Quantities of dry fruit before and after the aqueous extractions.
\r\n\tIn eukaryotic cells, the endoplasmic reticulum is an organelle adjacent to the nuclear membrane. This organelle is essential for calcium homeostasis and lipid biosynthesis and protein assembly, folding, and post-translational modification. The interplay between the endoplasmic reticulum membrane and the outer mitochondrial membrane, called mitochondria-associated endoplasmic reticulum membranes (MAMs), permits a wide range of cellular activity, including the division and fusion of mitochondria and the dynamic passage of lipids, glycogen, and calcium ions.
\r\n\tIt has been established that energy/nutrient depletion, calcium flux injury, or oxidative stress disrupt endoplasmic reticulum homeostasis and even induce accumulation of misfolded/unfolded proteins leading to endoplasmic reticulum stress. Under endoplasmic reticulum stress conditions, an adaptive mechanism of coordinated signaling pathways, defined unfolded protein response (UPR), is activated to return the endoplasmic reticulum to its healthy functioning state. The aging causes a decrease of the protective adaptive response of the UPR and an increase of the pro-apoptotic pathway together with endoplasmic reticulum ultrastructural injury. Controlling endoplasmic reticulum stress response, maintaining the appropriate endoplasmic reticulum ultrastructure and homeostasis, and retaining mitochondria interplay are crucial aspects for cellular health.
\r\n\tThis book presents a comprehensive overview of endoplasmic reticulum, including, but not limited to, endoplasmic reticulum ultrastructural anatomy, MAMs, endoplasmic reticulum stress, and their implication in health and diseases. Additionally, identifying perturbations in the endoplasmic reticulum stress response could lead to early detection of age-related disease and may help develop therapeutic approaches.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-228-5",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-227-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-229-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"5d7d49bd80f53dad3761f78de4a862c6",bookSignature:"Dr. Gaia Favero",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",keywords:"Metabolism, Aging, Neurodegenerative Diseases, Endoplasmic Reticulum, Microscopy, Metabolic Stress, Ultrastructural Anatomy, Cellular Stress, Contactology, Mitochondria, Cellular Stress, Endoplasmic Reticulum Response",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 9th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 6th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 5th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 23rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 22nd 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"14 days",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Human anatomy researcher involved in crucial topics on morphology, anatomy, and molecular medicine - working on innovative approaches to aging-related pathopsychological processes at the University of Brescia.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"238047",title:"Dr.",name:"Gaia",middleName:null,surname:"Favero",slug:"gaia-favero",fullName:"Gaia Favero",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238047/images/system/238047.jpg",biography:'Dr. Gaia Favero is a prominent scientist in the field of life sciences. She is currently engaged as a researcher for the Scientific-Disciplinary Sector BIO/16 Human Anatomy at the Anatomy and Pathophysiology Division, Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Brescia (Italy).\r\nDr. Favero focuses on aging-related morphological dysfunctions as the prelude to various pathophysiological processes in her research programs. The central hypothesis is that natural antioxidants and, in particular, melatonin may act as molecular "switches" that modulate cells and tissues by suppressing, at various levels, oxidative stress and inflammatory signalling cascades. These research approaches represent powerful tools for developing innovative preventive strategies and identifying novel prognostic biomarkers for several diseases. The above-reported research activity determined more than 120 scientific publications and an h-index of 25.',institutionString:"University of Brescia",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Brescia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"6",title:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"278926",firstName:"Ivana",lastName:"Barac",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/278926/images/8058_n.jpg",email:"ivana.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6694",title:"New Trends in Ion Exchange Studies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3de8c8b090fd8faa7c11ec5b387c486a",slug:"new-trends-in-ion-exchange-studies",bookSignature:"Selcan Karakuş",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6694.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206110",title:"Dr.",name:"Selcan",surname:"Karakuş",slug:"selcan-karakus",fullName:"Selcan Karakuş"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"61610",title:"Qualitative Analysis of Phytochemicals from Sea Buckthorn and Gooseberry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77365",slug:"qualitative-analysis-of-phytochemicals-from-sea-buckthorn-and-gooseberry",body:'\nPhytochemistry, basically described as the chemistry of plants and different plant parts, is generally considered an early subdivision of organic chemistry and is very important in the identification of plant compounds with medicinal properties [1].
\nPhytochemistry is associated with numerous species of secondary metabolites produced in plants by biosynthesis and the natural combination of all these secondary metabolites gives the general beneficial therapeutic effects of that specific plant [2, 3].
\nPlants biosynthesize phytochemicals to protect themselves from insect attacks and plant diseases. Phytochemicals (“Phyto” is the Greek word for plant) are plant chemicals with no nutritional value, non-essential nutrients, and with disease preventive properties. Some of the most common phytochemicals are lycopene (found in tomatoes), flavonoids (found in fruits), and isoflavones (found in soy) [4, 5].
\nSpecies belonging even to the same genus can differ one from another in different proportions and sometimes these differences are subtle and extremely difficult to determine. Therefore, new phytochemical methods quickly developed coming in addition to those that were already known and applied [6, 7].
\nThere are many known phytochemicals, and each has its own possible action [8, 9, 10]:
Sea buckthorn (
(a) Sea buckthorn and (b) gooseberry.
Gooseberries (
Although both sea buckthorn and gooseberry are used in traditional medicine for the treatment of various diseases, no clear scientific evidence exists to prove their therapeutic benefits and, therefore, it is very important to determine the qualitative content of these two fruits.
\nIn this chapter, sea buckthorn and gooseberry dried fruits are used to prepare aqueous extracts using a method that involves the cold infusion at a constant temperature of 4°C for 24 h. The two aqueous extracts are further used for the qualitative screening of phytochemicals, and the most important bioactive chemical constituents that are studied are carbohydrates, flavonoids, alkaloids, glycosides, steroids, tannins, proteins, amino acids, and terpenoids. All these qualitative studies use standard analytical methods and the results are clearly detailed in the present chapter.
\nSea buckthorn (
Preparation of sea buckthorn and gooseberry aqueous extracts.
The cold infusion takes place in sealed “French press” type coffee filters (Figure 3), one for every fruit involved in this research [17].
\n“French press” type coffee filters used to prepare the aqueous extracts.
The two extracts were left to incubate for 24 h so that as much of sea buckthorn and gooseberry as possible could be transferred to the aqueous extracts. The aqueous extracts thus prepared were separated, filtered, and the volumes of the resulted aqueous extracts were measured. An additional vacuum filtration was carried out so that all debris were removed from the aqueous extracts.
\nThe sea buckthorn aqueous extract and the gooseberry extract were kept in the refrigerator for more than 12 weeks for further use, without any alteration.
\nThe extractive value (yield percentage) of the sea buckthorn and gooseberry samples were weighted before and after the preparation of the aqueous extracts and the results are presented in Table 1 [18]:
\nCrt. no. | \nAqueous extract | \nWeight before extraction (g) | \nWeight after extraction (g) | \nYield (%) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | \nSea buckthorn | \n25 | \n18.66 | \n74.64 | \n
2 | \nGooseberry | \n25 | \n16.78 | \n67.12 | \n
Quantities of dry fruit before and after the aqueous extractions.
where W1 = net powder weight (g) resulted after the aqueous extraction and W2 = total powder weight (g) used for the preparation of sea buckthorn and gooseberry aqueous extracts.
\nThe volume of the resulted aqueous extracts was measured (mL) and compared to the initial volume of distilled water (Table 2).
\nCrt. no. | \nAqueous extract | \nDistilled water (mL) | \nAqueous extract (mL) | \n
---|---|---|---|
1 | \nSea buckthorn | \n100 | \n84 | \n
2 | \nGooseberry | \n100 | \n92 | \n
Volume of resulted aqueous extracts.
The pH was measured for the two aqueous extracts and the value was 6.5 for sea buckthorn as well as for gooseberry aqueous extracts.
Different qualitative phytochemical analyses are known that allow, by using standard analytical techniques, the determination of chemical groups, or compounds in aqueous extracts from different plants. These qualitative tests are based on color or precipitation reactions as a positive response to the presence of those specific chemical compounds [19, 20]. All the color reactions allow only determining the presence or absence of various chemical groups and not the amount in which they are present in different aqueous extracts.
\nStandard qualitative methods are used to analyze qualitatively the aqueous extract prepared from sea buckthorn and gooseberry [21, 22].
\nIn nature, there are numerous carbohydrate materials that can be generally classified as follows [23]:
There are different standard phytochemical methods used for the qualitative screening of carbohydrates found in aqueous extracts [24]. The results obtained for sea buckthorn and gooseberry aqueous extracts are fully described in Table 3.
\nPhytochemical test | \nSea buckthorn | \nGooseberry | \n
---|---|---|
Carbohydrates (general)—Molisch | \nPurple red solution | \nPurple coloration | \n
Carbohydrates (reducing sugars)—Benedict | \nBrick-red precipitate | \nBrick-red precipitate | \n
Carbohydrates (reducing sugars)–Fehling A | \nKhaki solution | \nGreen-yellow solution | \n
Carbohydrates (reducing sugars)—Fehling B | \nBrown-yellow solution | \nBrown solution | \n
Carbohydrates (monosaccharides)—Barfoed | \nBlue-green solution | \nBrick-red precipitate | \n
Carbohydrates (reducing sugars)—Trommer | \nRed precipitate | \nRed-brown precipitate | \n
Carbohydrates (reducing sugars)—Tollens | \nBlack precipitate | \nSilver mirror | \n
Carbohydrates (reducing sugars)—Moore | \nRed-brown solution | \nRed-brown solution | \n
Qualitative screening of carbohydrates.
Experimental: 1 ml Molisch reagent (a solution of α-naphthol in ethanol) is added to 2 ml aqueous extract and few drops of concentrated sulfuric acid are slowly dripped and the resulted solution is shaken carefully. The appearance of a violet ring at the interface of the two liquids indicates the presence of carbohydrates in the aqueous extracts.
\nIn the case of sea buckthorn aqueous extract, the solution turns purple-red and a brown precipitate is obtained from gooseberry aqueous extract.
\nThe general definition of reducing sugars is any type of sugar that can act as a reducing agent due to the free aldehyde or ketone groups. All monosaccharides are reducing sugars, along with some di-, oil- and polysaccharides. Several tests are available for detecting reducing sugars in aqueous extracts (Figures 4 and 5) (Table 3) [25].
Carbohydrates in sea buckthorn aqueous extract.
Reducing sugars from gooseberry aqueous extract.
By performing Molisch’s test, it reveals that both aqueous extracts contain different classes of carbohydrates. Specific qualitative test for carbohydrates reveals the presence of monosaccharides in gooseberry aqueous extract and of di-, oil- and polysaccharides in both sea buckthorn and gooseberry extracts.
\nHexoses are monosaccharides that contain six carbon atoms and are divided into aldohexoses and ketohexoses depending on the functional group [26]. Three qualitative methods reveal the presence of hexose sugars and the results are presented in Table 4.
Phytochemical test | \nSea buckthorn | \nGooseberry | \n
---|---|---|
Carbohydrates (hexose sugars)—Seliwanoff | \nCognac-red solution | \nRed solution | \n
Carbohydrates (hexose sugars)—cobalt chloride | \nLower layer-blue precipitate, upper layer-pink solution | \nReddish solution, yellow-white precipitate | \n
Carbohydrates (hexose sugars)—ammonium molybdate | \nBlue-green solution | \nBlue-green solution | \n
Qualitative screening of hexose sugars.
Hexose sugars in sea buckthorn aqueous extract.
As it is clear from the Table 4, hexose sugars are present in both sea buckthorn aqueous extract as well as in gooseberry aqueous extract.
\nMost of the tannins, a group of phenol compounds usually found in plants, are soluble in water. Phlobatannins are considered a novel class of ring-isomerized condensed tannins [17].
\nThe test for tannins is generally described as [27]: to 1 ml aqueous extract 2 ml of 5% ferric chloride are added and a dark-blue or greenish-black color appears.
\nPhlobatannins are tested following a standardized method: to 1 ml aqueous extract of sea buckthorn and gooseberry few drops of diluted HCl (1%) is added and a red precipitate should appear (Table 5).
\nPhytochemical test | \nSea buckthorn | \nGooseberry | \n
---|---|---|
Tannins | \nGreen-black solution | \nGreen-black solution | \n
Phlobatannins | \nPale pink solution | \nRed-orange solution | \n
Qualitative screening of tannins and phlobatannins.
Tannins are present in both aqueous extracts, while small traces of phlobatannins can be found in gooseberry aqueous extract.
\nThe general method involved in the qualitative analyze of saponins is: 2 ml of aqueous extract and 2 ml of distilled water are shaken for 15 min in a graduated cylinder. A 1 cm foam layer is a positive response to the presence of saponins (see Table 6).
\nPhytochemical test | \nSea buckthorn | \nGooseberry | \n
---|---|---|
Saponins | \n0.2 cm foam layer | \n1.5 cm foam layer | \n
Qualitative screening of saponins.
Qualitative screening of saponins in aqueous extracts from sea buckthorn and gooseberry revealed that only the second one contains saponins.
\nFlavonoids have important functions in plants: attract pollinating insects, fight against different microbial infections, and control cell growth [28].
\nFlavonoids are tested according to the following method: 2 ml aqueous extract and 1 ml of 2N sodium hydroxide are mixed. A yellow color indicates the presence of flavonoids.
\nThe test for phenolic flavonoids (Figure 7): 1 ml aqueous extract is mixed with 2 ml of 10% lead acetate solution and a brown precipitate indicates a positive response (see Table 7).
\nPhenolic flavonoids in sea buckthorn and gooseberry.
Phytochemical test | \nSea buckthorn | \nGooseberry | \n
---|---|---|
Flavonoids | \nGreen-yellow solution | \nLight brown yellow solution | \n
Phenolic flavonoids | \nLight yellow solution | \nOpalescent brown-yellow solution | \n
Qualitative screening of flavonoids and phenolic flavonoids.
Flavonoids are present in both aqueous extracts (sea buckthorn and gooseberry), while phenolic flavonoids are present as small traces in gooseberry aqueous extract.
\nAlkaloids are a group of basic plant bioactive compounds that possess an N-containing heterocycle, are generally colorless, crystalline, insoluble in water but soluble in many organic solvents [29].
\nThere are three different standard phytochemical methods used to determine the presence of tannins in aqueous extracts from sea buckthorn and gooseberry:
Phytochemical test | \nSea buckthorn | \nGooseberry | \n
---|---|---|
Alkaloids—Wagner | \nRed-brown solution | \nRed-brown solution | \n
Alkaloids—Mayer | \nLight-yellow solution | \nRed-brown solution | \n
Alkaloids—Hager | \nClear yellow solution | \nRed-brown solution | \n
Qualitative screening of alkaloids.
According to the results presented in Table 8, alkaloids are absent from all the aqueous extracts.
\nThe method used for the qualitative screening of anthraquinone compounds involves the reaction of 1 ml aqueous extract with a few drops of 10% ammonia solution with the formation of a pink precipitate.
\nAnthocyanosides are present when a pink color appears after the reaction between 1 ml aqueous extract with 5 ml dilute hydrochloric acid (1%). The results are detailed in Table 9.
\nPhytochemical test | \nSea buckthorn | \nGooseberry | \n
---|---|---|
Anthraquinones | \nGreen-yellow solution | \nBrown-yellow solution | \n
Anthocyanosides | \nLight yellow solution | \nBrown-yellow solution | \n
Qualitative screening of anthraquinones and anthocyanosides.
According to the results presented in Table 9, anthraquinones and anthocyanosides are absent from both aqueous extracts.
\nProteins are involved in all physiological processes that take place in all living cells. Proteins are colloidal, do not diffuse through the plasma membrane, are irreversible coagulated upon heating and are insoluble in neutral salts [30].
\nAmino acids are amphoteric phytocompounds, highly reactive, with an amino and carboxylic acid moiety, therefore, being mostly water soluble.
\nExperimental: 1 ml aqueous extract reacts with 5–6 drops of Millon’s reagent (mixture of mercuric nitrate, mercurous nitrate, concentrated nitric acid, and distilled water) and a white precipitate is formed that changes its color to red upon heating. Millon’s test is a non-specific test for detecting proteins and amino acids (tyrosine) and, therefore, it must be confirmed by other qualitative tests.
\nThe results obtained after the two aqueous extracts react with Millon reagent are as follows: an opalescent orange solution in the case of Sea buckthorn and a red-brownish precipitate in the case of Gooseberry, therefore confirming the presence of small amounts of proteins and/or aminoacids in Gooseberry aqueous extract.
\nThere are two different standard methods used (see results in Table 10):
Phytochemical test | \nSea buckthorn | \nGooseberry | \n
---|---|---|
Proteins and amino acids—Millon | \nOpalescent orange solution | \nRed-brownish precipitate | \n
Amino acids—ninhydrin test | \nOpalescent white-yellow solution | \nOpalescent orange solution, gray precipitate | \n
Amino acids—test for cysteine | \nRed-brown solution, black precipitate | \nOpalescent dark-brown solution | \n
Qualitative screening of amino acids.
Amino acids in sea buckthorn.
The test for cysteine gives a positive reaction in the case of sea buckthorn, while ninhydrin test is negative for both aqueous extracts.
\nThere are two different standard methods used (see results in Table 11):
Phytochemical test | \nSea buckthorn | \nGooseberry | \n
---|---|---|
Proteins and amino acids—Millon | \nOpalescent orange solution | \nRed-brownish precipitate | \n
Proteins—biuret test | \nGreen solution | \nBrown solution | \n
Proteins—xanthoproteic test | \nOpalescent brown solution | \nDark-brown precipitate | \n
Qualitative screening of proteins.
The general procedure to test the presence of steroids is: to 1 ml aqueous extract, 10 ml chloroform is added and then slowly 10 ml sulfuric acid is dripped. Upper layer turns red and sulfuric acid layer turns yellow-green.
\nTerpenoids are analyzed by reacting 1 ml aqueous extract with 2 ml of chloroform and then, slowly, few drops of concentrated sulfuric acid. An interface with a reddish-brown coloration appears (Table 12). The change in color can be observed in Figure 9.
\nPhytochemical test | \nSea buckthorn | \nGooseberry | \n
---|---|---|
Steroids | \nColorless layer, brown ring, colorless upper layer | \nPale-yellow layer, thick brown ring, pale-yellow upper layer | \n
Terpenoids | \nColorless | \nBrown interface | \n
Qualitative screening of steroids and terpenoids.
Terpenoids in sea buckthorn and gooseberry.
The qualitative screening of steroids revealed that these phytochemicals are absent from all the extracts while very small traces of terpenoids could be visually observed in gooseberry aqueous extract.
\nThere are three different standard phytochemical methods:
Phytochemical test | \nSea buckthorn | \nGooseberry | \n
---|---|---|
Glycosides (cardiac)—FeCl3 reagent | \nOrange-yellow solution | \nRed-brown solution | \n
Glycosides (cardiac)—Keller-Killiani test | \nBrown ring at the interface | \nBrown ring at the interface | \n
Glycosides (anthraquinonic)—Borntrager test | \nColorless lower layer, opalescent white upper layer | \nColorless lower layer, light-yellow upper layer | \n
Qualitative screening of glycosides Keller-Killiani test is positive for both aqueous extracts.
This chapter describes the qualitative phytochemical screening of two aqueous extracts prepared from dried fruits of sea buckthorn and gooseberry, plants with the important pharmacological properties and rich in nutrients. The qualitative screening consists of standard methods that are able to determine whether a phytochemical is present or not in the aqueous extracts.
\nThe two aqueous extracts are obtained after a cold infusion at a constant temperature of 4°C for 24 h and are kept at the refrigerator for more than 12 weeks without alteration.
\nThe general screening of carbohydrates revealed that, in the case of sea buckthorn aqueous extract, the solution turns purple-red and a brown precipitate is obtained from gooseberry aqueous extract. Molisch’s test revealed that both aqueous extracts contain different classes of carbohydrates. Specific qualitative test for carbohydrates reveal the presence of monosaccharides in gooseberry aqueous extract and of di-, oil- and polysaccharides in both sea buckthorn and gooseberry aqueous extracts.
\nAlkaloids are absent from both extracts, while cardiac glycosides are present. The test for cysteine gives a positive reaction in the case of sea buckthorn, while ninhydrin test is negative for both aqueous extracts.
\nThe results obtained when aqueous extract from sea buckthorn reacts with Millon reagent is an opalescent orange solution and, in the case of gooseberry aqueous extracts, a red-brownish precipitate is formed, thus confirming that small amounts of proteins and/or amino acids are present in gooseberry.
\nThis chapter received the financial support of the projects: PN 120BG/2016, PN-III-P1-1.2-PCCDI2017-0476, and PN 18.22.04.01.01.
\nThe authors declare no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and publication of this article.
Alveolar soft part sarcoma (ASPS) is a rare orphan malignant soft tissue tumor of uncertain cellular lineage representing 0.5–1% among soft tissue sarcomas and with a somewhat indolent yet lethal clinical course. It was first described in 1952 by Christopherson, a fellow in surgical pathology at Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, who reported 12 cases with similar clinical and pathology features [1]. It occurs mainly in adolescents and young adults between 15 and 40 years of age. For localized disease, the survival rate is 71% at 5 years and falls at 20% at 5 years for metastatic disease [2].
At diagnosis, a patient with ASPS describes a slow-growing mass in the extremities. Tumors in adults are most frequently involved located in the deep soft tissue of the lower extremities, especially the thigh and buttock [2]. This stands in contrast to the pediatric population where the tumor clearly has a predilection for the head and neck, and in particular the tongue and orbit [3]. ASPS has also been described as a rare primary lesion of the calvarium [4] and the pleura [5]. In the viscera, occurrences have been reported in such diverse anatomic sites as liver [6], lung [7], gastrointestinal tract [8], breast [9], uterine corpus [10], cervix [11], and the bladder [12]. Some deeply seated tumors may be quite large whereas those located in the head and neck area and viscera usually measure much less.
Preferential sites of metastatic sites are lung, bone, and frequently the brain. Metastases have been reported even 15 years after primary tumor diagnosis [2].
ASPS consists of nests of large rounded cells sometimes associated with characteristic crystalloids and embedded in a finely capillarized stromal background. The molecular genetics aspect involves the recurrent unbalanced translocation der(17)t(X;17)(p11;q25) [13]. The female predominance could theoretically be based on the statistical observation that the risk of a translocation involving the X chromosome present in two copies is greater in women [14]. No differentiation lineage is established according to the WHO classification of soft tissue tumors [15] although as is well-known differentiation patterns are the basis of most of the histopathological classifications of sarcomas.
After the original description of the lesion, one of the prevailing hypotheses, now totally abandoned, concerned its alleged myogenic phenotype which had fueled the unresolved question of its histogenesis. Masson had first numbered this tumor among muscle lesions [16]. Much data then seemed to uphold striated muscle differentiation based on different observations. Immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescent techniques showed cytoplasmic expression of muscle-associated proteins, such as desmin, muscle-specific actin, MM isozyme of creatine kinase [17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25], and nuclear expression of the skeletal muscle-specific regulatory protein MyoD1 [23]. The myogenic hypothesis was ultimately set aside for the following reasons. Desmin is not considered a reliable marker of skeletal muscle tissue differentiation and can be found expressed as well in smooth muscle proliferation, rhabdoid tumors, Ewing sarcoma, or neuroblastoma [26]. As for the nucleophosphoproteins MyoD1 and myogenin, no subsequent studies confirmed positivity. In the 12 cases reported by Wang et al. [27] and the 19 cases reported by Gomez [28] et al. immunohistochemical nuclear expression was completely absent. These authors observed nonspecific granular cytoplasmic staining linked to aberrant cross-reactions with unrelated antigens. In their studies, western blotting failed to highlight the 45-kd band of MyoD1, and MyoD1 transcript has not been detected by northern blot analysis [20]. Neither had ultrastructural myofilaments been observed in alveolar soft part sarcoma [27, 29]. The ultrastructure of the crystalloids supposedly composed of Z-band tropomyosin B, similar to rod structures seen in rhabdomyoma [30] seemed to favor muscle differentiation but new data demonstrated the absence of tropomyosin [31]. Some subsequent gene expression profiling studies momentarily revived the concept of muscle cell differentiation with the identification of differentially expressed genes [32, 33]. But later studies failed to validate these findings [34].
One report of expression profiling analysis suggested a neural differentiation because of marked expression of the transcription factor PAX6, an activator of neural genes [35, 36]. Curiously a neural crest origin had already been speculated [37].
DeSchryver-Kecskemeti et al. described ASPS as “malignant angioreninoma.” Indeed fluorescein-tagged antirenin antibodies in tumor cell were detected [38]. However, patient arterial hypertension was missing, and no tumor renin secretion (whether active or inactive) was biochemically revealed [31]. ASPS had also been labeled, albeit incorrectly as “malignant myoblastoma,” “granular cell myoblastoma,” “malignant granular cell myoblastoma” [39, 40, 41], or as “malignant tumor of the non-chromaffin paraganglia” [42].
When excised, ASPS has a soft consistency with encapsulated borders. The cut surface has a white to yellow–brownish color tinged with hemorrhagic spilling or central necrosis in large tumors (Figure 1a).
ASPS : gross pathology (cut surface) (a), typical cytoarchitectural features (b-j) and TFE3 immunohistochemical nuclear staining (k).
ASPS shows a distinctive recognizable morphology in most cases with nests or trabeculae (Figure 1b,c, and e) of large epithelioid round cells displaying an alveolar (Figure 1d) and sometimes dyscohesive appearance (Figure 1d and h). The stroma has a delicate vasculature with frequent lymphovascular invasions (Figure 1j). Typical cytoarchitectural aspects include individual monomorphic tumor cells with an abundant granular eosinophilic or clear glycogen-rich cytoplasm, sharp cytoplasmic borders, no striations, and an eccentric vesicular nucleus containing a prominent central nucleolus. In some cases, sheets of contiguous tumor cells may appear solid (Figure 1f and g), a finding more conspicuous in children. Cells can be multinucleated (Figure 1h). Mitoses are few and necrosis rare. Other possible aspects are nuclear pseudoinclusions, cystic or myxoid changes, stromal sclerosis, calcification, and chronic inflammatory infiltrate [2, 13, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50]. Rarely, some tumors display a high mitotic rate, polymorphism, spindling, and xanthomatous changes [9].
Special stains, such as periodic acid-Schiff with diastase can highlight crystalloids, rod-like or rhomboid diastase-resistant membrane-bound intracytoplasmic crystalline formations originally noted by Masson [16] (Figure 1i—arrows). Ladanyi et al. were able to conclude that these are complexes of monocarboxylate transporter 1 (MCT1) interacting with a CD 147, a chaperone protein [51]. Their microscopic detection may be time-consuming and inconclusive. Some cases show simply a granular substance instead of crystals which could be a pre-crystalline formation of the MCTI-CD147 complex [51].
In electron microscopy, ASPS cells are poor in desmosomes and are lined by incomplete basement membranes in contact with capillaries [43, 47]. The cytoplasmic endoplasmic reticulum is as a rule sparse, mitochondria are numerous, and Golgi apparatus is greatly developed [43]. The latter is associated with crystalloids or pre-crystallized electron-dense granules mentioned above both of which are membrane-bound [31, 43, 47].
Immunostaining is, in most cases, unnecessary for diagnosis. Transcription factor TFE3 expression (Figure 1k) is linked to the gene fusion ASPL-TFE3 (Figure 2) but is not specific to ASPS as it can also be seen in subsets of epithelioid hemangioendotheliomas and PEComas [52], in granular cell tumor, malignant melanoma and pediatric renal cell carcinoma [53].
Fluorescent
This contrasts with sensitivity which is high (92%) Nevertheless, staining can also be weak or even absent in some cases, particularly in pre-analytically ill-prepared samples [54].
CD147/EMMPRIN, a glycoprotein of the immunoglobulin superfamily, is considered a marker of poor prognosis as well as for some authors a potential therapeutic target [54, 55]. Secreted by the cancer cells as a conjugate protein of MCT1, a lactate transporter, it induces matrix metalloproteinases production by neighboring stromal fibroblasts hence facilitating local tumor progression and ultimately metastasis [15, 54, 55]. Its expression is not limited to ASPS but has also been signaled in other lesions, such as granular cell tumor and clear cell renal cell carcinoma [54].
Diffuse cytoplasmic immunostaining with cathepsin K, a protease activated by the microphthalmia transcription factor (MITF) in osteoclasts, is fairly constant. But it is also seen in melanoma, clear cell sarcoma, granular cell tumor, and PEComa [56, 57].
Other possibly expressed markers with little significance in ASPS include desmin, actin [5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14], S-100 protein [21], NKIC3 [22], histiocytic marker CD68 KP1 [58], and vimentin [24]. Nuclear myogenin and MyoD1, cytokeratin, epithelial membrane antigen (EMA), chromogranin, synaptophysin, neurofilament, and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) are always negative [24, 47, 50]. The eventual clinical utility of standard immune complementary immunohistochemical tests in ASPS is yet to be determined. As mentioned earlier, lymphocytic infiltrate is rare. However, Goldberg et al. reported having identified activation of the PD-1 (programmed death-1) pathway with cell immunoreactivity for PD-L1 (PD-ligand 1) and individual CD8+ tumor-infiltrating T cells expressing PD-1 [59]. This, however, needs to be confirmed.
The unbalanced translocation der(17)t(X;17)(p11;q25) and its consequential fusion gene, a marker specific as well as sensitive [54], is the exhibited molecular label of ASPS. Cullinane et al. first reportedly identified this alteration cytogenetically [60]. This paved the way for the description of the two breakpoints on Xp11.2 and 17q25 [61] leading to the characterization of the two involved genes [14], the transcription factor TFE3 on Xp11.2 and a novel gene with no yet known function, ASPL/ASPSCR1 (alveolar soft part sarcoma locus/alveolar soft part sarcoma chromosomal region 1) on 17q25 (Figure 3a and b). In the encoded protein, there is conservation of the COOH-extremity and the DNA-binding domain of TFE3. Contrariwise its N-terminal sequences are occupied by ASPL which alters TFE3 normal activity. The oncoprotein then shifts to the nucleus where it behaves as a transcriptional driver.
Representations of TFE3 (a) and ASPL (b) genes with breakpoints indicated by arrows; bottom figures (c, d) correspond to the types 1 and 2 fusions respectively.
Two published cases show a reciprocal translocation however [14, 62]. Further, two mutually exclusive translocation variants have been identified although with no known clinical consequence at present. The ASPL gene has a unique breakpoint whereas the TFE3 gene possesses two possible breakpoints with two possible fusion types. According to Ladanyi et al., in type 1 fusion, the ASPL gene is joined in frame to TFE3 exon four (exon 3 is excluded). In type 2, it links with exon 3. Aulmann et al. [63] emphasized that under the later reference sequence (GenBank NM_006521) with a modified nomenclature (with no biological consequence) since Ladanyi’s publication [14], in type 1, the shortened ASPL gene (exons 1–7) joins directly with exon 6 of TFE3 (exon 5 is excluded) and in type 2 with exon 5 (Figure 3c and d).
Rapid diagnosis is usually achieved by fluorescent
The molecular mechanisms driven by the ASPL-TFE3 oncoprotein are not entirely known. Senescence promotion through p21 up-regulation wielding a mechanism of tumor progression by senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP) via proinflammatory cytokines secretion has been proposed [65, 66, 67, 68].
In gene expression profiling analysis, MET acts as a transcriptional target of the ASPL-TFE3 fusion. The latter binds to the activated promoter, induces MET tyrosine kinase autophosphorylation increasing MET protein expression in the presence of its ligand hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), and upregulates downstream signaling, to promote cell proliferation, growth, and invasion. MET appears to be a possible candidate for targeted therapy in [69, 70].
Other actions of TFE3 aim at targeting hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF-1a) which activates angiogenesis via factors, such as VEGFA, PDFG, or angiopoietin [32, 35, 71, 72, 73, 74], findings useful for antiangiogenic therapy investigations.
Further, melanoma inhibitor of apoptosis (ML-IAP), a factor of cell survival in melanoma targeted by MITF, is proven to be overexpressed in ASPS gene expression profiling [71, 75]. Both MITF and TFE3 are members of the basic helix–loop–helix leucine zipper transcription factors family and lock on to the same DNA motif, the E-box DNA consensus segment CANNTG [65, 76, 77].
CGH array studies show complex anomalies at multiple levels—gains of 1q, 8q, 16q, and Xp11-pter [78] with translocations, deletions, trisomy 12, trisomy 8, and loss of chromosome 17 after chemotherapy [79]. Updated results with high-resolution aCGH reported by Selvarajah et al. have confirmed these observations and suggested increased genomic instability in the metastatic setting with still more gains and losses [35].
Recent literature relative to immunogenicity in ASPS mentions significantly increased expression of host response factors to the lesion involving the innate activating receptors TLR2 and TLR9 [59].
In our experience, ASPS can have overlapping morphological features to some degree with other lesions of which the most frequent are listed in Table 1, but these mimics lack the specific recurrent nonreciprocal translocation found in ASPS. Key cytoarchitectural aspects, such as severe atypia, spindling, or pleomorphism generally are not in favor of ASPS. Moreover, the latter belongs to different clinical and immunohistochemical contexts. Generally, paragangliomas fit older patients [50] and are not readily observed in limbs. Unlike in ASPS, tumor cells are void of cytoplasmic glycogen. More importantly, they show neuroendocrine differentiation with the accompanying sustentacular cells being immunoreactive with anti-S-100 protein [57]. Clear cell sarcoma of soft tissue and metastatic melanoma consistently express melanocytic markers, such as HMB45 and Melan A, as well as S100 protein. Equivocally in metastatic melanoma, those antigens may be lost and like in ASPS, Cathepsin K can be immunopositive. Clear cell sarcoma of soft tissue may likewise express focally cathepsin K but harbors a reciprocal translocation t(12,22) resulting in the fusion of EWSR1-ATF1 in most cases [57]. Granular cell tumors, like in ASPS, may immunostain with TFE3 and cathepsin K but unlike ASPS they are also consistently reactive with anti-PS100, anti-SOX 10, and anti-inhibin antibodies [57, 80].
Clear cell sarcoma of soft tissue |
Metastatic melanoma |
Clear cell renal carcinoma |
Liver cell carcinoma |
Granular cell tumor |
PEComa |
Paraganglioma |
Rhabdomyosarcoma |
Some basic differential diagnoses of ASPS.
Renal cell carcinoma in children shares with ASPS the same fusion gene resulting from identical breakpoints [81, 82, 83] but here translocation is reciprocal. Reciprocity can be assessed using the right primers to the nonfunctional fusion site [72]. Contrary to ASPS, renal cell carcinomas immunostain with cytokeratin, epithelial membrane antigen (EMA), and PAX8 and do not express cathepsin K. They can harbor other fusion partners of TFE3, such as DVL2 and PRCC. These fusion genes, DVLE2-TFE3 and PRCC-TTF3 as well as the newly identified chimeric HNRNPH3-TTF3 have been detected in ASPS also [84].
Liver cell carcinoma can morphologically represent an important diagnostic pitfall, the liver being a possible primary site of ASPS. Hepatocarcinoma cells are immunopositive for hepatocyte paraffin 1 (Hep-Par1), glypican-3, and polyclonal carcinoembryonic antigen (P-CEA) [57].
Neuroendocrine or endocrine tumors, contrary to ASPS, stain with antibodies against chromogranin, synaptophysin, and CD56.
PEComas are most often located in the pelvis, gynecologic tract, and retroperitoneum. Like ASPS, a subset expresses TFE3 but with a double differentiation pattern, smooth muscle and melanocytic, staining with h-Caldesmon, HMB45, less often Melan A., all of which are negative in ASPS [85]. Adrenocortical carcinomas express Melan A or inhibin. Rhabdomyosarcomas are consistently positive for skeletal muscle differentiation markers (desmin, nuclear myogenin or MyoD1). A number of other lesions are perhaps not likely to be confused with ASPS but can nevertheless, because of their epithelioid cell morphology and abundant cytoplasm, be considered as differential diagnoses of the tumor in its less frequent solid appearance without alveolar configuration. These include epithelioid sarcoma, epithelioid angiosarcoma, epithelioid hemangioendothelioma, myoepithelioma, chordoma, meningioma, or even histiocytic sarcoma. But these present immunohistochemical and molecular profiles inconsistent with ASPS.
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We also present an overview of the efficient bioremediation strategies used for the decontamination of polluted marine environments.",book:{id:"5811",slug:"recent-insights-in-petroleum-science-and-engineering",title:"Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and Engineering",fullTitle:"Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and Engineering"},signatures:"Mouna Mahjoubi, Simone Cappello, Yasmine Souissi, Atef Jaouani\nand Ameur Cherif",authors:[{id:"107040",title:"Dr.",name:"Simone",middleName:null,surname:"Cappello",slug:"simone-cappello",fullName:"Simone Cappello"},{id:"219462",title:"Dr.",name:"Mouna",middleName:null,surname:"Mahjoubi",slug:"mouna-mahjoubi",fullName:"Mouna Mahjoubi"},{id:"223935",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasmine",middleName:null,surname:"Souissi",slug:"yasmine-souissi",fullName:"Yasmine Souissi"},{id:"223936",title:"Dr.",name:"Ameur",middleName:null,surname:"Cherif",slug:"ameur-cherif",fullName:"Ameur Cherif"}]},{id:"57237",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71163",title:"Analytical Methods for Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and their Global Trend of Distribution in Water and Sediment: A Review",slug:"analytical-methods-for-polycyclic-aromatic-hydrocarbons-and-their-global-trend-of-distribution-in-wa",totalDownloads:4409,totalCrossrefCites:20,totalDimensionsCites:34,abstract:"Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are major organic pollutants in the environment, which are toxic to humans and biota, given their carcinogenic, mutagenic and teratogenic nature. In this chapter, we carried out an overview of the sources and toxicity of PAHs, their common analytical methods of determination in the water and sediment samples, and also their global trend of distribution, with a view to provide baseline guidance for relevant control authorities. The choice methods for determining these contaminants are high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with UV/fluorescence detectors and GC/MS. Mass spectrometer coupled with GC is preferred because it offers robust identification of the analyte compounds both by retention time and mass spectrum, with additional structural information. Results collated revealed an extensive distribution of PAHs with total mean concentrations ranging from 0.0003 to 42,350 μg/L in water and 0 to 1.266 × 109 μg/kg (dw) in the sediment. PAHs in the two environmental matrices were much higher in the regions with intense oil exploration, shipping and industrial activities. It is therefore necessary to regularly monitor their levels in the aquatic environment, so as to provide mitigation options that will prevent risk to humans and aquatic animals.",book:{id:"5811",slug:"recent-insights-in-petroleum-science-and-engineering",title:"Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and Engineering",fullTitle:"Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and Engineering"},signatures:"Abiodun Olagoke Adeniji, Omobola Oluranti Okoh and Anthony\nIfeanyi Okoh",authors:[{id:"219919",title:"Dr.",name:"Abiodun",middleName:"Olagoke",surname:"Adeniji",slug:"abiodun-adeniji",fullName:"Abiodun Adeniji"},{id:"219920",title:"Prof.",name:"Omobola",middleName:null,surname:"Okoh",slug:"omobola-okoh",fullName:"Omobola Okoh"},{id:"219921",title:"Prof.",name:"Anthony",middleName:null,surname:"Okoh",slug:"anthony-okoh",fullName:"Anthony Okoh"}]},{id:"56472",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70093",title:"Drilling Fluids for Deepwater Fields: An Overview",slug:"drilling-fluids-for-deepwater-fields-an-overview",totalDownloads:2685,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"The increasing oil demand around the world along with the depletion of onshore and shallow water oil reserves have forced the oil companies moving into the development of deepwater subsea hydrocarbon reservoirs. Drilling fluids play a key role in all drilling operations, but they get a greater relevance in deepwater environments where the technological challenges of drilling at these extreme conditions generate significant operational risks as well as very high costs during the development of this kind of fields. The operational issues and concerns related to the drilling fluid design and application for deepwater fields are generally well known: narrow pore/fracture pressure gradient margins, wellbore stability, clay swelling, gas hydrates formation, formation damage, salt formations, lost circulation, stuck pipe, cuttings transport and environmental and safety aspects. Therefore, the present chapter aims to give an overview on the main challenges and research related to drilling fluid design and application for deepwater fields through the revision of the state of the art of the current and innovative technological solutions reported in literature.",book:{id:"5811",slug:"recent-insights-in-petroleum-science-and-engineering",title:"Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and Engineering",fullTitle:"Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and Engineering"},signatures:"Luis Alberto Alcázar-Vara and Ignacio Ramón Cortés-Monroy",authors:[{id:"149837",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis A.",middleName:null,surname:"Alcazar-Vara",slug:"luis-a.-alcazar-vara",fullName:"Luis A. Alcazar-Vara"},{id:"202407",title:"MSc.",name:"Ignacio R.",middleName:null,surname:"Cortés-Monroy",slug:"ignacio-r.-cortes-monroy",fullName:"Ignacio R. Cortés-Monroy"}]},{id:"56887",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70092",title:"Petroleum Source Rocks Characterization and Hydrocarbon Generation",slug:"petroleum-source-rocks-characterization-and-hydrocarbon-generation",totalDownloads:7851,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"This chapter is proposed to give the principal learning on the application of the formation of petroleum source rocks and hydrocarbon generation to exploration activities. The evaluation of petroleum source rocks and hydrocarbon generation is a very important skill for explorationists to define the location and type of petroleum prospects in a region. In this chapter, subsurface samples from case study (Sayun-Masilah basin) were used to determine the source rock characteristics and petroleum generative potentials of prospective source rocks. Qualitative and quantitative evaluation of the source rock in this basin was done by means of geochemical and geophysical approaches for four rock units. It is clear that Madbi Formation is considered the main source, in which the organic carbon content reached up to more than 5.2 wt%. The types of organic matter from rock-eval pyrolysis data indicated that type I kerogen is the main type, in association with type II, and a mixture of types II and III kerogens. The study of the different maturation parameters obtained from rock-eval pyrolysis, such as Tmax and vitrinite reflectance, reflects that the considered rock units are occurred in different maturation stages, ranging from immature to mature sources. One-dimensional basin modeling was performed to analyze the hydrocarbon generation and expulsion history of the source rocks in the study area based on the reconstruction of the burial and thermal maturity histories in order to improve our understanding of the hydrocarbon generation potential. Calibration of the model with measured vitrinite reflectance (%Ro) and borehole temperature (BHT) data indicates that the paleo-heat flow was high at Late Jurassic. The models also indicate that the early hydrocarbon generation in the Madbi source rock occurred during late Cretaceous and the main hydrocarbon generation has been reached approximately at Early Eocene. Therefore, the Madbi source rock can be considered as generative potentials of prospective source rock horizons in the Sayun-Masilah basin.",book:{id:"5811",slug:"recent-insights-in-petroleum-science-and-engineering",title:"Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and Engineering",fullTitle:"Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and Engineering"},signatures:"Nabil Mohammed Al-Areeq",authors:[{id:"198686",title:"Dr.",name:"Nabil",middleName:"Mohammed",surname:"Al-Areeq",slug:"nabil-al-areeq",fullName:"Nabil Al-Areeq"}]},{id:"68009",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88056",title:"Hybrid EOR Methods Utilizing Low-Salinity Water",slug:"hybrid-eor-methods-utilizing-low-salinity-water",totalDownloads:1253,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Low-salinity water (LSW) flooding has been applied in sandstone and carbonate formations to improve oil recovery. Wettability alteration by LSW has been identified as the dominant driving mechanism for the incremental oil recoveries. LSW flooding has been combined with other EOR methods to develop new hybrid approaches to improve crude/brine/rock (CBR) interactions with the objective of overcoming some of the LSW flooding downsides, which include oil trapping and fine migration. Hybrid methods can provide higher oil recovery than each stand-alone technique. For instance, changes in gas solubility during LSW injection positively affect the performance of LSW/gas hybrid injection. LSW/surfactant flooding can contribute to incremental recovery by simultaneously lowering interfacial tension (IFT) and wettability alteration. The synergistic effect of fluid redistribution by LSW and enhanced water mobility by polymer flooding improves oil detachment and displacement in porous media through the application of the hybrid approach LSW/polymer flooding. Nanoparticles (NPs), mainly SiO2, can alter wettability toward more water wetness in combination with LSW, and hot LSW can improve heavy oil production by reducing viscosity. Hence, the synergistic effect of hybrid EOR methods based on LSW flooding is considered a novel EOR approach to improve oil recovery.",book:{id:"7609",slug:"enhanced-oil-recovery-processes-new-technologies",title:"Enhanced Oil Recovery Processes",fullTitle:"Enhanced Oil Recovery Processes - New Technologies"},signatures:"Peyman Pourafshary and Nikoo Moradpour",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"56887",title:"Petroleum Source Rocks Characterization and Hydrocarbon Generation",slug:"petroleum-source-rocks-characterization-and-hydrocarbon-generation",totalDownloads:7858,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"This chapter is proposed to give the principal learning on the application of the formation of petroleum source rocks and hydrocarbon generation to exploration activities. The evaluation of petroleum source rocks and hydrocarbon generation is a very important skill for explorationists to define the location and type of petroleum prospects in a region. In this chapter, subsurface samples from case study (Sayun-Masilah basin) were used to determine the source rock characteristics and petroleum generative potentials of prospective source rocks. Qualitative and quantitative evaluation of the source rock in this basin was done by means of geochemical and geophysical approaches for four rock units. It is clear that Madbi Formation is considered the main source, in which the organic carbon content reached up to more than 5.2 wt%. The types of organic matter from rock-eval pyrolysis data indicated that type I kerogen is the main type, in association with type II, and a mixture of types II and III kerogens. The study of the different maturation parameters obtained from rock-eval pyrolysis, such as Tmax and vitrinite reflectance, reflects that the considered rock units are occurred in different maturation stages, ranging from immature to mature sources. One-dimensional basin modeling was performed to analyze the hydrocarbon generation and expulsion history of the source rocks in the study area based on the reconstruction of the burial and thermal maturity histories in order to improve our understanding of the hydrocarbon generation potential. Calibration of the model with measured vitrinite reflectance (%Ro) and borehole temperature (BHT) data indicates that the paleo-heat flow was high at Late Jurassic. The models also indicate that the early hydrocarbon generation in the Madbi source rock occurred during late Cretaceous and the main hydrocarbon generation has been reached approximately at Early Eocene. Therefore, the Madbi source rock can be considered as generative potentials of prospective source rock horizons in the Sayun-Masilah basin.",book:{id:"5811",slug:"recent-insights-in-petroleum-science-and-engineering",title:"Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and Engineering",fullTitle:"Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and Engineering"},signatures:"Nabil Mohammed Al-Areeq",authors:[{id:"198686",title:"Dr.",name:"Nabil",middleName:"Mohammed",surname:"Al-Areeq",slug:"nabil-al-areeq",fullName:"Nabil Al-Areeq"}]},{id:"56405",title:"Characterization of Crude Oils and the Precipitated Asphaltenes Fraction using UV Spectroscopy, Dynamic Light Scattering and Microscopy",slug:"characterization-of-crude-oils-and-the-precipitated-asphaltenes-fraction-using-uv-spectroscopy-dynam",totalDownloads:3135,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Analysis of crude oil composition provides important information that impacts on the recovery, handling, and transportation of hydrocarbons. Crude characterization also provides data in the analysis of geochemistry of the source of origin. Crude oil characterization by optical methods is usually difficult because of its dark color; however, those characterizations are crucial because they give information that can affect some analysis procedures. Ultraviolet-visible (UV-vis) spectroscopy is a simple and practical technique that allows the characterization of crude oil through dilution in solvents. A comparative study of crude oil solutions contrasted with their asphaltene fractions was performed. Each solution was analyzed in triplicate, on a UV-vis spectrophotometer. Calibration curves for both raw solutions showed no significant variations, indicating stability. Additionally, the results of dispersion and migration phenomena indicated stability only for crude oil solutions. The aggregate size dispersion was different for each type of crude and varied with respect to time. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) showed the type of morphology present for each type of asphaltene.",book:{id:"5811",slug:"recent-insights-in-petroleum-science-and-engineering",title:"Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and Engineering",fullTitle:"Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and Engineering"},signatures:"Ernestina Elizabeth Banda Cruz, Nohra Violeta Gallardo Rivas, Ulises\nPáramo García, Ana Maria Mendoza Martinez and José Aarón Melo\nBanda",authors:[{id:"174756",title:"Dr.",name:"Ernestina Elizabeth",middleName:null,surname:"Banda Cruz",slug:"ernestina-elizabeth-banda-cruz",fullName:"Ernestina Elizabeth Banda Cruz"},{id:"175028",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana María",middleName:null,surname:"Mendoza-Martínez",slug:"ana-maria-mendoza-martinez",fullName:"Ana María Mendoza-Martínez"},{id:"186469",title:"Dr.",name:"Ulises",middleName:null,surname:"Paramo-Garcia",slug:"ulises-paramo-garcia",fullName:"Ulises Paramo-Garcia"},{id:"198863",title:"Dr.",name:"Nohra",middleName:"Violeta",surname:"Gallardo Rivas",slug:"nohra-gallardo-rivas",fullName:"Nohra Gallardo Rivas"},{id:"198864",title:"Dr.",name:"José Aarón",middleName:null,surname:"Melo Banda",slug:"jose-aaron-melo-banda",fullName:"José Aarón Melo Banda"}]},{id:"58250",title:"Microbial Bioremediation of Petroleum Hydrocarbon– Contaminated Marine Environments",slug:"microbial-bioremediation-of-petroleum-hydrocarbon-contaminated-marine-environments",totalDownloads:5093,totalCrossrefCites:20,totalDimensionsCites:38,abstract:"Petroleum pollution has become a serious environmental problem, which can cause harmful damage to the environment and human health. This pollutant is introduced into the environment from both natural and anthropogenic sources. Various physicochemical and biological treatments were developed for the cleanup of contaminated environments. However, bioremediation is based on the metabolic capabilities of microorganisms, and it is considered as the most basic and reliable way to eliminate contaminants, particularly petroleum and its recalcitrant compounds. It is more effective alternative comparing to classical remediation techniques. A high diversity of potential hydrocarbon degrader’s microorganisms was reported, and bacteria constitute the most abundant group, which has been well studied for hydrocarbon degradation. Several bioremediation approaches through bioaugmentation or/and biostimulation have been successfully applied. The interest on the optimizing of different parameters to achieve successful bioremediation technologies has been increased. In this chapter, we summarize the diversity and the hydrocarbon degradation potential of microorganism involved in the remediation of contaminated environments. We also present an overview of the efficient bioremediation strategies used for the decontamination of polluted marine environments.",book:{id:"5811",slug:"recent-insights-in-petroleum-science-and-engineering",title:"Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and Engineering",fullTitle:"Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and Engineering"},signatures:"Mouna Mahjoubi, Simone Cappello, Yasmine Souissi, Atef Jaouani\nand Ameur Cherif",authors:[{id:"107040",title:"Dr.",name:"Simone",middleName:null,surname:"Cappello",slug:"simone-cappello",fullName:"Simone Cappello"},{id:"219462",title:"Dr.",name:"Mouna",middleName:null,surname:"Mahjoubi",slug:"mouna-mahjoubi",fullName:"Mouna Mahjoubi"},{id:"223935",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasmine",middleName:null,surname:"Souissi",slug:"yasmine-souissi",fullName:"Yasmine Souissi"},{id:"223936",title:"Dr.",name:"Ameur",middleName:null,surname:"Cherif",slug:"ameur-cherif",fullName:"Ameur Cherif"}]},{id:"68009",title:"Hybrid EOR Methods Utilizing Low-Salinity Water",slug:"hybrid-eor-methods-utilizing-low-salinity-water",totalDownloads:1254,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Low-salinity water (LSW) flooding has been applied in sandstone and carbonate formations to improve oil recovery. Wettability alteration by LSW has been identified as the dominant driving mechanism for the incremental oil recoveries. LSW flooding has been combined with other EOR methods to develop new hybrid approaches to improve crude/brine/rock (CBR) interactions with the objective of overcoming some of the LSW flooding downsides, which include oil trapping and fine migration. Hybrid methods can provide higher oil recovery than each stand-alone technique. For instance, changes in gas solubility during LSW injection positively affect the performance of LSW/gas hybrid injection. LSW/surfactant flooding can contribute to incremental recovery by simultaneously lowering interfacial tension (IFT) and wettability alteration. The synergistic effect of fluid redistribution by LSW and enhanced water mobility by polymer flooding improves oil detachment and displacement in porous media through the application of the hybrid approach LSW/polymer flooding. Nanoparticles (NPs), mainly SiO2, can alter wettability toward more water wetness in combination with LSW, and hot LSW can improve heavy oil production by reducing viscosity. Hence, the synergistic effect of hybrid EOR methods based on LSW flooding is considered a novel EOR approach to improve oil recovery.",book:{id:"7609",slug:"enhanced-oil-recovery-processes-new-technologies",title:"Enhanced Oil Recovery Processes",fullTitle:"Enhanced Oil Recovery Processes - New Technologies"},signatures:"Peyman Pourafshary and Nikoo Moradpour",authors:null},{id:"58096",title:"Organic Contaminants in Refinery Wastewater: Characterization and Novel Approaches for Biotreatment",slug:"organic-contaminants-in-refinery-wastewater-characterization-and-novel-approaches-for-biotreatment",totalDownloads:1800,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Addressing major environmental issues, such as water pollution, is essential nowadays in realizing sustainable development. The ever-increasing world population and industrial development have led to the introduction of different types of chemicals to the environment, leading to considerable deterioration in environmental quality. A major class of these chemicals is phenolic compounds, which are hazardous pollutants and highly toxic even at low concentrations. In recent years, researchers have realized the importance of extracting new bacterial strains that are effective in treating different types of highly contaminated wastewaters at different severe conditions. They also focused considerable amount of research on developing new types of reactors that would provide efficient mixing and reduce mass transfer limitations. The aim is to develop and evaluate effective reactor systems and biocatalysts for the biodegradation of major contaminants in petroleum refinery wastewater. This chapter examines the different available options for the treatment of refinery wastewater with more focus on novel biotreatment options.",book:{id:"5811",slug:"recent-insights-in-petroleum-science-and-engineering",title:"Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and Engineering",fullTitle:"Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and Engineering"},signatures:"Taghreed Al-Khalid and Muftah H. El-Naas",authors:[{id:"219926",title:"Prof.",name:"Muftah",middleName:null,surname:"El-Naas",slug:"muftah-el-naas",fullName:"Muftah El-Naas"},{id:"222785",title:"Dr.",name:"Taghreed",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Khalid",slug:"taghreed-al-khalid",fullName:"Taghreed Al-Khalid"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"768",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 19th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,editor:null,editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. 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