IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
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IntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
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Designed to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
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After a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
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Our innovative Book Series format brings you:
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Topic Focused Publications - Each topic showcases high impact subject areas
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Renowned Editorial Expertise - Series Editors, Topic Editors, and a team of international Board Members that permanently support each Book Series
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Fast Publishing - quick turnaround which is unique for book publishing
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The benefit of ISSN and ISBN for increased citation and indexing possibilities
\n
\n\n\n\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\n
IntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
We invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
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Note: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1128",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Structure and Function of Food Engineering",title:"Structure and Function of Food Engineering",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book conveys many significant messages for the food engineering and allied professions: the importance of working in multidisciplinary teams, the relevance of developing food engineering based on well-established principles, the benefits of developing the field by bringing together experts from industry, academia and government, and the unparalleled advantage of working as globally as possible in the understanding, development, and applications of food engineering principles. 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\n
1. Introduction
\n
While often overlooked by traditional echocardiography, the lungs and evaluation of extravascular lung water (EVLW) can be assessed by direct visualization with relatively simple ultrasonographic techniques. The results can help guide clinicians towards the cause of a patient’s dyspnea and in the case of pulmonary edema even semi-quantitatively asses EVLW. Additionally the exam can be repeated as often as necessary to monitor response to treatment without fear of subjecting the patient to ionizing radiation associated with conventional chest radiography.
\n
Advancing technology has allowed for increasingly miniaturized and portable ultrasound systems to the point where exams can be performed quickly at the bedside, often by the rounding physician. The more common standard of care for quantifying pulmonary edema has been a chest radiograph which, depending on the institution, may require more time to perform and a more formal interpretation than a portable ultrasound [1]. Even when it is obtained, chest radiograph can have a low sensitivity for common causes of dyspnea such as pulmonary edema [2, 3]. This may be due in part to poor radiographic windows of the patient or the intraobserver variability and skills of those interpreting the x-ray [4, 5]. In the case of acute pulmonary edema, the practitioner using techniques of lung ultrasound, can actually visualize the edema, classify it semi-quantitatively, and prescribe interventions before other traditional diagnostic techniques such as chest radiograph can even occur.
\n
The lung ultrasound finding of “Comet Tails” has been well studied in how it relates to alveolar-interstitial syndromes. These syndromes include conditions with diffuse involvement of the pulmonary interstitium which lead to respiratory distress through impairment of alveolar-capillary exchange. Chronic conditions include pulmonary fibrosis, whereas acute entities are acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), interstitial pneumonia, and acute pulmonary edema [5]. With careful attention paid by the examiner at the bedside to the patient’s history and monitoring the response to treatment, the ultrasonographic finding of comet tails can be extremely useful in narrowing the differential diagnosis.
\n
\n
\n
2. Definitions
\n
“A-lines and B-lines” are two separate and distinct ultrasonographic images which may be seen during examination of the lungs by ultrasound (See Figures 1 &2). Their presence is not mutually exclusive, but the formation of each arises from a different underlying structure.
\n
Figure 1.
Image of comet tail “B-lines”
\n
Figure 2.
Image of pleural “A-lines.”
\n
Comet-tails or “B-lines” are defined as hyperechoic reflections which originate only from and travel roughly perpendicular to the pleural line of the lung. They have a narrow base and form a ray spreading away from the transducer towards the bottom of the screen and synchronously move with lung respiration. All ultrasound images are formed when a reflection occurs at the interface of two regions with differing acoustic impedance [6]. In the case of comet tails this impedance occurs between fluid filled interlobular septa, with the acoustic impedance of water being 1.48x105gp/cm2 and that of an air filled lung with the acoustic impedance of air being of 0.0004x105gp/cm2. Interlobular septa are structures within the lung containing lymphatic vessels. These septa are below the resolution of the ultrasound beam, which can only detect objects larger than 1 mm. Instead of showing up as a distinct structure, in the right circumstances the areas of highly different acoustic impedance show up as a comet tail [7,8].
\n
Under normal (non-edematous or fibrotic) conditions comet tails are absent because no acoustic mismatch occurs as the beam passes through the subpleural space. However, in conditions known as alveolar-interstitial syndromes an area of high acoustic mismatch occurs at the subpleural space were interlobular septa are in contact with the pleural lining. In the case of pulmonary edema this mismatch occurs between the differing impedances of air and water, however it can also occur anytime there is an area of differing impedances at the surface of the lungs such as pleuritis, fibrosis, or even chronic obstructive pulmonary disease [9].
\n
Even though these structures are smaller than the resolution of the ultrasound beam, the reflections cans still be generated and sent back to the ultrasound probe. Continued reflections set up the phenomenon of reverberation which acts as a continued source of reflections back to the piezoelectric crystal. Since the ultrasound interprets time as distance, and each successive echo or return to the transducer occurs over a more distant time than the original signal, the ultrasound interprets these signals as reflections from a structure more distal from the ultrasound probe [6]. In this way a “beam” or comet tail image is created on the echo screen. (See Figure 3) Histologically the interlobular septa are 7 mm apart when they reach the sub pleural space and this is roughly the distance between the origins of individual comet tails at the pleural line [7].
\n
Figure 3.
The hypothesized physical and anatomic basis of echocardiographic lung comet tails. Reflections of the ultrasound beam between thickened interlobular septa and the pleura generate a resonance signal over a prolonged time. The increased return over time is interpreted by the ultrasound machine as a hyperechoic structure originating deeper in the tissue and is displayed as a comet-tail on the ultrasound screen. (Illustrations and images from Jambrik et al. Usefulness of ultrasound lung comets as a nonradiologic sign of extravascular lung water. Am J Cardiol 2004;93:1265-1270, with permission from Excerpta Medica, Inc.)
\n
Figure 4.
Proposed algorithm for use of lung comet tails in the evaluation of patients with acute dyspnea. In the case of pulmonary edema, serial ultrasonographic exams performed after therapeutic intervention(s) will reveal a diminishing number of comet tails. This algorithm is suggested as a possible supplement for typical clinical assessment in the decision making process.
\n
For the comet tail image to form, these thickened intralobular septa must be in contact with the sub pleural space as any air between them and the transducer has such a low acoustic impedance that the echo return takes too long and is simply “cancelled out” by the machine. (This is the reason lung comets are not seen in pneumothorax and can aid in the diagnosis of that condition.) [6] In a traditional chest radiograph these septa thickened by pulmonary edema are termed “Kerley B-lines” [10, 11].
\n
A-Lines are another distinct ultrasonographic entity separate from the “B-line” comet tails. A-lines are hyperechoic lines which run roughly horizontal across the ultrasound screen and are parallel to the pleural line. These lines are equidistant to each other and are the same distance from each other as the pleural line is from the skin because they are reverberations of the pleural line. Again the ultrasound machine interprets the signals it receives temporally from the reverberations as depth. Hence the reflections are seen as lines deeper on the screen. The presence of A-lines, and absence of B-lines indicates the presence of “dry” intralobular septa and is a strong predictor of a normal capillary wedge pressure [12].
\n
\n
\n
3. History and origins
\n
The “comet-tail” ultrasonographic sign was first described by Ziskin and colleagues in 1982 when an intrahepatic shotgun pellet was observed to create an artifact similar to what is seen in lung comets [8]. Other conditions affecting the pleura of the lung were later noted to create a similar pattern [9]. However it was not until 1997 when Daniel Lichtenstein, a French critical care physician, described lung comet tails as an ultrasonographic sign of alveolar-interstitial syndrome. In his paper he examined 250 patients, 121 with evidence of either wide-spread (N=92) or localized (N=29) evidence of alveolar-interstitial syndrome on chest x-ray and 129 patients with a normal chest radiograph. He found the sensitivity of ultrasound in detecting this pattern was 93.4% with a specificity of 93.0% in patients who did not have evidence for this on chest x-ray [7].
\n
When Lichtenstein compared chest computerized tomography (CT) to the ultrasound findings on 29 of his 250 patients, he found comet tails were generated diffusely across the lungs from two distinct sources. Both of these sources were lesions associated with acute pulmonary edema, thickened sub-pleural interlobular septa and ground-glass regions. Occasionally even “normal” subjects registered the rare comet tail in the diaphragmatic regions of the lung, and this was detected in both x-ray and CT scan [7].
\n
Clinical applications of comet tails began after Jambrik and colleagues evaluated 121 hospitalized patients with lung ultrasound (see technique below) and compared the findings to chest x-ray. They found a significant linear correlation between a comet tail score (CTS) and x-ray (r=0.78, p<.01). When patients were examined multiple times, an even higher intrapatient correlation was seen (r=0.89; p<0.01). [13]
\n
Lichtenstein and Jambrik’s observations were expanded to the medical in-patient setting by Tsereva who validated the technique in patients with diastolic heart failure [14] and by Volpicelli, who validated the use of ultrasound in diagnosis alveolar interstitial syndrome with a 85.7% sensitivity and 97.7% specificity. The lower sensitivity in the later study can be explained by the timing of the x-ray and the ultrasounds. The chest radiographs which the ultrasounds were compared to were taken at admission and guided the treatment given, whereas the lung ultrasounds were done after the initiation of therapy. Thus for some patients the lack of comet tails was merely the resolution of pulmonary edema, but in the analysis resulted in a lower sensitivity of the ultrasound technique [5]. Other researchers further validated lung ultrasound and have suggested that it is superior to chest x-ray with sensitivities similar to Nt-proBNP levels [15]. Nt-proBNP (N-terminal probrain type natriuretic peptide) has become a common biomarker for fluid overload and tracking health status in heart failure patients. However, fluid overload may not always correlate with interstitial pulmonary edema and thus may be a marker primarily of vascular fluid overload.
\n
In an effort to help quantify the number of comet tails seen on exam, Agricola et al. evaluated post-cardiac surgery patients. They devised a relatively simple definition for a positive or negative comet tail exam. A positive comet tail test was simply multiple bilateral comet tails seen over the whole lung surface. A negative test was with the rare occasional comet tail, the absence of comet tails, or comet tails confined to the last intercostals space. They then compared the patient’s comet tail test to the amount of extravascular lung water (EVLW) determined by Pulse Contour Cardiac Output (PiCCO - is an invasive technique requiring catheters and uses principals of transpulmonary thermodilution and arterial pulse contour analysis in order to estimate extravascular lung water), to the patient’s wedge pressure, and to their radiologic score as determined by chest x-ray. Again good correlation was seen between the radiologic assessment of EVLW and comet tails (r=0.60, p<0.0001) and also when compared to wedge pressure (r=0.48, p<0.0001). Most useful was the comparison to EVLW. Normal EVLW is <500 mL with alveolar flooding occurring when EVLW reaches more than 75% above its normal limit [16, 17]. With this in mind, the negative test had a 90% sensitivity and 89% specificity of accurately detecting an EVLW volume <500 mL. Likewise a positive test had a 90% and 86% sensitivity and specificity of detecting EVLW >500 mL. When comparing the comet tail test to chest radiographs and PiCCO, they found they were even able to detect excess EVLW below the threshold which would cause alveolar edema (sub clinical or early stages of pulmonary edema) with 87% and 89% sensitivity and specificity [11].
\n
Monitoring EVLW through the formation of lung comet tails was shown to be even more important than knowing a patients overall volume status. Using bioelectric impedance Mallamaci demonstrated that in dialysis patients, overall volume status was not linked to pulmonary congestion and the formation of comet tails. Rather Comet tails, and pulmonary congestion, had more to do with a patient’s left ventricular function. They also demonstrated the ability of comet tails to detect patient who were asymptomatic as 57% of patients had moderate to severe pulmonary congestion but did not have symptoms suggesting such [18]. This is in keeping with Lichtenstein’s original paper which discussed a patient with a fat embolism who had the sonographic sign of comet tails three days before symptoms occurred [7] and in older literature which argued that alveolar edema, which would lead to symptoms, is preceded by interstitial edema (which may or may not cause symptoms but can now be detected by ultrasound) [19].
\n
\n
\n
4. Technique
\n
The standard technique for quantification of comet tails has been reported in a number of studies and was pioneered by Picano and colleagues [9,13, 11]. This technique has shown its utility clinically as used by the Himalayan Rescue Association to help diagnose and monitor the degree of pulmonary edema in high-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE). [20]
\n
The exam is performed using any commercially available portable ultrasound device which has a 1-7 MHz phased array probe. We recommend the use of the 1-5 MHz cardiac probe as it is ideal for viewing between rib spaces and still allows deep enough penetration of the ultrasound beam to view distal structures. Other groups have also found adequate views with the high frequency linear probes as well as the abdominal probes as well [21].
\n
The patient is placed in a supine or near supine position with the anterior chest wall exposed. Each intercostals space from the second to the fifth on the right and the second to the fourth on the left is scanned in four different positions. These are para-sternal, midclavicular, anterior axillary, and mid-axillary. This gives the examiner a total of 28 different windows to examine, 16 on the right and 12 on the left (See graphic representation Table 1).
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n Right Hemithorax\n
\n
\n
\n Left Hemithorax\n
\n
\n
\n
Mid-Axillary
\n
Anterior axillary
\n
Mid-clavicular
\n
Para-Sternal
\n
Inter-costal space
\n
Para-Sternal
\n
Mid-clavicular
\n
Anterior axillary
\n
Mid-axillary
\n
\n
Table 1.
Diagram of the ultrasound windows used to obtain the Comet Tail Score (CTS). This technique was proposed by Jambrik at al. and used by Jambrik, Fagenholtz, Pratali, Agricola, Picano, Mallamaci. Each window is evaluated for comet tails, and the number present is added to form a cumulative score.
\n
Within each window, comet tails as defined above are counted. The sum of the comet tails seen can then be compiled for a comet tail score (CTS). The intra- and interobserver variability using this method has been reported as 5.1% and 7.4% respectively [13]. For clinical purposes Picano and colleges report the comet tail score in a semiquantitative manner for patients in pulmonary edema (Table 2).
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n Score\n
\n
\n Number of Comet Tails\n
\n
\n EVLW\n
\n
\n
\n
0
\n
<5
\n
No Signs
\n
\n
\n
1
\n
5-15
\n
Mild
\n
\n
\n
2
\n
15-30
\n
Moderate
\n
\n
\n
3
\n
"/>30
\n
Severe
\n
\n
Table 2.
Semiquantitive classification of the Comet Tail Score (CTS)as proposed by Picano and colleagues.
\n
\n
4.1. Other techniques
\n
Simpler less quantitative techniques have also been described with good prediction of pulmonary edema. Volpicelli and colleagues described a technique where each hemithorax is divided into four quadrants (8 total), upper and lower anterior and upper and lower lateral divided longitudinally by the anterior axillary line and transversely by the 2nd intercostal space. An exam was considered abnormal (positive for edema) if it had all of the following features:
\n
At least three comet tails per scan.
Diffusely positive with more than one scan per side containing comet tails.
Bilateral presence of comet tails.
\n
By using these criteria this group found a 85.7% sensitivity and 97.7% specificity when compared to chest x-ray for detecting the presence of pulmonary edema [5].
\n
\n
\n
\n
5. Application and differential diagnosis
\n
The presence of occasional sporadic comet tails can be a normal finding. Typically these are limited to the last lateral intercostals space above the diaphragm with a hot spot often seen on the right most caudal anterior axillary window [22, 9]. Care must be taken, however, in attributing a hot spot in the lower lateral windows to a benign finding, as local lung consolidation from diseases such as ARDS, atelectasis, or pneumonia can exhibit this pattern. [22, 11]. In those cases, the clinical presentation of dyspnea with other physical signs and symptoms such as low oxygen saturations and fever should be used to help differentiate “normal” from diseased state. With the case of patients presenting with dyspnea, the pathologic state should be considered present until “ruled out” with other diagnostic modalities. However in the research arena where “healthy” subjects may be tested, the pre-test probability that comet tails localized to the last lateral intercostals spaces are normal, is high.
\n
A diffuse bilateral comet tail pattern is not considered normal and is indicative of alveolar-interstitial syndromes (AIS). These can be brought about by a number of disease entities including chronic conditions such as pulmonary fibrosis, and acute entities such as acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), interstitial pneumonia, and acute pulmonary edema [5]. Different clinical presentations can help elucidate the etiology of these different diseases which have the same comet tail pattern. The time course of the illness can differentiate chronic causes such as pulmonary fibrosis and acute causes such as pulmonary edema. Additionally slight variations in the pattern of comet tails are noted. In the case of a fibrotic lung, the comet tails are equal in both hemi thoraces, whereas in cardiac pulmonary edema they are bilateral but with a predilection for the right hemi-thorax. Also in the fibrotic lung comet tails are more patchy than in pulmonary edema, and are stable with diuretic therapy [9].
\n
Highly dense entities such as ARDS typically give rise to comet tails only in regions where the diseased lung is in contact with the sub-pleural space. These highly dense areas give rise to multiple comet tails less than 3 mm apart, whereas comet tails arising from thickened interlobular septa are 7 mm apart [23]. Additionally an ARDS pattern also gives rise to comet tails in focal areas which coalesce together and form comet tails of differing lengths and multiple irregular comet tails [7, 23, 1].
\n
Importantly comet tails which arise from pulmonary edema should respond to treatment and disappear as interventions are made [18]. If they do not, then an alternate diagnosis should be sought. This reenforces the need for serial exams many authors encourage repeat exams to monitor response to therapy.
\n
Since the presence of the occasional comet tail is considered normal, the lack of comet tails can be diagnostic as well. Comet tail formation requires an area of differing acoustic impedances, when this is not present no comet tails are created. Such is the case of a pneumothorax. In examining for this potential emergent condition, an additional ultrasonographic sign must be viewed, that of the “sliding lung sign.” This is the hyperechoic line which is the interface between the visceral and parietal pleura. This line will slide back and forth with respiration. When there is no sliding of this line, and an absence of comet tails, a pneumothorax should be suspected [24]. The is particularly helpful when some studies show that standard chest x-ray, in addition to taking longer, misses 30% of cases [25-27]. This is contrasted to the lung ultrasound which in a large meta-analysis and systematic review looked at 8 studies representing 1,048 patients. When using both the absence of lung comet tails and sliding lung sign ultrasound was 90.9% sensitive and 98.2% specific in making the diagnosis of pneumothorax. In the same analysis chest radiograph was only 50.2% sensitive, but with a similar specificity of 99.4% [28].
\n
In patients with minimal comet tails confined to the intercostal space above the diaphragm, or no comet tails present on lung ultrasound, but who otherwise present with dyspnea, other common diagnoses should be considered. These include COPD, acute bronchitis, and pulmonary embolism [1]. The issue of COPD is a special consideration which has been studied by at least three groups. In the initial comet tail paper, Lichtenstein observed that COPD could give rise to a fibrotic pattern, bilateral comet tails [7]. However later work performed by the same author comparing ultrasound to x-ray diagnosis suggested that the presence of diffuse bilateral comet tails was absent in 92% of patient with COPD (N=26) and absent or confined only to the laster intercostal space in 98.75% of patients without respiratory disorder (N=80). The two patients in the COPD group who had a positive test (the false positives) had pneumonia in the regions viewed as positive on ultrasound. In the patients without respiratory symptoms, one patient demonstrated a positive test. Interestingly even though he did not have any symptoms, that one patient was admitted for acute renal failure requiring urgent dialysis, again supporting the idea that ultrasound findings occur before symptoms [22]. Additional studies also support the lack of findings of comet tails in COPD exacerbations. In fact in one study looking at the presence of comet tails in patients with acute shortness of breath, the most common discharge diagnosis of patients who did not exhibit bilateral diffuse comet tails was COPD [1, 18, 21].
\n
Overall this technique allows for the rapid assessment of patients in respiratory distress and can take less than three minutes [9, 15]. When used for detecting pulmonary edema, it has nearly a 95% concordance with chest radiographs [1] and, as discussed above, may be more sensitive than chest radiograph for this diagnosis [15]. A gross recognition of the comet tail pattern present, as well as the patient’s history and response to treatment can guide the clinician to the correct diagnosis. In terms of application, bedside ultrasound in many emergency departments and intensive care units is readily available.
\n
\n
\n
6. Special situations
\n
Due to its ease of use, portability and relative low cost, this technology is ideally suited for remote research and clinical applications. In fact a bedside ultrasound is the only diagnostic imaging currently used on the International Space Station.
\n
Research applications have used the ultrasonographic finding of comet tails to monitor pulmonary edema in healthy volunteers subjected to extreme environments. These include ironman athletes, breath-hold deep divers, and mountain climbers [29]. Due to the remote nature of the conditions, ultrasound is especially useful in mountaineering where up to 10% of climbers above 4,000 M develop the life-threatening condition known as High Altitude Pulmonary Edema [30]. (See Figure 5) At an altitude of 4,240 M Fagenholz, using the CTS technique described in this chapter, showed that a CTS score of 35 +/- 11 corresponded to patients suffering from HAPE which differed from those who were short of breath from other causes who had a CTS of 12 +/-6.8 [20]. Others have shown that in the presence of normal left ventricular function and normal pulmonary artery pressures, sojourners above 4790 m can develop pulmonary edema with a corresponding decrease in oxygen saturation. The comet tails describe in these studies had right lung predominance [31]. When used in the high altitude environment, care should be taken to ensure that the device employed uses solid state storage. This is found on most modern portable ultrasounds. Non-solid state devices cool using fans which will over heat at extreme altitudes.
\n
Figure 5.
Author (DS) demonstrating the ease of use and portability of modern ultrasound systems by performing an assessment of EVLW at the base camp of Mt Everest, ele 5,364 M, on an elite climber.
\n
\n
\n
7. Conclusion
\n
Although dyspnea is a leading cause of hospital admission, determining its etiology and subsequent treatment remains one of the greatest diagnostic challenges a clinicians faces. While many have lamented the perceived loss of physical exam skills amongst practitioners, the traditional lung exam and classic findings heard on auscultation are often difficult to hear in a noisy intensive care unit or emergency department [32, 33]. Even in ideal circumstances, there is abundant literature to suggest that the physical exam may be inaccurate [14, 15]. This leads the clinician to rely on adjuncts to aid in diagnosis.
\n
In the case of dyspnea, chest radiograph are typically employed to help narrow the differential diagnosis. However even these can be fraught with difficulties including time to obtain, and read the x-ray. Fortunately the field of ultrasound and echocardiography has greatly expanded in the past 20 years. The lung ultrasound finding of comet tails can help guide therapeutic interventions, and unlike chest radiograph, the exam can be repeated without fear of increased radiation exposure.
\n
With the advent of small bedside machines, lung ultrasound techniques can become an extension of the physical exam. These exams can be repeated as often as necessary in response to changing clinical conditions. In this way ultrasonographers can guide real-time decision making for patient care.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
Funded by grants from NIH HL71478, Mayo Clinic and The North Face Company.
\n
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/44070.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/44070.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/44070",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/44070",totalDownloads:4180,totalViews:2833,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:62,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"May 22nd 2012",dateReviewed:"February 21st 2013",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"November 6th 2013",dateFinished:"April 4th 2013",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/44070",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/44070",book:{id:"3391",slug:"hot-topics-in-echocardiography"},signatures:"Douglas T. Summerfield and Bruce D. Johnson",authors:[{id:"161053",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruce",middleName:null,surname:"Johnson",fullName:"Bruce Johnson",slug:"bruce-johnson",email:"johnson.bruce@mayo.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Definitions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. History and origins",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Technique",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1. Other techniques",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"5. Application and differential diagnosis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"6. Special situations",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"7. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\n Zanobetti, Maurizia, et alCan chest ultrasonography replace standard chest radiography for evaluation of acute dyspnea in the ED?” Chest. 2011\n 139\n 1140\n 1147\n \n '},{id:"B2",body:'\n \n \n \n Wang\n C. S\n \n et al\n Does this dyspneic patient in the emergency department have congestive heart failure?” JAMA. 2005\n 294\n 1944\n 1956\n \n '},{id:"B3",body:'\n \n \n \n Cremona\n G\n \n et al\n Pulmonary extravascular fluid accumulation in recreational climbers: a prospective study.” Lancet 2002\n 359\n 303\n 309\n \n '},{id:"B4",body:'\n \n \n \n Milne\n E. N\n \n et. al. “The radiologic distinction of cardiogenic and noncardiogenic edema.” AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1985\n 144\n 879\n 894\n \n '},{id:"B5",body:'\n Volpicelli, Giovanni, et alBedside lung ultrasound in the assessment of alveolar-interstitial syndrome.” American Journal of Emergency Medicine. 2006\n 24\n 689\n 696\n \n '},{id:"B6",body:'\n \n \n \n Levitov\n A\n \n Critical Care Ultrasonography. 2009New York, New York: McGraw-Hill\n '},{id:"B7",body:'\n Lichtenstein, Daniel et alThe Comet-tail Artifact.” Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997\n 156\n 1640\n 1646\n \n '},{id:"B8",body:'\n \n \n \n Ziskin\n M. C\n \n et al\n The comet tail artifact.” J Ultrasound Med. 1982\n 1\n 1\n 7\n \n '},{id:"B9",body:'\n \n \n \n Picano\n E\n \n et al\n Ultrasound lung comets: A clinically useful sign of extravascular lung water.” J Am Soc Echocardiography. 2006\n 19\n 3\n 356\n 363\n \n '},{id:"B10",body:'\n \n \n \n Kerley\n P\n \n Radiology in heart disease. BMJ 1933\n \n '},{id:"B11",body:'\n Agricola, Eustachio, et alUltrasound Comet-tail images: A Marker of pulmonary edema: a comparative study with wedge pressure and extravascular lung water.” Chest. 2005\n 127\n 1690\n 1695\n \n '},{id:"B12",body:'\n \n \n \n Lichtenstein\n D. A\n \n et al\n A-lines and B-lines: lung ultrasound as a bedside tool for predicting pulmonary artery occlusion pressure in the critically ill.” Chest. 2009\n 136\n 4\n 1014\n 1020\n \n '},{id:"B13",body:'\n \n \n \n Jambrik\n Z\n \n et al\n Usefulness of ultrasound lung comets as a nonradiologic sign of extravascular lung water.” Am J Cardiology. 2004\n \n '},{id:"B14",body:'\n \n \n \n Tsverava\n M\n \n \n Tsverava\n D\n \n Comet tail artefact in diagnosis of pulmonary congestion in patients with diastolic heart failure.” Georgian Medical News. 2010\n 10\n 187\n 28\n 35\n \n '},{id:"B15",body:'\n \n \n \n Vitturi\n N\n \n et al\n Thoracic ultrasonography: A new method for the work-up of patients with dyspnea.” Journal of Ultrasound. 2011\n 14\n 147\n 151\n \n '},{id:"B16",body:'\n \n \n \n Stapczynski\n J. S\n \n et al\n Congestive heart failure and pulmonary edema.” Emergency medicine: a comprehensive study guide. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1992\n 216\n 219\n \n '},{id:"B17",body:'\n \n \n \n Lange\n N. R\n \n \n Schuster\n D. P\n \n The measurement of lung water.” Crit Care. 1999R19R24.\n '},{id:"B18",body:'\n \n \n \n Mallamaci\n F\n \n et al\n Detection of pulmonary congestion by chest ultrasound in dialysis patients.” JACC:Cardiovascular Imagin. 2010\n 3\n 6\n 586\n 594\n \n '},{id:"B19",body:'\n \n \n \n Staub\n N. C\n \n Pulmonary edema.” Physiol Rev. 1974\n 54\n 678\n 811\n \n '},{id:"B20",body:'\n \n \n \n Fagenholz\n P. J\n \n et al\n Chest ultrasonography for the diagnosis and monitoring of high altitude pulmonary edema.” Chest. 131\n 4\n 1013\n 1018\n \n '},{id:"B21",body:'\n \n \n \n Volpicelli\n G\n \n et al\n Usefulness of lung ultrasound in the bedside distinction between pulmonary edema and exacerbation of COPD.” Emerg Radiol. 2008\n 15\n 3\n 145\n 151\n \n '},{id:"B22",body:'\n \n \n \n Lichtenstein\n D\n \n \n Mezière\n G\n \n A lung ultrasound sign allowing bedside distinction between pulmonary edema and COPD: the comet-tail artifact.” Intesive Care Med. 1998\n 24\n 12\n 1331\n 1334\n \n '},{id:"B23",body:'\n \n \n \n Lichtenstein\n D\n \n et al\n Comparative diagnostic performances of auscultation, chest radiography, and lung ultrasonography in acute respiratory distress syndrome.” Anesthesiology. 2004\n 100\n 9\n 15\n \n '},{id:"B24",body:'\n \n \n \n Lichtenstein\n D\n \n \n Menu\n Y\n \n A bedside ultrasound sign ruling out pneumothorax in the critically ill. Lung Sliding.” Chest. 1995\n 108\n 5\n 1345\n 1348\n \n '},{id:"B25",body:'\n \n \n \n Tocino\n I. M\n \n et al\n Distribution of pneumothorax in the supine and semirecumbent critically ill adult.” AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1985\n 144\n 5\n 901\n 905\n \n '},{id:"B26",body:'\n \n \n \n Chiles\n C\n \n \n Ravin\n C. E\n \n Radiographic recognition of pneumothorax in the intensive care unit.” Crit Care Med. 1986\n 14\n 8\n 677\n 680\n \n '},{id:"B27",body:'\n \n \n \n Ball\n C. G\n \n et al\n Factors related to the failure of radiographic recognition of occult posttraumatic pneumothoraces.” Am J Surg. 2005\n 189\n 5\n 541\n 546\n \n '},{id:"B28",body:'\n \n \n \n Alrajhi\n K\n \n Test characteristics of ultrasonography for the detection of pneumothorax: A systematic review and meta-analysis.” Chest. 2012\n 141\n 3\n 703\n 708\n \n '},{id:"B29",body:'\n \n \n \n Garbella\n E\n \n et al\n Pulmonary edema in healthy subjects in extreme conditions.” Pulm Med. 2011\n \n '},{id:"B30",body:'\n \n \n \n Bärtsch\n P\n \n et al\n Respiratory symptoms, radiographic and physiologic correlations at high altitude.” In: Sutton JR, Coates G, Remmers JE, editors. Hypoxia: the adaptations. Toronto: B.C. Decker;1990\n 241\n 245\n \n '},{id:"B31",body:'\n \n \n \n Pratali\n L\n \n et al\n Frequent subclinical high-altitude pulmonary edema detected by chest sonography as ultrasound lung comets in recreational climbers.” Crit Care Med. 2010\n 38\n 9\n 1818\n 1823\n \n '},{id:"B32",body:'\n \n \n \n Mccullough\n P. A\n \n Uncovering heart failure in patients with a history of pulmonary disease: rationale for the early use of B-type natriuretic peptide in the emergency department.” Acad Emerg Med. 2003\n 10\n 198\n 204\n \n '},{id:"B33",body:'\n \n \n \n Remes\n J\n \n Validity of clinical diagnosis of heart failure in primary health care.” Eur Heart J. 1991\n 12\n 315\n 321\n \n '}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Douglas T. Summerfield",address:null,affiliation:'
Divisions of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine and Cardiovascular Diseases, Mayo Clinic Rochester, USA
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Divisions of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine and Cardiovascular Diseases, Mayo Clinic Rochester, USA
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1. Introduction
Decarbonizing the transportation sector is the highest priority to reduce global warming, air pollution and associated health hazards. There is a need to develop ultra-low carbon or carbon-negative fuels which can be produced from renewable sources like waste, organic substances, plants and trees etc. DME is a low cost, low carbon and zero soot and PM chemical stock that can be used on CI engines. DME can be produced from various feedstocks such as wood, methanol, wastes, biomass etc. Its use as a substitute for diesel fuel is due to high cetane number of 55–60 and superior combustion characteristics. It is a colorless, non-toxic, mildly narcotic and easily inflammable gas at normal temperature and pressure similar to LPG.
Many CI engine manufacturers like Isuzu, Nissan, Mitsubishi, Volvo have developed DME fueled CI engine powered vehicles. DME vehicle’s reliability have been validated in the field with running tests of 100,000 Km or more. DME fueled CI engines exhibit higher combustion efficiency and soot free combustion in comparison to corresponding diesel engines.
Diesel engines are used widely in power generation industry. Expansion of the power generation sector is fueling the growth of diesel engine production. Global diesel power engine market is estimated to grow at a CAGR of more than 3.5% during the period from 2021 to 2026. Demand for reliable electricity due to the industrial expansion, development of commercial infrastructure, electrification of human habitats, and uninterrupted power supply is the major cause for the growth of diesel engine power market [1]. Therefore, there is a valid case for developing these engines to operate on DME.
2. Energy consumption trends and future of diesel engines and DME
Figure 1 presents the global energy consumption from 1971 to 2019 in Exajoules (1018 J). World energy consumption has been increasing steadily from 1971 (176.8 EJ) to 2019 (418 EJ), an increase of 136% [2]. Largest increase has been in oil and electricity consumption. It is expected that the increase in these two sources will continue in the future. With the development of new battery technologies and solar PVs, increase in rate of electricity consumption including that generated from renewables will increase further.
Figure 1.
World total energy consumption by source (1971–2019) [2].
Figure 2 gives the world energy consumption history and projections. Figure 2(a) shows that increase in industrial energy consumption is expected to be the largest followed by the transportation sector although growth in residential and commercial sectors is also expected at a relatively moderate rate. Figure 2(b) gives the world energy consumption on the basis of fuel. Use of petroleum and other liquids are anticipated to increase till 2050 and will be about 250 quadrillion Btu. Renewables, during the same period, are expected to rise to 40 quadrillion Btu. Therefore, the share of petroleum and other liquids will be around six times that of renewables. In the heavy-duty sector diesel-based compression ignition engines are the preferred power source. Therefore, there is a sound future for the CI engines in all sectors, i.e., power generation, transportation, industry etc. Conversion of CI engines to use DME will lead to reduction in fossil fuel consumption and prevent degradation of environment.
Figure 2.
World energy consumption, history and projections [3]. a) World end-use consumption by sector. b) World end-use energy consumption by fuel.
2.1 Consumption of diesel by end use
Among the petroleum fuels, diesel is a critical fuel for transportation especially heavy-duty vehicles, agricultural vehicles, construction and earth moving equipment. Power generation is another important area where diesel is used. Figure 3 shows the end-use of diesel fuel in the USA, Japan and India, countries which are the one of the largest consumers of diesel fuel. In all three countries transport sector is the major consumer of mineral diesel. Conversion of trucks and busses to DME will lead to major reduction of fossil fuel and associated emissions.
Figure 3.
End-use of diesel fuel in USA, Japan and India [4, 5, 6]. (a) USA – 241 billion liters per year. (b) Japan – 60 billion liters per year. (c) India – 100 billion liters per year.
2.2 Categorization of diesel engine market
IMARC group has categorized the global diesel engine market as shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4.
Categorization of the diesel engine market based on power rating and end-user [7].
Power rating of the diesel engines varies from 0.5 MW to more than 5 MW used in automotive and non-automotive applications all over the world. Figure 4 illustrates that development of engine technology to utilize DME in diesel engines will have a positive effect in all sectors and across continents. Thus, a concentrated effort by different OEMs to come out with DME conversion kits or even new DME engine designs will not only reduce fossil fuel consumption and environmental deterioration but also has a firm economic viability. All sectors are expected to exhibit increase in use of diesel engines, however highest growth is expected from the power generation sector, trucks and busses and industrial sector. The global diesel engine market reached a value of US$ 212.4 billion in 2021 [7]. It has been predicted that the demand for diesel engines including all sectors and sizes should increase to US$ 240 billion in the year 2025 registering a compound annual growth rate of over 3% from 2020 to 2025 [8].
3. DME fuel production
Top Key producers of Dimethyl Ether (DME) include: a) Akzo Nobel, b) Shell, c) The Chemours Company, d) China Energy, e) Mitsubishi Corporation, f) Ferrostal GmbH, g) Grillo Werke, h) Jiutai Energy Group, i) Oberon fuels and j) Zagros. In Japan several large scale DME plants have been set-up [9]. China is the bulk producer of DME from Chinese coal and production plants have also been set-up in Trinidad and Tabago, North America, Indonesia and Uzbekistan. First bio DME production plant was constructed in Sweden. Global production of DME at present is roughly 9 million tons per year [10]. Different feedstocks can be used in the production of DME. These are natural gas, coal, waste from pulp and paper mills, forest products, agricultural by-products, municipal waste and dedicated fuel crops e.g., switch grass. Methanol dehydration is the main process for production of DME currently. Synthetic gas can however be produced by gasification of coal, biomass, natural gas reforming [11].
There are three pathways to produce DME: a. Two-step process, b. One-step process, c. Liquid-one-step process called as bio reforming. Typically, DME is produced through a two-step process with syngas the feedstock (Table 1). Methanol is first produced from Syngas, followed by dehydration of methanol into DME (Eqs. (1)–(4)) (Table 1, Figure 5) [12].
In Japan, Korea and China single-step process is used most commonly (Eqs. (5)–(6)) (Table 2 and Figure 6). In this process, the methanol formation, methanol dehydration and water-gas shift reaction are merged. Different feedstocks can be used in this process such as methane, scrubbed bio-gas, syngas, etc. In case of methane feedstock methane-dry-reforming is done before the single-step process. Japan Steel Company has reached production capacity of 100 t DME/day by this process (Olah, et al. 2009). Mass balance shows that for every gm DME produced 1.43 gm of CO2 is used in the process. In overall reaction, CO2 sequestration is 0.48 gm per gram of DME.
Third process for DME production is bio-reforming (Table 3, Eqs. (8)–(12)). For optimized process to produce methanol Metgas is used, which is 2:1 H2:CO ratio syngas. Two processes to produce Metgas are methane-steam-reforming and methane-dry-reforming step. Next steps are methanol formation and DME synthesis by dehydration of Methanol. Water produced during the dehydration of methanol is used in the methane-steam-reforming process. CO2 consumed during per gm formation of DME is 0.48 gm. There are no emissions of CO2 during bio-reforming process, however there will be CO2 emissions regarding process’s energy requirements.
Both one-step and two-step DME production process are mature technologies. There are many companies which have developed single-step process for producing DME. Notable among these are Haldor-Topsoe A/S Denmark, JFE Holdings, Japan, Korea Gas Company, S. Korea, Air Products USA, NKK Japan, Oberon Fuels USA etc. Two-step DME production process has been developed by companies like Toyo Japan, Mitsubishi Gas Company Japan, Lurgi Germany, Udhe Germany. Several companies have developed novel processes and technologies for production of DME.
World’s first bio-DME demonstration plant in Sweden (started in 2010) uses black liquor (waste from paper and pulp industry) to produce high-quality syngas which is used for synthesis of DME (Figure 7).
Figure 7.
Bio-DME production plant in Sweden [13].
3.1 Production process developed by Oberon fuels
Oberon Fuels has developed proprietary skid-mounted, small-scale production units that convert methane and carbon dioxide to DME from various feedstocks, such as biogas from dairy manure and food waste. These small-scale plants are affordable as compared to a large plant, do not require large infrastructure and permits etc. for operation. These small-scale production units can produce 10,000 gallons (37854.12 liters) of DME per day to cater to the regional fuel markets [14].
Schematic of the plant is shown in Figure 8, consists of SMR, make-up syngas compressors, methanol synthesis reactors, pre-cut column and DME column and DME storage tanks.
Figure 8.
Schematic of a small size DME production plant developed by Oberon fuels [14].
The Oberon Fuels methane-gas-to-DME process has the following three major steps:
Syngas production
Methanol synthesis
Simultaneous DME synthesis and separation via catalytic distillation.
First two steps are common in large scale industrial application. Catalytic synthesis of DME with purification has been investigated in detail and has been demonstrated industrially by Oberon Fuels at Brawley California. In this plant, all production, storage, piping, tanks and valves are overground. DME produced from un-scrubbed (60% methane) HSAD (High Solid Anaerobic Digestion) of food waste, yard waste, bio-waste is called as Bio-DME. Chemically Bio-DME and DME are chemically same, Bio-DME uses biogas (typically produced from anaerobic digester), whereas DME is produced from pipeline natural gas.
4. DME handling, storage and distribution
Table 4 shows the boiling points of propane, butane and DME.
Table 4 illustrates that the boiling point of DME is in between that of propane and butane and all three are gas at room temperature of 15°C. The storage and handling facilities for LPG can therefore be repurposed for DME at a low cost. LPG storage and handling infrastructure is widespread in many countries including India. In addition to the use of existing LPG facilities new installations need to be created for DME. In the existing LPG installations changes will be needed for seals, valves, pressure regulators, gaskets, pumps to handle DME.
4.1 Suitability of materials and storage and handling equipment
Storage, handling and transport of DME is as a liquid under pressure similar to LPG. DME is compressed to 5 bar pressure for liquefaction at room temperature. Material compatibility of DME with the seals and gaskets in stationary and moving parts has to be established. ASTM specification D7901 gives directions on safety and handling of DME, which includes elastomer selection for gaskets and seals (to avoid their failure). Also, all equipment for DME storage and handling have necessarily to be overground. Table 5 provides compatibility of different elastomers with DME as per ASTM D7901. Rubber and plastics swell and deteriorate easily on contact with DME as compared to LPG. Nitrile rubber seals (NBR) and fluoro rubber seals (FKM) are used with LPG but swell in contact with DME and therefore cannot be used with DME.
Rating Legend (at room temperature) 1 = Little or minor effect, 0 to 5% volume swell, 2 = Minor to moderate effect, 5 to 10% volume swell, 3 = Moderate to severe effect, 10 to 20% volume swell, 4 = Not recommended for DME use
Table 5.
Compatibility of DME with elastomers as per ASTM D7901 [12].
Cylinder tanks for DME fuel will be similar to LPG, will be fabricated structure consisting of cylindrical shell and panel with filling valve, outlet valve, return valve, safety valve, overfill prevention device, quick coupling and fluid level gauge.
5. Use of DME in diesel engines
5.1 Fuel properties and special fuel injection system
A pressurized fuel injection system for DME is an essential requirement. Thus, the tank, fuel pumps, fuel piping and the fuel injector have to be kept under suitable pressure. Fuel pumps have to pressurize the fuel circuit to a pressure which is higher than the saturation vapor pressure of DME at the operating temperature. This will prevent the DME fuel to vaporize and cause cavitation in the fuel circuit before the fuel injection into the cylinder. Temperature of the fuel inside the fuel injector reaches to 80°C and the pressure of the fuel circuit after the fuel pumps has to be increased accordingly. A pressure higher than 30 bar is considered adequate for keeping the DME in liquified form even at higher temperatures encountered during operation of the engine. Feed-pumps will be able to pressurize the fuel to the required pressure.
ASTM standard range for viscosity of liquid fuels has a range of 1.39 to 4.2 cSt at 40°C whereas viscosity of DME is within 0.185 cSt and 0.23 cSt. Low viscosity of DME will result in leakages past clearances used for sealing like plungers and barrels, seals and gaskets and pump gears etc. Low lubricity will result in high wear and seizure of the moving parts in fuel injection system. Viscosity and lubricity enhancing additives are added to the DME to overcome these problems.
Bulk modulus of DME is less than diesel by an order of magnitude. This implies that DME is much more compressible than diesel. High compressibility of DME will result in delay in the injection timings. Injection lag will be higher as compared to diesel and therefore the ECU has to be programmed accordingly. The compression work of DME in the fuel pumps and injectors is much higher than diesel fuel and the parasitic power for pumping of fuel is higher. Large compressibility of DME also results in injection instability and this problem can be overcome by modifying the nozzle design and control of fuel temperature.
Table 6 compares the chemical and physical properties of DME, diesel fuel and LPG (propane, butane). Diesel properties are compared to DME to understand the similarity between the two in compression-based ignition, whereas comparison of DME to LPG is required to know about the similarity in fuel handling of the two fuels.
Property
DME
Diesel
Propane
Property
DME
Diesel
Propane
Chemical structure
CH3-O-CH3
—
C3H8
Explosion limit ((% by volume of air))
3.4–18.6
0.6–7.5
2.1–10.1
Molar mass (g/mol)
46
170
44.097
% wt. Carbon
52.2
86.0
82
Lower heating value (MJ/Kg)
27.6
42.5
46.3
% wt. Hydrogen
13.0
14.0
18
Liquid density (Kg/m3)
667
831
500
% wt. Oxygen
34.8
0
0
Cetane number
> 55
40–55
—
Critical temperature (K)
400
708
369.9
Stoichiometric Air-Fuel ratio
9.0
14.6
15.8
Critical pressure (MPa)
5.37
3.00
4.301
Auto -Ignition temperature (°C)
235
250
470
Critical density(Kg/m3)
259
—
220
Boiling point (°C)
−20
180/ 370
−42
Kinematic Viscosity of liquid (cSt)
<1
3
4.29
Latent heat of vaporization (kJ/Kg)
460 (−20°C)
250
372
Surface tension (at 298 K) N/m
0.012
0.027
0.007
Modulus of elasticity
100–1000 MPa Depend on Temp. & Press.
1400 Mpa
220 MPa
Vapor pressure (at 298 K) kPa
530
≪10
580
Table 6.
Comparison of properties of DME and diesel fuel [12, 15].
Table 6 shows that auto-ignition temperature of DME is lower than diesel at pressure higher than atmospheric. Also, the cetane number of DME is higher than that of diesel. Thus, DME fuel is suitable in CI engines and has high potential to replace diesel fuel. At the same time, boiling point of DME is close to propane below Zero °C and the handling, storage and distribution of DME is similar to LPG. World over, LPG is used as cooking fuel and also for transport, therefore there is adequate experience in handling and storage of LPG. Use of LPG storage and handling facilities for DME with modifications to the seals, gaskets and certain metallic parts can be done with lower efforts and cost.
DME is an oxygenated fuel with an oxygen percentage of nearly 35%. Higher Cetane number results in lower ignition delays and smaller pre-mixed combustion phase, lower peak cylinder pressures and lower NOx formation. Absence of C-C bonds leads to sootless combustion. In the DME molecule each carbon atom is bound to three hydrogen atoms on one side and oxygen atom on the other. Bond energy of C-H is 414 kJ/mol and that of C-O bond is 359.0 kJ/mol. Higher C-H bond energy is responsible for shorter ignition delays and higher cetane number of DME.
LHV of DME is almost half that of diesel, therefore to obtain the same horsepower, flow rate of DME is about 1.7 times that of diesel. This means larger storage tanks for DME, higher diameter pipes and tubes for fuel flow, higher flow capacity of the DME pumps and the fuel injectors. Duration of Injection (DOI) of DME will be longer than diesel and the Start of Injection (SOI) has to be advanced accordingly. Lower boiling point of DME translates into faster vaporization of injected fuel in the combustion chamber. This along with lower critical temperature of DME results in superheated vapor in the combustion chamber, adequate air-fuel mixing is ensured. Large heat of vaporization also lowers the in-cylinder temperatures and lower NOx emissions.
Chain combustion reaction is possibly through one of the following competing pathways [12]:
C–O bond fission (pyrolysis mechanism):
CH3OCH3=CH3O+CH3.E13
Hydrogen abstraction (oxidation mechanism):
4CH3OCH3+O2=4CH3OCH2+2H2O.E14
CH3OCH2=CH2O+CH3E15
As the C-O bond energy is smaller than C-H bond, distortion of the C-O bonds in the DME molecule weakens the bonding strength and the breakage of the C-O bonds earlier. Pyrolysis is more likely to start the chain reaction at relatively low temperatures, showing as lower auto-ignition temperature.
Change of piston and cylinder heads in the existing diesel engines may not be required other than design of the fuel injection nozzle to suit the volumetric flow rate and existing piston profile. However, in order to have an optimum design of combustion chamber to suit the spray characteristics of DME changes to the piston bowl and re-location of piston rings may be needed. For best performance of the engine valve timings may also need to be modified resulting in design and development of new camshafts. For modifying existing diesel engines, it becomes necessary to retrofit a new fuel injection system right from the fuel tank, feed pumps, pressure pumps, common rails and fuel injectors.
DME is similar to LPG in terms of safety. Vapor of DME is heavier than air and settles to the ground similar to LPG. Sufficient ventilation is necessary in locations where DME is being used whether for stationary installations or transport. Ignition limit of DME is 3.4% - 18.6% by volume and therefore necessary precautions have to be implemented which will be similar to LPG. Global Warming Potential (GWP) of a molecule is its adverse effect on climate change. GWP includes both the molecules lifetime and ability to absorb radiation. DME is atmospherically not dangerous and does not contribute to global warming.
Common rail fuel injection systems have been developed for DME fueled CI engines and these engines have demonstrated good engine performances and efficiency along with significant reduction in harmful exhaust emissions. This has been made possible by having a good control of the fuel injection characteristics and temperature. The common rail concept for DME fuel have also proven effective in simple and safe fuel handling. Figure 9(a) illustrate a comparison of the concepts use for DME fueled diesel engines, figure is self-explanatory. Figure 9(b) shows a schematic of the DME fuel storage and distribution system on engine.
Figure 9.
Fuel injection system and injection characteristics of a DME fueled engine [16]. (a) Comparison of the fuel injection concepts for DME fueled engines. (b) DME storage, handling and injection system for a DME fueled diesel engine. (c) Comparison of simulated injection characteristics of Diesel and DME DHOS injector.
Figure 9(c) presents a comparison of the simulated injection characteristics of diesel and DME digital hydraulic operating system (DHOS) injectors. Piston lifts in both the cases are similar, whereas the fuel injection pressure for diesel injector is about 1200 bar and for the DME injector it is around 800 bar. Duration of injection (DOI) for the DME injector is higher as compared to the diesel injector and similar trend is reflected in the period of needle lift of the injector. The injection rate of fuel for the DME case is higher than diesel all along the injection and the DOI is higher as can be seen in the bottom-most figure. Higher volume of fuel flow for DME vis-a-vis diesel can be seen in the figure due to lower density and LHV of DME compared to diesel.
5.2 Emission characteristics
Stoichiometric combustion of DME in air yields 1.91 m of CO2. This is equivalent to 66 gm of CO2 per MJ (LHV) of combusted DME.
CH3OCH3 + 3(O2 + 3.78N2) → 2CO2 + 3H2O + 11.34N2
DME combustion in air
(16)
Stoichiometric combustion of one gram of diesel C12H23 yields 3.16 grams of CO2.
Combustion of one gm of DME in air emits less CO2 than combustion of one gm of Diesel, difference being 1.25 gm less CO2. Experimental investigations have brought out that there is substantial reduction in particulate matter (PM), NOx and combustion noise when DME is used as a fuel in CI engines. Combustion efficiency (BSFC) of DME fuel in a CI engine is similar to diesel (Figure 10) and so fuel consumption can be similar on an energy basis. Also shown in Figure 10 are comparison of the road load emissions of NOx, CO, HC and Smoke (PM) on a DME and diesel fueled engine. Smoke is undetectable and NOx, CO, HC are lower in DME engine fitted with an oxidation catalyst.
Figure 10.
Comparative analysis of emission data from neat DME & mineral fueled CI engine [17].
Figure 11 gives the NOx emission data vs. engine efficiency for a 1.15 MW diesel power generation unit engine fueled with DME and with different levels of EGR. As the DME fueled engine does not produce any soot and ultra-low PM emissions, higher EGR levels can be used on the engine to reduce the NOx emissions. Against a 950 ppm NOx regulation, as the EGR is increased, very low NOx levels of 30 ppm can be achieved albeit with an engine efficiency penalty of 3%.
Figure 11.
NOx emission data from a DME-fueled 1.15 MW diesel power generation unit [18].
Figure 12 shows emission results on 6-cylinder 7 liter turbocharged/intercooled heavy-duty diesel engine operating in Japanese D13 mode driving cycle. NOx and CO2 emissions can be reduced with DME fueled engine vis-a-vis diesel engine at comparable fuel economy. In addition, combustion noise of DME fueled engines are lesser than their diesel counterparts.
Figure 12.
Comparison of fuel consumption (BSFC), NOx and CO2 emissions on a 6-cylinder 7 liter turbocharge/intercooled heavy-duty diesel engine operating in Japanese D13 mode [19].
In many countries research and development of DME fueled CI engines has been carried out and commercial trails done successfully. Japan, Europe, North America, China and South Korea are the leaders in development of DME fueled engines. A brief summary of the development of DME engines is presented in Table 7.
Region/Country
Details
Europe
Denmark, Haldor Topsoe developed the first DME fueled vehicles in 1996, Euro 4 compliant in 1998. In Sweden Volvo developed the first DME-fueled bus in 1999, 2nd gen bus in 2005, 3rd gen DME truck in 2015
North America
Consortium was formed between Pennsylvania State University, Air Products and Chemicals Inc., the Department of Energy (DOE), Navistar International and Caterpillar between 1999 and 2001 to work on a project to convert diesel busses to DME-fueled busses
Japan
National Traffic Safety & Environmental Laboratory (NTSEL) of Japan formed a consortium with Nissan diesel motors and Bosch Japan (1998–2001) to develop a heavy-duty DME fueled bus engine with mechanical fuel injection.
DME-fueled vehicles have been taken up by the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST) in collaboration with motor and oil-supply companies since 2003.
In 2005, a medium-duty DME fueled truck with 7.1 liter engine was developed by AIST, Japan Oil and Gas & Metals Corporation (JOGMEC).
An in-line 6-cylinder truck equipped with a diesel engine (turbocharged, intercooled, EGR, fitted with oxidation catalyst and NOx storage catalyst) has been converted to DME by Nissan diesel motors along with NTSEL.
Isuzu Motors Japan has developed light and medium-duty common rail FIE DME engines.
China
National Clean Vehicle Action Program was started in 2005 in which ten DME-fueled busses fitted with CI engines and mechanical fuel injection system were developed by a consortium consisting of Shanghai Motor Company, Shanghai Jiao Tong University (SJTU) and Shanghai Coking & Chemical Corporation.
2nd & 3rd generation DME vehicles fitted with common-rail fuel injection system and after-treatment devices have been developed to comply with Euro-5 emission norms.
Chinese government has funded a “863 project” in which SJTU is researching new technologies for DME fueled vehicles.
DME stations have been developed by ENN.
In particular Shaghai city has been considering acceptance of DME as a standard fuel for trucks, taxis and busses to reduce PM2.5 pollution.
S. Korea
In 2000 Korea Institute of Energy Research (KIER) took up DME engine research project.
Took up a project to convert a diesel bus fitted with a 8.071 liter displacement engine to DME in 2005.
A DME engine with 1.582 liter displacement and common rail fuel injection system was developed for passenger car by Hanyang University (HYU).
Korea Automotive Technology Institute (KATEC) took up a project to modify a sports utility vehicle (SUV) powered by a 1.991 liter displacement engine to use DME fuel in 2009.
6. Life cycle analysis of energy, emissions and GHG for DME fuel
Life cycle studies are used to compare the effect of different fuels/energy sources/ transport technologies. Life-cycle analysis consists of Well-to-Pump (WTP) and Pump-to-Wheel (PTW) estimation of energy consumption and emission of pollutants and GHG impact of these pollutions. WTP path consists of a) recovery and transport of raw material, b) production of the fuel, c) transportation of fuel, and d) distribution. PTW is the vehicle operation part of the pathway. Figure 13 shows a schematic to illustrate the Well-to-Wheel cycle for different fuel/transport technology combinations.
Figure 13.
Well-to-wheel cycle for transportation fuels [17].
Many studies on life cycle energy consumption and emissions for DME fuel have been carried out globally. Lee et al. have investigated Well-to-Wheels emissions of greenhouse gases and air pollutants of di-methyl ether from natural gas and renewable feedstocks in comparison with petroleum gasoline and diesel in the United States and Europe. For this purpose they have used Greenhouse gases, Regulated Emissions and Energy use in Transportation (GREET) model developed by Argonne National Laboratory (ANL). They have used five pathways to calculate the WTW by use of DME as fuel, these are 1) fossil NG with large-scale DME plants, 2) methanol from fossil NG with large-scale plants for both methanol and DME (separately), 3) land-fill-gas (LFG) with small-scale DME plants, 4) manure-based biogas with small-scale DME plants, 5) methanol from black liquor gasification with small-scale DME plants. They have studied DME production and use in the US and Europe in two class of vehicles (light-duty (LDV) and heavy-duty vehicles (HDV). Their studies show that WTW consumption of fossil energy and emission of GHG emissions in production and use of DME fuel is very low as compared to diesel and gasoline vehicles. Five pathways used in the production of DME are shown in Figure 14.
Figure 14.
Five pathways for production of DME [20].
In this study a small DME production plant is assumed to have a capacity of 25 MTPD (metric ton per day) and a large-scale plant is one with a capacity of 3600 MTPD. Case NG uses the fossil NG to produce DME directly in a large scale DME production plant. NG is supplied to the DME production plant through a pipeline. In case MeOH fossil NG is first converted to methanol and thence to DME. In this case the methanol production plant is close to the source of NG and methanol is transported to the DME production units by rail. Biogas from two sources has been considered, i.e., a) landfill gas (LFG) and b) during production and treatment of manure (MANR). Both are taken as renewable alternatives. Biogas is made up of CH4 and CO2 and is generated by anaerobic digestion (AD) of organic wastes. In both cases DME plant are small scale plants co-located with the source of biogas. Before the biogas can be fed into the DME plant it has to be cleaned in separate reactors where impurities like Sulfur compounds etc. are removed and the biogas is upgraded to the required composition.
Figure 15(a) depicts the WTW energy consumption for DME production through different pathways. DME production seems to consume more energy per MJ of fuel produced as compared to gasoline and diesel in both US and EU. This is because the conversion efficiency of raw material to DME is significantly lesser than gasoline and diesel. Although, conversion of fossil NG to DME directly or through MeOH is lesser than gasoline and diesel, however, this may also be due to scale of operation and size of plants which are much bigger and established for gasoline and diesel. Also, production of DME from renewable sources will result in zero or negligible consumption of fossil fuel.
Figure 15.
WTW energy consumption and emissions for DME produced through different pathways. (a) Comparison of WTW energy consumption for DME production vis-a-vis gasoline and diesel production in US and EU [20]. (b) WTW GHG emissions from DME production as compared to diesel and gasoline for US and EU [20].
Figure 15(b) shows the GHG emissions from DME production gasoline and diesel consumption and MeOH production. The emissions consist of the following components, a) For preparation and transportation of feedstock, b) Production of fuel and its transport, c) Avoided combustion and non-combustion emissions, d) biogenic CO2 in fuel and e) Fuel combustion. In the case of DME produced from bio-gas, avoided combustion and non-combustion are a major portion of the emissions inventory and in reducing the WTW emissions to very low/negative values. Thus, WTG GHG for LFG and manure based bio-gas are 6 and − 1 gCO2 e/MJ respectively and are 93% and 101% lower than US diesel. In the EU LFG and manure based bio-gas to DME process shows 6 and 12 gCO2 e/MJ of GHG emissions respectively which are 92% and 87% lower than EU diesel. If, however, regional electricity is used for production of DME then the WTW GHG emissions in the US will increase to 25 and 1 gCO2 e/MJ for LFG and manure bio-gas respectively. In the EU, the corresponding figures for DME production are 19 and 13 gCO2e/MJ from LFG and manure biogas respectively. Thus, it can be seen that the energy mix of the process has a strong impact on the WTW emissions as well.
In Figure 16, WTW GHG emissions vs. WTW vehicle energy consumption are plotted for some alternative fuels and petroleum-based gasoline and diesel. Figure 17 plots the results for synthetic diesel from farmed wood, synthetic diesel from waste wood and black liquor, ethanol from sugarcane (Brazil) and DME from waste wood and black liquor. WTW GHG emissions of DME produced from waste wood and black liquor are the lowest of all the fuels studied. WTW energy consumption (MJ/100 Km) for DME is second lowest after petroleum fuels. This may be due to the established production process of petroleum fuels and well-optimized engine and vehicle technologies for petroleum-based fuels. It is possible the life cycle energy consumption of DME fuel will reduce as the production technology for DME is matured and CIDI engines are designed specifically for DME fuel.
Figure 16.
Well-to-wheel GHG emissions & vehicle energy consumption for some alternate fuels [18].
7. Strategy for India
7.1 Indigenous production
High Ash Coal to DME - Coal reserves in India (350 billion tons) [22] predominantly consist of high ash content (20–30% and sometimes >40%) and therefore not considered techno-economically suitable for power generation. This high ash content coal can however be converted to syngas through suitable process and catalyst and the syngas can be converted to DME through a two-step or single-step synthesis. NITI Ayog of Government of India has taken up a Methanol Mission for conversion if high-ash coal of India into methanol/DME. Under this mission Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL), a public sector unit of government has developed an indigenous process to convert Indian high-ash coal to methanol and has set-up a pilot coal-to-methanol plant, 0.25 TPD methanol with feedstock of 1.2 TPD coal using fluidized bed gasifier. Methanol with a purity of 98–99.5% has been produced in the pilot plant. As the process matures and costs come down higher commercial scale plant of coal-to-methanol/DME can be set-up with clean coal technology to produce DME for transportation and for blending with LPG. Clean-coal technologies like carbon capture and storage and use can be used during gasification of coal to syngas. Moving bed gasifiers, fluidized bed gasifiers and entrained flow gasifiers are some of the reactors to produce syngas from coal (Figure 18).
Figure 17.
Different type of coal gasifiers [21]. (a) Moving Bed Gasifier concept. (b) Fluidized Bed Gasifier concept. (c) Entrained Flow Gasifier concept.
Biomass and municipal solid waste to DME - India generates 62 million tons of municipal solid waste per year [24]. India also generates about 230 million metric tons of surplus biomass (28 GW) and about 115 million metric tons bagasse (14 GW) annually which includes agricultural residues. Organic content of the MSW (50%) [25] and the biomass/bagasse is suitable for gasification to syngas. National Chemical Laboratory has developed indigenous catalysts for conversion of methanol to DME and are in the process of developing catalysts for converting syngas to methanol/DME. This route will have the advantage of very low WTW life cycle energy and emissions footprint.
7.2 Conversion of diesel engines to DME
Annual consumption of diesel fuel in India is more than 100 billion liters [23]. Relative consumption of diesel fuel by different type of vehicles in the transport sector in India is shown in Figure 17. In the transport sector, Trucks (HCV/LCV) are the major consumers of diesel fuel (40%) followed by private cars/ SUVs (19%) and Busses/State Transport Undertakings (14%).
Figure 18.
Transport sector, use of diesel sector (India) [23].
Thus, a concentrated effort to convert diesel trucks and busses to use DME as fuel will have a major effect on reduction of GHG in India. Conversion of private diesel vehicles will be difficult as these vehicles are powered by different types and make of diesel engines. Figure 19 displays the details of the Industrial sector regarding consumption of diesel fuel. In this sector, equipment such as construction, boring, drilling, earth-moving etc. are the largest users of diesel fuel (38%) followed by Industry (29%) and Gensets (24%). It may not be possible to take up conversion of the construction and earth moving equipment diesel engines to operate on DME due to the nature of the work involved or diesel use in furnaces etc., however conversion of gensets to DME can be taken up and will have a positive effect on the GHG emissions and the reduction of use of fossil diesel.
Figure 19.
Use of diesel fuel by industrial sector in India [23].
Conversion of diesel engines in the agricultural sector (13% consumption of diesel fuel) to DME will also be beneficial for India in terms of reduction of GHG and diesel fuel. Agriculture equipment like tractors, diesel pumps, agricultural implements, tillers, harvesters, thrashers etc. operate in limited areas and the provision of DME dispensation facilities to cater to the demands of a particular area may be economically feasible.
8. Conclusion
Decarbonizing of the transport and other engineering sectors has become an urgent necessity to stop further global warming. Electrification of power trains by using batteries, fuel cells, electric transmission etc. promise to drastically reduce and even reverse the global warming trend. Battery and fuel cell technologies are however still in the evolution phase and for them to match the power density, energy density, low-cost and the reliability of liquid fuels-based IC engines is expected to take at least another two to three decades. Meanwhile the IC engines technology has reached a high level of maturity, sophistication, knowledge and economy of scale. IC engines-based power trains will continue to dominate the transportation, industrial, power generation and other sectors for next three decades. Therefore, it is imperative that solutions are found to make IC engines-based power trains clean and energy efficient. Compression Ignition (CI) engines with diesel fuel are used in many heavy-duty applications like long-distance trucks, busses, agricultural equipment, earth moving and construction equipment. Conversion of these diesel engines to use an alternative clean fuel like DME will aid in protecting the environment and conservation of energy. Primarily this will involve development of a pressurized fuel injection system and matching the fuel injection parameters to the physical and chemical properties of DME. Sufficient developments have been done in the past in development of fuel injection systems for DME fueled CI engines, therefore with the collaboration of the engine OEMs and the fuel equipment manufacturers diesel engines conversion to DME can be taken up in an economical way and in a time-bound manner. Impact of such conversions will be seen in the form of reduction of WTW energy consumption and harmful emissions.
\n',keywords:"diesel, petroleum, DME, engine, fuel injection equipment, coal, biomass, gasification, decarbonising",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/82176.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/82176.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/82176",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/82176",totalDownloads:14,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"April 14th 2022",dateReviewed:"April 19th 2022",datePrePublished:"June 9th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"June 9th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Decarbonising of transport, industrial and all sectors of economy is a necessity to stop or reverse global warming. Use of batteries, fuel-cells, hybrid topographies with smaller IC engines and use of alternative fuels like methanol, ethanol, DME in the IC engines are some of the ways through which emission of green-house gases can reduced/eliminated. Diesel engines are highly efficient due to higher compression ratios and are used in the heavy-duty transportation vehicles. DME is a single molecule fuel having high cetane number and which can be used as a drop-in fuel on the diesel engines albeit with retro-fitment of these engines with a new pressurized fuel system. DME with a chemical formula CH3-O-CH3 can be produced by different feedstocks such as coal, natural gas, biomass and bio-waste and municipal solid waste. India has a large reserve of high ash coal and generates high quantities of biomass and MSW, all of which can be converted to DME by use of clean production technologies. India’s transport and industrial sectors consume about 100 billion liters of diesel fuel per year produced entirely from imported petroleum. This amount of diesel can be replaced by indigenously produced DME from locally available coal, biomass and MSW.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/82176",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/82176",signatures:"Anirudh Gautam and Ankita Singh",book:{id:"11164",type:"book",title:"Diesel Engines and Biodiesel Engines Technologies",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Diesel Engines and Biodiesel Engines Technologies",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Freddie Liswaniso Inambao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11164.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-787-8",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-786-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-788-5",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"260507",title:"Prof.",name:"Freddie",middleName:"Liswaniso",surname:"Inambao",slug:"freddie-inambao",fullName:"Freddie Inambao"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Energy consumption trends and future of diesel engines and DME",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Consumption of diesel by end use",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Categorization of diesel engine market",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. DME fuel production",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1 Production process developed by Oberon fuels",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"4. DME handling, storage and distribution",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.1 Suitability of materials and storage and handling equipment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"5. Use of DME in diesel engines",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"5.1 Fuel properties and special fuel injection system",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"5.2 Emission characteristics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"6. Life cycle analysis of energy, emissions and GHG for DME fuel",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"7. Strategy for India",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"7.1 Indigenous production",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"7.2 Conversion of diesel engines to DME",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16",title:"8. 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Urban Transport and High-Speed Directorate, Research Designs and Standards Organization, Ministry of Railways, Government of India, India
Institute of Technology and Management, GIDA, India
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Hobbelen and Martijn Wisse",authors:null},{id:"6206",doi:"10.5772/6696",title:"Guidance Laws for Autonomous Underwater Vehicles",slug:"guidance_laws_for_autonomous_underwater_vehicles",totalDownloads:6724,totalCrossrefCites:41,totalDimensionsCites:84,abstract:null,book:{id:"3700",slug:"underwater_vehicles",title:"Underwater Vehicles",fullTitle:"Underwater Vehicles"},signatures:"Morten Breivik and Thor I. Fossen",authors:null},{id:"379",doi:"10.5772/5015",title:"Robot Kinematics: Forward and Inverse Kinematics",slug:"robot_kinematics__forward_and_inverse_kinematics",totalDownloads:51776,totalCrossrefCites:63,totalDimensionsCites:82,abstract:null,book:{id:"6110",slug:"industrial_robotics_theory_modelling_and_control",title:"Industrial Robotics",fullTitle:"Industrial Robotics: Theory, Modelling and Control"},signatures:"Serdar Kucuk and Zafer Bingul",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"379",title:"Robot Kinematics: Forward and Inverse Kinematics",slug:"robot_kinematics__forward_and_inverse_kinematics",totalDownloads:51774,totalCrossrefCites:63,totalDimensionsCites:80,abstract:null,book:{id:"6110",slug:"industrial_robotics_theory_modelling_and_control",title:"Industrial Robotics",fullTitle:"Industrial Robotics: Theory, Modelling and Control"},signatures:"Serdar Kucuk and Zafer Bingul",authors:null},{id:"56737",title:"UAV for Landmine Detection Using SDR-Based GPR Technology",slug:"uav-for-landmine-detection-using-sdr-based-gpr-technology",totalDownloads:3443,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"This chapter presents an approach for explosive-landmine detection on-board an autonomous aerial drone. The chapter describes the design, implementation and integration of a ground penetrating radar (GPR) using a software defined radio (SDR) platform into the aerial drone. The chapter?s goal is first to tackle in detail the development of a custom-designed lightweight GPR by approaching interplay between hardware and software radio on an SDR platform. The SDR-based GPR system results on a much lighter sensing device compared against the conventional GPR systems found in the literature and with the capability of re-configuration in real-time for different landmines and terrains, with the capability of detecting landmines under terrains with different dielectric characteristics. Secondly, the chapter introduce the integration of the SDR-based GPR into an autonomous drone by describing the mechanical integration, communication system, the graphical user interface (GUI) together with the landmine detection and geo-mapping. This chapter approach completely the hardware and software implementation topics of the on-board GPR system given first a comprehensive background of the software-defined radar technology and second presenting the main features of the Tx and Rx modules. Additional details are presented related with the mechanical and functional integration of the GPR into the UAV system.",book:{id:"5905",slug:"robots-operating-in-hazardous-environments",title:"Robots Operating in Hazardous Environments",fullTitle:"Robots Operating in Hazardous Environments"},signatures:"Manuel Ricardo Pérez Cerquera, Julian David Colorado Montaño\nand Iván Mondragón",authors:[{id:"177422",title:"Dr.",name:"Julian",middleName:null,surname:"Colorado",slug:"julian-colorado",fullName:"Julian Colorado"},{id:"197884",title:"Prof.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Mondragon",slug:"ivan-mondragon",fullName:"Ivan Mondragon"},{id:"199958",title:"Prof.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Perez",slug:"manuel-perez",fullName:"Manuel Perez"}]},{id:"15855",title:"Kinematics of AdeptThree Robot Arm",slug:"kinematics-of-adeptthree-robot-arm",totalDownloads:14668,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"152",slug:"robot-arms",title:"Robot Arms",fullTitle:"Robot Arms"},signatures:"Adelhard Beni Rehiara",authors:[{id:"29287",title:"Dr.",name:"Adelhard",middleName:"Beni",surname:"Rehiara",slug:"adelhard-rehiara",fullName:"Adelhard Rehiara"}]},{id:"62978",title:"Intelligent Robotic Perception Systems",slug:"intelligent-robotic-perception-systems",totalDownloads:2443,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Robotic perception is related to many applications in robotics where sensory data and artificial intelligence/machine learning (AI/ML) techniques are involved. Examples of such applications are object detection, environment representation, scene understanding, human/pedestrian detection, activity recognition, semantic place classification, object modeling, among others. Robotic perception, in the scope of this chapter, encompasses the ML algorithms and techniques that empower robots to learn from sensory data and, based on learned models, to react and take decisions accordingly. The recent developments in machine learning, namely deep-learning approaches, are evident and, consequently, robotic perception systems are evolving in a way that new applications and tasks are becoming a reality. Recent advances in human-robot interaction, complex robotic tasks, intelligent reasoning, and decision-making are, at some extent, the results of the notorious evolution and success of ML algorithms. This chapter will cover recent and emerging topics and use-cases related to intelligent perception systems in robotics.",book:{id:"7227",slug:"applications-of-mobile-robots",title:"Applications of Mobile Robots",fullTitle:"Applications of Mobile Robots"},signatures:"Cristiano Premebida, Rares Ambrus and Zoltan-Csaba Marton",authors:[{id:"203409",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Cristiano",middleName:null,surname:"Premebida",slug:"cristiano-premebida",fullName:"Cristiano Premebida"},{id:"254880",title:"Dr.",name:"Rares",middleName:null,surname:"Ambrus",slug:"rares-ambrus",fullName:"Rares Ambrus"},{id:"254881",title:"Dr.",name:"Zoltan-Csaba",middleName:null,surname:"Marton",slug:"zoltan-csaba-marton",fullName:"Zoltan-Csaba Marton"}]},{id:"67705",title:"Advanced UAVs Nonlinear Control Systems and Applications",slug:"advanced-uavs-nonlinear-control-systems-and-applications",totalDownloads:1971,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Recent development of different control systems for UAVs has caught the attention of academic and industry, due to the wide range of their applications such as in surveillance, delivery, work assistant, and photography. In addition, arms, grippers, or tethers could be installed to UAVs so that they can assist in constructing, transporting, and carrying payloads. In this book chapter, the control laws of the attitude and position of a quadcopter UAV have been derived basically utilizing three methods including backstepping, sliding mode control, and feedback linearization incorporated with LQI optimal controller. The main contribution of this book chapter would be concluded in the strategy of deriving the control laws of the translational positions of a quadcopter UAV. The control laws for trajectory tracking using the proposed strategies have been validated by simulation using MATLAB®/Simulink and experimental results obtained from a quadcopter test bench. Simulation results show a comparison between the performances of each of the proposed techniques depending on the nonlinear model of the quadcopter system under investigation; the trajectory tracking has been achieved properly for different types of trajectories, i.e., spiral trajectory, in the presence of unknown disturbances. Moreover, the practical results coincided with the results of the simulation results.",book:{id:"7792",slug:"unmanned-robotic-systems-and-applications",title:"Unmanned Robotic Systems and Applications",fullTitle:"Unmanned Robotic Systems and Applications"},signatures:"Abdulkader Joukhadar, Mohammad Alchehabi and Adnan Jejeh",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"22",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82223",title:"Biomechanical Design Principles Underpinning Anthropomorphic Manipulators",slug:"biomechanical-design-principles-underpinning-anthropomorphic-manipulators",totalDownloads:12,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105434",abstract:"The biomechanical design of an artificial anthropomorphic manipulator is the focus of many researchers in diverse fields. Current electromechanical artificial hands are either in the research stage, expensive, have patents, lack severely in function, and/or are driven by robotic/mechanical principles, which tend to ignore the biological requirements of such designs. In response to the challenges addressed above this chapter discusses the potential of current technology and methods used in design to bridge the chasm that exists between robot manipulators and the human hand. This chapter elucidates artificial anthropomorphic manipulator design by outlining biomechanical concepts that contribute to the function, esthetics and performance of artificial manipulators. This chapter addresses joint stabilization, tendon structures and tendon excursion in artificial anthropomorphic manipulators.",book:{id:"11455",title:"Recent Advances in Robot Manipulators",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11455.jpg"},signatures:"Mahonri William Owen and Chikit Au"},{id:"82056",title:"Learning Robotic Ultrasound Skills from Human Demonstrations",slug:"learning-robotic-ultrasound-skills-from-human-demonstrations",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105069",abstract:"Robotic ultrasound system plays a vital role in assisting or even replacing sonographers in some cases. However, modeling and learning ultrasound skills from professional sonographers are still challenging tasks that hinder the development of ultrasound systems’ autonomy. To solve these problems, we propose a learning-based framework to acquire ultrasound scanning skills from human demonstrations1. First, ultrasound scanning skills are encapsulated into a high-dimensional multi-modal model, which takes ultrasound images, probe pose, and contact force into account. The model’s parameters can be learned from clinical ultrasound data demonstrated by professional sonographers. Second, the target function of autonomous ultrasound examinations is proposed, which can be solved roughly by the sampling-based strategy. The sonographers’ ultrasound skills can be represented by approximating the limit of the target function. Finally, the robustness of the proposed framework is validated with the experiments on ground-true data from sonographers.",book:{id:"10823",title:"Cognitive Robotics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10823.jpg"},signatures:"Miao Li and Xutian Deng"},{id:"82057",title:"An Episodic-Procedural Semantic Memory Model for Continuous Topological Sensorimotor Map Building",slug:"an-episodic-procedural-semantic-memory-model-for-continuous-topological-sensorimotor-map-building",totalDownloads:8,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104818",abstract:"For humans to understand the world around them, learning and memory are two cognitive processes of the human brain that are deeply connected. Memory allows information to retain and forms an experiences reservoir. Computational models replicating those memory attributes can lead to the practical use of robots in everyday human living environments. However, constantly acquiring environmental information in real-world, dynamic environments has remained a challenge for many years. This article proposes an episodic-procedure semantic memory model to continuously generate topological sensorimotor maps for robot navigation. The proposed model consists of two memory networks: i) episodic-procedural memory network (EPMN) and ii) semantic memory network (SMN). The EPMN comprises an Incremental Recurrent Kernel Machines (I-RKM) that clusters incoming input vectors as nodes and learns the activation patterns of the nodes for spatiotemporal encoding. The SMN then takes neuronal activity trajectories from the EPMN and task-relevant signals to update the SMN and produce more compact representations of episodic experience. Thus, both memory networks prevent catastrophic forgetting by constantly generating nodes when the network meets new inputs or updating node weights when the incoming input is similar to previously learned knowledge. In addition, idle or outlier nodes will be removed to preserve memory space.",book:{id:"10823",title:"Cognitive Robotics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10823.jpg"},signatures:"Wei Hong Chin, Naoyuki Kubota and Chu Kiong Loo"},{id:"81922",title:"Skill Acquisition for Resource-Constrained Mobile Robots through Continuous Exploration",slug:"skill-acquisition-for-resource-constrained-mobile-robots-through-continuous-exploration",totalDownloads:18,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104996",abstract:"We present a cognitive mobile robot that acquires knowledge, and autonomously learns higher-level abstract capabilities based on play instincts, inspired by human behavior. To this end, we (i) model skills, (ii) model the robot’s sensor and actuator space based on elementary physical properties, and (iii) propose algorithms inspired by humans’ play instincts that allow the robot to autonomously learn the skills based on its sensor and actuator capabilities. We model general knowledge in the form of competencies (skills) of the mobile robot based on kinematic properties using physical quantities. Thus, by design, our approach has the potential to cover very generic application domains. To connect desired skills to the primitive capabilities of the robot’s sensors and actuators, it playfully explores the effects of its actions on its sensory input, thus autonomously learning relations and dependencies and eventually the desired skill. KnowRob is used for knowledge representation and reasoning, and the robot’s operation is based on ROS. In the experiments, we use a millirobot, sized 2 cm2, equipped with two wheels, motion, and distance sensors. We show that our cognitive mobile robot can successfully and autonomously learn elementary motion skills based on a playful exploration of its wheels and sensors.",book:{id:"10823",title:"Cognitive Robotics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10823.jpg"},signatures:"Markus D. Kobelrausch and Axel Jantsch"},{id:"81693",title:"The Neo-Mechanistic Model of Human Cognitive Computation and Its Major Challenges",slug:"the-neo-mechanistic-model-of-human-cognitive-computation-and-its-major-challenges",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104995",abstract:"The neo-mechanistic theory of human cognition is currently one of the most accepted major theories in fields, such as cognitive science and cognitive neuroscience. This proposal offers an account of human cognitive computation, and it has been considered by its proponents as revolutionary and capable of integrating research concerning human cognition with new evidence provided by fields of biology and neuroscience. However, some complex cognitive capacities still present a challenge for explanations constructed by using this theoretical structure. In this chapter, I make a presentation of some of the central tenets of this framework and show in what dimensions it helps our understanding of human cognition concerning aspects of capacities, such as visual perception and memory consolidation. My central goal, however, is to show that to understand and explain some particular human cognitive capacities, such as self-consciousness and some conscious informal reasoning and decision making, the framework shows substantial limitations. 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We discuss the role of robotics in reducing environmental dangers, as well as at the patient’s bedside and in the operating room, in the acute setting. We examine how robotics can protect and scale up healthcare services in the ambulatory setting. Finally, in the at-home scenario, we look at how robots can be employed for both rural/remote healthcare delivery and home-based care. In addition to assessing the current state of robotics at the interface of healthcare delivery, we describe critical problems for the future where such technology will be ubiquitous. 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