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Rada",authors:[{id:"114650",title:"Dr",name:"Eugen",middleName:null,surname:"Culea",fullName:"Eugen Culea",slug:"eugen-culea"},{id:"114653",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Rada",fullName:"Simona Rada",slug:"simona-rada"}]},{id:"36169",title:"Water in Rocks and Minerals - Species, Distributions, and Temperature Dependences",slug:"water-in-rocks-and-minerals-species-distributions-and-temperature-dependences",signatures:"Jun-ichi Fukuda",authors:[{id:"105384",title:"Dr.",name:"Jun-Ichi",middleName:null,surname:"Fukuda",fullName:"Jun-Ichi Fukuda",slug:"jun-ichi-fukuda"}]},{id:"36170",title:"Attenuated Total Reflection - Infrared Spectroscopy Applied to the Study of Mineral - Aqueous Electrolyte Solution Interfaces: A General Overview and a Case Study",slug:"attenuated-total-reflection-infrared-spectroscopy-applied-to-the-study-of-mineral-aqueous-el",signatures:"Grégory Lefèvre, Tajana Preočanin and Johannes Lützenkirchen",authors:[{id:"108416",title:"Dr.",name:"Johannes",middleName:null,surname:"Lützenkirchen",fullName:"Johannes Lützenkirchen",slug:"johannes-lutzenkirchen"},{id:"111675",title:"Dr.",name:"Gregory",middleName:null,surname:"Lefevre",fullName:"Gregory Lefevre",slug:"gregory-lefevre"},{id:"111676",title:"Prof.",name:"Tajana",middleName:null,surname:"Preocanin",fullName:"Tajana Preocanin",slug:"tajana-preocanin"}]},{id:"36171",title:"Research of Calcium Phosphates Using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy",slug:"research-of-calcium-phosphates-using-fourier-transformation-infrared-spectroscopy",signatures:"Liga Berzina-Cimdina and Natalija Borodajenko",authors:[{id:"110522",title:"Prof.",name:"Liga",middleName:null,surname:"Berzina-Cimdina",fullName:"Liga Berzina-Cimdina",slug:"liga-berzina-cimdina"},{id:"112181",title:"MSc.",name:"Natalija",middleName:null,surname:"Borodajenko",fullName:"Natalija Borodajenko",slug:"natalija-borodajenko"}]},{id:"36172",title:"FTIR Spectroscopy of Adsorbed Probe Molecules for Analyzing the Surface Properties of Supported Pt (Pd) Catalysts",slug:"ftir-spectroscopy-of-adsorbed-probe-molecules-for-analyzing-the-surface-properties-of-supported-pt-p",signatures:"Olga B. Belskaya, Irina G. Danilova, Maxim O. Kazakov, Roman M. Mironenko, Alexander V. Lavrenov and Vladimir A. 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Cabanelas",slug:"juan-c.-cabanelas"}]},{id:"36179",title:"Use of FTIR Analysis to Control the Self-Healing Functionality of Epoxy Resins",slug:"use-of-ft-ir-analysis-to-control-the-self-healing-functionality-of-epoxy-resins",signatures:"Liberata Guadagno and Marialuigia Raimondo",authors:[{id:"106836",title:"Prof.",name:"Liberata",middleName:null,surname:"Guadagno",fullName:"Liberata Guadagno",slug:"liberata-guadagno"}]},{id:"36180",title:"Infrared Analysis of Electrostatic Layer-By-Layer Polymer Membranes Having Characteristics of Heavy Metal Ion Desalination",slug:"infrared-analysis-of-electrostatic-layer-by-layer-polymer-membranes-having-characteristics-of-heavy",signatures:"Weimin Zhou, Huitan Fu and Takaomi Kobayashi",authors:[{id:"110384",title:"Dr.",name:"Takaomi",middleName:null,surname:"Kobayashi",fullName:"Takaomi Kobayashi",slug:"takaomi-kobayashi"}]},{id:"36181",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy as a Tool to Monitor Radiation Curing",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-as-a-tool-to-monitor-radiation-curing",signatures:"Marco Sangermano, Patrick Meier and Spiros Tzavalas",authors:[{id:"112286",title:"Dr.",name:"Spiros",middleName:null,surname:"Tzavalas",fullName:"Spiros Tzavalas",slug:"spiros-tzavalas"},{id:"114382",title:"Prof.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Sangermano",fullName:"Marco Sangermano",slug:"marco-sangermano"},{id:"114384",title:"Dr",name:"Patrick",middleName:null,surname:"Meier",fullName:"Patrick Meier",slug:"patrick-meier"}]},{id:"36182",title:"Characterization of Compositional Gradient Structure of Polymeric Materials by FTIR Technology",slug:"characterization-of-compositional-gradient-structure-of-polymeric-materials-by-ft-ir-technology",signatures:"Alata Hexig and Bayar Hexig",authors:[{id:"20867",title:"Dr.",name:"Bayar",middleName:null,surname:"Hexig",fullName:"Bayar Hexig",slug:"bayar-hexig"},{id:"111986",title:"Dr.",name:"Alata",middleName:null,surname:"Hexig",fullName:"Alata Hexig",slug:"alata-hexig"}]},{id:"36183",title:"Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy - Useful Analytical Tool for Non-Destructive Analysis",slug:"fourier-trasform-infrared-spectroscopy-useful-analytical-tool-for-non-destructive-analysis",signatures:"Simona-Carmen Litescu, Eugenia D. Teodor, Georgiana-Ileana Truica, Andreia Tache and Gabriel-Lucian Radu",authors:[{id:"24425",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Litescu",fullName:"Simona Carmen Litescu",slug:"simona-carmen-litescu"},{id:"24429",title:"Prof.",name:"Gabriel-Lucian",middleName:null,surname:"Radu",fullName:"Gabriel-Lucian Radu",slug:"gabriel-lucian-radu"},{id:"108318",title:"Dr.",name:"Eugenia D.",middleName:null,surname:"Teodor",fullName:"Eugenia D. Teodor",slug:"eugenia-d.-teodor"},{id:"108323",title:"Dr.",name:"Georgiana-Ileana",middleName:null,surname:"Badea",fullName:"Georgiana-Ileana Badea",slug:"georgiana-ileana-badea"},{id:"136337",title:"Ms.",name:"Andreia",middleName:null,surname:"Tache",fullName:"Andreia Tache",slug:"andreia-tache"}]},{id:"36184",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy in the Analysis of Building and Construction Materials",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-of-cementitious-materials",signatures:"Lucia Fernández-Carrasco, D. Torrens-Martín, L.M. Morales and Sagrario Martínez-Ramírez",authors:[{id:"107401",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucia J",middleName:null,surname:"Fernández",fullName:"Lucia J Fernández",slug:"lucia-j-fernandez"}]},{id:"36185",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy Techniques in the Characterization of SOFC Functional Ceramics",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-techniques-in-the-characterization-of-sofc-functional-ceramics",signatures:"Daniel A. Macedo, Moisés R. Cesário, Graziele L. Souza, Beatriz Cela, Carlos A. Paskocimas, Antonio E. Martinelli, Dulce M. A. Melo and Rubens M. 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Sheregii",authors:[{id:"102655",title:"Prof.",name:"Eugen",middleName:null,surname:"Sheregii",fullName:"Eugen Sheregii",slug:"eugen-sheregii"}]},{id:"36191",title:"Effective Reaction Monitoring of Intermediates by ATR-IR Spectroscopy Utilizing Fibre Optic Probes",slug:"effective-reaction-monitoring-of-intermediates-by-atr-ir-spectroscopy-utilizing-fibre-optic-probes",signatures:"Daniel Lumpi and Christian Braunshier",authors:[{id:"109019",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Braunshier",fullName:"Christian Braunshier",slug:"christian-braunshier"},{id:"111798",title:"MSc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Lumpi",fullName:"Daniel Lumpi",slug:"daniel-lumpi"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3792",title:"Robotics 2010",subtitle:"Current and Future Challenges",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b266dc4d99301e4ddf0dd05915a81bda",slug:"robotics-2010-current-and-future-challenges",bookSignature:"Houssem Abdellatif",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3792.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"2524",title:"Dr.",name:"Houssem",surname:"Abdellatif",slug:"houssem-abdellatif",fullName:"Houssem Abdellatif"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10655",title:"Motion Planning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bf915895c5372e30c213b65ad1a62322",slug:"motion-planning",bookSignature:"Edgar A. Martínez García",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10655.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84958",title:"Dr.",name:"Edgar A.",surname:"Martínez García",slug:"edgar-a.-martinez-garcia",fullName:"Edgar A. Martínez García"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"68993",title:"Distraction Osteogenesis: Biological Principles and Its Application in Companion Animals",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89157",slug:"distraction-osteogenesis-biological-principles-and-its-application-in-companion-animals",body:'\nDistraction osteogenesis (DO) can be defined as the mechanical induction of bone tissue produced after the section and slowly separation of two bone segments, stabilized and subjected through a slow, gradual, and stable distraction. This is possible due to the inherent capacity of bone tissue to regenerate and remodel according to the mechanical and tension forces to which it is gradually submitted [1, 2].
\nThe DO is a technique widely used in human and veterinary medicine, both in adult and pediatric orthopedics. It is used in the treatment of various diseases such as limb length discrepancies, bone deformities secondary to trauma, infections or malformations, and even as a compensation after surgical excision of bone tumors [3]. The physiological bone growth is a result of the tension exercised over the bone physis and the soft tissue resistance. This forces act on the same plane but in opposite directions [4].
\nThe basic of the procedure should respect the principles defined by Ilizarov, Bastiani, and other pioneers in orthopedic research: (i) the osteotomy will be of low energy preserving the vascularization and the soft tissue envelope; (ii) the fixation mechanism applied to both segments must be stable; (iii) after the corticotomy a latency period will be applied, and (iv) the distraction rate (DR) must be appropriate for the level and type of bone in which osteogenesis is being performed [5].
\nAfter the separation of both segments, three temporal phases of DO can be defined: latency period, distraction period, and consolidation period [3].
\nThe DO procedure begins with the transverse section at a diaphyseal or metaphyseal level of the long bone to be elongated. Ilizarov described three methods to create fractures, including osteotomy, corticotomy, and osteoclasis. The osteogenic potential of the osteotomy or corticotomy depends on three main factors: the localization in bone, the type of technique used, and the latency period subsequently applied [6, 7].
\nRegarding the localization, some researchers in the past referred that the bone lengthening should be performed in the middle of the diaphysis of the long bone, and when necessary elongation was obtained, a bone graft from the ilium crest could be applied on the distraction focus to promote its consolidation. Later, Ilizarov recognized the metaphysis as the ideal site for the osteotomy, due to its massive trabecular bone area, rich in collateral vascularization, and higher potential for fracture recovery. Other researchers compared the regenerated bone quality at the diaphysis and metaphysis after DO, while using different latency periods. In the metaphysis, latency periods of 0 and 7 days allowed a greater osteogenesis and a faster remodeling and consolidation, when compared to the diaphysis elongation. A latency period of 14–21 days was associated with a premature consolidation in both regions. Bone mineralization of the newly formed tissue was faster at the metaphysis than at the diaphysis. Curiously, when there was no latency period, the distraction was successful and the consolidation faster. The latency of 7 days did not reveal the risk of premature consolidation; however, the consolidation and bone formation were slower than where there was no latency period.
Kojimoto and collaborators showed, in rabbits, the importance of the periosteum, referring that when it is removed, a bone callus is not formed and the bone lengthening can fail [9]. Ilizarov considered the preservation of the periosteum, and the medulla vascularization as mandatory to obtain better results on a DO [7, 10, 11]. Ilizarov developed the subperiostal osteotomy technique in which the anterior, medial, and lateral portions of the cortex are sectioned, and the posterior side is the manually fractured, thus preserving the medullar vasculature. Although Ilizarov defends the importance of the medullar vasculature, other authors question its importance [9, 12, 13].
\nThe distraction is performed using an external fixation system, and this can be a circular Ilizarov or and longitudinal monoplane unilateral frame [3]. It is imperative to keep an adequate stabilization of the fracture, its alignment, and osteodistraction [11, 14].
\nThe external fixator frame rigidity must prevent unnecessary micro-movements at the osteotomy site, but, at the same time, it should be compliant to allow bone tissue inducting micro-movements along the axial axis [14, 15, 16]. A stable external fixator with less stiffness decreases the time to achieve bone consolidation. Moreover, the time of consolidation with low mechanical score (less rigid) is smaller when compared to more rigid fixations [2].
\nKusec and colleagues compared the bone tissue formed by DO using a unilateral distractor and an Ilizarov distractor, in a population of 15 German Shepherd dogs. No histological or radiographic differences were found on the newly formed bone tissue. The regeneration progressed in centripetally from the cortex and the intramembranous ossification was predominant at the medullar portion of the distraction focus [17]. The Ilizarov fixator, comparing to Wagner, Orthofix, and Oxford unilateral frames, is also flexible with a consistent stiffness to bending moments in anteroposterior and lateral planes. Moreover, the Ilizarov fixator is more resistant to axial compression with increasing load and is more flexible in the axial direction compared with the other devices [18].
\nDuring bone lengthening, the distraction moment where the screws are tightened or loosened in the external device frame may create instability on the distraction focus and therefore adversely affect the procedure. The use of new compounds, such as highly dense plastics, interconnected with metal alloys, helps to prevent instability during the adjustment period [19].
\nThe latency period begins immediately after the osteotomy and extends to the beginning of the distraction. This may be characterized as a “rest” period after the corticotomy to allow a tissue response to the iatrogenic trauma. This response includes a proliferation of fibroblast and the induction of a state of periosteal reactivity, phenomena which occur at the beginning of a fracture regeneration [3]. The latency period allows an organization of the hematoma and the fibrous tissue matrix, which will serve as a mold to the osteoblast proliferation, that on the first 24 hours produce osteoid at the bone surfaces. This period also allows a periosteal and endosteal revascularization [7, 10, 20].
\nIn rabbits, the importance of the latency period was demonstrated in a tibial DO. A 7-day latency period allowed a greater regeneration at the distraction focus and increased vasculature, in opposition to a DO without latency period characterized by a fibrous tissue formation [21]. Other studies showed that the existence of a latency period allows the formation of cartilaginous tissue which leads to regeneration based on an endochondral ossification, a mechanism that is slower that its intramembranous counterpart [8].
\nRegarding the duration of this period, there is no consensus and several studies report variable periods from 0 to 21 days [1, 7, 8, 10]. There are several factors that influence the appropriate latency period, such as: age, the osteotomy localization, the soft tissue trauma or the existence of a primary pathology. A longer latency period may allow a premature consolidation, being then necessary to produce another fracture in order to continue the lengthening. And a shorter latency period might predispose to a bone non-union [3]. In Veterinary Orthopedics, the recommended latency period is 2–3 days for immature animal or 5–7 days to mature animal [1], inferior to the usual 5–10 days reported in humans [3].
\nDuring the distraction period, the bone segments undergo a stable and constant tension force, becoming metabolically active. The formation of bone tissue occurs along the distractive stress line, in the lengthening focus at the extremities of both bone segments. During this regenerative process, the bone tissue formation can reach 200–400 μm/day, which is 4–8 times superior to the physiological bone growth that occurs in the physis of a healthy growing dog [22].
\nWith the distraction onset, tensile forces develop at the fracture focus, while at the same time collagen is deposited by proliferating fibroblast and organized into linear fibrils. This tissue becomes radiographically visible after 7–14 days of distraction, and with the continuous process, a radiolucency zone is formed at the center of the fracture focus, the fibrous interzone (FIZ). This zone divides the regenerated bone in equal parts, and it is rich in chondrocytes, fibroblast, and ovoid cell morphologically intermediate between a fibroblast and osteoblast. The FIZ remains avascular during most part of the distraction, after its completion, it is rapidly vascularized and mineralized during the consolidation period [3]. When the FIZ cells differentiate in osteoblasts, they begin to deposit bone matrix forming the micro-column formation zones (MCFZ). These micro-columns are similar to stalactites and stalagmites and are identified as cones of 150–200 μm. This mineralization proceeds longitudinally along the collagen fibers, parallel to the distraction forces. Between the FIZ and MCFZ, a connective tissue is formed, and this contains highly proliferative cells identical to those that arise in a primary ossification center [3].The fibroblast and osteoblast are arranged along the longitudinal collagen fibers at the distraction site and the later deposit osteoid directly into this fibrils [2] (Figure 1).
\nRepresentative radiographic images of a distraction osteogenesis procedure performed in a 7-month-old female Greyhound dog due to a premature distal ulnar physis closure with proximal consequences in elbow joint. (A) Lateral view of the lower right thoracic limb. (B) Cranial view of the limb after the application of the distractor in the ulna. (C) Lateral view upon 11 days of distraction. (D) Lateral view at the end of the consolidation period and after the removal of the distractor. (E) After ulnar bone consolidation and lengthening, a realignment of the radius with an osteosynthesis plate was performed to fully rehabilitate the limb.
Although controversial, most histological studies regarding Ilizarov’s method confirm that bone formation during a DO is primarily based in intramembranous ossification [8, 23]. In humans and in animal models of osteodistraction on both long bones and mandible, performed in dogs, rabbits, and sheep, intramembranous ossification prevails over its endochondral counterpart [9, 22, 24, 25], mainly on the ending stage [26]; however, three distinct ossification methods have already been identified. Endochondral ossification can be identified in all DO periods [9, 24, 27] and it is usually identified at the FIZ junctions and at new mineralized membranes originated from the corticotomy site [26, 28]. The ossification ratio between an intramembranous and endochondral ossification is 5–1, respectively [18, 26].
\nA third ossification phenomenon was histologically identified and termed transchondroid ossification, characterized by a bone formed from cells similar to chondrocytes and with a transition from fibrous tissue to chondroid bone tissue, a tissue intermediate between bone and cartilage, which undergoes a gradual transition to bone tissue without a blood capillary invasion [23, 28]. Other authors have shown that cells similar to hypertrophied chondrocyte go through an osteogenic differentiation with deposition of type 1 and type 2 collagen fibers [29]. The cartilage that forms during a DO is usually located near the periosteum, but not within the limits of the cortex on the distraction focus [3] (Figure 2).
\nRepresentative histologic images of a mandibular bone after distraction osteogenesis. (A) Distraction area successfully filled with new regenerated bone. (B) Bone defect occupied by connective tissue, a failure probably due to mobility of one of the fragments. Magnification ×40, Levai Laczko staining. Courtesy of Prof. Fernando Muñoz, Department of Clinical Veterinarian Sciences, University of Santiago de Compostela.
During the distraction period occurs an enormous angiogenic response. At the lengthening site, a peak of blood circulation nine times superior to that of normal bone tissue may occur. This hypervolemia persists for a significant amount of time, as it was shown that 17 weeks after the procedure the local volemia remains twice the normal value [23, 30].
\nIt is believed that bone regeneration occurs in response to a slow and stable mechanical tensile force, applied to the bone callus and under which the living tissues become metabolically active, this phenomenon is called mechano-transduction [7, 10]. Ilizarov’s experiments demonstrated that mitochondria of the skeletal muscular tissue hypertrophied and become more active, resulting in increased cellular volume and functional activity of the cell’s nucleus [10].
\nDuring the distraction period, it is advised to do a radiographic assessment of the patient every 7–10 days, in order to evaluate the regenerated bone tissue, and if necessary, readjust the distraction rate (DR) [1]. Once the idealized bone length is achieved, the distraction ends. Marking the beginning of the consolidation period where the bone and osteoid are mineralized and remodeled [3].
\nThe distraction rate (DR), defined as the tension gradually applied to the bone, is measured in millimeters per day, the normal being 1 mm/day. However, this may vary according with the bone or the site of the bone we want to lengthen [3].
\nThe total amount of distraction performed daily, the DR, is based on the same factors that should be considered for the ideal latency period [7, 10]. The typical DR in Veterinary Medicine should range from 0.75 to 2 mm/day, which is similar to what happens in Human Orthopedics [31, 32, 33]. Variables like age, osteotomy technique, and localization will influence the choice of a correct DR. We can correlate excessive DRs with muscular contractures and articular subluxations [34, 35]. The choice of an appropriate DR is essential in the prevention of premature consolidation of the regenerated tissue and soft tissue damage, as well as in the maintenance of articular congruity and biomechanical stability [1].
\nIlizarov proposed an ideal DR of 1 mm/day for bone regeneration, and he based himself on his study in 120 dogs, using DR of 0.5, 1, and 2 mm/day. When using 0.5 mm/day, he noticed an increase in premature closures. And while using a DR of 2 mm/day Ilizarov reported increased tissue damage due to exceeding the tissues’ revascularization capacity [14]. Recent studies suggest that DR between 0.5 and 2 mm/day are appropriate, and that the ideal DR must be based on individual characteristics such as age, osteotomy site, and need for angular correction [12, 35].
\nThe distraction rhythm (DRy), the number of lengthening times made per day, influences the quality and quantity of the regenerated bone tissue and is important in the preservation of the soft tissue integrity during the procedure [7, 10, 34]. Ilizarov observed, using a canine model, that by using an automatic distractor capable of performing a DRy of 60 times per day, would produce a significantly better quality of bone when compared with DRy of 1–4 times per day. A DR of 1 mm a day with a DRy of 4 times a day was determined as ideal [7, 10]. In a goat model of tibia lengthening, DRy of 1, 4, and 720 times per day would not affect the strength, rigidity, and histomorphometric characteristic of the regenerated bone and would not affect the somatosensory potential of the peripheral nerves [34, 36]. Another study using the same animal model concluded that increasing the DRy would result in less muscular degeneration [39]. In Veterinary Medicine, it is recommended DRy of 2–4 times per day [9, 18, 31, 33].
\nWhen finished the distraction period, the external fixator is maintained in order to confer stability to the regenerated tissue and allow its mineralization and consolidation [3]. In this period, the FIZ starts to mineralize and the central region becomes radiographically sclerotic. During the following weeks, the columns of regenerated tissue become homogeneous as the primary bone tissue is replaced by Haversian bone. In small animals, it will take around 8–12 weeks to form a new cortex and medullary cavity [7, 10, 36, 37].
\nOver time, the longitudinally oriented trabeculae are transformed into transverse plaques, incorporating the collagen template [7, 8, 10, 36]. The bone micro-columns are covered with osteoblasts that actively produce osteoid. Each column is accompanied by a large vascular channel that preserves the ideal distance in order to allow a diffusion gradient between cells. The activity of bone cells during a DO is similar to what occurs during a fracture healing [8, 28, 38]. However, what happens at a tissue level, the continuous recruitment and activation of cells capable of producing and reabsorbing bone, significantly exceeds a fracture healing process [39]. Simultaneously during the extensive bone production, a remodeling occurs, producing
The consolidation period after a DO was investigated in a 20-year retrospective study, based on 115 animals submitted to a corticotomy and application of a circular external fixator [2]. The authors concluded that the radius requires less time to consolidate than the tibia and presented the hypothesis that this occurs due to during the march, the radius bears weight in a parallel axis and the tibia carries the weight through an oblique axis [40]. Another hypothesis is based on the fact that dogs bear around 60% of their weight on the thoracic limbs, therefore the weight carried by a radius is superior to what is supported by a tibia [41, 42, 43]. In experimental rabbit model, the effects of an angular osteotomy after a DO were studied, revealing that a 30° axis deviation at the distraction focus resulted in a 50% reduction of the regenerated bone [44]. In humans, the femur is referred to consolidate faster than the tibia [45]. Ilizarov’s original technique described that the consolidation period before fixator removal should be 1 month/cm of new regenerated bone [46].
\nThe bone formation can be controlled through tomography, scintigraphy, ultrasound, and bone densitometry; however, radiographs continue to be the more practical method to determine the consolidation efficiency and when the bone is ready to remove the external fixation system [1, 38].
\nNowadays, numerous studies are focused on the molecular mechanism behind a DO, such as, the genetic expression of the bone morphogenic proteins (BMPs 2 and 4) which is induced by tension and mechanic stress [47, 48]. Other molecular signs, such as the insulin-like growth factor type 1 (IGF-1), transforming growth factor beta (TGFb) and fibroblastic growth factor 1 (FGF-1), associated with osteoblast proliferation and its differentiation from mesenchymal cells were identified at the distraction site [49, 50]. Another study identified that it is possible to accelerate the ossification process during a DO by administrating a recombinant homologous growth hormone [51].
\nTissue engineering approaches have already been applied to promote bone regeneration at DO. The use of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) from autologous origin, isolated from the bone marrow or adipose tissue, or from human xenogeneic origin has been described in different animal models of DO like rats, rabbits, pigs, dogs, and sheep with promising outcomes; nonetheless many of the mechanism behind the process remain to be investigated, for example, the recruitment and activation of MSCs upon the initial stimulation by surgical trauma. Growth and differentiation factors, hormonal proteins, and pharmacological agents can be added in combination to the distraction site. The number of cells transplanted is measured in cell over DR (number of cells in millions divided by total distractions in millimeters) ranged from 0.03 to 5.00 M/mm. The cells can be injected after the distraction period, loaded into scaffolds and then transplanted to the distraction focus during the osteotomy or during the latency period [52]. Genetically modified MSCs have also been evaluated using growth and differentiation factors including bone morphogenetic protein-7 (BMP-7) [53, 54], BMP-2 [55, 56], basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) [57], transforming growth factor-β (TGFβ), and insulin-like growth factor-1 [58], as well as genes encoding transcription factors, such as osterix (Osx) [59, 60] and runt-related transcription factor 2 (Run×2) [61] with distinct effects reported in the improvement of bone regeneration [52].
\nDjasim and collaborators created guidelines for craniofacial DO. They collected data from dog, rat, sheep, goat, rabbit, pig, and rhesus monkey models based on data from previous craniofacial DO studies. With the premise that intramembranous bones of the skull have a different vascular supply compared to long bones, therefore DO parameters suitable for orthopedic DO might be suboptimal for craniofacial DO. They concluded that a latency period may not be necessary in some animals such as sheep and pigs, and in others it produces far better-quality bone tissue as seen in rats and rabbits. They reaffirmed that the ideal distraction rate should be 1 mm/day, which should be halved when using rats and determined an ideal consolidation period of 6–8 weeks [62]. Another review in mandibular DO showed that the latency period ranged from 2 to 7 days. The distraction rate ranged from 0.4 to 2.4 mm/day. The total distraction gap obtained ranged from 3.2 to 20 mm, and the consolidation period ranged from 4 days to 10 weeks [52].
\nDO can also provide an option for limb sparing surgery upon resection of primary bone tumors, such as osteosarcomas. The bone transport osteogenesis (BTO), an adaption of the DO technique, is used to preserve limb function after resection of large segmental bone defects. Briefly, after the tumor excision, an osteotomy is performed on the proximal bone segment, creating a distraction focus and resulting on a small portion of healthy bone which will act as the transport segment. Then using an external ring fixator, this segment is slowly distracted in the defect direction, creating regenerated tissue resulting in bone union and a bridged effect. The distraction should continue until 3 days after the segments touch in order to compress the distal healthy bone, turning it metabolically active, this process is called docking. Successful docking is achieved when the transport segment heals with the adjacent bone. It is possible to predict the timing of docking by measuring the distance between the two bones on radiographs and calculating the number of days required to achieve contact based upon the DR. The surgeon should consider grafting when the transport segment is approximately less than 0.5 cm from contact with the docking site. When owners strongly wish to avoid further surgery, autologous bone marrow graft, obtained from the patient, could be mixed with canine demineralized bone matrix (DBM) into the docking site, acting as a vehicle of mesenchymal stem cells and osteoinductive signals [63, 64].
\nBTO surged as an alternative to cadaveric allograft bone transports, which was seen as the main limb salvage procedure in alternative to amputation; however, complications such as non-union, graft fracture, and infection are referred in the literature. One study reported that nearly one half of the patients develop infection may be associated with the lack of intrinsic blood supply surrounding the allograft and tumor resection area [65]. This high complication rate could lead to soft tissue lost, chronic pain, non-weight-bearing lameness, multiple surgeries, and even amputation [66, 67, 68].
\nThe extent of the needed tissue resection can be planned based on detailed radiographs, scintigraphy, or ideally, a preoperative magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) which will be essential to help build the fixator frame, and assess the extent of the tumor involvement within the bone marrow, as it commonly exceeds the extent detected on radiographs. The surgeon should plan to excise at least 2 cm of bone proximal to the most proximal extent of tumor identified [63]. The patients with better outcome in DO upon oncologic surgery are those whose tumors are located in the distal radius or ulna, due to bigger pancarpal arthrodesis success [64]. The best candidates for limb salvage are those whose tumors involve less than 50% of the bone and have minimal soft tissue involvement. In theory, the extension of tumor treatable with this technique is limited to by the ability to achieve appropriate margins. There must be at least enough bone remaining in the proximal radius to create a transport segment and to place three wires above the transport segment. Dogs with infected allografts after prior limb salvage surgery are suitable candidates for bone transport, unless they have had recent radiation therapy. Patients with pathologic fracture, multicentric neoplasia, metastasis or severe intercurrent health conditions should not be considered as favorable candidates [63].
\nAfter the tumor resection, BTO is similar to a conventional DO, a latency period of 3 days is sufficient unless the dog is receiving chemotherapy treatment. In those cases, a longer latency period of up to 7 days should be applied. Afterwards, the distraction should consist on a DR of 1 mm/day and DRy of 2–4 times a day. Immediately after a chemotherapy session, distraction should be ceased for 3 days before being restarted. This waiting period can be eliminated if the patient shows signs of premature consolidation. Radiographic reassessment should be made every 10–14 days during bone transport and every 3–4 weeks after docking. Some animals may require higher DR to prevent premature consolidation, while other may require occasional “resting” period of 2–5 days. If the regenerated bone begins to be progressively thinning, ductile, and with “hourglass” shape in radiographs, it is recommended to slow or stop distraction for a few days. Conversely, if the wires in the transport segment begin to bend in the direction of distraction, the DR should increase for 2–3 days (1.5–2 mm/day) to help preventing premature consolidation. The radiographs and fixator should also be regularly evaluated to adjust DR and DRY, document broken wires, evidence of tumor recurrence, progression of mineralization of regenerate bone, and time of docking [63].
\nFixators should be removed when peripheral bridging of the central radiolucent zone within the regenerate tissue is evident on radiographs, the columns of new bone are mineralized, and when the docking site union has been achieved. It can be difficult to evaluate the stability of the docking site before removing the fixator frame, due to the concentration of metal hardware. If doubt exists regarding effective union, the fixator removal can be delayed provided the patient is not having substantial soft-tissue problems. Osteosarcoma patients should be restaged every 2–3 months to evaluate for metastasis or local tumor recurrence [63].
\nNegative effects of systemic chemotherapy and radiotherapy are reported in distraction osteogenesis [69, 70, 71]. Chemotherapy likely impedes the osteoblasts to cope with the increased functional demand and compromises bone callus formation during a DO. High dose chemotherapy reduces colony forming unit fibroblast by 50% in the bone marrow, by 10% on cortical bone, and 20% in trabecular bone [72]. However, two studies compared patients who underwent DO with and without chemotherapy and it did not demonstrate any difference in the bone healing process between patient groups [73, 74]. The hypothesis proposed is that DO’s effect on osteoblast may counteract the inhibitory effects of chemotherapy [75].
\nIn humans, some bone sarcomas, most commonly Ewing sarcoma, adjuvant radiotherapy is a treatment option, being reported adverse effects of radiation therapy on up to 74% of patients [76, 77, 78], namely wound healing problems, infection, muscle and joint contracture, ankylosis, osteitis, non-union, pathological fractures, tendon adhesion, and radiation induced sarcoma [76, 77, 78, 79]. In a rabbit tibia model, it was demonstrated that radiation exposure decreases the quantity and quality of regenerate and angiogenesis during a DO [80]. Also, in a rabbit mandible model, it was found that osteogenesis is delayed after a 60-Gy dose of radiation, even though viable osteoblast and osteocytes may still be present [81]. It is therefore likely that distraction osteogenesis is negatively affected by radiation [75].
\nThe complication associated with a DO include muscular contractures, subluxations, vascular and nerve lesions, premature or delayed consolidation, and even bone non-union. The placement of intramedullary pins near a nerve or large caliber blood vessel can lead to damage on those structures during the lengthening [1].
\nNeuromuscular lesions are rarely associated with lengthening phases unless they exceed 30% of the limb size [33, 82, 83]. Subluxations are associated with muscular contractures and can occur in substantially excessive lengthening. Premature consolidations can be prevented with an adequate DR and DRy. Delayed consolidations are multifactorial but are more commonly reported cases where an excessive DR was applied. Bone non-union is on its own associated to an infectious process. A strict radiographic protocol allows a control, assessment, and readjustment in order to avoid these complications [1].
\nOne of the limitations of this technique is the long period necessary for the newly formed bone to mature, mineralize, and consolidate. The external fixators must be kept until the end of the consolidation period in order to confer the stability necessary to obtain better quality bone [3].
\nDuring a femoral lengthening, the muscles inserted therein are responsible for the majority of the complication that may occur. The quadriceps, glutes, and abductors can influence the lengthening progression, and the tension exercised on the soft tissues causes pain, reduces the articular mobility, and deforms the regenerated bone column. To achieve a successful lengthening, it is imperative that one understands this concept and adjust the surgical technique and patient management to minimize its impact [5].
\nStogov and collaborators showed, in dogs, that a high frequency (120 DRy) of 3 mm/day does not only produce viable bone, but also produce compensatory alterations to the muscle tissue that would prevent catabolic alterations on the anterior tibial muscle during a tibia elongation. These authors referred that a high frequency lengthening amount that does not exceed 15% of the initial tibial length, does not result in considerable damage to the anterior tibial muscle. Using a DR of 3 mm/day while increasing the DRy (180 automated distractions per day) can produce a consistent regenerated bone [84].
\nAs mentioned before, the soft tissues are a limitation factor for the procedure [34, 82, 85]. Lengthening exceeding 20% the original bone measure is reported to damage peripheral nerves, muscular, and tendon structures. Thus, physical rehabilitation during the procedures could decrease the severity of the muscular contractures and prevents articular diseases. The double-level or bi-level lengthening, which consist on creating two fracture focus and therefore two focus of bone distraction can reduce by half the distraction period duration, dispersing the distraction forces applied at the soft tissues and reducing the degenerative effects [1]. The correction of biapical radial deformities in dogs has been described with success using bi-level hinged external fixators as posterior distraction [86].
\nTaking into consideration that the DO can also occur along a transverse axis, perpendicular to the longitudinal bone axis, it is also possible to perform a widening of bone tissue. Some authors have already successfully preformed bone transports, in order to correct a defect on a long bone they perform a DO on the contralateral bone and use the regenerated tissue as graft to the affected limb. It has been performed in the same bone tibia-tibia but also in ipsilateral ulnar and radial bone transports, tibial-humeral and fibular-tibial, and this procedure is also performed in human medicine [87].
\nIt is worth referring a recent study in humans, which applied a multidirectional DO device, a new technique with the goal of correcting cranial deformities in children [88].
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest with any financial organization regarding the material discussed in the chapter.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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CO2 capture, utilisation and storage (CCUS) is considered a means to deliver low carbon energy, decarbonising industries, power plants and facilitates the net removal of CO2 from the atmosphere. The stages involved include CO2 capture, transport of the captured CO2, utilisation and secure storage of the captured CO2. This chapter reports the use of eggshell and seashells biomaterials as an adsorbent to separate CO2 from other gases generated by power plants and industrial processes. The capture of carbon dioxide by adsorption is based on the ability of a material to preferentially adsorb or carbonate CO2 over other gases. In light of this, calcined eggshell and seashells biomaterial rich in calcium carbonate from which calcium oxide (94%) can be obtained have demonstrated a strong affinity for CO2. These biomaterials are abundant and low-cost alternative to zeolite, activated carbon and molecular sieve carbon. The mechanism of CO2 capture by eggshell and seashells derived CaO adsorbent comprises of a series of carbonation-calcination reactions (CCR): calcium oxide (CaO) reacts with CO2 resulting in calcium carbonate (CaCO3), which releases pure CO2 stream upon calcinations for sequestration or utilisation, and as a consequence, the biomaterial is regenerated. Findings reveal that these biomaterials can hold up to eight times its own weight of CO2 from flue gas stream. It was also found that the combination of 2 M acetic acid and water pretreatment improved the reactivity and capture capacity of the biomaterial for successive regeneration over four cycle’s usage. 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The rapid spread of COVID-19 has had far-reaching consequences for people’s daily lives in almost all parts of the world. Climate change and biodiversity depletion have now reached global boundaries; thus, human activity has surpassed Earth’s capacities. Earth capacities can be explained in terms of extreme climate change. This chapter is intended to investigate the link between the outbreak of Covid-19 and its effect on environmental and society. The discussion reveals that environmental pollution is minimized as a result of global lockdown. 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Then it introduces the new traffic analysis method especially for its traffic congestion analysis and its parameters. 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Heshmati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313921/images/system/313921.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hassan Massoud Heshmati is an endocrinologist with 46 years of experience in clinical research in academia (university-affiliated hospitals, Paris, France; Mayo Foundation, Rochester, MN, USA) and pharmaceutical companies (Sanofi, Malvern, PA, USA; Essentialis, Carlsbad, CA, USA; Gelesis, Boston, MA, USA). His research activity focuses on pituitary tumors, hyperthyroidism, thyroid cancers, osteoporosis, diabetes, and obesity. He has extensive knowledge in the development of anti-obesity products. Dr. Heshmati is the author of 299 abstracts, chapters, and articles related to endocrinology and metabolism. He is currently a consultant at Endocrinology Metabolism Consulting, LLC, Anthem, AZ, USA.",institutionString:"Endocrinology Metabolism Consulting, LLC",institution:null},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. in Chemistry in July 2000, and his Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. In 2009 he joined the Dr. Ron Clarke research group at the School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the Interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+, K+-ATPase, and Dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+, K+-ATPase by ATP. He then worked as Assistant Professor at the Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum, and in 2014 was promoted to Associate Professor ranking. In 2011 he joined the staff of the Chemistry Department at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently active as an Assistant Professor. His research interests include:\r\n(1) P-type ATPase Enzyme Kinetics and Mechanisms; (2) Kinetics and Mechanism of Redox Reactions; (3) Autocatalytic reactions; (4) Computational enzyme kinetics; (5) Allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP; (6) Exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in the cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"198499",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Glossman-Mitnik",slug:"daniel-glossman-mitnik",fullName:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/198499/images/system/198499.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Daniel Glossman-Mitnik is currently a Titular Researcher at the Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados (CIMAV), Chihuahua, Mexico, as well as a National Researcher of Level III at the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología, México. His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 270 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 4 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"428313",title:"Dr.",name:"Sambangi",middleName:null,surname:"Pratyusha",slug:"sambangi-pratyusha",fullName:"Sambangi Pratyusha",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"CGIAR",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"15",type:"subseries",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11411,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983"},editorialBoard:[{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",slug:"azhar-rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",slug:"sergey-sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{id:"82196",title:"Multi-Features Assisted Age Invariant Face Recognition and Retrieval Using CNN with Scale Invariant Heat Kernel Signature",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104944",signatures:"Kamarajugadda Kishore Kumar and Movva Pavani",slug:"multi-features-assisted-age-invariant-face-recognition-and-retrieval-using-cnn-with-scale-invariant-",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"82063",title:"Evaluating Similarities and Differences between Machine Learning and Traditional Statistical Modeling in Healthcare Analytics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105116",signatures:"Michele Bennett, Ewa J. 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