do address the topics on data mining, cyber security, simulations, cloud computing, artificial intelligence, and service oriented architecture.
",isbn:"978-1-78985-858-7",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-857-0",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8c1cdeb133dbe6cc1151367061c1bba6",bookSignature:"Dr. Evon M.O. Abu-Taieh, Dr. Issam H. Al Hadid and Associate Prof. Abdelkrim El Mouatasim",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8511.jpg",keywords:"Data Mining Tools, Machine Learning, Body of Knowledge, Network Security Software, Security Tools, Hacking, Big Data Analysis Techniques, Big Data Analysis Tools, Multimedia, VR, IoT, AI in Cyber Space, AI in Social Networks, Cyberspace and Social Media, Cyberspace Hardware, Cyberspace Software, Service Oriented Architecture, Web Service",numberOfDownloads:2589,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 28th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 18th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 17th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 5th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 5th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"223522",title:"Dr.",name:"Evon",middleName:"M.O.",surname:"Abu-Taieh",slug:"evon-abu-taieh",fullName:"Evon Abu-Taieh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223522/images/system/223522.png",biography:"Evon Abu-Taieh is an Associate Professor in the faculty of Computer Information Systems, The university of Jordan. \r\n\r\nAbu-Taieh served as Editor-in-Chief of the International Journal of Aviation Technology, Engineering and Management and has been a guest editor for the Journal of Information Technology Research.\r\nShe has more than 45 published works in Simulation & modelling, Aviation, IT, PM, KM, GIS, AI, security and ciphering; in addition, Dr. Abu-Taieh holds positions on the editorial board of the International Journal of E-Services and Mobile Applications, International Journal of Information Technology Project Management, and International Journal of Information Systems and Social Change. Dr. Abu-Taieh served as Chair, Track chair, & reviewer in many renowned conferences.",institutionString:"The University of Jordan",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Jordan",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Jordan"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"250082",title:"Dr.",name:"Issam",middleName:null,surname:"H. Al Hadid",slug:"issam-h.-al-hadid",fullName:"Issam H. Al Hadid",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250082/images/system/250082.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of Jordan",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:{id:"198150",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Abdelkrim",middleName:null,surname:"El Mouatasim",slug:"abdelkrim-el-mouatasim",fullName:"Abdelkrim El Mouatasim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/198150/images/system/198150.png",biography:"Abdelkrim El Mouatasim, born in 1973, received a Ph.D. degree in applied mathematics and scientific computation in 2007 from Mohammadia Engineering School in Rabat, Morocco. Currently he is an associate professor at Polydisciplinary Faculty of Ouarzazate, Ibn Zohr University, Morocco. His research interests include: Optimization, Mathematical modeling, Stochastic perturbation, Water distribution system, Renewable energy, Image processing, Machine learning, Neural network, Regression analysis, Programming languages and Text mining. In 2001 he was decorated by King of Morocco Mohammed VI.",institutionString:"Ibn Zohr University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Université Ibn Zohr",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Morocco"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"9",title:"Computer and Information Science",slug:"computer-and-information-science"}],chapters:[{id:"68561",title:"Cyberspace and Artificial Intelligence: The New Face of Cyber-Enhanced Hybrid Threats",slug:"cyberspace-and-artificial-intelligence-the-new-face-of-cyber-enhanced-hybrid-threats",totalDownloads:139,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"66610",title:"Text Mining to Facilitate Domain Knowledge Discovery",slug:"text-mining-to-facilitate-domain-knowledge-discovery",totalDownloads:194,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"68505",title:"Research Design and Methodology",slug:"research-design-and-methodology",totalDownloads:1963,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"69741",title:"Blind Wavelet-Based Image Watermarking",slug:"blind-wavelet-based-image-watermarking",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"68281",title:"Cyberspace as a New Existential Dimension of Man",slug:"cyberspace-as-a-new-existential-dimension-of-man",totalDownloads:119,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"70266",title:"Classification Model for Bullying Posts Detection",slug:"classification-model-for-bullying-posts-detection",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"66114",title:"Combined Deep Learning and Traditional NLP Approaches for Fire Burst Detection Based on Twitter Posts",slug:"combined-deep-learning-and-traditional-nlp-approaches-for-fire-burst-detection-based-on-twitter-post",totalDownloads:120,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"64576",title:"Tagging and Tag Recommendation",slug:"tagging-and-tag-recommendation",totalDownloads:54,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"301331",firstName:"Mia",lastName:"Vulovic",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/301331/images/8498_n.jpg",email:"mia.v@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7694",title:"Simulation Modelling Practice and Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f955d03d619f68fec7b6f3518e792e6f",slug:"simulation-modelling-practice-and-theory",bookSignature:"Evon Abu-Taieh and Asim Abdel El Sheikh Ahmed",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7694.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"223522",title:"Dr.",name:"Evon",surname:"Abu-Taieh",slug:"evon-abu-taieh",fullName:"Evon Abu-Taieh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3794",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:"Focus on Ant and Particle Swarm Optimization",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5332a71035a274ecbf1c308df633a8ed",slug:"swarm_intelligence_focus_on_ant_and_particle_swarm_optimization",bookSignature:"Felix T.S. Chan and Manoj Kumar Tiwari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3794.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"252210",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",surname:"Chan",slug:"felix-chan",fullName:"Felix Chan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3621",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"silver-nanoparticles",bookSignature:"David Pozo Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3621.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6667",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Pozo",slug:"david-pozo",fullName:"David Pozo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"55197",title:"Changes in Nutritional Properties and Bioactive Compounds in Cereals During Extrusion Cooking",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68753",slug:"changes-in-nutritional-properties-and-bioactive-compounds-in-cereals-during-extrusion-cooking",body:'\nImproving health through nutrition has been a very demanding and challenging field of study and would continue to be in the future. Maintaining and increasing the nutritional quality of food during processing are a potentially important area for research [1].
\nFood-processing operations are primarily focused on inactivating disease-causing microorganism (pathogens) and enzymes and on reducing moisture content to concentrate the processed foods. However, it is important to keep in mind that several changes in foodstuffs including appearance, composition, and nutritional and sensorial properties (color, texture, and flavor) can occur during processing. Interestingly, recent research has now established that food-processing operations have positive effects that improve the quality and health benefits of food [2].
\nExtrusion cooking is one of the most important food-processing alternatives. This process has been used since the mid-1930s for the production of breakfast cereals, ready-to-eat snack foods, and other textured foods. Furthermore, at this moment, extrusion process has become the major processing technology for food and feed industries, and it is rapidly evolving from an art into science and technology [3].
\nExtrusion cooking is preferred over other food-processing methods because it is a high-temperature short-time (HTST) process, which preserves important nutrients, denatures antinutritional components of foods (trypsin inhibitors, tannins, and phytates), disinfects the final product, and maintains normal colors and flavors of the food [4, 5].
\nConsumers have developed a growing understanding of how the composition of food products can impact on the nutritional quality of foods. Likewise, bioactive compounds or phytochemicals in food and food products play a relevant role in human health, providing protection against many chronic and degenerative diseases [6].
\nCultivation of cereal grains was the first agricultural attempt of the early man, and we still enjoy them today depending on the region we live and what grows there well [7]. Botanically, cereals are classified as grasses and belong to the monocot family Poaceae, also known as Gramineae. Within each cereal species, numerous varieties produced by breeding exist in order to optimize agronomical, technological, and nutritional properties [8]. The major cereals consumed in the world include wheat, corn, rice, oats, rye, barley, buckwheat, sorghum, and millet as minor grains. Wheat, corn, and rice take up the greatest part of the land cultivated by cereals and produce the largest quantities of cereals grains [8].
\nCereals are composed of (1) endosperm (the main part of the grain, mainly starch), (2) germ (the smallest part of the grain; it contains vitamin E, folate, thiamine, phosphorus, and magnesium), and (3) bran (the outer layer of the grain that contains fiber omega-3 fatty acids, vitamins, dietary minerals, and phytochemicals). Whole grains are important components of the human diet as shown by inclusion in the Food Guide Pyramid and US Dietary Guidelines [2, 7, 9]. However, cereal grains have poor protein quality due to their low content of the essential amino acids lysine and tryptophan, which are referred to as the main limiting amino acids in cereals [10].
\nIn their natural form (as in whole grain), cereals are a rich source of vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, protein, and phytochemicals. However, when refined by the removal of the bran and germ, the remaining endosperm is mostly composed of carbohydrates and lacks the majority of the other nutrients [7].
\nEpidemiological studies have shown that a habitual intake of whole-grain cereal products is inversely associated with the risk for developing various types of chronic diseases such as obesity, cardiovascular disease, Type II diabetes, and some types of cancer [2, 11]. It has been suggested that these health benefits are not attributed only to a single component, but to the combined effects of several of them: dietary fiber, phenolic acids and flavonoid compounds, and other bioactive components present in cereal grains [11, 12].
\nPhenolic compounds exist in free and bound form in cereals. Bound phenolic compounds are referred to as phenolic compounds and are covalently bound with the cell wall components [13]. Phenolic acids are the most common phenolic compounds in cereals. They have a strong antioxidant activity and may modulate cellular oxidative status and protect biologically important molecules from oxidative damage such as DNA, proteins, and membrane lipids [14].
\nCereal products are a complex multicomponent system that might contain mixtures of protein, vitamin, minerals, oils, polysaccharides, and bioactive compounds or phytochemicals. Hence, there is a reason for the increasing demand of new processed foods from whole cereals; they are convenient and nutritious to satisfy the demands of health-conscious consumers.
\nCereal grains are grown in greater quantities and provide more food energy worldwide than any other types of crops. They are therefore staple food crops [7]. About 50% of the calories consumed by the world population originate from three cereals: rice (23%), wheat (17%), and maize (10%) [15, 16]. These are grown for their highly nutritious edible seeds, which are often referred to as grains.
\nBesides the main energy source, they supply a variety of nutrients and other food components such as bioactive compounds or phytochemicals [13]. Cereals are an important source of calories for humans, both by the direct intake and as the main feed for livestock [13]. Dietitians suggest to include whole-grain products in the diet, which provide large quantities of macronutrients (carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids), vitamins (particularly of the B group and vitamin E), and micronutrients, such as selenium, zinc, copper, and magnesium [17, 18]. Besides, cereals contain phytochemicals like phenols, phytoestrogens, and fermentable carbohydrates such as dietary fiber and resistant starch or oligosaccharides, which have been recently associated with cholesterol lowering, cardiovascular disease protection, and cancer-risk decrease [18, 19].
\nThe chemical or nutritional composition of cereal grains is mainly characterized by the high content of carbohydrates. The carbohydrates for the human diet are classified in bioavailable and not bioavailable (or fiber). The bioavailable fraction, mainly starch, is deposited in the endosperm (comprising 65–75% of their total weight). The non-bioavailable fiber located in the bran (2–13%) is constituted by polymers such as arabinoxylans (1.5–8%), β-glucans (0.5–7%), sugars (≈3%), cellulose (≈ 2.5%), and glucofructans (≈ 1%). The other nutritional or chemical compounds are the proteins, which are the second most important compounds of cereals (comprising range of 7–11%). Lipids are located mainly in the germ fraction (average of 2–4%); a small fraction of them are in the aleurone layer and to the lesser extent in the endosperm. Cereal lipids have a similar fatty acid composition in which linoleic acid contents reaches 39–69%, while oleic acid and palmitic acid make up to 11–36 and 18–28%, respectively. Minerals in cereals are the minor constituents (1–3%). Nevertheless, the high content of vitamin B is of nutritional relevance [7, 8, 20]. Depending on the structure of each grain and the amount of their chemical constituents, there exist significant differences among cereals and even among species and varieties within each cereal.
\nMore than 25,000 bioactive food constituents are present in the diet, and cereals are not the exception. The majority of food phytochemicals are also antioxidants, and many of these compounds play a role in modifying processes involved in the development of various diseases. It has been reported that these phytochemicals can also work in vivo as individual compounds, exerting their antioxidant property by neutralizing reactive oxygen or reactive nitrogen compounds and contributing to antioxidant defense of the body, thus promoting longevity, cell maintenance, and DNA repair [21, 22].
\nThe most important groups of bioactive compounds in grains include phenolic compounds (phenolics acids, alkylresorcinols, and flavonoids), carotenoids, vitamin E, dietary fiber, and β-glucan [14, 24]. Phenolic compounds are secondary metabolites of plants and are part of the defense system against the sun’s ultraviolet light as well as pathogens. These compounds play an important role in combating oxidative stress in the human body by maintaining a balance between oxidants and antioxidants [23, 24]. The antioxidant properties of cereal grains are mainly attributed to phenolic compounds [25]. Hence, the presence of phenolic compounds in cereals and their distribution can protect against cancer, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, hypertension, asthma, and even infection if consumed in abundance in cereals [14, 22, 26].
\nPhenolic compounds (mainly phenolic acids) are concentrated in the bran fraction of cereal grains and exist in free, soluble conjugated, and insoluble bound forms [27]. Ferulic acid is the most abundant phenolic acid in cereal grains, followed by p-coumaric, sinapic, and caffeic acids [28]. In wheat and maize, ferulic acid represents up to 90% of the total phenolic acids and <95% in bound form [27, 29]. However, in other cereals such as finger millet (Eleusine coracana), phenolic acids represent 71% of the free-form phenolics, being protocatechuic acid the most abundant of them [30].
\nCereals and other food items have to be processed before consumption to improve digestion and facilitate metabolism in humans [2]. Various processing technologies have been developed to enable the release and/or to increase the accessibility of nutritional and phytochemical components in cereal grains. Among these, the most common technique in food processing is to apply mechanical treatment resulting in reduction of particle size, breakdown of cereal matrices, or degradation of fiber polymers. Likewise, thermal processing techniques such as steaming, autoclaving (pressured steam heating), drum drying, roasting, and microwave heating [11] are often utilized. Among the thermal treatments, the high-temperature short-time extrusion cooking technology has proven to have limitless applications in processing of cereal-based product.
\nNowadays several breakfast cereal products are produced by flaking, oven and gun puffing, baking, shredding, and direct expansion. Extrusion cooking technology is becoming popular over other common processing methods due to its automated control, high capacity, continuous operation, high productivity, versatility, adaptability, energy efficiency, and low cost. Moreover, it also enables design and development of new food product, high product quality, unique product shapes and characteristics, energy saving, and no effluent generation [31, 32]. Extrusion cooking of breakfast cereals is a much easier and cheaper processing method than the conventional ones, and many components may be incorporated in the recipe [18].
\nThere are three major types of extruders being used in the food industry: piston extruders, roller-type extruders, and screw extruders. Screw extruders are the most common extruders used these days and can be categorized as single- and twin-screw extruders [33]. In the single-screw extrusion cooking process, the extruder can be divided into three regions: conveying, swelling, and melting/degradation, in terms of the transition of cereal starch. Both the conveying and swelling regions are located in the cooling zone, where the flow pattern behaves as a plug flow reactor. The melting of starch granules and degradation of starch molecules occur simultaneously in the third region. The flow pattern is changed from plug flow reactor to continuous stirred tank reactor; thus, more mixing and longer residence time occurred in the heating zone. However, with twin-screw extruders, it is common to employ a section of spirally flighted screw elements behind the die head zone to provide a steady pumping action and to generate high die pressure [33].
\nExtrusion cooking of foods has been practiced for over 50 years. The food extruder, which was initially limited to mixing and forming macaroni and ready-to-eat cereal pellets, is now considered a high-temperature short-time bioreactor that transforms raw ingredients into modified intermediate and finished products [33]. Besides, several food products are developed by extrusion, i.e., pasta, breakfast cereals, bread crumbs, biscuits, crackers, croutons, baby foods, snack foods, confectionery items, chewing gum, texturized vegetable protein, pet foods, dried soups, dry beverage mixes, and instant flours to make tortillas [33, 34, 35].
\nDuring extrusion cooking, its simultaneous actions of temperature, pressure, and shear, along with their intensities and interactions vary enormously depending on feed ingredients, extruder configuration, and the desired characteristics of the final product [25]. This process consists in using high temperature and short time in which moistened, expansive, and carbohydrate or protein food materials are plasticized and cooked in a tube.
\nThe combination of moisture, pressure, temperature, and mechanical shear results in molecular transformations and chemical reactions that allow obtaining expanded products and porous structure [1, 36, 37]. The expansion is the result of both the elastic swelling and bubble growth effects. The characteristics of the products obtained by extrusion cooking depend on the moisture content, extrusion temperature [38], residence time, pressure, and shear [33, 39].
\nThe extrusion cooking process is preferable to other food-processing techniques in terms of its high productivity and significant nutrient retention due to the high temperatures and short times that are required [4]. Likewise, this technology has several applications including increasing numbers of ready-to-eat cereals, salty and sweet snacks, coextruded snacks, indirect expanded products, croutons for soups and salads, an expanding array of dry pet food and fish foods, textured meat-like materials from defatted high-protein flours, nutritious precooked food mixtures for infant feeding, and instant flour to make tortillas [32, 40, 41]. Moreover, extrusion has been used in the development of expanded cereals that include the addition of other ingredients (i.e., fruits and vegetables) in order to increase the health benefits [42].
\nInterest has grown in the physicochemical, functional, and nutritionally relevant effects of extrusion processing. Prevention or reduction of nutrient destruction, together with improvements in starch or protein digestibility, is clearly of importance in most extrusion applications [1]. Another advantage of extrusion cooking is the destruction of antinutritional factors, especially trypsin inhibitors, hemagglutinis, tannins, and phytates, all of which inhibit protein digestibility [1, 43]. Several extrusion-processing conditions are accounted for the quality of finished products. The control of feed rate, screw speed, barrel temperature, and barrel pressure, together with the abovementioned critical parameters, will determine the crispness, hardness, and various other characteristics that will influence the success of the final product [44].
\nCereal thermal processes such as baking, roasting, and extrusion cause a number of physical and chemical changes due to starch gelatinization, protein denaturation, component interactions, and browning reactions. These changes result in improved organoleptic properties, increased nutrient availability, and inactivation of heat-labile toxic compounds and enzyme inhibitors [25].
\nFood products obtained by extrusion technology are composed mainly of cereals, pulses, and/or vegetable proteins. The major role of these ingredients is to give structure, texture, mouth feel, and many other characteristics desired for specific finished products [33].
\nFunctional properties of extruded foods play an important role in their acceptability including water absorption, water solubility, oil absorption indexes, expansion index, bulk density, and viscosity of the dough [33]. Several changes in the matrix food have been reported using the extrusion process, which are the result of the combination of moisture content of the starting materials, pressure-temperature, and screw speed, which are responsible of physical and chemical transformations in the final product and therefore affect product quality [42].
\nExtrusion cooking technology brings numerous chemical changes, such as gelatinization or starch, denaturation of protein, lipid modification, as well as inactivation of enzymes and microorganisms [45]. Denaturation of grain proteins during extrusion cooking allows the opening of loose structures for tannin-protein interactions causing the formation of tannin-protein complexes and retention of antioxidant activity. These complexes are broken down in the human gastrointestinal tract to release bound tannins and act as free radical scavengers [46]. Another important chemical effect occurring during extrusion is the browning or the formation of Maillard reaction products (MRP), which contributes to the antioxidant properties of the final product [47].
\nHowever, several investigators have reported that during extrusion, there is the loss of bioactive compounds with antioxidant properties (i.e., phenolics, tocopherols, carotenoids, anthocyanins, flavonoids, tannin, and other bioactive compounds) [48, 49]. Thermal degradation of phenolic compounds may be due to complex formation with Maillard reaction by-products and high moisture content promoting phenolic polymerization [50] affecting their extractability and antioxidant activity [51]. In contrast, earlier research on cereal products has shown that thermal processing might contribute in releasing bound phenolic acids by breaking down cellular constituents and cell walls [52]. For instance, transformation in more easily extractable forms of phenolic compounds has been reported in single-screw extruders with low moisture contents (<15/100 g), high shear stress, and high temperatures [53]. All of these chemical changes are associated with structural changes that occur in the materials subjected to extrusion increasing the release of the bioactive compounds in the cell wall matrix [54], thus making these materials more easily extractable [55]. All these physical changes are related to high shearing force in combination with high temperature and pressure that can efficiently disintegrate the rigid cell walls of the matrix food.
\nNutritional properties in cereals are provided by two main groups of nutrients: macronutrients comprising of lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates, and micronutrients that include vitamins and minerals. Many researchers have reported both the positive and negative effects of the extrusion process on the nutritional quality of food and feed mixtures. These results are dependent on the different extruder conditions (temperature, feed moisture, screw speed, and screw configuration) and raw material characteristics (composition, particle size) [1].
\nAs discussed above, extrusion cooking has been studied extensively to produce a wide variety of foods [33, 34, 35]. Interestingly, as a multistep, multifunction thermal/mechanical process, extrusion could have beneficial or detrimental changes on bioavailability and content of nutrients of cereal products [25]. On the one hand, extrusion (1) induces starch gelatinization improving its digestibility, (2) promotes the destruction of antinutritional factors (undesirable enzymes, trypsin inhibitors, and hemagglutinins), (3) increases the content of soluble fiber, (4) improves protein digestibility, and (5) reduces lipid peroxidation [1]. On the other hand, extrusion can also negatively affect the bioavailability of certain nutrients [56]. The heat-labile vitamins and some amino acids are lost, and the Maillard reaction that occurs during the process can reduce the nutritional value of the proteins [1]. In this section, we will discuss the various effects of extrusion cooking on the nutritional properties of cereals.
\nWhile lipids can act as lubricants during extrusion, the amount of lipid content can affect the properties of the extrudates. Hence, the presence of lipids in less than 3% does not affect extrusion, but in quantities above 5% can reduce expansion rate, and above 10% they reduce slip within the extruder barrel, making extrusion difficult [57].
\nExtruded foods, particularly expanded products, are susceptible to lipid oxidation, one of the main causes of food deterioration [58]. Although there is not much research focused on the nutritional changes in lipids after extrusion, it has been reported that extrusion cooking can minimize lipid oxidation, thus increasing the nutritional and sensory quality and shelf life of foods [1]. Among the factors involved in the delay of oxidation in extruded foods are (1) denaturation of lipase and other enzymes that may contribute to oxidation [58]; (2) formation of lipid-amylose complexes, thereby reducing both starch and lipid availability and increasing oxidative stability and shelf life of extruded products [59]; (3) release of endogenous antioxidants in grains during extrusion that may provide protection against peroxidation [60]; and (4) creation of Maillard reaction products with antioxidant activity. In this regard, Sproston et al. [61] recently showed that a Maillard reaction product (MRP) derived from
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) ω-3 and ω-6 are essential for humans, and because of their greater number of instaurations, they are particularly sensitive to oxidation [62]. Thus, food-processing alternatives that result in minimal loss and the lower degree of oxidation of these components are desirable. Suzuki et al. [63] demonstrated that PUFA ω-3 and ω-6 in salmon muscle were retained after extrusion and its pretreatment, suggesting that foods rich in PUFA can be processed through extrusion without significant losses. In contrast, Ramos Diaz et al. [64] studied the effect of extrusion on corn-base snacks containing different combinations of amaranth and quinoa. They reported that extrusion substantially reduced the content of fatty acids (palmitic, oleic, linoleic, and linolenic acids) and α-, β-, and γ-tocopherols compared to flour blends. The authors attributed the considerable reduction in the content of fatty acids and tocopherols during extrusion to the formation of amylose-lipid complexes [59, 65]. It is also important to note that in the above-discussed studies, the ingredients used were different; hence, the available amylose for lipid binding and the formation of complexes was also different [59].
\nCereals (maize, sorghum, rice, barley) and pulses (beans, peas, chickpeas, lentils, and other dry edible seeds) have traditionally been the dominant dietary plant protein source [66]. Protein nutritional value depends on the content of essential amino acids and the digestibility and utilization of the protein [67]. Several factors can affect protein digestibility of cereals, among them are the grain structure and composition, the presence of disulfide bonds, surface functional groups, and protein hydrophobicity and conformation [68]. Also, processing such as pressure, temperature, fermentation, freeze/thaw cycles, and shear can also modify protein digestibility [69].
\nSeveral reports have shown that extrusion can improve protein digestibility by denaturing proteins and exposing of enzyme-susceptible sites. This phenomenon is attributed to the effects of high shear on protein structure and conformation that occur during extrusion, leading to the manufacture of products with highly digestible proteins [70]. Vaz and Arêas [70] showed that the increase in protein solubility observed in extruded meat-based formulations was associated with protein degradation and denaturation during the process. Similarly, enzymes and enzyme inhibitors generally lose activity during extrusion unless they are stable to heat and shear. Reductions in protease inhibitors can contribute to better plant protein utilization [57].
\nIn addition, extrusion has been proposed as a viable alternative to influence allergenic properties of food proteins. The potential reduction in antigenicity is due to degradation of protein structures that ultimately results in the reduction of IgE- and IgG-binding capacity during thermal processing of foodstuffs [71].
\nAs it has been discussed, extrusion process under high pressure causes major chemical changes, thermal degradation, dehydration, depolarization, and recombination of fragments, all of which can promote glycoxidation [69, 72]. The concentration of advanced glycation end products (AGE) in foods, which are formed by Maillard reaction, has been demonstrated as a risk factor associated with the etiology of age-related diseases in humans, such as atherosclerosis, nephropathy, retinopathy, osteoarthritis, neurodegenerative diseases, and diabetes mellitus [73]. In addition, AGE by binding to their receptors (RAGE), which are found in a wide variety of cells, can lead to oxidative stress, vasoconstriction, and inflammatory responses. The AGE can covalently cross-link tissue proteins and, thereby, modify structural and functional properties of the proteins [74, 75]. During extrusion, the Maillard reaction is sometimes induced to contribute to desired flavor and color and to enhance palatability [76]. However, excessive Maillard browning can result in losses of lysine, destruction of vitamins, and reduction of bioavailability of trace elements [77]. Retention of lysine in the breakfast cereals is considered most important since it is the limiting amino acid among most of cereal snacks [10]. Thus, the Maillard reaction can result in unfavorable consequences such as a decreased protein quality due to the loss of bioavailable essential amino acids and, as mentioned before, the production of AGE. Future studies should focus on the optimization of processing conditions in a way that the desired beneficial effects are promoted, and the undesired effects are minimized.
\nOne of the more widely researched aspects of extrusion on the nutritional content of products is the way extrusion technology can affect carbohydrate digestibility. Starch is usually the major food constituent in extruded foods such as breakfast cereals, snacks, and weaning foods. Humans do not readily digest raw starch [78]. However, the digestibility of starch may be improved by the extrusion process due to its partial gelatinization and fragmentation attributed to the effect of shear and temperature. The depolymerization of the starch allows it to be more readily available to digestive enzymes. Moreover, during extrusion the physical breakdown of starch molecules takes place, resulting in smaller and more digestible fragments [79]. The extrusion process can increase the available digestible carbohydrate in cereals by up to threefold compared to raw (unextruded) cereals [80]. In the literature, there are several examples illustrating that extrusion improves starch digestibility.
\nBorejszo and Khan [81] found that sucrose, raffinose, and stachyose decreased significantly in extruded pinto bean starch fractions. While Alonso et al. [82] reported that compared to raw peas, starch and stachyose were lower in extruded peas [57]. Similarly, Mahasukhonthachat et al. [83] reported that the rate of starch digestion of sorghum increased by tenfold after extrusion when compared with non-extrudates, while Haralampu [84] reported that 22% of the resistant starch was lost (i.e., increase in more digestible starch), possibly due to high shear.
\nHigh starch digestibility is desirable in the food industry for the manufacture of specialized nutritional foods such as infant and weaning foods or to target particular consumer needs (elderly requiring rapidly digestible forms of starch, people participating in athletic activities, and those looking to reduce the content of indigestible oligosaccharides that cause flatulence in foodstuffs). However, these products tend to induce a higher glycemic response than their unprocessed raw ingredients. High blood levels of postprandial glucose and insulin have been implicated in the development of insulin insensitivity and chronic metabolic diseases such as Type II diabetes and cardiovascular disease [85]. By altering not only the digestibility of starch but also the conformation of starch, extrusion offers the ability to reduce the high glycemic index of some foods by converting starch to digestion-resistant starch. Hence, the formation of resistant starch by extrusion may have value to promote reduced calories in food products [86]. In this respect, an interesting observation is that extrusion can also increase the amount of resistant starch and soluble dietary fiber present in extrudates.
\nDifferent researchers have reported an increase in enzyme-resistant starch content in wheat, maize [87], and barley (2–3%) after extrusion [88]. In regard with the fiber content, Jing et al. [89] optimized extrusion process parameters (temperature 115°C, feed moisture 31%, and screw speed, 180 rpm) to obtain the highest values of soluble dietary fiber in soybean residues. Under these conditions, the soluble dietary fiber content residue increased by 10.6% and had higher water retention, oil retention, and swelling capacities than unextruded residues. Similar results were found by Chen et al. [90] using optimal conditions (170°C and an extrusion screw speed of 150 rpm/min) for blasting extrusion in soybean residue. These researchers found that the content of soluble dietary fiber from soybean residues increased by more than tenfold and showed improved water solubility, water retention capacity, and swelling capacity compared to unprocessed soybean. Furthermore, they tested the physiological effects of their high dietary fiber product and observed that it was able to significantly reduce total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and triglyceride levels in vivo.
\nThe increase in soluble dietary fiber in extruded products could be explained by the formation of additional components by transglucosidation, whereby 1,4 carbon-oxygen bonds are cleaved, and new anhydroglucose linkages are formed, and the resulting novel bonds would be resistant to digestion by enzymes [91]. Another possibility is to increase insoluble dietary fiber with the formation of retrograded amylose, insoluble at room temperature [91, 92]. This could also be attributed to the formation of covalent interactions between macronutrients leading to components that are insoluble and not hydrolyzed by digestive enzymes [92, 93]. These indigestible glucans may be Maillard reaction products likely resulting from chemical reactions between starch and proteins present within the dietary fiber-containing matrix [93].
\nIn general, vitamins differ greatly in chemical structure and composition. Their stability during thermal process is also variable. The extent of degradation depends on various parameters during food processing and storage, e.g., moisture, temperature, light, oxygen, time, and pH [72]. Extrusion cooking has a significant effect on the stability of hydrosoluble vitamins. For instance, higher barrel temperature and low feed moisture induce ascorbic acid degradation during extrusion [6]. On the other hand, using short barrel (90 mm) extruders result in higher retention rate of the vitamin B group (44–62%) than long barrel extruders (20%). The retention of vitamins is generally not related with their initial level in foods and varies with cereal type. In corn, pyridoxine (vitamin B6) showed stability to extrusion cooking compared to oats and corn/pea ingredients [94]. In another study of fortified corn extrudates, the effect of temperature during the extrusion process on thiamine (B1) and riboflavin (B2) content was explained [95]. The authors found no significant differences between riboflavin content in traditional extrudates produced at feed moistures of 80 and 110°C barrel temperature. Interestingly, riboflavin content of extruded products at 20% feed moisture was higher than the one produced at 25% feed moisture at 130°C.
\nExtrusion cooking also affects the stability of fat-soluble vitamins such as vitamins A and E [96], which are natural antioxidants in cereal grains. The levels of vitamin E decreased (63%) in extruded buckwheat. Likewise, in other extruded cereals (oat, barley, wheat, rye, and buckwheat), a significant decrease (63–94%) in tocopherols and tocotrienols was observed [55, 97]. Isomers of vitamin E such as α-tocopherol and α-tocotrienol are the least resistant to temperature compared to other isomers [97].
\nMinerals are considered stable during heat treatment. However, smaller molecules may be affected by either the extrusion process itself or changes in larger molecules, which in turn can affect other compounds present in the food [98]. To date, few studies have reported mineral stability during extrusion cooking of cereal grains. Interestingly, extrusion cooking can improve the absorption of minerals by reducing other factors that inhibit their absorption [99]. Phytates may form insoluble complexes with minerals decreasing their bioavailability in the gastrointestinal tract. However, extrusion may hydrolyze the complex phytate minerals to release phosphate molecules [1].
\nIn a study, a range of 13–35% reduction in phytate content from a wheat bran-starch-gluten extruded mix was reported in Ref. [100]. Polyphenols may also inhibit mineral absorption. The presence of tannins can form insoluble complexes with divalent ions in the gastrointestinal tract, inhibiting their bioavailability. Interestingly, extruded foods could also exhibit an increase in mineral absorption, which may be attributed to the destruction of polyphenols during the extrusion cooking [1, 99]. Similarly, absorption of minerals could be impaired by fiber (components such as cellulose, lignin, and hemicelluloses). However, the high temperature during the extrusion could reorganize the fiber components modifying their chelating properties [82].
\nAside from their nutritional contribution, cereals contain bioactive compounds with potential health benefits. These biologically active phytochemicals are found to be natural antioxidants and could be beneficial in reducing the risk of many diseases [1]. Food processing results in the destruction or change of natural bioactive compounds, which may affect the antioxidant properties of foods [2, 101]. According to the literature, food processing can alter antioxidant activity positively and negatively. In this regard, extrusion cooking can have either effect on the phenolic content in cereal grains.
\nOn the one hand, extrusion causes decomposition of heat-labile phenolic compounds and polymerization of some others [102], resulting in the decrease of the extractable phenolic content. On the other hand, extrusion disrupts cell wall matrices and breaks covalent bonds in high-molecular-weight polyphenol complexes [53], improving the phenolic accessibility. The net effect of extrusion on total phenolic content depends on which of these phenomena are predominant [11]. Furthermore, antioxidant activity is correlated with the presence of bioactive compounds such as phenolics, carotenoids, flavonoids, and anthocyanins in foods [103].
\nRecently, several studies have reported the effect of extrusion and extrusion conditions on the phytochemical content and antioxidant activity of cereal grains. Important losses or increases of bioactive compounds are reported due to the thermal effects and chemical changes that occur during extrusion [42]. For instance, the release of phenolic compounds is highly dependent on moisture content, time, and temperature [25, 104].
\nIn a study on dark buck wheat flour, no change in antioxidant capacity after its extrusion at 170°C was reported in Ref. [105]. Another study showed a significant reduction in both antioxidant capacity (60–68%) and total phenolics (46–60%) in barley extrudates compared with unprocessed barley flour [102]. Zielinski et al. [97] found significant changes in selected cereals (wheat, barley, rye, and oat) during extrusion cooking at different temperatures (120, 160, 200°C). The authors found significant increases in phenolic acids (mainly ferulic acid), while sinapic and caffeic acids were not detected in the extruded grains. Other authors are using an optimized technique to obtain extruded products (cereals or mixture cereal/legume) with high nutritional quality and high antioxidant value. A ready-to-eat expanded snack with high nutritional and antioxidant value was developed from a mixture (70/30) of whole amaranthine, transgenic maize, and black beans by optimizing the extrusion process [106]. Using optimal conditions for extrusion, these authors found an increase in total phenolic content (74%) and antioxidant activity evaluated as ORAC (18%) and ABTS (20%) in the extruded snack with respect to the unprocessed whole-grain mixture. In general, the increase in phenolics during the extrusion process could be due to the destruction of cell walls, the consequent release of phenolic compounds, and the Maillard reaction products quantified as phenolic compounds [106]. In another study, a significant decrease of total polyphenols and antioxidant activity was observed in a bean/corn mixture during extrusion. However, this decrease was attributed to the process conditions [107]. In a different work, extruded sorghum did not cause the loss of condensed tannins but made them difficult to extract [108]. In general, a reduction of the phenolic content caused by the thermal process resulted from the polymerization of these compounds and consequently less extractability [51]. Several researchers have shown either the retention or increase of bioactive compounds during the extrusion cooking in cereals such as wheat, barley, rye, and oat-based products [97, 109].
\nPhenolic compounds during extrusion may undergo decarboxylation due to high barrel temperatures. Also, high moisture content may promote polymerization of phenols and tannins reducing their extractability and antioxidant activity [110]. While the increase in phenolic acids in extruded products is generally due to the release from the cell wall matrix, most bioactive compounds are temperature sensitive, and barrel temperature plays a significant role in the stability of their antioxidant properties [6]. In a study with pigmented (white, yellow, blue, and red) Mexican maize processed by extrusion cooking, the flours obtained were used to make tortillas. These tortillas showed high retention of total phenolic content (76–93%), total ferulic acid (58–97%), and antioxidant activity evaluated as ORAC assay (93–75%) compared to tortillas made with the traditional process [29]. These results clearly indicate that extrusion cooking is an alternative to obtain products with higher levels of phytochemicals and antioxidant activity. Similarly, Aguayo-Rojas et al. [32] found higher retention in total phenolic content (76–87%) and antioxidant activity (ORAC, 87–90%), in tortillas from pigmented Mexican maize elaborated from extruded flours.
\nDuring extrusion cooking, a significant decrease (<50%) in total anthocyanins in blue Mexican maize has been reported. This decrement is mainly attributed to the flavonoids’ sensitivity to high temperatures [29, 32, 111]. However, there is also an increase in biologically important monomers and dimers due to the disruption of the cell wall food matrix [112].
\nCarotenoids and isoflavones are also affected by extrusion cooking. In a report using a corn/soy blend, the extrusion barrel temperature and the moisture content showed an increase in the acetyl derivatives of genistein and daidzein and a decrease in malonyl analogues indicating thermal decarboxylation [113]. In a study with eight genotypes of creole Mexican maize (yellow and red) processed into extruded flours and tortillas, the total carotenoid content showed a retention range of 69–79% with respect to raw maize. Likewise, the concentration of the individual carotenoid compounds (Lutein, Zeaxanthin, β-cryptoxanthin, and β-carotene) decreased with the extrusion process. Interestingly, lutein, the major carotenoid in maize, showed an average retention of 60–71% with respect to raw maize. The significant loss on levels and profiles of carotenoids and lipophilic antioxidant activity during the elaboration or tortillas could be attributed mainly to the effect of thermal process, which induce carotenoid degradation and reactions such as isomerization and oxidation [114]. In light of the above, it is prudent to conclude that the effect of extrusion on bioactive compounds is not only dependent of the grain variety, but it is also important to select the appropriate processing conditions.
\nThe consumption of whole grains is considered to have significant health benefits in prevention from chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and cancer. Cereal grains undergo physical and chemical changes during processing, so careful considerations should be taken to minimize or prevent any unfavorable changes in nutritional properties and the content of bioactive compounds. Most of the bioactive and phenolic compounds are mainly concentrated in the outer layer of cereal grains, and thus consuming whole-grain products is considered the best solution to increase the health benefits of cereal products. Extruders can be used to cook, form, mix, texturize, and shape food products under conditions that favor quality retention, high productivity, and low cost. In this regard, extrusion cooking is an ideal method for manufacturing a number of cereal products and to produce whole-grain products maintaining all the anatomic parts of the grain.
\nDespite the importance of selecting the appropriate food-processing conditions to improve the nutritional characteristics and increase the amount of biocomponents of the final product; research in this area is still limited. Thus, novel studies focusing on the optimization of thermal and nonthermal operations during extrusion have a vast potential for the food industry. Processing operations optimized for food safety may be combined with phytochemical studies to analyze both the nutritional and safety aspects. Finally, extrusion cooking has a potential for becoming the most important food-processing technology in the future, which can potentially be exploited.
\nThe correlation of lateral and vertical forces, angle of inclination of the wheel flange, and coefficient of friction between the wheel flange and rail gauge are considered as main parameters acting on derailment [1]. Avoidance of derailment and ensuring durability of the wheelsets, rails, brake shoes, etc. are vital for railways for both safety and economic reasons [2]. The prevalent case of derailments is climbing of a wheel on the rail that is influenced by such main parameters as the flange angle, vertical and lateral forces, angle of attack, friction factors, etc. There are many works devoted to these phenomena [1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13] that indicate urgency of the problem.
\nThe climbing of the wheel on the rail is stipulated by the tribological, geometric, and dynamical parameters of the wheel-rail interaction. For the solution of the problem, qualitative and quantitative estimations of influences of these parameters are necessary.
\nThe well-known Nadal’s criterion (1896) of the wheel climb derailments uses the lateral-to-vertical force limit (L/V limit) of a single wheel [8] depending on the angle of inclination of the wheel flange and friction coefficient. However, the latter changes in the wide range and laws of this variation are not sufficiently studied. Besides, the wheel climb derailments generally occur in situations where the climbing wheel experiences a high lateral force at great angle of attack, which is not considered in Nadal’s formula. The number of experimental researches confirms the insufficient reliability of Nadal’s criterion [14, 15, 16].
\nIn Figure 1 is shown a rail with a trace left on it after the wheel climbing [17]. The trace starts on the rail lateral surface and then passes on the rail tread surface.
\nThe trace of the wheel climbing on the rail.
The mechanism of generation and development of this trace is not studied sufficiently yet and needs additional researches [18]. Besides, according to this paper, friction coefficient in the contact zone of the wheel and rail reaches 0.5 and more at derailments.
\nThe wheel climbing on the rail is also promoted by decreasing the rail radius of curvature and deviation of the axle of symmetry of the wheelset from radial position (increased angle of attack) that causes advancement of the wheel flange and railhead lateral surface contact point.
\nAs it is known, a vertical axis of symmetry of the rail is inclined by 20° according to the standard. Deflection of the rail in the opposite direction that decreases the angle of inclination of the wheel flange is especially dangerous for the wheel climbing on the rail.
\nA creep is typical for the wheel and rail interaction. Different parts of interacting surfaces of the wheels and rails need to have different properties. Friction factor for the wheel flange and rail gauge face should be as low as possible—less than 0.1. Excessively high friction of the tread surfaces causes severe wear, plastic flow, and fatigue, and low friction can cause poor traction and braking. For tread surfaces of the wheel and rail, friction factor should not be less than 0.25 and greater than 0.4. Optimal value of the fiction factor for these surfaces is 0.35 [12].
\nAt common operational conditions, interacting surfaces are covered by various types of boundary layers—products of interaction of the surfaces and the environment, friction modifiers, etc.—that prevent a direct contact of the rubbing surfaces. Depending on the friction conditions, properties of the environment and surfaces, these layers may have various tribological properties that will have a great influence on the boundary friction [19, 20, 21, 22, 23]. This is confirmed by the results of the experimental researches in the inert gas environment and vacuum that excludes the possibility of interaction with the environment [2]. Under such conditions, unhindered seizure and intensive wear rate are observed.
\nTo prevent the aforementioned undesirable phenomena, it is important to provide the third body with due properties in the contact zone, control of the friction factor, and protection of the third body from destruction. However, until recently, despite considerable quantity of works, devoted to the study of dependences between wheel/rail and wheel/brake shoe friction forces and their durability, expected results are not obtained yet.
\nOur attention in the paper is mainly focused on the parameters that promote destruction of the third body. Some geometric features of the wheel and rail interaction and their influence on the friction path (sliding distance) and relative sliding velocity are shown. A corrected criterion of the wheel derailment is developed.
\nThe phenomenon of seizure is typical for interacting surfaces. This may occur when the third body is destructed and the surfaces are juvenile (free from dirty, oxide films and adsorbed layers) and are approached sufficiently. Seizure of the interacting surfaces leads to the most dangerous and dominating kind of deterioration—scuffing.
\nFor prevention of this phenomenon, they try to improve the tribological characteristics of the contact zone (improve properties of contacting surfaces and their ambient by applying the friction modifiers), stabilize the boundary layers, minimize a sliding distance and relative sliding velocity, etc. As it is noted in [23], the variation of the friction coefficient is mainly caused by changing a composition of the interfacial layer (the “third body”) between interacting surfaces. Our experimental researches have shown that for the given friction modifier, the variation of the friction coefficient mainly depends on the degree of destruction of the third body. An increase of the relative sliding velocity leads to an increase of the friction power and the contact temperature and decrease of the lubricant viscosity, film thickness, and friction force (friction coefficient). It corresponds to the “negative friction” in Figure 2, where a friction/creep relationship is shown [24].
\nFriction/creep relationship.
Worsening of the working conditions is caused by the partial, unit seizures and nonprogressive damage of the third body in the separate unit places (Figure 3) that corresponds to the separate small impulses of the friction moment. In Figure 3 are shown the stages of damage of the interacting surfaces due to seizures and scuffing of the surfaces.
\nThe stages of damage of the interacting surfaces due to seizures and scuffing of the surfaces: (a) unit seizures, (b) multiple seizures, (c) seizures in the form of the narrow strip, and (d) seizures on the whole area of the roller.
The further extension of destruction of the third body in the multiple places leads to the multiple damage of the third body, multiple adhesive junctions of micro-asperities, disruption of these junctions, and comparatively increased impulses of the friction moment and to “neutral friction.”
\nA progression of the third body destruction leads to spacious, discontinuous third body, adhesive junctions of micro-asperities, disruption of these junctions, and increase of the friction forces (“positive friction”). As it is seen from Figure 2, negative, neutral, and positive behaviors of the friction forces are stipulated by the degree of destruction of the third (Figure 3) body (the unit, multiple, narrow strip, and whole area).
\nTherefore, for ensuring the high wear resistance and stable friction force in the contact zone of the wheels and rails, it is necessary to provide continuous film of the third body with due properties between interacting surfaces. Consequently, a condition of destruction of the third body can be used as basics for estimation of the friction coefficient and the damages for the given peculiarities of the surface materials.
\nThe various dominant damage types, wear rate, and friction coefficient are characteristic for various relative sliding. In Figure 4 is shown dependence of the friction coefficient on the relative sliding and expected kind of surface damage. Three zones can be distinguished in Figure 4. In zone 1 and at the beginning of zone 2, deformations of the subsurface layers reach the maximum values, and the interacting surfaces undergo cyclic deformations. With the rise of relative sliding, the contact temperature gradually increases, decreasing viscosity of the third body [24] and the friction factor that reaches the minimum value. At full separation of the interacting surfaces by the third body, the tribo-technical properties of the contact zone mainly depend on the properties of the third body, and they provide high wear resistance of the interacting surfaces and relatively stable friction coefficient.
\nDependence of the coefficient of friction (f) on the relative sliding (ε) and expected kind of surface damage.
In zone 2 the separate small impulses of the friction moment and adhesive wear of low intensity correspond to destruction of the third body in the separate unit and multiple places, and balance between destruction and restoration of the third body is observed that stipulates the “mild” and “sever” wear [25]. In zone 3 destruction of the third body takes place in the narrow strips that passes then into whole area of interacting surfaces, resulting in rise of the friction coefficient, its instability, wear rate (reaching “catastrophic” wear), and scuffing.
\nSo, we have three stages of variation of the friction coefficient and wear: at continuous third body, at reversible discontinuous third body, and at irreversible discontinuous third body. The first stage is characterized by the minimal wear rate and stable friction factor. The second stage is characterized by the small constant and variable components of the friction coefficient. In terms of tribological characteristics, stages 1 and 2 indicate the acceptable working conditions of the tribological system. In contrast to this, stage 3 is characterized by the sharp increase of the constant and variable components of the friction coefficient, wear rate (“catastrophic wear”), vibrations, and noise, and operation in this zone is not admissible.
\nThe friction coefficient is minimum and stable in the first and second zones, and its value depends mainly on the rheological properties of the third body. In the third zone, the friction coefficient is sharply increased and instable, and its value depends on the working conditions and properties of the surfaces, friction modifiers, and environment. The signs of the beginning of the third body are instability of the friction (coefficient) moment, vibrations, and noise, and at visual observation in the laboratory conditions, the signs of scuffing are noticeable. Its prediction is possible with the use of the tables and graphs considering the given friction modifier, working conditions and environment properties, as well as the criterion of destruction of the third body [26].
\nThe geometrical features of the wheel and rail interaction are stipulated by the designs of the rail track/bogie, wheel/rail, and their technical state. At lateral displacement of the wheelset relative to the rail, a contact point from the tread surfaces passes on the wheel flange root and rail corner, and the wheel and rail tread surfaces separate from each other. At further lateral displacement of the wheelset, the contact point passes on their steering surfaces, and the angle of inclination of the wheel flange increases up to 70°.
\nIt is difficult to predict and control the friction forces, wear rate of various types, vibrations, and noise of the heavy loaded interacting surfaces of the railway transport running gear that decreases traffic safety, increases energy loses on friction, etc. Many works are devoted to the researches of dependences of the tribological properties on various factors [1, 3, 4, 5, 6], though their mechanisms of generation and variation are not always entirely clear that complicates the revelation of parameters influencing them [7, 8].
\nThere are many reasons of generation of vibrations and noise at movement of the train, part of which are well studied and predictable, and ways of their decrease are known. The interacting surfaces of the wheels and rails are characterized by the various types of irregularities, 5–20 mm gaps in the rail joints, where the rail tread surfaces are spaced by 0.5–2 mm in the vertical direction; the various wear traces (rail corrugation, fatigue, etc.) and deviations from the wheel roundness are the sources of vibrations and noise.
\nThe wheel and rail interaction is accompanied by the forced and self-excited vibrations of various frequencies, as the main reason of the forced vibrations is considered macro- and micro-asperities of the rail (periodic and separate asperities) [9, 10, 11, 12, 13]. However, the main source of the self-vibrations is friction between the wheel and rail. It must be noted that to various working conditions of the heavy loaded contacting surfaces and wear types correspond typical micro-asperities, which can be different from the initial micro-asperities [27, 28]. The researches have shown an important role of the tread and steering surfaces in generation of the vibrations (self-vibrations) and noise, whose reasons are not studied sufficiently. There is quite vague information on the reasons of the self-vibrations generated at interaction of the wheel and rail [9].
\nGeneration of vibrations of the heavy loaded interacting elements of the railway transport running gear is stipulated by the complex processes proceeding in the contact zone. As a result of interaction of the surfaces with the environment, they are coated by the layers of various physical and chemical origins that are the components of the third body in the contact zone and have a great influence on the tribological properties of the contacting surfaces. According to observations by Godet, dry friction is largely determined not by the properties of materials of the contacting pair but by the characteristics of the structure and composition of the thin film that is formed on the surfaces of both bodies because of compaction of the wear product and its chemical composition and oxidation. Destination of the third body in the tribological systems is separation of the contacting surfaces, providing with the stable friction forces of proper values and protection of the surfaces against damage of various types. Tribological properties of the third body greatly depend on the initial properties of its component elements and features of the contact zone. The sliding velocity, power and thermal loading, and the sliding distance have especially great influence on the destruction of the third body. For providing the stability of the third body in the contact zone of the wheels and rails and reduction of the derailment probability, energy consumed on traction, environment pollution, and maintenance expenses, the decrease of the sliding distance and relative sliding is especially important.
\nThe wheel/rail squeal in curves is the most common type of vibrations and noise. It is especially typical for high-speed movements, when because of various reasons, the relative sliding and sliding distance increase. This contributes destruction of the third body, seizure of the surfaces at direct contact, subsequent destruction of the seized surfaces, and instability of the friction forces and relative movement of surfaces.
\nMany negative phenomena (wear, noise, vibrations) are generated because of the wheel sliding on the rail. For elimination of the wheel sliding in the curves, the wheel tread surface is given a conical form with the intention of making the outer wheel to roll on the greater diameter passing the greater distance than the inner wheel and rotate both wheels through the equal angles, maintaining this way radial position of the wheelset axle. However, this intention can be realized only for a certain combination of such parameters, as radius of the rail track curvature, mass and speed of the rolling stock, friction coefficient between the wheel and rail, etc. Therefore, practically the outer wheel rolls on the less diameter than necessary, and in the case of the free wheelset (without bogie), it falls behind the inner wheel, inclining the wheelset axle from the radial position.
\nIn the case of the non-free wheelset, the bogie makes the wheelset maintain a radial position, forcing the outer wheel to roll the greater distance not to fall behind the inner wheel. Thereat, the outer wheel rotates through the greater angle than the inner one, and the wheelset axle is twisted. The angle of twist of the wheelset can increase up to the value that is stipulated by the friction force between the wheel and rail. When this angle of twist reaches the limited value, the wheel slides on the rail due to action of the wheelset axle elastic moment tending to bring it back to the equilibrium position.
\nSimilarly, the wheel will slide on the rail at rolling in the straight rail track of the wheelset with the wheels of different diameters or with one wheel having an elliptical form. The mechanisms of the wheel sliding on the rail for the three noted cases are considered and explained in the next paragraphs.
\nAt pure rolling of the free wheelset (without bogie) in the curved rail track with radius of curvature R of the internal rail, its axle will be inclined from radial position because both wheels will have passed equal distances l. However, in the wagon wheelset rolling with velocity V, the outer wheel is constraint to maintain the radial position and pass greater distance l + ∆l, rotating relative to the inner wheel in the clockwise direction if it is seen from axial direction A (Figure 5). At that, the wheelset axle is twisted through angle φ equal to the ratio of the difference ∆l of the outer and inner arcs to the radius D/2 of the wheel tread surface, supposing that both wheels are rolling on the tread surfaces of equal diameters:
\nMovement of the wagon wheelset in the curve and wheelset shaft slope from the radial position.
From the drawing α = l/R = (l + ∆l)/(R + ∆R) = ∆l/∆R,
\nfrom where
\nand therefore
\nOn the other hand, the maximum angle of twist of the wheelset axle φmax depends on the friction force
\nand is calculated by the known, from the resistance of materials, formula
\nwhere M is a torque caused by the friction force
\nf, friction coefficient; Q, vertical load (half of the load on the wheelset) of the wheel on the rail; L, length of the wheelset axle; Ip, polar moment of inertia of the wheelset axle cross section; and G, modulus of rigidity (share modulus) of the axle material.
\nWe determine distance between the worn-out segments of the rail or path l (at traveling this path, the wheels are rolling on the rail without sliding), at rolling of which the axle is twisted on the maximum angle φmax, from (3) replacing φ by φmax
\nand putting the found l into (2) we obtain difference of the paths passed by the outer and inner wheels at which the axle is twisted on the maximum angle φmax
\nAt rolling of the free wheelset (without bogie) with the wheels of different diameters D and D + ΔD in the straight rail track the distance l, the greater wheel passes a greater distance l + ∆l, deflecting the wheelset axle from its perpendicular position relative to the rail track (Figure 2a). But in the wagon wheelset the axle being constraint to retain perpendicular position, the smaller wheel is forced to pass the same distance l + ∆l and rotate relative to the greater wheel in the clockwise direction, if it is seen from axial direction A. At that, the wheelset axle is twisted through angle φ that is determined by formula (1), from where, considering (5), we obtain the value of ∆l (see formula (8)) corresponding to the maximum angle of twist φmax.
\nThe following proportion can be written from the drawing: (l + ∆l)/l = (D + ΔD)/D or ∆l/l = ΔD/D, from which we obtain distance l between the worn-out segments at passing of which the wheelset axle will be twisted through angle φmax:
\nConsider a free wheelset with one wheel of diameter D and other elliptical wheel with the small D and bigger D + ΔD diameters moving in the straight rail track (Figure 6a and b).
\nMovement of the free wheelset in the straight rail track: (a) with the wheels of different diameters or with one elliptical wheel; (b) parameters of ellipticity.
At one revolution, these wheels will pass the different distances, correspondingly l and l + ∆l, deflecting the wheelset axle from its perpendicular position relative to the rail track (Figure 6a). However, in the wagon wheelset the axle being constraint to retain perpendicular position, the wheel with diameter D is forced to pass the same (greater) distance l + ∆l and rotate relative to the elliptical wheel in the clockwise direction if it is seen from axial direction A. At that, the wheelset axle is twisted through angle φ that is determined by formula (1).
\nThe difference of distances passed by the wheels at one revolution is ∆l = L–πD, where the length of the elliptical tread surface
\nor
\nThe value ∆lI corresponding to maximum angle of twist φmax is obtained considering formula (5)
\nThe distance l at passing of which the wheelset axle will be twisted on the angle φmax will be then
\nIn all the three cases considered above, at removing or decrease of the torque M acting on the wheel that takes place at its vertical vibrations when the friction force F decreases, the angle of twist of the axle will start to decrease. Suppose φmax falls down to zero during time t. This will take place at rotation of the inner wheel in the clockwise direction relative to the outer wheel on the angle φmax since the flange of the outer wheel is pressed on the rail and the friction force arisen between the flange and rail additionally restricts its movement. Obviously, during this time t the inner wheel will roll and slide simultaneously on the rail and the rolling and sliding distance on the rail will be
\nWe note that the rolling and sliding distance on the wheel tread surface is
\nor for the variant of the elliptical wheel
\nhere ∆l or ∆lI is a sliding friction path and the wavelength of the worn-out rail (Figure 3)
\nThis value of the wavelength assumes that at release of the inner wheel, the friction force acting on it from the rail is zero. When the friction force differs from zero, the wavelength will be less since its both components will decrease and its value depends on the friction force magnitude.
\nTo determine time t, we present the wheelset as a one-mass torsional vibratory system (Figure 7a), where C is a torsional rigidity of the wheelset axle and I, total moment of inertia of the inner wheel. Then, angle of twist φmax will fall down to zero in conformity with a law of free vibrations of this vibratory system during the period P/4 (Figure 7b).
\n(a) One-mass torsional vibratory system; (b) graph of the system free vibrations.
At that, period of free vibrations
\nand consequently, time t will be
\nThe average velocity of the wheel contact point relative to the wheel center (Figure 8)
\nThe rolling and sliding distances on the rail and wheel.
where Vr = − V is a velocity of the rail contact point relative to the wheel center.
\nWe note that maximum velocity of the wheel contact point relative to the wheel center.
\nwhere A = φmax is an amplitude of the wheelset shaft torsion vibrations and ω = \n
Sliding velocity
\nRelative sliding velocities
\nThe depth of the worn-out layer a year of the rail segment Sr.
\nwhere i is the wear intensity and N, number of cycles which is determined as follows:
\nwhere N1 is a number of the trains passing by a day; N2, number of wagons in the train; N3, number of wheels on one side of the wagon; and N4, number of days a year.
\nPossibility of derailment or the wheel’s rolling up on the rail is estimated by the criterion of the wheel flange contact point (point A, Figure 9) slipping down the rail lateral surface, based on the condition of equilibrium of forces acting on this point [24]. Lateral L and vertical V forces determined from the condition of equilibrium of these forces are.where N is a normal force; FI = fIN, friction force between the wheel flange and rail lateral surface; fI, friction coefficient between these surfaces; and β, angle of inclination of the wheel flange.
\nForces acting on the contact point a.
It should be noted that the forces acting on point A are interdependent and equalities (25) and (26) are only valid for limited values of forces L and V, since the rise of the friction force FI is limited by the friction coefficient fI. Therefore, at a certain ratio of forces L and V, the friction force FI can no longer balance the contact point A, which will slip down on the rail lateral surface, and it is considered on this ground that the wheel cannot roll up on the rail. At that, equalities (25) and (26) become inequalities from where a criterion of impossibility of the wheel rolling up on the rail or derailment is obtained [24]:
\nHowever, at sign of equality (=) in (27) and to a certain extent at sign of inequality (<) also, the wheel can rotate about contact point A and roll up on the rail if such possibility exists or if moment of the force P acting on the wheel axle exceeds the moment of the vertical force V about contact point A (Figure 10). In other words, under such condition, two-point (O, A) contact of the wheel passes into one-point contact at A. In the first case (at sign =), the wheel will roll on the immobile point A with pure rolling, and in the second case (at sign <), the wheel will roll on the mobile point A creeping slowly down the rail lateral surface with combined rolling and sliding. Both cases lead to the wheel climbing the rail and derailment.
\nForces acting on the wheel axle.
Therefore, it is necessary to provide the criterion (27) with additional condition of impossibility of the wheel rolling on the contact point A, which, on the base of Figure 10, can be written as
\nwhere h is the value of the climbing advance; r is the radius of the wheel rolling circle; d is the vertical coordinate of the contact point A.
\nForce P acting on the wheel axle cannot exceed the sum of the friction forces between the wheel and rail tread surfaces and between the wheel flange and rail lateral surface:
\nwhere f and fI are friction coefficients between the wheel and rail tread surfaces and the wheel flange and rail lateral surfaces correspondingly.
\nDetermining N and V correspondingly from (25) and (26), substituting them into (29) and then putting obtained P into (28), from the latter we obtain the following criterion of impossibility of the derailment:
\nIf this criterion is not satisfied, the wheel starts to roll on the contact point A, and the contact between the wheel and rail tread surfaces is lost, or two-point contact at O and A passes into one-point contact at A. For obtaining a criterion of impossibility of the wheel rolling on the contact point A, it is necessary to put f = 0 in (30), which gives.
\nThe criteria (30) and (31) provide both, the wheel flange contact point sliding down the rail lateral surface and impossibility of the wheel rolling on this point. Besides, the criterion (30) ensures less value (more conservative) of the allowable ratio of the lateral and vertical forces L/V than criterion (27), while criterion (31), depending on the value of the climbing advance h, gives the ratio L/V less or more than criterion (27). For illustration, consider two variants of numerical data of the parameters:
\n\n
\n\n
Allowable maximum ratios L/V for these variants calculated by the criteria (27), (30), and (31) are given in the following table:
Variant | \nCriterion (27) | \nCriterion (30) | \nCriterion (31) | \n
---|---|---|---|
a | \n1.39 | \n0.31 | \n1.04 | \n
b | \n1.39 | \n0.44 | \n1.47 | \n
For analysis of the obtained results, suppose that ratio L/V = 1.3, i.e., criterion (27) is satisfied and derailment is not possible. However, it is seen from the table that for variant (a) neither criteria (30) nor (31) are satisfied and both predict derailment. For variant (b), criterion (30) is not satisfied, or it predicts derailment, and criterion (31) is satisfied, i.e., by this criterion, derailment is not possible. This means that the wheel starts to roll on the contact point A and two-point (O, A) contact passes into one-point contact at A. Then, this contact point slides down the rail lateral surface, the two-point contact restores, and so on, this process is repeated. However, at passing from two-point (O, A) contact into one-point contact at A, the lateral and vertical forces on the steering surfaces increase. Typical for these surfaces, increased relative sliding increases the power and thermal loads in the contact of these surfaces, generating the convenient conditions for destruction of the third body. This results in sharp increase of the cohesion forces, scuffing, and friction coefficient that promotes climbing of the wheel flange on the rail lateral surface. This is confirmed by the numerous laboratory researches carried out by us as well as the trace of the wheel climbing on the railhead lateral surface (Figure 1) that has a form of scuffing.
\nThus, it is expedient to estimate possibility of derailment by criterion (30), since it provides both, the wheel flange contact point sliding down the rail lateral surface and impossibility of the wheel rolling on the same point, and ensures less value (more conservative) of the allowable ratio of the lateral and vertical forces L/V than criteria (31) and (27).
\nPrediction and avoiding of derailment are the most important problems of which many scientific works are devoted for their solution but the desirable results are not obtained yet. The survey of the literature and our experience show that the derailment is especially influenced by the friction coefficient that is not predictable, and in contrast to other parameters, it varies in a wide range.
\nIt is shown that for prediction of the friction coefficient and providing its stability, it is necessary to provide the contact zone with the continuous and restorable third body of due properties.
\nThe main results of the paper can be formed as follows:
A friction factor as well as other tribological properties of interacting surfaces depends on the properties and degree of destruction of the third body.
The sharp increase of the friction factor in the contact zone of steering surfaces indicates a beginning of the irreversible (progressive) destruction of the third body that contributes to the wheel climbing on the rail.
For avoidance of derailment, decreasing the wear rate and ensuring sufficient durability of the rails, wheelsets, and brake shoes, a continuous or reversible third body must be provided in the contact zone.
Destruction of the third body in the laboratory conditions is proposed to determine by the flash of the friction moment or criterion of destruction of the third body.
A criterion of impossibility of derailment providing additionally impossibility of the wheel rolling on the wheel flange contact point is offered, which ensures less value (more conservative) of the allowable ratio of lateral and vertical forces than Nadal’s formula.
For solution of the problem of derailment, an experimental–theoretical approach is needed because of the lack of comprehensive theoretical model of the wheel climbing on the rail.
\nDue to the existence of materials with quite different designations and properties in the contact zone, many new unanswered problems rise. They are related with the further increase of the derailment criterion informativity and precision, providing the contact zone with the third body having due properties, conditions of formation, and destruction of the third body. They also concern to the tribological properties of the interacting metal and nonmetal surfaces, direct interaction of their juvenile surfaces and generation of the strong adhesion bonds, cold welding, destruction and wear of the surfaces, variation of the value, and instability of the friction coefficient.
\nOn the base of experimental researches, we have ascertained dependence of the friction coefficient on the degree of destruction of the third body for the conditions of various relative sliding velocities, speeds, materials of interacting surfaces, roughness of the surfaces, friction modifiers, and loads at which the range of variation of the acting parameters is quite wide and therefore continuation of researches is needed.
\nIntechOpen Compacts provide a mid-length publishing format which bridges the gap between journal articles, book chapters and monographs, and cover content across all scientific disciplines. Compacts are the preferred publishing option for brief research reports on new topics, in-depth case studies, dissertations, or essays exploring new ideas, issues or broader topics on the research subject.
",metaTitle:"IntechOpen Compacts",metaDescription:"IntechOpen Compacts present a mid-length publishing format which bridges the gap between journal articles, book chapters, and monographs and covers content across all scientific disciplines.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/compacts",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Without sacrificing the quality of carefully edited and produced peer-reviewed content, Compacts are published as part of IntechOpen’s book collection but on a faster schedule, typically 4-6 weeks after acceptance. With an average of 132,000 visitors per week, publishing in Compacts not only guarantees high visibility but also facilitates international content sharing. As a fully Open Access publisher, the utilization of a CC BY NC 4.0 license means that other researchers will never have to pay permission fees and can adapt, use, and further build upon the material published in Compacts, eliminating any barriers to the further development of scientific research.
\\n\\nCOMPACTS-SHORT FORM MONOGRAPH
\\n\\nCOST
\\n\\n4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
\\n\\nThe final price will depend on the volume of the publication and includes project management, editorial and peer-review services, technical editing, language copyediting, cover design, book layout, book promotion and ISBN assignment.
\\n\\n*The price does not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate applicable in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT by providing us with their VAT registration number. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\\n\\nOptional Services
\\n\\nIntechOpen has collaborated with Enago, through its sister company, Ulatus – one of the world’s leading providers of book translation services. The services are designed to convey the essence of your work seamlessly to readers from across the globe in their own language. Enago’s expert translators incorporate cultural nuances in translations to make the content relevant for local audiences while retaining the original meaning and style. With a high degree of linguistic and subject expertise, Enago translators are equipped to handle all complex and multiple overlapping themes encompassed in a single book to deliver a superior quality of translation.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Authors that wish to use this service will receive a 20% discount on all translation work. For more information or a quote, please visit: https://www.enago.com/intech.
\\n\\nFUNDING
\\n\\nWe feel that financial barriers should never prevent researchers from publishing their research. Please consult our Open Access Funding page to explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication.
\\n\\nBENEFITS
\\n\\nPUBLISHING PROCESS STEPS
\\n\\nSee a complete overview and description of the steps involved in the publishing process here.
\\n\\nSEND YOUR PROPOSAL
\\n\\nIf you are interested in publishing your book with IntechOpen, please submit your book proposal by completing the Publishing Proposal Form.
\\n\\nNot sure if this is the right option for you? Please refer back to the main Publish with IntechOpen page or feel free to contact us directly at book.department@intechopen.com
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Without sacrificing the quality of carefully edited and produced peer-reviewed content, Compacts are published as part of IntechOpen’s book collection but on a faster schedule, typically 4-6 weeks after acceptance. With an average of 132,000 visitors per week, publishing in Compacts not only guarantees high visibility but also facilitates international content sharing. As a fully Open Access publisher, the utilization of a CC BY NC 4.0 license means that other researchers will never have to pay permission fees and can adapt, use, and further build upon the material published in Compacts, eliminating any barriers to the further development of scientific research.
\n\nCOMPACTS-SHORT FORM MONOGRAPH
\n\nCOST
\n\n4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
\n\nThe final price will depend on the volume of the publication and includes project management, editorial and peer-review services, technical editing, language copyediting, cover design, book layout, book promotion and ISBN assignment.
\n\n*The price does not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate applicable in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT by providing us with their VAT registration number. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\n\nOptional Services
\n\nIntechOpen has collaborated with Enago, through its sister company, Ulatus – one of the world’s leading providers of book translation services. The services are designed to convey the essence of your work seamlessly to readers from across the globe in their own language. Enago’s expert translators incorporate cultural nuances in translations to make the content relevant for local audiences while retaining the original meaning and style. With a high degree of linguistic and subject expertise, Enago translators are equipped to handle all complex and multiple overlapping themes encompassed in a single book to deliver a superior quality of translation.
\n\nIntechOpen Authors that wish to use this service will receive a 20% discount on all translation work. For more information or a quote, please visit: https://www.enago.com/intech.
\n\nFUNDING
\n\nWe feel that financial barriers should never prevent researchers from publishing their research. Please consult our Open Access Funding page to explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication.
\n\nBENEFITS
\n\nPUBLISHING PROCESS STEPS
\n\nSee a complete overview and description of the steps involved in the publishing process here.
\n\nSEND YOUR PROPOSAL
\n\nIf you are interested in publishing your book with IntechOpen, please submit your book proposal by completing the Publishing Proposal Form.
\n\nNot sure if this is the right option for you? Please refer back to the main Publish with IntechOpen page or feel free to contact us directly at book.department@intechopen.com
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5313},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:4819},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1468},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:9362},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:837},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:14778}],offset:12,limit:12,total:108153},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"23"},books:[{type:"book",id:"6934",title:"Sexual Ethics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"44731b106aa0d1ab5c64a7394483c7d5",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6934.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"167875",title:"Dr.",name:"Dhastagir Sultan",surname:"Sheriff",slug:"dhastagir-sultan-sheriff",fullName:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7800",title:"Activism in the Construction Industry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"776779e213ef3e51e73bd6cd4f5676af",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Nthatisi Khatleli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7800.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"247856",title:"Dr.",name:"Nthatisi",surname:"Khatleli",slug:"nthatisi-khatleli",fullName:"Nthatisi Khatleli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7806",title:"Public-sector Crisis Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"84a998820880e0f006a5e9eac40d83e7",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Alexander Rozanov, Dr. Alexander Barannikov, Dr. Olga Belyaeva and Dr. Mikhail Smirnov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7806.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"233092",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Rozanov",slug:"alexander-rozanov",fullName:"Alexander Rozanov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7821",title:"Penology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2127505059817f762d95d38e83fa4b58",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7821.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8090",title:"Who Wants to Retire and Who Can Afford to Retire?",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"90fe30d224594414bb156e42afa47f5e",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ingrid Muenstermann",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8090.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"77112",title:"Dr.",name:"Ingrid",surname:"Muenstermann",slug:"ingrid-muenstermann",fullName:"Ingrid Muenstermann"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8145",title:"Police Work",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"446b770d8b07973517a89e8ccb6babc8",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Kamil Hakan Dogan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8145.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"30612",title:"Prof.",name:"Kamil Hakan",surname:"Dogan",slug:"kamil-hakan-dogan",fullName:"Kamil Hakan Dogan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8278",title:"Valuation and Compensation Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"aac39a84162fc51366824efdee1c02ad",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Ubaldo Comite",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8278.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"195399",title:"Prof.",name:"Ubaldo",surname:"Comite",slug:"ubaldo-comite",fullName:"Ubaldo Comite"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8280",title:"The Bridge Between Microeconomics and Macroeconomics - Perspectives and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"ba88190dce5deb1711a5b7e9d3838cad",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Oguzhan Ozcelebi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8280.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"226325",title:"Prof.",name:"Oguzhan",surname:"Ozcelebi",slug:"oguzhan-ozcelebi",fullName:"Oguzhan Ozcelebi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8452",title:"Argumentation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0860d5da35173d066fe692466ccc4487",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8452.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8525",title:"LGBT+ Studies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"6cb260b7524f548de18dac8fd97d5db7",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8525.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8535",title:"Public Diplomacy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"ca82945156946b18f4e457ce91ac6643",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Galina V. Timofeeva and Ms. Alexandra Baranova",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8535.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"311522",title:"Dr.",name:"Galina",surname:"Timofeeva",slug:"galina-timofeeva",fullName:"Galina Timofeeva"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9036",title:"Social Policy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4266fa2d0a91696ade5421a773b40ec7",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9036.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:35},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:32},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:29},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:26},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:75},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:13},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:37},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:142},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:20},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Intelligent System",value:535,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:28},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7878",title:"Advances in Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation",subtitle:"Volume 3",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f95bf990273d08098a00f9a1c2403cbe",slug:"advances-in-extracorporeal-membrane-oxygenation-volume-3",bookSignature:"Michael S. Firstenberg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7878.jpg",editors:[{id:"64343",title:null,name:"Michael S.",middleName:"S",surname:"Firstenberg",slug:"michael-s.-firstenberg",fullName:"Michael S. Firstenberg"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7614",title:"Fourier Transforms",subtitle:"Century of Digitalization and Increasing Expectations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ff3501657ae983a3b42fef1f7058ac91",slug:"fourier-transforms-century-of-digitalization-and-increasing-expectations",bookSignature:"Goran S. Nikoli? and Dragana Z. Markovi?-Nikoli?",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7614.jpg",editors:[{id:"23261",title:"Prof.",name:"Goran",middleName:"S.",surname:"Nikolic",slug:"goran-nikolic",fullName:"Goran Nikolic"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8299",title:"Timber Buildings and Sustainability",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bccf2891cec38ed041724131aa34c25a",slug:"timber-buildings-and-sustainability",bookSignature:"Giovanna Concu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8299.jpg",editors:[{id:"108709",title:"Dr.",name:"Giovanna",middleName:null,surname:"Concu",slug:"giovanna-concu",fullName:"Giovanna Concu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7062",title:"Rhinosinusitis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"14ed95e155b1e57a61827ca30b579d09",slug:"rhinosinusitis",bookSignature:"Balwant Singh Gendeh and Mirjana Turkalj",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7062.jpg",editors:[{id:"67669",title:"Prof.",name:"Balwant Singh",middleName:null,surname:"Gendeh",slug:"balwant-singh-gendeh",fullName:"Balwant Singh Gendeh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7087",title:"Tendons",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"786abac0445c102d1399a1e727a2db7f",slug:"tendons",bookSignature:"Hasan Sözen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7087.jpg",editors:[{id:"161402",title:"Dr.",name:"Hasan",middleName:null,surname:"Sözen",slug:"hasan-sozen",fullName:"Hasan Sözen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7955",title:"Advances in Hematologic Malignancies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"59ca1b09447fab4717a93e099f646d28",slug:"advances-in-hematologic-malignancies",bookSignature:"Gamal Abdul Hamid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7955.jpg",editors:[{id:"36487",title:"Prof.",name:"Gamal",middleName:null,surname:"Abdul Hamid",slug:"gamal-abdul-hamid",fullName:"Gamal Abdul Hamid"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7701",title:"Assistive and Rehabilitation Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4191b744b8af3b17d9a80026dcb0617f",slug:"assistive-and-rehabilitation-engineering",bookSignature:"Yves Rybarczyk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7701.jpg",editors:[{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",middleName:"Philippe",surname:"Rybarczyk",slug:"yves-rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7837",title:"Geriatric Medicine and Gerontology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e277d005b23536bcd9f8550046101979",slug:"geriatric-medicine-and-gerontology",bookSignature:"Edward T. Zawada Jr.",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7837.jpg",editors:[{id:"16344",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward T.",middleName:null,surname:"Zawada Jr.",slug:"edward-t.-zawada-jr.",fullName:"Edward T. Zawada Jr."}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"61c627da05b2ace83056d11357bdf361",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7610",title:"Renewable and Sustainable Composites",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2de26c3d329c54f093dc3f05417500a",slug:"renewable-and-sustainable-composites",bookSignature:"António B. Pereira and Fábio A. O. Fernandes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7610.jpg",editors:[{id:"211131",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Bastos",surname:"Pereira",slug:"antonio-pereira",fullName:"António Pereira"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8416",title:"Non-Equilibrium Particle Dynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c3add7639dcd1cb442cb4313ea64e3a",slug:"non-equilibrium-particle-dynamics",bookSignature:"Albert S. Kim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8416.jpg",editors:[{id:"21045",title:"Prof.",name:"Albert S.",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"albert-s.-kim",fullName:"Albert S. Kim"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8463",title:"Pediatric Surgery, Flowcharts and Clinical Algorithms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"23f39beea4d557b0ae424e2eaf82bf5e",slug:"pediatric-surgery-flowcharts-and-clinical-algorithms",bookSignature:"Sameh Shehata",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8463.jpg",editors:[{id:"37518",title:"Prof.",name:"Sameh",middleName:null,surname:"Shehata",slug:"sameh-shehata",fullName:"Sameh Shehata"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:4392},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7878",title:"Advances in Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation",subtitle:"Volume 3",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f95bf990273d08098a00f9a1c2403cbe",slug:"advances-in-extracorporeal-membrane-oxygenation-volume-3",bookSignature:"Michael S. Firstenberg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7878.jpg",editors:[{id:"64343",title:null,name:"Michael S.",middleName:"S",surname:"Firstenberg",slug:"michael-s.-firstenberg",fullName:"Michael S. Firstenberg"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7614",title:"Fourier Transforms",subtitle:"Century of Digitalization and Increasing Expectations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ff3501657ae983a3b42fef1f7058ac91",slug:"fourier-transforms-century-of-digitalization-and-increasing-expectations",bookSignature:"Goran S. Nikoli? and Dragana Z. Markovi?-Nikoli?",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7614.jpg",editors:[{id:"23261",title:"Prof.",name:"Goran",middleName:"S.",surname:"Nikolic",slug:"goran-nikolic",fullName:"Goran Nikolic"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8299",title:"Timber Buildings and Sustainability",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bccf2891cec38ed041724131aa34c25a",slug:"timber-buildings-and-sustainability",bookSignature:"Giovanna Concu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8299.jpg",editors:[{id:"108709",title:"Dr.",name:"Giovanna",middleName:null,surname:"Concu",slug:"giovanna-concu",fullName:"Giovanna Concu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7062",title:"Rhinosinusitis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"14ed95e155b1e57a61827ca30b579d09",slug:"rhinosinusitis",bookSignature:"Balwant Singh Gendeh and Mirjana Turkalj",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7062.jpg",editors:[{id:"67669",title:"Prof.",name:"Balwant Singh",middleName:null,surname:"Gendeh",slug:"balwant-singh-gendeh",fullName:"Balwant Singh Gendeh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7087",title:"Tendons",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"786abac0445c102d1399a1e727a2db7f",slug:"tendons",bookSignature:"Hasan Sözen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7087.jpg",editors:[{id:"161402",title:"Dr.",name:"Hasan",middleName:null,surname:"Sözen",slug:"hasan-sozen",fullName:"Hasan Sözen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7955",title:"Advances in Hematologic Malignancies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"59ca1b09447fab4717a93e099f646d28",slug:"advances-in-hematologic-malignancies",bookSignature:"Gamal Abdul Hamid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7955.jpg",editors:[{id:"36487",title:"Prof.",name:"Gamal",middleName:null,surname:"Abdul Hamid",slug:"gamal-abdul-hamid",fullName:"Gamal Abdul Hamid"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7701",title:"Assistive and Rehabilitation Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4191b744b8af3b17d9a80026dcb0617f",slug:"assistive-and-rehabilitation-engineering",bookSignature:"Yves Rybarczyk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7701.jpg",editors:[{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",middleName:"Philippe",surname:"Rybarczyk",slug:"yves-rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7837",title:"Geriatric Medicine and Gerontology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e277d005b23536bcd9f8550046101979",slug:"geriatric-medicine-and-gerontology",bookSignature:"Edward T. Zawada Jr.",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7837.jpg",editors:[{id:"16344",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward T.",middleName:null,surname:"Zawada Jr.",slug:"edward-t.-zawada-jr.",fullName:"Edward T. Zawada Jr."}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"61c627da05b2ace83056d11357bdf361",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7610",title:"Renewable and Sustainable Composites",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2de26c3d329c54f093dc3f05417500a",slug:"renewable-and-sustainable-composites",bookSignature:"António B. Pereira and Fábio A. O. Fernandes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7610.jpg",editors:[{id:"211131",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Bastos",surname:"Pereira",slug:"antonio-pereira",fullName:"António Pereira"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8463",title:"Pediatric Surgery, Flowcharts and Clinical Algorithms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"23f39beea4d557b0ae424e2eaf82bf5e",slug:"pediatric-surgery-flowcharts-and-clinical-algorithms",bookSignature:"Sameh Shehata",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8463.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37518",title:"Prof.",name:"Sameh",middleName:null,surname:"Shehata",slug:"sameh-shehata",fullName:"Sameh Shehata"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7187",title:"Osteosarcoma",subtitle:"Diagnosis, Mechanisms, and Translational Developments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"89096359b754beb806eca4c6d8aacaba",slug:"osteosarcoma-diagnosis-mechanisms-and-translational-developments",bookSignature:"Matthew Gregory Cable and Robert Lawrence Randall",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7187.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"265693",title:"Dr.",name:"Matthew Gregory",middleName:null,surname:"Cable",slug:"matthew-gregory-cable",fullName:"Matthew Gregory Cable"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7955",title:"Advances in Hematologic Malignancies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"59ca1b09447fab4717a93e099f646d28",slug:"advances-in-hematologic-malignancies",bookSignature:"Gamal Abdul Hamid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7955.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36487",title:"Prof.",name:"Gamal",middleName:null,surname:"Abdul Hamid",slug:"gamal-abdul-hamid",fullName:"Gamal Abdul Hamid"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7701",title:"Assistive and Rehabilitation Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4191b744b8af3b17d9a80026dcb0617f",slug:"assistive-and-rehabilitation-engineering",bookSignature:"Yves Rybarczyk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7701.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",middleName:"Philippe",surname:"Rybarczyk",slug:"yves-rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7726",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e7ea7e74ce7a7a8e5359629e07c68d31",slug:"swarm-intelligence-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Javier Del Ser, Esther Villar and Eneko Osaba",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7726.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8256",title:"Distillation",subtitle:"Modelling, Simulation and Optimization",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c76af109f83e14d915e5cb3949ae8b80",slug:"distillation-modelling-simulation-and-optimization",bookSignature:"Vilmar Steffen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8256.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"189035",title:"Dr.",name:"Vilmar",middleName:null,surname:"Steffen",slug:"vilmar-steffen",fullName:"Vilmar Steffen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7240",title:"Growing and Handling of Bacterial Cultures",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a76c3ef7718c0b72d0128817cdcbe6e3",slug:"growing-and-handling-of-bacterial-cultures",bookSignature:"Madhusmita Mishra",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7240.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"204267",title:"Dr.",name:"Madhusmita",middleName:null,surname:"Mishra",slug:"madhusmita-mishra",fullName:"Madhusmita Mishra"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8299",title:"Timber Buildings and Sustainability",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bccf2891cec38ed041724131aa34c25a",slug:"timber-buildings-and-sustainability",bookSignature:"Giovanna Concu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8299.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"108709",title:"Dr.",name:"Giovanna",middleName:null,surname:"Concu",slug:"giovanna-concu",fullName:"Giovanna Concu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7062",title:"Rhinosinusitis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"14ed95e155b1e57a61827ca30b579d09",slug:"rhinosinusitis",bookSignature:"Balwant Singh Gendeh and Mirjana Turkalj",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7062.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67669",title:"Prof.",name:"Balwant Singh",middleName:null,surname:"Gendeh",slug:"balwant-singh-gendeh",fullName:"Balwant Singh Gendeh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7837",title:"Geriatric Medicine and Gerontology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e277d005b23536bcd9f8550046101979",slug:"geriatric-medicine-and-gerontology",bookSignature:"Edward T. Zawada Jr.",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7837.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16344",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward T.",middleName:null,surname:"Zawada Jr.",slug:"edward-t.-zawada-jr.",fullName:"Edward T. Zawada Jr."}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"31",title:"Animal Biology",slug:"animal-biology",parent:{title:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences"},numberOfBooks:22,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:572,numberOfWosCitations:217,numberOfCrossrefCitations:217,numberOfDimensionsCitations:615,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"animal-biology",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"6053",title:"Animal Domestication",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cc949732f3a3442f988ae91112645354",slug:"animal-domestication",bookSignature:"Fabrice Teletchea",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6053.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190135",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabrice",middleName:null,surname:"Teletchea",slug:"fabrice-teletchea",fullName:"Fabrice Teletchea"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8289",title:"Molluscs",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"875b915098303d4f668c1c81036b9d8c",slug:"molluscs",bookSignature:"Genaro Diarte-Plata and Ruth Escamilla-Montes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8289.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"198991",title:"Dr.",name:"Genaro",middleName:null,surname:"Diarte-Plata",slug:"genaro-diarte-plata",fullName:"Genaro Diarte-Plata"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6473",title:"Animal Welfare",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0814e6a1deeca43ab829e3ec1abb7402",slug:"animal-welfare",bookSignature:"Muhammad Abubakar and Shumaila Manzoor",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6473.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"112070",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Abubakar",slug:"muhammad-abubakar",fullName:"Muhammad Abubakar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6623",title:"Application of Genetics and Genomics in Poultry Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee6c1f2e58822c19bc014a9684cad0da",slug:"application-of-genetics-and-genomics-in-poultry-science",bookSignature:"Xiaojun Liu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6623.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"183723",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiaojun",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",slug:"xiaojun-liu",fullName:"Xiaojun Liu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6488",title:"Reptiles and Amphibians",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ddf77d32ec38b68c8147aabf78ceb371",slug:"reptiles-and-amphibians",bookSignature:"David Ramiro Aguillón Gutiérrez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6488.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"113287",title:"Ph.D.",name:"David",middleName:"Ramiro",surname:"Aguillón-Gutiérrez",slug:"david-aguillon-gutierrez",fullName:"David Aguillón-Gutiérrez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6478",title:"Bats",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"90a4ab5d70985630b12f49cb23939c02",slug:"bats",bookSignature:"Heimo Mikkola",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6478.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144330",title:"Dr.",name:"Heimo",middleName:"Juhani",surname:"Mikkola",slug:"heimo-mikkola",fullName:"Heimo Mikkola"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5882",title:"Primates",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"795a774e23c200dad2b806b83d186c9b",slug:"primates",bookSignature:"Mark Burke and Maurice Ptito",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5882.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"200803",title:"Dr.",name:"Mark",middleName:null,surname:"Burke",slug:"mark-burke",fullName:"Mark Burke"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5932",title:"Experimental Animal Models of Human Diseases",subtitle:"An Effective Therapeutic Strategy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e789bd42c34c3132a1a9311494375dd1",slug:"experimental-animal-models-of-human-diseases-an-effective-therapeutic-strategy",bookSignature:"Ibeh Bartholomew",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5932.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"42384",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartholomew",middleName:null,surname:"Ibeh",slug:"bartholomew-ibeh",fullName:"Bartholomew Ibeh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5993",title:"Big Cats",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8d1de99fef6ae17495cec4a7b9e8ec65",slug:"big-cats",bookSignature:"Avadh B. Shrivastav and Keshav P. Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5993.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"199488",title:"Dr.",name:"A. B.",middleName:null,surname:"Shrivastav",slug:"a.-b.-shrivastav",fullName:"A. B. Shrivastav"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6156",title:"Lepidoptera",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b5d586ee7920aa6388b521b833916453",slug:"lepidoptera",bookSignature:"Farzana Khan Perveen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6156.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"75563",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzana Khan",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"farzana-khan-perveen",fullName:"Farzana Khan Perveen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5899",title:"Organismal and Molecular Malacology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a7f042a23fd6991a546812db126ef875",slug:"organismal-and-molecular-malacology",bookSignature:"Sajal Ray",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5899.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"173697",title:"Prof.",name:"Sajal",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"sajal-ray",fullName:"Sajal Ray"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5385",title:"Herbivores",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4a59620780a3f755435d27902b8d3049",slug:"herbivores",bookSignature:"Vonnie D. C. Shields",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5385.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82613",title:"Dr.",name:"Vonnie D.C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shields",slug:"vonnie-d.c.-shields",fullName:"Vonnie D.C. Shields"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:22,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"25677",doi:"10.5772/29495",title:"Pyrethroid Insecticides: Use, Environmental Fate, and Ecotoxicology",slug:"pyrethroid-insecticides-use-environmental-fate-and-ecotoxicology",totalDownloads:7185,totalCrossrefCites:33,totalDimensionsCites:59,book:{slug:"insecticides-advances-in-integrated-pest-management",title:"Insecticides",fullTitle:"Insecticides - Advances in Integrated Pest Management"},signatures:"Katherine Palmquist, Johanna Salatas and Anne Fairbrother",authors:[{id:"78143",title:"Dr.",name:"Katherine",middleName:null,surname:"Palmquist",slug:"katherine-palmquist",fullName:"Katherine Palmquist"},{id:"83492",title:"MSc",name:"Johanna",middleName:null,surname:"Salatas",slug:"johanna-salatas",fullName:"Johanna Salatas"},{id:"83493",title:"Dr.",name:"Anne",middleName:null,surname:"Fairbrother",slug:"anne-fairbrother",fullName:"Anne Fairbrother"}]},{id:"42208",doi:"10.5772/53355",title:"Polymeric Nanoparticle-Based Insecticides: A Controlled Release Purpose for Agrochemicals",slug:"polymeric-nanoparticle-based-insecticides-a-controlled-release-purpose-for-agrochemicals",totalDownloads:5603,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:50,book:{slug:"insecticides-development-of-safer-and-more-effective-technologies",title:"Insecticides",fullTitle:"Insecticides - Development of Safer and More Effective Technologies"},signatures:"Bruno Perlatti, Patrícia Luísa de Souza Bergo, Maria Fátima das Graças Fernandes da Silva, João Batista Fernandes and Moacir Rossi Forim",authors:[{id:"72202",title:"Dr.",name:"Moacir",middleName:"Rossi",surname:"Forim",slug:"moacir-forim",fullName:"Moacir Forim"},{id:"82255",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Fátima",middleName:null,surname:"Da Silva",slug:"maria-fatima-da-silva",fullName:"Maria Fátima Da Silva"},{id:"83702",title:"Prof.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Fernandes",slug:"joao-fernandes",fullName:"João Fernandes"},{id:"166176",title:"MSc.",name:"Bruno",middleName:null,surname:"Perlatti",slug:"bruno-perlatti",fullName:"Bruno Perlatti"},{id:"166177",title:"MSc.",name:"Patrícia Luísa",middleName:null,surname:"Bergo",slug:"patricia-luisa-bergo",fullName:"Patrícia Luísa Bergo"}]},{id:"25668",doi:"10.5772/27852",title:"Ecosmart Biorational Insecticides: Alternative Insect Control Strategies",slug:"ecosmart-biorational-insecticides-alternative-insect-control-strategies",totalDownloads:5673,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:33,book:{slug:"insecticides-advances-in-integrated-pest-management",title:"Insecticides",fullTitle:"Insecticides - Advances in Integrated Pest Management"},signatures:"Hanem Fathy Khater",authors:[{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-khater",fullName:"Hanem Khater"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"40420",title:"Dynamics of Ruminant Livestock Management in the Context of the Nigerian Agricultural System",slug:"dynamics-of-ruminant-livestock-management-in-the-context-of-the-nigerian-agricultural-system",totalDownloads:12289,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:19,book:{slug:"livestock-production",title:"Livestock Production",fullTitle:"Livestock Production"},signatures:"O.A. Lawal-Adebowale",authors:[{id:"141315",title:"PhD.",name:"Okanlade",middleName:null,surname:"Lawal-Adebowale",slug:"okanlade-lawal-adebowale",fullName:"Okanlade Lawal-Adebowale"}]},{id:"57369",title:"Introductory Chapter: Lepidoptera",slug:"introductory-chapter-lepidoptera",totalDownloads:2757,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"lepidoptera",title:"Lepidoptera",fullTitle:"Lepidoptera"},signatures:"Farzana Khan Perveen and Anzela Khan",authors:[{id:"75563",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzana Khan",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"farzana-khan-perveen",fullName:"Farzana Khan Perveen"}]},{id:"62271",title:"Selection Methods in Poultry Breeding: From Genetics to Genomics",slug:"selection-methods-in-poultry-breeding-from-genetics-to-genomics",totalDownloads:1961,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"application-of-genetics-and-genomics-in-poultry-science",title:"Application of Genetics and Genomics in Poultry Science",fullTitle:"Application of Genetics and Genomics in Poultry Science"},signatures:"Vishesh Kumar Saxena and Gautham Kolluri",authors:[{id:"234356",title:"Dr.",name:"Gautham",middleName:null,surname:"Kolluri",slug:"gautham-kolluri",fullName:"Gautham Kolluri"},{id:"239339",title:"Dr.",name:"V.K",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"v.k-saxena",fullName:"V.K Saxena"}]},{id:"57203",title:"Preliminary Observations of Infant Ontogeny in the Philippine Tarsier (Tarsius syrichta) and the First Description of Play Behaviour and Its Ontogeny in Tarsiers",slug:"preliminary-observations-of-infant-ontogeny-in-the-philippine-tarsier-tarsius-syrichta-and-the-first",totalDownloads:1044,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"primates",title:"Primates",fullTitle:"Primates"},signatures:"Milada Řeháková",authors:[{id:"199663",title:"Dr.",name:"Milada",middleName:null,surname:"Řeháková",slug:"milada-rehakova",fullName:"Milada Řeháková"}]},{id:"40417",title:"Quantitative Genetic Application in the Selection Process for Livestock Production",slug:"quantitative-genetic-application-in-the-selection-process-for-livestock-production",totalDownloads:7662,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"livestock-production",title:"Livestock Production",fullTitle:"Livestock Production"},signatures:"Sajjad Toghiani",authors:[{id:"138833",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Sajjad",middleName:null,surname:"Toghiani",slug:"sajjad-toghiani",fullName:"Sajjad Toghiani"}]},{id:"52383",title:"Assessment of Maize (Zea mays) as Feed Resource for Poultry",slug:"assessment-of-maize-zea-mays-as-feed-resource-for-poultry",totalDownloads:2515,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"poultry-science",title:"Poultry Science",fullTitle:"Poultry Science"},signatures:"Herbert K. Dei",authors:[{id:"28844",title:"Prof.",name:"Herbert",middleName:"Kwabla",surname:"Dei",slug:"herbert-dei",fullName:"Herbert Dei"}]},{id:"65864",title:"Poultry Housing and Management",slug:"poultry-housing-and-management",totalDownloads:950,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:null,title:"Poultry",fullTitle:"Poultry"},signatures:"Ayodeji Oloyo and Adedamola Ojerinde",authors:null},{id:"42210",title:"Pesticide-Residue Relationship and Its Adverse Effects on Occupational Workers",slug:"pesticide-residue-relationship-and-its-adverse-effects-on-occupational-workers",totalDownloads:2577,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"insecticides-development-of-safer-and-more-effective-technologies",title:"Insecticides",fullTitle:"Insecticides - Development of Safer and More Effective Technologies"},signatures:"Nabil El-Wakeil, Shehata Shalaby, Gehan Abdou and Ahmed Sallam",authors:[{id:"82718",title:"Dr.",name:"Nabil",middleName:null,surname:"El-Wakeil",slug:"nabil-el-wakeil",fullName:"Nabil El-Wakeil"},{id:"83353",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:"Ahmed",surname:"Sallam",slug:"ahmed-sallam",fullName:"Ahmed Sallam"},{id:"161048",title:"Dr.",name:"Shehata",middleName:"E. M.",surname:"Shalaby",slug:"shehata-shalaby",fullName:"Shehata Shalaby"},{id:"161050",title:"Dr.",name:"Gehan",middleName:null,surname:"Abdou",slug:"gehan-abdou",fullName:"Gehan Abdou"}]},{id:"52592",title:"Genomics Tools for the Characterization of Genetic Adaptation of Low Input Extensively Raised Chickens",slug:"genomics-tools-for-the-characterization-of-genetic-adaptation-of-low-input-extensively-raised-chicke",totalDownloads:1367,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"poultry-science",title:"Poultry Science",fullTitle:"Poultry Science"},signatures:"Farai Catherine Muchadeyi and Edgar Farai Dzomba",authors:[{id:"183770",title:"Dr.",name:"Farai Catherine",middleName:null,surname:"Muchadeyi",slug:"farai-catherine-muchadeyi",fullName:"Farai Catherine Muchadeyi"}]},{id:"67565",title:"Animal Domestication: A Brief Overview",slug:"animal-domestication-a-brief-overview",totalDownloads:426,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"animal-domestication",title:"Animal Domestication",fullTitle:"Animal Domestication"},signatures:"Fabrice Teletchea",authors:[{id:"190135",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabrice",middleName:null,surname:"Teletchea",slug:"fabrice-teletchea",fullName:"Fabrice Teletchea"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"animal-biology",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"66081",title:"Genetic and Hormonal Regulation of Egg Formation in the Oviduct of Laying Hens",slug:"genetic-and-hormonal-regulation-of-egg-formation-in-the-oviduct-of-laying-hens",totalDownloads:177,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85011",book:{title:"Poultry"},signatures:"Birendra Mishra, Nirvay Sah and Sanjeev Wasti"},{id:"65864",title:"Poultry Housing and Management",slug:"poultry-housing-and-management",totalDownloads:950,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83811",book:{title:"Poultry"},signatures:"Ayodeji Oloyo and Adedamola Ojerinde"},{id:"65551",title:"Investigation of the Effects of Some Herbal Extracts Used in Different Ratios on Meat Fatty Acid Profile Level in Experimental Heat Stress Created in Broilers",slug:"investigation-of-the-effects-of-some-herbal-extracts-used-in-different-ratios-on-meat-fatty-acid-pro",totalDownloads:183,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83751",book:{title:"Poultry"},signatures:"Emre Tekce, Bülent Bayraktar and Vecihi Aksakal"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:4},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6837",title:"Lithium-ion Batteries - Thin Film for Energy Materials and Devices",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"ea7789260b319b9a4b472257f57bfeb5",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Mitsunobu Sato, Dr. Li Lu and Dr. Hiroki Nagai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6837.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"179615",title:"Prof.",name:"Mitsunobu",middleName:null,surname:"Sato",slug:"mitsunobu-sato",fullName:"Mitsunobu Sato"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9423",title:"Applications of Artificial Intelligence in Process Industry Automation, Heat and Power Generation and Smart Manufacturing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"10ac8fb0bdbf61044395963028653d21",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Konstantinos G. Kyprianidis and Prof. Erik Dahlquist",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9423.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"35868",title:"Prof.",name:"Konstantinos",middleName:"G.",surname:"Kyprianidis",slug:"konstantinos-kyprianidis",fullName:"Konstantinos Kyprianidis"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9428",title:"New Trends in the Use of Artificial Intelligence for the Industry 4.0",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9e089eec484ce8e9eb32198c2d8b34ea",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Luis Romeral Martinez, Dr. Roque A. Osornio-Rios and Dr. Miguel Delgado Prieto",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9428.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"86501",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Romeral Martinez",slug:"luis-romeral-martinez",fullName:"Luis Romeral Martinez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10107",title:"Artificial Intelligence in Oncology Drug Discovery & Development",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"043c178c3668865ab7d35dcb2ceea794",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. John Cassidy and Dr. Belle Taylor",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10107.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"244455",title:"Dr.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Cassidy",slug:"john-cassidy",fullName:"John Cassidy"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8903",title:"Carbon Based Material for Environmental Protection and Remediation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"19da699b370f320eca63ef2ba02f745d",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Mattia Bartoli and Dr. Marco Frediani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8903.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"188999",title:"Dr.",name:"Mattia",middleName:null,surname:"Bartoli",slug:"mattia-bartoli",fullName:"Mattia Bartoli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10132",title:"Applied Computational Near-surface Geophysics - From Integral and Derivative Formulas to MATLAB Codes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"38cdbbb671df620b36ee96af1d9a3a90",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Afshin Aghayan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10132.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"311030",title:"Dr.",name:"Afshin",middleName:null,surname:"Aghayan",slug:"afshin-aghayan",fullName:"Afshin Aghayan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10110",title:"Advances and Technologies in Building Construction and Structural Analysis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"df2ad14bc5588577e8bf0b7ebcdafd9d",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ali Kaboli and Dr. Sara Shirowzhan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10110.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"309192",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Kaboli",slug:"ali-kaboli",fullName:"Ali Kaboli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10175",title:"Ethics in Emerging Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9c92da249676e35e2f7476182aa94e84",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Ali Hessami",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10175.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"108303",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Hessami",slug:"ali-hessami",fullName:"Ali Hessami"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:16},humansInSpaceProgram:{},teamHumansInSpaceProgram:{},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/21542/ludmila-krizova",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"21542",slug:"ludmila-krizova"},fullPath:"/profiles/21542/ludmila-krizova",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()