\r\n\tThe Japanese were revolutionizing quality improvement. As a result, Japan adopted a "total quality" approach to its strategies. In the United States, Total Quality Management (TQM) encompasses not only statistics but also approaches that encompass the entire organization. There were several subsequent quality-management initiatives. \r\n\tIn 1986, Motorola developed Six Sigma to improve its business processes by minimizing defects. A philosophy that views all work as a process, which can be identified, measured, analyzed, improved, and controlled. Generally, "Six Sigma quality" is an indicator that a process is well controlled.
\r\n
\r\n\tLean manufacturing (1988), also known as just-in-time manufacturing, derives from Toyota's 1930 operating model "The Toyota Way." Lean describes a set of management practices that reduce waste and increase productivity. \r\n\tThe ISO 9000 series of quality-control standards appeared in 1987. ISO 9001 integrates a process-oriented approach into enterprise management based on the plan-do-check-act method. The quality movement has matured as we enter the 21st century. ISO 9000 was revised in 2000 to emphasize customer satisfaction. The fifth edition of ISO 9001, published in 2015, emphasizes risk-based thinking to improve the application of the process approach. In addition to the manufacturing sector, quality has moved into service, healthcare, education, and government. For example, through standards such as ISO/IEC 17025 for testing and calibration laboratories and ISO 15189 for medical laboratories. \r\n\tMore recently, it has been recognized that the Fourth Industrial Revolution, Industry 4.0, best defines the present industry model. As its part, "Quality 4.0" refers to the future of quality and organizational excellence.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe book will aim to introduce a comprehensive overview of the up-to-date models used in quality management systems by experts in the field.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-729-7",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-728-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-730-3",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"7c2744454ba90e8d6cf507e167cc3779",bookSignature:"Dr. Paulo Pereira and Dr. Sandra Xavier",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11527.jpg",keywords:"Leadership, Customer Focus, Improvement, Process Approach, Planning, CAPA, Audit, Management Review, Evaluation, Lean Sigma, DMAIC, DMADV",numberOfDownloads:8,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 24th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 8th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 7th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 26th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 25th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Pereira received his Ph.D. from the Catholic University of Portugal. He has over 20 years of experience as a consultant and auditor of quality management systems, and over 16 years of experience as a quality manager. He has been recruited as a quality and laboratory expert for seminars and professional laboratory meetings throughout Europe, Africa, and South America. Currently, he is the head of the R&D Department at the Portuguese Institute of Blood and Transplantation; a CLSI and EURACHEM fellow.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Xavier received her Ph.D. from the University of Lisbon, Portugal. She has extensive experience in teaching and managing quality systems, and is a member of several Scientific Commissions and editorial boards.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"178637",title:"Dr.",name:"Paulo",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"paulo-pereira",fullName:"Paulo Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178637/images/system/178637.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Pereira received his Ph.D. in Biotechnology from the Catholic University of Portugal. He has been recruited as a quality and laboratory expert for seminars and professional laboratory meetings throughout Europe, Africa, and South America. He has more than twenty-five years of experience working in medical laboratories, having held key scientific leadership roles: 15+ years as a senior researcher; 10+ years as a consultant for a metrology laboratory based on ISO/IEC 17025 specifications and related standards; 20+ years as a consultant and auditor of quality management systems based on ISO 9001, ISO/IEC 17025, and ISO 15189 standards; 16+ years as the quality manager in the Portuguese Institute of Blood and Transplantation, including more than 6 years in national coordination; and 6+ years as a professor of Quality Assurance. Currently, he is the head of the R&D Department at the Portuguese Institute of Blood and Transplantation, Lisbon, Portugal. Dr. Pereira is the author of several peer-reviewed scientific articles and indexed books and chapters. He is an editor for several books. He serves as a member of several editorial boards. He is a member of the Clinical Laboratory and Standards Institute and Eurachem. Dr. Pereira is an expert on in vitro diagnostic medical devices at the European Commission / European Medicines Agency.",institutionString:"Portuguese Institute of Blood and Transplantation",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],coeditorOne:{id:"264942",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Xavier",slug:"sandra-xavier",fullName:"Sandra Xavier",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZ6mQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-25T09:32:37.jpg",biography:"Dr. Xavier received her Ph.D. in Nursing from the University of Lisbon, Portugal. 26+ years professional experience in nursing 15+ years of teaching in a university 4+ years of professional practice as the Head of Nursing 9+ years as a researcher in the different Nursing Research Units , Since 2018 as research in Nursing Research Unit of South and Island (NURSE'IN - UIESA), Portugal. Dr. Xavier is the author of several books’ chapter and scientific articles in indexed journals. She serves as a reviewer of scientific and technical articles in indexed journals. She is also a recognized speaker at various national and international meetings. She is a member of juries for the attribution of academic degrees. 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1. Introduction
Due to its relative low density and high strength, the 2xxx, 6xxx and 7xxx aluminum alloys series are largely used in transportation industry to produce structural frames and components. These alloys find application in artificial aging condition which allows obtaining high mechanical properties, i.e. yield strength of 7075-T651 aluminum alloy as high as 500 MPa. However, when welding processes are used to perform a junction, a large amount of the heat input is dissipated, by heat conduction, throughout the base material close to the welding bead. This thermal dissipation induces localized isothermal sections where the thermal gradient have an important and detrimental effect on the microstructure and therefore on the mechanical properties of the welded joint (soft zone formation). This microstructural change affects the performance in service of the welded joints, since mechanical properties reduce drastically with respect to base material.
This chapter provides information about mechanical behavior of welded joints of aluminum alloys in terms of properties, determined by tensile, indention and fatigue tests, as well as, the fatigue crack growth conditions in different zones of the welded joints.
1.1. Precipitation and mechanical properties of aluminum alloys
The precipitation hardening process requires that the second component in the aluminum alloy, is sufficiently soluble to allow extensive dissolution at an elevated temperature (solubilization treatment temperature) and that the solubility is considerably reduced at lower temperatures, such is the case of Al-Cu alloys (Figure 1) [1].
According to Figure 1, to induce precipitation hardening, the alloy is heated at a temperature higher than the solvus temperature to produce a homogeneous solid solution α, allowing dissolution of the second phase θ and eliminates the segregation of the alloy. Once, the solubilization temperature is reached, the alloy is cooling at high rate in order to limit the diffusion process of the atoms toward potential sites of nucleation. Finally, the supersaturated solid solution αss is heated at a temperature below the solvus temperature. At this temperature, the atoms have the ability to diffuse at short distances. Because the αss phase is not stable, the atoms of Cu diffuse at several sites of nucleation and a control precipitation could be formed. Precipitation hardening in metals is performed to produce a particulate dispersion of second phases to generate obstacles for the dislocation movement. The degree of hardening depends of the metallic system, the volume fraction and size of the particles and the interaction of the particles with dislocations. The interactions of the precipitated particles with dislocations are very important in terms of the magnitude of hardening. Some mechanisms have been established, involving particle bypassing by Orowan looping, bypass slip, or particle shearing. Figure 2, shows the forces acting on a mobile dislocation in a stressed metal containing a dispersion of second phase particles.
Figure 1.
Aluminum-cooper phase diagram rich in aluminum showing the solubilization and precipitation process [1].
Figure 2.
Balance of forces acting during particle resistance to dislocation movement [1].
Considering the equilibrium forces between the line tension T of the dislocation and the resistance force of the second phase particle F, it is obtained:
F=2TsinθE1
As F increases, so the bowing of the dislocations increases, i.e. θ increases. The magnitude of F is important in controlling the sequence of events. The dislocation line tension force is maximal when θ=90 º. If the particle is hard, such that F can be greater than 2T, then dislocations will bypass the particle either by Orowan looping or cross-slip and the particle will remain unchanged, i.e. non deformed (Figure 3).
Figure 3.
Dislocation meets hard undeformable second phase particles: dislocation release at higher stresses may occur by Orowan looping or by cross-slip [1].
The actual strength of the particle under this circumstance becomes irrelevant, as the bypassing operation becomes dependent only upon the interparticle spacing. If, however, the strength of the particle is such that the maximum resistance force is attained before sin θ=1, then particles will be sheared and the dislocation will pass through the particle (Figure 4).
Figure 4.
Dislocation motion may continue through second phase particles (particle cutting).
Therefore, it follows that, for a given interparticle spacing (given volume fraction and particle size), hard particles will give the maximum precipitation hardening, and this condition defines the maximum degree of hardening attainable. Soft particles give a lesser degree of hardening. Consideration of the relationship between the applied stress and the dislocation bowing, following Orowan [2], leads to the Orowan equation:
Δτy=GbLE2
where Δτy is the increase in yield stress due to the particles, G the shear modulus of the matrix, b the Burgers vector of the dislocation, and L the particle spacing. The L in the Orowan equation is usually considered to be the distance between particles arranged on a square grid in the slip plane.
Ashby [3] further developed his equation to take into account the interparticle spacing, and the effects of statistically distributed particles. The Ashby-Orowan relationship is given as:
Δτy=0.84(1.2Gb2πL)ln(x2b)E3
Application of the Taylor factor for polycrystalline materials, expressing the microstructural parameters in terms of the volume fraction and real diameter and converting shear stress to tensile stress, yields [4]:
Δσy=(0.538Gbf1/2X)ln(X2b)E4
where Δσy is the increase in yield strength (MPa), G is the shear modulus (MPa), b is the Burgers vector (mm), f is the volume fraction of particles, and X is the real (spatial) diameter of the particles (mm). Table I presents the hardening effect in terms of yield strength for some aluminum alloys in annealed (O) and artificial age hardened conditions (T6).
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tYield strength (MPa)\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tAlloy\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tAnnealed condition (O)\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tArtificial age hardened condition (T6)\n\t\t\t
The 2xxx, 6xxx and 7xxx aluminum alloys are known to have a strong tendency to overage during welding, especially in fully aged condition (T6). A schematic representation of the microstructural changes in welding of aluminum alloys is shown in Figure 5 [6]. During welding the adjacent metal to the fusion zone (welding bead) is heated and the heat affected zone (HAZ) contents two principal zones. The zone of lower temperature near to the base metal is exposed to a range of temperatures where the aging phenomena and overaging may occur. The zone of higher temperature is treated by solubilization assuming high cooling rate, the effects are less severe, because the microstructure of the material will tend to age in natural manner. However, and isothermal zone appears at within the HAZ for which the obtained temperature is located between two well defined temperatures, i.e. the artificial aging temperature of the alloy and the solvus temperature. As a result a microstructural transformation takes places due to the thermodynamic instability of the precipitates. For instance, in the case of the 6061-T6 alloy, the over-aging in the HAZ is produced by the transformation of the β’’ (needle shape) precipitates into β’ (rod shape) precipitates according to the following precipitation sequence [7]:
Schematic representation of the microstructural changes in heat treatable aluminum alloys during a fusion welding process, a) cooling thermal cycle from peak temperature, and b) microstructure of the welded joint at ambient temperature [8].
Figure 6, shows the weld thermal cycles for gas metal arc welding (GMAW) process in a 6061-T6 (Al-Si-Mg) alloy at different preheat conditions and their correlation between the C precipitation curve. In this sense, Myhr et al. [9] studied the microstructural evolution during the cooling weld thermal cycle in Al-Si-Mg alloys (Figure 7). They determined that when the peak temperature Tp approaches 315 °C during a period of time of 10 s, the microstructure consists of a mixture of coarse rod-shape β’ and fine needle-shape β’’ precipitates as shown in Figure 7b and c. The transformation from β’’ to β’ precipitates occurs to an increasing extent with increasing peak temperatures. At Tp of 390 °C the β’ is the dominant microstructural constituent, as indicated in Figure 7d.
Figure 6.
Correlation between weld thermal cycles in gas metal arc welds with three different preheating conditions, and the C precipitation curve for a 6061-T6 aluminum alloy [8].
Figure 7.
TEM bright field images of microstructures observed in the <100> Al zone axis orientation after artificial aging and Gleeble simulation (Series 1), (a) needle-shaped β’’ precipitates which form after artificial aging, (b) mixture of coarse rod-shaped β´particles and fine needle-shaped β´´ precipitates which form after subsequent thermal cycling to Tp=315 °C (10 s holding time), (c) close up of the same precipitates shown in (b) above, and (d) coarse rod-shaped β’ particles which form after thermal cycling to Tp=390 °C (10 s holding time) [9].
In addition to the microstructural transformation, after welding porosity and liquation cracking could also exist, which affect directly the mechanical behavior of the welded joints.
Porosity in welds of aluminum alloys is very complicated to control, because of the high hydrogen diffusion in liquid aluminum (Figure 8), the environmental interaction and the high rate of solidification.
Figure 8.
Hydrogen solubility in aluminum [10].
When a fusion welding process in aluminum is performed, the hydrogen diffusion in melted metal could be as high as 1.00 cm3/g, this fact produces the formation of gas bubbles. If we consider the bubble formation in liquid metal as schematically represented in Figure 9, the bubble begins to ascend when the surface tension is overcome by the buoyant force, which tends to push the bubble to the free surface.
Figure 9.
Gas bubble growth due to the diffusion in liquid phase.
The critical radius rc for the separation of the bubble from the solid-liquid interface can be determined by means of the following expression [11]:
rc=7.5×10−4κ[2σ*g(ρl−ρg)]1/2E5
where κ is the detaching angle of the bubble, σ* the interfacial energy between liquid and gas (~ 1 Jm-2 for the majority of the gas-metal systems), g the constant gravity force and ρl-ρg the difference between liquid and gas densities. Considering that densities of liquid aluminum and hydrogen at melting point of aluminum are approximately 2380 kgm-3 and 0.0256 kgm-3, respectively, and κ=100°, the rc is roughly 700 μm. It is to say that gas bubbles formed during welding process have to be greater than 700 μm to overcome the surface tension of the solid-liquid interface. Additionally, a low solidification rate is needed to allow the gas bubble coalescence and reach this critical value. However, in a real situation the cooling thermal cycle of the fusion zone in welding, is very fast, as demonstrated in [8] (Figure 10), and porosity formation is present as shown in Figure 11.
Figure 10.
Profile of the temperature measured in the weld pool on a 6061-T6 aluminum alloy GMAW weld [8].
Figure 11.
Weld pool porosity on a 6061-T6 aluminum alloy welded by GMAW.
Liquation in welds of aluminum alloys can occur in the partially melted zone (PMZ). The PMZ is the region outside the fusion zone where grain boundary liquation occurs during welding. Figure 12 shows a portion of the PMZ in GMAW of 6061-T6 aluminum made with high silicon content filler metal (ER4043).
Figure 12.
Microstructure of a 6061-T6 aluminum, welded by GMAW with ER4043 filler metal, showing the PMZ, and grain boundary liquation.
The liquation phenomenon occurs along grain boundary, although it can be presented in the grain interior. When liquation is presented, cracking can occur along grain boundary because of the tensile strains generated during welding. The weld metal composition is determined by base metal and filler metal compositions, as well as, the dilution ratio. The dilution ration is related with the amount of filler metal diluted with the base metal to form the weld metal. Metzger [12] observed liquation cracking in full penetration, gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) on a 6061 alloy made with Al-Mg filler metal at high dilution ratios, but not in similar welds made with Al-Si filler metals at any dilution ratio. Huang et al. [13] have conducted studies on liquation cracking in the PMZ of full penetration welds of a 6061 alloy. They found that liquation cracking occurred in GMAW welds when an ER5356 (Al-Mg) filler metal is employed but not with an ER4043 (Al-Si).
2. Mechanical behavior of aluminum alloys welds
2.1. Indentation
The hardness of a material represents the plastic deformation resistance by indentation. The hardness number H, is given by the ratio between the applied load P, and a representative area A, of the residual indent:
H=PAE6
For usual indentation, the Vickers hardness number HV, using a pyramidal square based indenter is calculated considering the true contact area. The relation of HV is given by:
HV=1.8544Pd2E7
where, sometimes, HV is expressed in MPa if P is given in N and d, the indent diagonal, in mm. But usually HV is given as a number and the conditions of load used.
Concerning instrumented indentation tests (IIT), which allow to plot a load-depth curve, the calculation of a hardness number can use the maximum distance (maximum indentation depth\n\t\t\t\t\thm, reached by the indenter during the indentation test) or the contact depth which is the indentation depth\n\t\t\t\t\thc, taking into account the deformation of the indent under load and calculated using the method of Olive and Pharr [14].
Classical indentation has been used to determine the hardness evolution in precipitation hardening aluminum alloys welds [8, 15, 16]. Ambriz et al. [8] determined Vickers microhardness profiles and mapping representation in welds of 6061-T6 aluminum alloy (Figure 13).
Figure 13.
a) Vickers hardness profile determined with 1 N of applied load throughout the welded joint and b) Vickers hardness map over the welded joint [8].
A significant difference for the hardness of weld metal, and HAZ with respect to base material was observed. This indicates that mechanical properties after welding will be different. It should be noted a soft zone formation in both sides of the welded joint, the hardness decrease in the soft zone is around 43% with respect to base material. This characteristic is the result of the thermodynamic instability of the β’’ needle-shaped precipitates (hard and fine precipitates) promoted by the high temperatures reached during the welding process. Indeed the temperatures reached during the welding process are favorable to transform the β’ phase, rod-shaped according to the transformation diagram for the 6061 alloy (Figure 6).
Considering the hardness heterogeneity of the welded joints, instrumented indentation tests (IIT) was performed in base metal, weld metal and HAZ (soft zone). Figure 14, shows the evolution of the applied load as a function of indentation depth for 6061-T6 and 7075-T651 aluminum alloys welds.
Figure 14.
Load-depth curves for a) 6061-T6 aluminum alloy (1 N of applied load) and b) 7075-T651 aluminum alloy (0.1 N of applied load).
Moreover, from the instrumented indentation tests it is possible to calculate the elastic modulus which is deduced by the inverse of the unloading curve (1/S) as a function of the inverse of the contact indentation depth (1/hc) (equation 6).
(dhdP)=Cf+π24.5⋅12(β⋅γ)⋅ER⋅1hcE8
where (dhdP) is the inverse of the contact stiffness, Cf the frame compliance of the indentation instrument, β geometrical factor introduce in the model of Oliver and Pharr [14] to take into account the indenter shape and γ the factor introduced by Hay et al. [17] in the model of Oliver and Pharr for taking into account the approximation in the Hertz’s contact analysis and ER the reduced modulus.
To calculate ER it is needed to determine a corrective factor due to Hay et al. [17]. This coefficient is only dependent on the Poisson’s ratio, then considering a constant value of νm=0.3 for any region of the welded joint (base material, weld metal and HAZ), it is obtained a value of 1.067 for γ. In this condition, the slope is only linked to the reduced modulus by 0.1653/ER. Considering 1140 GPa and 0.07 for the elastic modulus and the Poisson’s ratio for the indenter material, respectively, it is possible to determine the elastic modulus of the different zones of the welded joints (Table II), by means of the following equation:
ER=(1−νm2Em+1−νi2Ei)−1E9
where\n\t\t\t\t\tEm and νm are the elastic modulus and Poisson’s ratio of the material and Ei and νi the elastic modulus and Poisson’s ratio of the indenter, respectively.
Additionally, the yield strength σy and hardening exponent n can be obtained by indentation tests (Table II) as suggested by Ambriz et al. [18], by means of the following expression:
where P is the applied indentation load, P0 shift indentation load, E elastic modulus, h true indentation depth into material.
Instrumented indentation test allows to determine the properties given in Table II. Yield strength values determined by instrumented indentation are similar to those obtained by micro-traction test (Figure 16). It means that it is possible to characterize a local zone in a welded material by instrumented indentation where it is not possible by global test (tensile test).
Mechanical properties obtained by instrumented indentation test for a 6061-T6 aluminum alloy welds [18].
On the other hand, the elastic modulus obtained by instrumented indentation does not correspond with those reported in tension or compression tests for aluminum alloys (68-72 GPa) and it is not possible to establish a clear difference between weld metal and HAZ. In fact in a recent study, Chicot et al. [19] established that the elastic modulus obtained by instrumented indentation corresponds to a bulk modulus. This was explained by the fact that for the case of indentation, the elastic and plastic strain is triaxial, whereas in tensile test, the strain used to determine the elastic modulus is uniaxial.
2.2. Tensile properties
As possible to deduce from indentation test (Figure 13), the tensile mechanical properties of aluminum alloys welds hardened by precipitation, are not homogeneous along the welded joint. Tensile properties in welds obtained by several welding processes of this alloys have been studied. For instance, V. Malin [15] studied the relation between weld thermal cycles and the microstructural transformation with tensile properties of a 6061-T6 alloy welded by GMAW. In their research, tensile tests samples were taken from the welded joint as shown in Figure 15. It is to say, a global structure effect was considered during tensile test.
Figure 15.
(a) Effect of hardness on HAZ failure location in 6061-T6 tensile specimen [15], and b) tensile sample showing the failure zone on a 6061-T6 aluminum alloy.
The failure zone after tensile test was localized in the HAZ (soft zone) where the hardness of the welded joint is minimal, this result is in agreement with Ambriz et al. [20].
Considering the hardness profile evolution, the true stress-strain curves in weld metal and HAZ (soft zone) of a 6061-T6 alloy welds were determined by means of micro-traction test [18]. The individual behavior is presented in Figure 16, as well as, its respective comparison with base metal.
Figure 16.
True stress-strain curves for 6061-T6 alloy, weld metal and HAZ.
The HAZ presents a reduction of the tensile strength with respect to base metal and weld metal of around 41 and 19%, respectively. This aspect was related to the over-aging phenomenon and it is explained in terms of the microstructural transformation (Figure 5), and precipitation sequence. Although, weld metal shows higher tensile strength than HAZ, a lower ductility is observed for weld metal. This characteristic was attribute to the porosity formation during the solidification and the high silicon content of the filler metal (ER4043) which, when mixed with the melted base metal, leads to a microstructure of eutectic silicon, which is a brittle phase that adversely affects the tensile mechanical properties of the welded joint. A summary of tensile mechanical properties for 6061-T6 and 7075-T651 aluminum alloys welds are presented in Table III.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Material
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tE\n\t\t\t\t (MPa)a\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tσy\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t (MPa)
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tσu\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t (MPa)b\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tε\n\t\t\t\t (%)c\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tH\n\t\t\t\t (MPa)d\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tn\n\t\t\t\td\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
6061-T6
\n\t\t\t
68
\n\t\t\t
279
\n\t\t\t
310
\n\t\t\t
14.0
\n\t\t\t
408
\n\t\t\t
0.08
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
6061-T6 (weld metal, ER4043)
\n\t\t\t
68
\n\t\t\t
151
\n\t\t\t
226
\n\t\t\t
4.00
\n\t\t\t
464
\n\t\t\t
0.20
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
6061-T6 (HAZ, soft zone)
\n\t\t\t
68
\n\t\t\t
120
\n\t\t\t
183
\n\t\t\t
13.0
\n\t\t\t
300
\n\t\t\t
0.16
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
7075-T651
\n\t\t\t
72
\n\t\t\t
530
\n\t\t\t
568
\n\t\t\t
8.00
\n\t\t\t
794
\n\t\t\t
0.08
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
7075-T651 (weld joint, ER5356)
\n\t\t\t
68
\n\t\t\t
165
\n\t\t\t
260
\n\t\t\t
2.80
\n\t\t\t
677
\n\t\t\t
0.25
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 3.
Tensile mechanical properties of 6061-T6 and 7075-T651 aluminum alloys welds (GMAW).
a Best linear fitting from mean stress-strain curves; bObtained from σ=PA0 ; c obtained fromε=lf−l0l, d obtained by Ramber-Osgood equation.
2.3. Fatigue of aluminum alloys welds
Fatigue or fatigue damage is the consecutive modification of the materials properties with respect to the application of a cyclic stress, which can conduct to the fracture. Under uniaxial cyclic loading conditions it is possible to distinguish a stress ratio R determined by a maximal and minimal stress as follow:
R=σminσmaxE11
As a function of σmax and σmin, we can obtain the constant component of the stress (amplitude stress σa) and the mean value of the stress (mean stress σm) by different loading conditions (Figure 17).
Some practical applications involve cyclic loading at a constant amplitude, but irregular loads as a function of time are commonly encountered. In this case, we will discuss some results in terms of a constant amplitude loading. The simplest fatigue test consists of subjecting a specimen to a cycling loading (different levels of stress amplitude σa), at a constant frequency and measured the number of cycles to failure Nf. The representation of stress level as a function of Nf gives the S-N curve or Wöhler curve. A schematic representation of a Wöhler curve is shown in Figure 18.
Figure 17.
Solicitation loading in uniaxial fatigue, a) completely reversed stressing (σm=0), b) asymmetric repeated stressing (σm ≠ 0), and c) zero to tension stressing (σmin=0).
Figure 18.
Representation of a Wöhler curve, and different fatigue domains [21].
In Figure 18, it is possible to identify different domains: (i) Low cycle fatigue. In this case a high stress level is applied on the sample (normally over the yield strength of the material). Because of the high deformation during the test, the number of cycles to failure tends to be lower (102 to 104). (ii) High cycle fatigue. This is related with an elastic behavior on a macro scale of the sample, i.e. the stress level is not higher than the yield strength of the material. The failure is expected for a large number of cycles, for instance, more than 105. In fact the boundary between low and high cycle fatigue is not well defined by a specific number of cycles. The most important difference is that low cyclic fatigue is associated with macro-plastic deformation on each loading cycle. When the stress level in high cycle fatigue is applied, a fatigue limit or endurance limited is presented, which is represented by an asymptote in the Wöhler curve. In some metallic materials it could be obtained when the number of cycles is in the order of 106 to 107. (iii) Fatigue gigacycle. This domain corresponding with a very high number of cycles and it has been observed that fatigue limit tends to decrease when the number of cycles increases.
It is well known that fatigue damage is a surface phenomenon as indicated by Forsyth [22], who determined the presence of reliefs linked to the formation of localization deformation bands named persistent bands. The surface topography is traduced by the formation of intrusions and extrusions as shown schematically in Figure 19.
Figure 19.
Intrusions and extrusions formation in the free surface due to the alternating slip, micro-cracks nucleation, and principal crack formation from micro-cracks [21].
For a uniaxial tensile test, these bands resulting in the formation of micro-cracks (state I in Figure 19), which are orientated at 45 degrees with respect the traction axe. Only certain grains are affected by the formation of those bands. The persistent bands orientation and the formation of cracks on the state I, are important in the case of uniaxial and multiaxial loading. Brown and Miller [23, 24] introduced a useful notation in multiaxal loading for facets A and B, which are schematized in Figure 20.
Figure 20.
Directional aspect of the fatigue damage. Importance of the stress field orientation with respect to the plans surface, and the free surface of the material (hatch zones) [23, 24].
The type B facets provides a shearing vector which enters into the material, and they are more dangerous than type A facets, from which the shearing vector is tangent to the free surface of the sample. The intrusions and extrusions formation associated to the slip persistent bands, as well as, the micro-propagation of cracks in the state I are of interest at a distance of the grain size (small fatigue cracks). Thus, considering that micro-cracks are related with the crystallography aspect, once the crack encounters the first grain boundary it begins to bifurcate according to state II and the propagation at a perpendicular direction of the principal stress is obtained.
Additionally to the fatigue damage mechanism mentioned previously, in the case of welding, the stress concentration factor due to the geometry of the welding bead has a special importance. In this sense, Ambriz et al. [20] has been quantified the effect of the welding profile generated by modified indirect electric arc (MIEA) technique on the fatigue life of a 6061-T6 aluminum alloy. In order to determine the stress concentration factor Kt in MIEA welds, a characteristic welding profile was measured as specified in Figure 21.
Figure 21.
Stress concentration points in MIEA welds and their corresponding dimensions. α=angle formed by the weld reinforcement with plates, r=notched radius, t=height of the weld reinforcement, w=width of the welding profile and h=thickness of the plates.
Subsequently, uniaxial fatigue test a cyclic loading with a sinusoidal wave form at a frequency of 35 Hz and load ration R=0.1 was applied in atmospheric air at room temperature. The fatigue limit (77 MPa) was calculated employed the Locati method, and Wöhler curve (Figure 22) was plotted between 77 and 110 MPa.
Figure 22.
Wöhler curve for 6061-T6 aluminum alloy welds by MIEA and data found in literature [25] for the single V groove joint.
Figure 22 shows the maximum stress σmax, as function of number of cycles to failure Nf, obtained from the fatigue test of the welded joints. The experimental results were fitted according to the following expression:
σmax=ANfbE12
where A, and b are experimental values determined by fitting curve.
Regarding the geometry of the welding profile, comparison of the fatigue performance exhibited by MIEA welds with the results reported in the literature [25] for a single V joint configuration for the same aluminum alloy shows a significant improvement in fatigue life for the MIEA welded samples. The Kt effect on the crack initiation and failure is shown in Figure 23.
Figure 23.
Typical macrograph of the fatigue failure on MIEA welds.
Considering that, if the loading condition promotes the formation of a principal crack (Figure 19), it will grow according to the power law region as shown schematically in Figure 24.
Figure 24.
Fatigue crack growth regimes as function of ΔK.
The fatigue crack growth rate da/dN, as function of stress intensity factor range ΔK in different zones of the welded joint (base metal, weld metal and HAZ) has been studied previously [26, 27]. The results were conducted on compact type specimens (CT) applying a constant amplitude cycling load with a sinusoidal wave form at a frequency of 20 Hz, a load ratio R of 0.1 and a load range of 2.5 kN in atmospheric air at room temperature. The ΔK was computed by means of the following equation:
where a is the crack length of the sample (initial crack of 8 mm), W the width for the crack propagation, and B the thickness of the sample (5 mm in this case).
Considering the stable crack growth propagation region shown in Figure 24, the experimental results of a were plotted in da/dN versus ΔK graphs according to the following expression:
dadN=C(ΔK)mE14
where C and m are constants obtained from the fitting curve. Table IV summarizes the best fitted values for C and m, and their correlation factor.
Fitting constants obtained from experimental values (Figure 25) [27].
Figure 25, shows the fatigue crack growth for base metal (6061-T6) in the rolling and transverse to rolling direction.
Figure 25.
Fatigue crack growth rate as function of ΔK, a) 6061-T6 base metal, b) weld metal, and c) HAZ.
This graph shows that the microstructural characteristics (anisotropy) does not have an important influence in terms of fatigue crack growth as could be expected, taking into account that yield strength in rolling direction is higher than transverse direction. However, this is not the case for weld metal and HAZ (Figures 25b and c), in which the crack tends to propagate faster than that in base metal. In the case of weld metal (Figure 25 b), the faster crack growth rate in comparison with base metal is related to the low toughness due to the high silicon (~ 5.5 wt. percent) content provided by the filler metal during welding. Similarly, for the HAZ it is possible to observe that the crack growth is faster than base metal, aspect which is attribute to the microstructural transformation of fine needle shape precipitates β’’ into coarse bar shape precipitates β’ produced by the thermal effect.
3. Conclusion
Mechanical behavior in welds of precipitation hardened aluminum alloys are still under development and the softening phenomena in the heat affected zone should be better understood. Valuable information could be obtained by the precise understanding of the weld thermal cycles in conjunction with the C transformation curve and its microstructural effect in mechanical properties. In this sense, our research group is conducting experiments to control the weld thermal cycle by means of localized chillers and heaters in the fusion zone and heat affected zone to observe the mechanical properties evolution of the welded joints.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/46826.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/46826.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/46826",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/46826",totalDownloads:7534,totalViews:1626,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:22,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:8,impactScorePercentile:96,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"October 10th 2013",dateReviewed:"February 26th 2014",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"June 11th 2014",dateFinished:"May 29th 2014",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/46826",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/46826",book:{id:"3844",slug:"light-metal-alloys-applications"},signatures:"R.R. Ambriz and D. Jaramillo",authors:[{id:"32466",title:"Dr.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"Ambriz",fullName:"Ricardo Ambriz",slug:"ricardo-ambriz",email:"ricraf74@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"170247",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Jaramillo",fullName:"David Jaramillo",slug:"david-jaramillo",email:"djvigu@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1. Precipitation and mechanical properties of aluminum alloys",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2. Welding in age hardened condition",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4",title:"2. Mechanical behavior of aluminum alloys welds",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.1. Indentation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.2. Tensile properties",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.3. Fatigue of aluminum alloys welds",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"3. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Gladman T. Precipitation Hardening in Metals. Materials Science and Technology 1999;15 30-36.'},{id:"B2",body:'Orowan E. Internal Stress in Metals and Alloys; 1948.'},{id:"B3",body:'Ashby MF. Oxide Dispersion Strengthening. Gordon and Breach; 1958.'},{id:"B4",body:'Gladman T. The Physical Metallurgy of Microalloyed Steels. The Institute of Materials; 1997.'},{id:"B5",body:'ASM. Properties and Selection: Non Ferrous Alloys and Special Purpose Materials. ASM International; 1992.'},{id:"B6",body:'Askeland D., Fulay P and Wright W. The Science and Engineering of Materials; 2010.'},{id:"B7",body:'Edwards G., Stiller K., Dunlop GL. and Couper MJ. The precipitation sequence in Al-Mg-Si alloys. Acta Materialia 1998;46 (11) 3893-3904.'},{id:"B8",body:'Ambriz RR., Barrera G., García R. and López VH. Effect of the Weld Thermal Cycles of the Modified Indirect Electric Arc on the Mechanical Properties of the AA6061-T6 Alloy. Welding International 2010;24 (4) 42-51.'},{id:"B9",body:'Myhr OR., Grong O., Fjaer HG. and Marioara CD. Modelling of the Microstructure and Strenght Evolution in Al-Mg-Si Alloys During Multistage Thermal Processing. Acta Materialia 2004;52 4997-5008.'},{id:"B10",body:'Matters G. The Welding of Aluminum and its Alloys. CRC; 2002.'},{id:"B11",body:'Grong O. Metallurgical Modelling of Welding. The Institute of Materials; 1997.'},{id:"B12",body:'Metzger GE. Some Mechanical Properties of Welds in 6061 Aluminum Alloy Sheet. Welding Journal 1967;46 (10) 457-469.'},{id:"B13",body:'Huang C. and Kou S. Liquation Cracking in Full Penetration Al-Mg-Si Welds. Welding Journal 2004;4 111-122.'},{id:"B14",body:'Oliver WC. and Pharr GM. An Improved Technique for Determining Hardness and Elastic Modulus Using Load and Displacement Sensing Indentation Experiments. Journal of Materials Research 1992;7 (6) 1564-1583.'},{id:"B15",body:'Malin V. Study of Metallurgical Phenomena in the HAZ of 6061-T6 Aluminum Welded Joints. Welding Journal 1995;9 305-318.'},{id:"B16",body:'Liu G., Murr LE., Niou CS., McClure JC. and Vega FR. Microstructural Aspects of the Friction Stir Welding of 6061-T6 Aluminum. Scripta Materialia 1997;37 (3) 355-361.'},{id:"B17",body:'Hay JC., Bolshakov A. and Pharr GM. Critical Examination of the Fundamental Relations Used in the Analysis of Nano-Indentation Data. Journal of Materials Research 1999;14 (6) 2296-2305.'},{id:"B18",body:'Ambriz RR., Chicot D., Benseddiq N., Mesmacque G. and de la Torre SD. Local Mechanical Properties of the 6061-T6 Aluminum Weld Using Micro-Traction and Instrumented Indentation. European Journal of Mechanics A/Solids 2011;30 307-315.'},{id:"B19",body:'Chicot D., Roudet F., Zaoui A., Louis G. and Lepingle V. Influence of Visco-Elastic-Plastic Properties of Magnetite on the Elastic Modulus: Multicyclic Indentation and Theoretical Studies. Materials Chemistry and Physics 2010;119 75-81.'},{id:"B20",body:'Ambriz RR., Mesmacque G., Ruiz A., Amrouche A. and López VH. Effect of the Welding Profile Generated by the Modified Indirect Electric Arc Technique on the Fatigue Behavior of 6061-T6 Aluminum Alloy. Materials Science and Engineering A 2010;527 2057-2064.'},{id:"B21",body:'Pineau A. and Bathias C. Fatigue des Matériaux et des Structures 1. Lavoisier; 2008.'},{id:"B22",body:'Forsyth PJE. Some Metallographic Observations on the Fatigue of Metals. Journal of the Institute of Metals 1951;80 181.'},{id:"B23",body:'Brown MW. and Miller KJ. A Theory for Fatigue Failure Under Multiaxial Stress-Strain Conditions. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineerings 1973;187 745-755.'},{id:"B24",body:'Miller KJ. Metal Fatigue-Past, Current and Future. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineerings 1991;205 1-14.'},{id:"B25",body:'ASM. Fatigue and Fracture. ASM Iternational; 1996.'},{id:"B26",body:'Moreira PMGP., de Jesus AMP., Ribeiro AS. and de Castro PMST. Fatigue Crack Growth in Friction Stir Welds of 6082-T6 and 6061-T6 Aluminium Alloys: A Comparison. Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics 2008;50 81-91.'},{id:"B27",body:'Ambriz RR., Mesmacque G., Ruiz A., Amrouche A., López VH. and Benseddiq N. Fatigue Crack Growth Under a Constant Amplitud Loading of Al-6061-T6 Welds Obtained by Modified Indirect Electric Arc Technique. Science and Technology of Welding and Joining 2010;15 (6) 514-521.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"R.R. Ambriz",address:null,affiliation:'
Instituto Politécnico Nacional CIITEC-IPN, Cerrada de Cecati S/N Col. Sta. Catarina, Azcapotzalco, DF, México
Instituto Politécnico Nacional CIITEC-IPN, Cerrada de Cecati S/N Col. Sta. Catarina, Azcapotzalco, DF, México
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1. Introduction
Sleep is fundamental for sports performance, as well as for emotional regulation and development of the physical and mental health of athletes. In fact, inadequate sleep (e.g., reduced sleep duration and quality) may lead to an increased risk of injury and illness in athletes.
In recent years, growing interest in understanding the sleep of athletes has seen an increase in published studies [1]. In fact, athletes and coaches have ranked sleep as the most important recovery strategy [2]. Interestingly, the fundamental difference between recovery interventions with established protocols (e.g., cold water immersion, compression garments, electrical stimulation) [3] and sleeping lies in the fact that sleep initiation does not depend entirely on the willingness of the athlete [4].
During sleep, anabolic metabolism is upregulated [5], procedural memories are consolidated [6], and immune responses are augmented [7]. However, sleep loss or deprivation can have significant effects on performance, motivation, perception of effort, and cognition as well as numerous other biological functions [8]. Furthermore, sleep is associated with many physiological processes that may facilitate recovery from, and adaptation to, athletic training and competition [9]. Studies have analyzed the importance of sleep to regulate key molecular mechanisms (i.e., transcriptional regulatory proteins [10, 11, 12]), demonstrating that sleep has an integral role in metabolic homeostasis [13]. The capacity of humans to cope with physiological and psychological stressors is fundamental to athletic performance outcomes [14] and may be influenced by numerous factors, such as experience, fitness, motivation, and the normal fluctuation of physiological and behavioral procedures across a 24-h period (i.e., sleep–wake cycle, body temperature, hormone regulation) [15].
Importantly, the circadian rhythms are mainly controlled by the suprachiasmatic nucleus within the hypothalamus [16]. However, the suprachiasmatic nucleus is unable to continuously sustain control over these patterns (i.e., between the suprachiasmatic nucleus within the hypothalamus), as humans are extremely sensitive to changes in their normal environment [16, 17], most notably through the light–dark cycle [18]. When athletes face disturbances to their environments (e.g., training and/or competing close to bedtime sleep and travel), endogenous circadian rhythms and normal sleep-wake cycles can become desynchronized [16, 19]. These perturbations in sleeping patterns can cause an increase in homeostatic pressure and affect emotional regulation, core temperature, and circulating levels of melatonin, causing a delay in sleep onset [20].
Additionally, there is potential for sleep loss and neurocognitive and physiological performance to be compromised [9, 21, 22, 23]. Emerging research suggests that there are differences in sleep duration and quality between athletes and healthy controls. In contrast to non-athletes, athletes are often exposed to conditions that can interfere with sleep duration and quality, such as jet lag, unfamiliar sleeping environments, evening training, and/or competition and underlying fatigue [24].
In this sense, sleep monitoring has become a common practice in sport, and, in athletes, it may be useful to identify those who may need an intervention in terms of sleep disorders. Consequently, it is necessary to identify atypical patterns in the sleep and wakefulness of athletes and provide adequate sleep hygiene strategies to avoid disturbances in sleep duration and quality. Efficient and noninvasive methods and equipment, such as actigraphy and other alternatives to polysomnography, can provide detailed information about sleep and wakefulness during the sporting season.
Although there is high availability of information regarding the duration and quality of sleep in different age groups in the general population, information available in the scientific literature about sleep in athletes is still scarce. However, sleep is currently recognized as one of the essential components in the recovery from fatigue and, consequently, in the performance of athletes. Thus, it is essential that athletes, coaches, and clinicians understand the factors that can affect sleep, as well as realizing the usefulness of methods and equipment for assessing the duration and quality of sleep, as this process can result in better health and performance for the athlete.
2. The importance of sleep
Sleep is an essential component for athletes’ recovery from fatigue, due especially to its physiological and psychological restorative effects [25]. In fact, it seems important that athletes learn to manage their sleeping and waking times, given the influence on circadian rhythm, since alterations in the biological clock may affect not only the duration and quality of sleep, but, mainly, sports performance [17].
Athletes and coaches recognize the importance of sleep as one of the most important strategies for recovering from fatigue and improving an athlete’s performance [2]. However, during the competitive period, it is common for athletes to follow strict training and competition schedules, which, associated with intense training loads and the physical and emotional demands of competitions, may interfere and reduce the duration and quality of their sleep [26] and, consequently, decrease the fatigue recovery process [27]. This potential imbalance can actually occur when training and competitions are held close to bedtime [28]. Furthermore, exercise, when performed close to bedtime, may alter circadian rhythms [29] and sleep patterns (e.g., reducing sleep duration) [28, 30]. In fact, it seems important that athletes learn to manage their sleeping and waking times, given the influence on circadian rhythm, since alterations in the biological clock may affect not only the duration and quality of sleep, but, mainly, sports performance [2].
In the general population, less than 8 h of sleep per night may be associated with alterations in cognitive performance, mood, and wakefulness, as well as with increases in daytime sleepiness episodes [31]. This theme extends to younger athletes, who are expected to have a greater physiological need for sleep (8–10 h per night) compared with adults (7–9 h per night) and who often experience delays in sleep onset and awakening [32, 33]. Similarly, compared with adult athletes, young athletes have different daily commitments, such as school and social activities (including time spent online during the night), which can further alter sleep habits and/or wakefulness [34]. As an example, in an epidemiological study [35], significant reductions in neurocognitive performance (assessed through visual tests of memory and speed of response to a given visual stimulus) were observed in 7150 young athletes from different sports, who had a sleep duration of less than 5 h per night.
However, despite the high availability of information regarding the duration and quality of sleep in different age groups in the general population, in the scientific literature, the information available regarding the duration and quality of sleep in athletes is still scarce [36]. In fact, this seems contradictory given that sleep is currently recognized as one of the essential components in athletes’ recovery [25]. Thus, there is a need to investigate, through sensitive and noninvasive methods, the monitoring of sleep patterns and wakefulness in athletes, in order to promote better sleep hygiene and, consequently, better recovery and performance.
3. Sleep, injuries, and performance
The current training and competition demands are topics with the greatest interest and discussion in the fields of sports science and sports medicine. This theme is commonly associated with the problem of sports injuries that affect athletes. In this sense, it is essential that clubs create ideal conditions for the training and development of athletes, integrating strategies and best practices for the prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation of injuries in an integrated perspective for athletes’ health and performance.
Sleep can influence the risk of injury and illness. In a study of 122 athletes, it was observed that the risk of injury increased by 65% when athletes slept less than 8 h per night [37]. In another more recent study, it was possible to observe that 23 athletes with reduced sleep durations (<8 h) demonstrated a high association with the increase in musculoskeletal injuries. However, evidence in the literature is still very limited about this association. It is also important to note that sports injury is an emergent complex phenomenon, and the risk factors of injury comprise nonlinear associations between various factors such as the biomechanics, training and competitions workloads, as well as psychological and physiological characteristics. For example, according to Laux et al. [38] results, the highest risk for injury appears to occur from a synchronized growth in training and competitions workloads and loss in total sleep time; nonetheless, prospective randomized trials determining that decreased sleep quality leads an injury could require a more decisive response. Research on this topic may provide important information for coaches and practitioners in identifying potential strategies to maintain and improve athlete well-being.
Effects of inadequate sleep duration and quality on performance are likely to be seen specifically in competitive athletes, because of their high-performance demands being more likely to show the harmful effects of suboptimal sleep. Research studies have found negative results of sleep deficiency on athletic performance and well-being, specifically relative to time to exhaustion, muscle strength, and mood state [39, 40]. In a study of a sleep banking (i.e., sleep extension) for college basketball players (n = 11, 18–22 age), sleep duration was augmented by 110.9 ± 79.7 min (p < 0.001), together with significant increases in daytime sleepiness, reaction time, sprinting time, accuracy, fatigue, tension, depression, irritation, confusion, and mood disturbance [41]. In other study of cyclist’s athletes and triathletes [42], an improved endurance performance was shown after three nights of sleep banking (~8.4 h sleep each night) compared with usual sleep (~6.8 h sleep each night), suggesting that endurance athletes’ sleep must be >8 h each night to improve performance.
Considering the importance of examining sleep habits and wakefulness in athletes, the impact of training and competition schedules and loads on sleep indices has recently been explored [43, 44, 45]. In these studies, it was observed that sleep habits (i.e., the duration and quality of sleep) can be affected by schedule variations and by training and competition loads, especially when sessions are held at night, close to bedtime.
It should also be noted that the sleep habits and wakefulness of athletes may depend on the type of sport practiced [26]. For instance, Lastella et al. [26] investigated sleep/wake behavior of elite athletes, including young female and male athletes, and compared differences between athletes from individual (cycling, mountain bike, racewalking, swimming, and triathlon) and team sports (Australian football, basketball, soccer, and rugby union). Sleep/wake behaviors of elite athletes (n = 124) were well below the recommended 8 h of sleep per night, with shorter sleep duration existing in individual sports. These outcomes suggest that the amount of sleep the athletes obtain depends also on their sport.
That said, and although the duration and quality of an athlete’s sleep may be associated with the schedules and loads of training and competition, it is also important to consider other factors that can influence sleep indices and wakefulness, namely age, sex, and chronotype [46]. For example, sex was identified as a risk factor for lifetime sleep problems in elite French athletes, with a greater incidence of sleep problems in female athletes [47]. Age has been shown to relate to the prevalence of poor sleep quality, with athletes >25 years of age reporting greater Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) scores compared with ages <20 [48]; early fatherhood and/or motherhood could be a causal factor [49]. The age of the athletes was also classified as a risk factor for sleep disturbance previous to a competition; however, habitual sleep quality was not [50]. These findings may indicate that athletes who normally report good sleep quality are not necessarily resilient against sleep disturbance during, for instance, a major competition.
4. Measuring sleep
To detect and control sleep disorders, it is important to monitor sleep habits and perceptions of sleep through subjective and objective measures [51].
In general, the main recommendations on sleep monitoring point to polysomnography, which uses surface electrodes to monitor physiological parameters such as brain, muscle, cardiac, and respiratory activity [52]. Polysomnography is particularly useful for investigating sleep pathologies, including sleep-disordered breathing [53] and sleep disorders caused by concussion [54]. However, polysomnography is an expensive technique and requires specialized laboratory equipment, so its use in athletes in the real context is impractical [55].
On the other hand, actigraphy uses accelerometers placed in portable devices to record movements that, analyzed using algorithms, estimate the quality and duration of sleep [56]. Actigraphy is less expensive, noninvasive, and can be used in training and competition routines, ideally requiring two consecutive weeks of monitoring [57]. Thus, actigraphy emerges as the most accessible method to objectively monitor the sleep of athletes during the night [55]. Overall, wrist-worn accelerometers allow estimation of total sleep time (the total amount of sleep obtained during a sleep period), time in bed (the amount of time spent in bed attempting to sleep between bedtime and get-up time), wake up time (time at which a athlete got out of bed and stopped attempting to sleep), sleep onset time (transition from wakefulness into sleep), wake after sleep onset (number of min awake after sleep onset), latency (the period of time between bedtime and sleep onset time), and sleep efficiency (percentage of time in bed that was spent asleep) [55]. However, it is imperative to highlight that activity monitors tend to underestimate sleep in people who exhibit high levels of movement during light sleep [58]. In fact, some works showed that (elite) athletes obtain less sleep than the general population [59, 60] and present larger movement and fragmentation during sleep [61, 62]. Thus, and given the sleep characteristics of (elite) athletes, it is important to determine how well activity monitors are sensitive to recognize moments of sleep and vigilance in this type of population. This raises a potential issue with the use of activity monitors for measuring sleep in (elite) athletes.
Questionnaires and in particular “sleep diaries” are also used to record the start and end times for all sleep periods (i.e., night sleep and daily naps) [57]. Nevertheless, subjective reports (e.g., PSQI) might deviate from objective measures [63], especially with regard to mood and memory biases, while personality characteristics may also affect self-reported sleep ratings [64]. Indeed, some discrepancies have been detected when comparing subjective parameters with objective measures [65].
Additionally, and considering the ability of monitoring (objectively or subjectively) sleep duration and quality obtained by an (elite) athlete as a useful tool for evaluating recovery from training and competition [55], it is crucial to highlight the importance of individualized monitoring.
Although it is conventional to focus monitoring on group mean responses following a particular training intervention or competition, sport settings frequently produce diverse results with high and low responders being often lost in the averaged data reports [66, 67]. As a consequence, an increased attention for individualization of monitoring in sport settings has growth to a variety of athlete-monitoring approaches, allowing coaches to better manage fatigue and planning training prescription on an individual basis [68].
Nevertheless, research examining the sleep of athletes has typically averaged data across several nights, providing a mean estimate of usual sleep [26, 48, 61]. While such approaches are useful to allow basic insight into sleep (to better understand fatigue and recovery in athletes), they lack the sophistication to provide understanding of how sleep may vary across multiple nights at the individual level [69, 70, 71]. Moreover, individual variability can reflect differences within individuals over time [72], with high intra-individual variability in the athletes’ sleep indicating the need for individualized sleep education strategies and interventions to promote appropriate sleep [69].
Although identifying the optimal amount of sleep on an individual basis may be difficult [73], young and adult athletes who exhibit average sleep of less than 8 or 7 h, respectively, likely warrant additional assessment to classify their sleep difficulties. Hence, those athletes that reveal deleterious effects of inadequate total sleep time should be stimulated to use sleep hygiene strategies to increase sleep during night and vigilance during the day [74]. Longitudinal monitoring of training and match load, sleep, fatigue (e.g., through heart rate variability), stress, and mood may not only help identify individuals at risk, but also monitor improvements in sleep, well-being, and performance after interventions [75].
Overall, it might be important to include sleep monitoring in (elite) athletes encompassing individual responses, in addition to group means [69]. Also, special attention should be given to the sleep behavior of (elite) athletes (e.g., total sleep time) during periods of congested fixtures, such as international competitions, since sleep deficits can impair performance [17], as already mention above (point 3).
5. Sleep hygiene
The implementation of strategies that promote sleep quality should be a priority for athletes. In fact, during sleep, fundamental physiological and psychological processes take place for the recovery from fatigue, so the optimization of sleep hygiene strategies increasingly assumes an important role in the routines and planning of those dedicated to improving sport performance.
A recent study [76] evaluated the effect of education on sleep hygiene in athletes. It was found that sleep hygiene education had a considerable positive impact on sleep indices. Educational programs on sleep hygiene in athletes provided a significant improvement in sleep duration and quality and reduced daytime sleepiness. Furthermore, research into the effects of sleep hygiene education on athletes, especially young people, is quite limited [31].
As mentioned before, there are several factors that can influence the duration and quality of sleep in athletes. Calendars congested with competitions and regular trips, competitions of great physical and emotional demand that take place at night, or constant changes in the morning time to wake up because of training and travel are examples of common factors that can negatively influence the duration and quality of sleep in athletes.
In this context, the management of light exposure emerges as fundamental, as this factor has a significant impact on sleep. Exposure to light influences the production of melatonin, so managing the times of exposure to artificial light throughout the day can be used as a sleep management and hygiene strategy. Additionally, in competitions that take place at night, athletes are exposed to immense artificial light: lighting in sports facilities, the projectors used by the media in interviews at the end of competitions, light from busses, airports, and planes.
On the other hand, social contexts may also be decisive. In recent studies carried out with female soccer players in Portugal, who usually start training very late, close to bedtime, due to their daily commitments (e.g., work, studies) that have to be reconciled with the training and match schedules, it was found that the athletes showed a reduction in total sleep time and length of time to fall asleep on training days performed at night, compared with training days performed during the day or on rest days (i.e., days without exercise) [28, 44]. It was pointed out that one of the additional explanations for the observed results could have been in the athletes’ exposure to the light emitted in the stadium. In fact, these data are little studied in sport, but during the training days, the athletes were exposed to >1200 lux and 5600 K, with the bright polychromatic light ≥1000 lux, which could be enough to stimulate wakefulness effects during sleep [77]. However, it should be borne in mind that, currently, one of the main sources of exposure to light results from the use of electronic devices (especially smartphones and tablets) and that their use around bedtime is possibly the factor that most influences the sleep latency of athletes.
Thus, the term sleep hygiene, which refers to the recommendations, strategies, behaviors, and conditions developed to promote quality and duration of sleep, has been appearing more and more often in the list of sports planning tasks for athletes [25]. It is important to be aware that, unlike other possible recovery strategies used in sport (e.g., cryotherapy, massage, nutrition, nutritional supplementation), sleep has particularities that are not always controlled by the athlete themselves. Thus, bearing in mind the importance that sleep can have on sports performance, this is a subject that deserves the greatest attention of all those dedicated to promoting health and performance in athletes.
6. Conclusions
Athletes, coaches, and supporting staff should adopt a scientific approach to both designing and monitoring training programs. Appropriate health and load monitoring is crucial for determining whether a player is adapting to a training program and minimizing the risk of developing nonfunctional overreaching, illness, or injury. To gain understanding of the training and match demands and their effects on the player, several potential markers are available. However, very few of them have strong scientific evidence supporting their use. Moreover, it is important to note that athletes, from different types of sports, normally obtain inadequate sleep duration and quality. From an athletic point of view, reductions in performance, decision-making ability, learning, and cognition can occur alongside reductions in immune function and an increased susceptibility to injury gain.
In this respect, monitoring sleep in athletes can be useful for early detection and intervention before significant performance and health decrements are observed. Noninvasive and time-efficient methods/equipment such as wearable actigraphy monitors can provide detailed information about positive and negative adaptions over short and long periods throughout the competitive season. In addition, each athlete can perform the recordings at home and/or training facilities, adopting a “real world scenario” to grant high ecological validity to the research and/or practical interventions. The accumulated knowledge regarding the importance of sleep has sleep monitoring to become a popular strategy among (elite) athletes, coaches, and supporting staff. However, given the complexity of analyzing sleep patterns and the limited availability of athletes to participate in sleep studies, those indicators are yet poorly documented.
Overall, factors related to training and competition can alter sleep patterns in athletes. Therefore, topics such as: (1) sleep patterns and disorders among athletes; (2) sleep and optimal functioning among athletes; (3) screening, tracking, and assessment of athletes’ sleep; and (4) interventions (i.e., sleep hygiene) to improve sleep must be further investigated.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"athletes, sleep interventions, sleep technology, performance, health",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/80371.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/80371.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80371",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80371",totalDownloads:195,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:"October 1st 2021",dateReviewed:"January 7th 2022",datePrePublished:"February 7th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"February 7th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Sleep is an essential component for athletes’ recovery from fatigue, due especially to its physiological and psychological restorative effects. Moreover, sleep is extremely important for numerous biological functions, and sleep deprivation can have significant effects on athletic performance in short-, medium-, and long term. For example, and considering the physiology of sleep for athletes, some hormonal responses that take place in the lead up to and during sleep (e.g., growth hormone—important role in muscle growth and repair) may be affected following exercise (i.e., training and competition), especially when compared with non-athlete’s populations. Thus, monitoring sleep is also crucial to understand responses to training and readiness, enabling appropriate planning. Importantly, sleep monitoring also intends to reduce the risk of injury, illness, and nonfunctional overreaching. Moreover, an “individual approach” in athletes monitoring could help in better prescribe training contents and more adequately manage fatigue, as well as recommend pertinent post-match recovery strategies, such as sleep hygiene interventions. Overall, for understanding the athlete’s sleep patterns/responses and to optimize the recovery strategies, it is crucial for comprehensive monitoring of his/her health, performance, fitness, and fatigue status.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/80371",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/80371",signatures:"Júlio Costa, Pedro Figueiredo, Fábio Y. Nakamura and João Brito",book:{id:"10939",type:"book",title:"Exercise Physiology",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Exercise Physiology",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ricardo Ferraz, Dr. Henrique P. Neiva and Dr. Daniel A. 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Portugal Football School, Portuguese Football Federation (FPF), Portugal
Portugal Football School, Portuguese Football Federation (FPF), Portugal
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IntechOpen’s Academic Editors and Authors have received funding for their work through many well-known funders, including: the European Commission, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Wellcome Trust, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC), CGIAR Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centers, National Institute of Health (NIH), National Science Foundation (NSF), National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), German Research Foundation (DFG), Research Councils United Kingdom (RCUK), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Austrian Science Fund (FWF), Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT), Australian Research Council (ARC).
Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
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In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
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Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
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\\n\\n
Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at funders@intechopen.com
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Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
\n\n
In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
\n\n
\n\t
Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
\n\t
Does your grant list Open Access publication fees as legitimate direct/indirect costs?
\n
\n\n
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\n\n
Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at funders@intechopen.com
\n\n
Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
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Keratinocytes",slug:"pathogenesis-of-psoriasis-the-role-of-pro-inflammatory-cytokines-produced-by-keratinocytes",totalDownloads:6638,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:null,book:{id:"986",slug:"psoriasis",title:"Psoriasis",fullTitle:"Psoriasis"},signatures:"Anna Balato, Nicola Balato, Matteo Megna, Maria Schiattarella, Serena Lembo and Fabio Ayala",authors:[{id:"63371",title:"Prof.",name:"Nicola",middleName:null,surname:"Balato",slug:"nicola-balato",fullName:"Nicola Balato"},{id:"65725",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Balato",slug:"anna-balato",fullName:"Anna Balato"},{id:"71045",title:"Dr.",name:"Serena",middleName:null,surname:"Lembo",slug:"serena-lembo",fullName:"Serena Lembo"},{id:"71150",title:"Dr.",name:"Matteo",middleName:null,surname:"Megna",slug:"matteo-megna",fullName:"Matteo Megna"},{id:"71153",title:"Prof.",name:"Fabio",middleName:null,surname:"Ayala",slug:"fabio-ayala",fullName:"Fabio Ayala"},{id:"119081",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Schiattarella",slug:"maria-schiattarella",fullName:"Maria Schiattarella"}]},{id:"22582",doi:"10.5772/23590",title:"New Diagnostic Applications in Sporotrichosis",slug:"new-diagnostic-applications-in-sporotrichosis",totalDownloads:3711,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:null,book:{id:"310",slug:"skin-biopsy-perspectives",title:"Skin Biopsy",fullTitle:"Skin Biopsy - Perspectives"},signatures:"Rosely Maria Zancope-Oliveira, Rodrigo de Almeida-Paes, Manoel Marques Evangelista de Oliveira, Dayvison Francis Saraiva Freitas and Maria Clara Gutierrez Galhardo",authors:[{id:"52688",title:"Dr",name:"Rosely",middleName:"Maria",surname:"Zancope-Oliveira",slug:"rosely-zancope-oliveira",fullName:"Rosely Zancope-Oliveira"},{id:"60613",title:"MSc.",name:"Rodrigo de",middleName:null,surname:"Almeida-Paes",slug:"rodrigo-de-almeida-paes",fullName:"Rodrigo de Almeida-Paes"},{id:"60614",title:"Prof.",name:"Manoel Marques Evangelista de",middleName:null,surname:"Oliveira",slug:"manoel-marques-evangelista-de-oliveira",fullName:"Manoel Marques Evangelista de Oliveira"},{id:"60615",title:"MSc.",name:"Dayvison Francis Saraiva",middleName:null,surname:"Freitas",slug:"dayvison-francis-saraiva-freitas",fullName:"Dayvison Francis Saraiva Freitas"},{id:"60616",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Clara",middleName:null,surname:"Gutierrez-Galhardo",slug:"maria-clara-gutierrez-galhardo",fullName:"Maria Clara Gutierrez-Galhardo"}]},{id:"53880",doi:"10.5772/67269",title:"Anatomy and Physiology of Hair",slug:"anatomy-and-physiology-of-hair",totalDownloads:7820,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Hair is one of the characteristic features of mammals and has various functions such as protection against external factors; producing sebum, apocrine sweat and pheromones; impact on social and sexual interactions; thermoregulation and being a resource for stem cells. Hair is a derivative of the epidermis and consists of two distinct parts: the follicle and the hair shaft. The follicle is the essential unit for the generation of hair. The hair shaft consists of a cortex and cuticle cells, and a medulla for some types of hairs. Hair follicle has a continuous growth and rest sequence named hair cycle. The duration of growth and rest cycles is coordinated by many endocrine, vascular and neural stimuli and depends not only on localization of the hair but also on various factors, like age and nutritional habits. Distinctive anatomy and physiology of hair follicle are presented in this chapter. Extensive knowledge on anatomical and physiological aspects of hair can contribute to understand and heal different hair disorders.",book:{id:"5461",slug:"hair-and-scalp-disorders",title:"Hair and Scalp Disorders",fullTitle:"Hair and Scalp Disorders"},signatures:"Bilgen Erdoğan",authors:[{id:"193661",title:"Dr.",name:"Bilgen",middleName:null,surname:"Erdoğan",slug:"bilgen-erdogan",fullName:"Bilgen Erdoğan"}]},{id:"22583",doi:"10.5772/22227",title:"Skin Biopsy in Leprosy",slug:"skin-biopsy-in-leprosy",totalDownloads:8441,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:null,book:{id:"310",slug:"skin-biopsy-perspectives",title:"Skin Biopsy",fullTitle:"Skin Biopsy - Perspectives"},signatures:"Avninder Singh, Xiaoman Weng and Indira Nath",authors:[{id:"46851",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiaoman",middleName:null,surname:"Weng",slug:"xiaoman-weng",fullName:"Xiaoman Weng"},{id:"62845",title:"Prof.",name:"Indira",middleName:null,surname:"Nath",slug:"indira-nath",fullName:"Indira Nath"},{id:"89251",title:"Dr.",name:"Avninder",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"avninder-singh",fullName:"Avninder Singh"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"53880",title:"Anatomy and Physiology of Hair",slug:"anatomy-and-physiology-of-hair",totalDownloads:7836,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Hair is one of the characteristic features of mammals and has various functions such as protection against external factors; producing sebum, apocrine sweat and pheromones; impact on social and sexual interactions; thermoregulation and being a resource for stem cells. Hair is a derivative of the epidermis and consists of two distinct parts: the follicle and the hair shaft. The follicle is the essential unit for the generation of hair. The hair shaft consists of a cortex and cuticle cells, and a medulla for some types of hairs. Hair follicle has a continuous growth and rest sequence named hair cycle. The duration of growth and rest cycles is coordinated by many endocrine, vascular and neural stimuli and depends not only on localization of the hair but also on various factors, like age and nutritional habits. Distinctive anatomy and physiology of hair follicle are presented in this chapter. Extensive knowledge on anatomical and physiological aspects of hair can contribute to understand and heal different hair disorders.",book:{id:"5461",slug:"hair-and-scalp-disorders",title:"Hair and Scalp Disorders",fullTitle:"Hair and Scalp Disorders"},signatures:"Bilgen Erdoğan",authors:[{id:"193661",title:"Dr.",name:"Bilgen",middleName:null,surname:"Erdoğan",slug:"bilgen-erdogan",fullName:"Bilgen Erdoğan"}]},{id:"53947",title:"Infections, Infestations and Neoplasms of the Scalp",slug:"infections-infestations-and-neoplasms-of-the-scalp",totalDownloads:3546,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This chapter reviews common cutaneous infections, infestations, and neoplasms of the scalp. Infections of the scalp are subdivided into three major groups. The most seen are: (1) Bacterial: Folliculitis, folliculitis decalvans, tufted hair folliculitis and acne keloidalis nuchae. (2) Fungal: Tinea capitis, favus and kerion celsi. (3) Protozoal: Syphilitic alopecia. Pediculosis capitis is the most common worldwide infestation of the scalp. The neoplasms of the scalp are large group of different diseases due to arising different origin. In the following section, trichilemmal cyst, proliferating trichilemmal cyst, nevus sebaceous and cylindroma are discussed in detail.",book:{id:"5461",slug:"hair-and-scalp-disorders",title:"Hair and Scalp Disorders",fullTitle:"Hair and Scalp Disorders"},signatures:"Filiz Canpolat",authors:[{id:"191617",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Filiz",middleName:null,surname:"Canpolat",slug:"filiz-canpolat",fullName:"Filiz Canpolat"}]},{id:"54988",title:"Pathogenic Role of Cytokines and Effect of Their Inhibition in Psoriasis",slug:"pathogenic-role-of-cytokines-and-effect-of-their-inhibition-in-psoriasis",totalDownloads:2350,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"The pathogenesis of psoriasis is complex, and cytokines play an important role in mediating cell-cell interactions that result in abnormal structures and functions of many cell types in psoriasis, such as abnormal proliferation and differentiation of keratinocytes, abnormal proliferation of blood vessels, stimulation of immune cells, and driving abnormal immune reactions. In this chapter, we summarize the roles and functions of inflammatory cytokines that play a crucial role in psoriasis such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-12/IL-23, and IL-17, as well as their inhibitors that are used to treat psoriasis.",book:{id:"5760",slug:"an-interdisciplinary-approach-to-psoriasis",title:"Psoriasis",fullTitle:"An Interdisciplinary Approach to Psoriasis"},signatures:"Jitlada Meephansan, Urairack Subpayasarn, Mayumi Komine and\nMamitaro Ohtsuki",authors:[{id:"201220",title:"Dr.",name:"Mayumi",middleName:null,surname:"Komine",slug:"mayumi-komine",fullName:"Mayumi Komine"},{id:"205398",title:"Dr.",name:"Jitlada",middleName:null,surname:"Meephansan",slug:"jitlada-meephansan",fullName:"Jitlada Meephansan"},{id:"205400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mamitaro",middleName:null,surname:"Ohtsuki",slug:"mamitaro-ohtsuki",fullName:"Mamitaro Ohtsuki"},{id:"205403",title:"Dr.",name:"Urairack",middleName:null,surname:"Subpayasarn",slug:"urairack-subpayasarn",fullName:"Urairack Subpayasarn"}]},{id:"52034",title:"Occupational Acne",slug:"occupational-acne",totalDownloads:1899,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Occupational and environmental acne is a dermatological disorder associated with industrial exposure. Polyhalogenated hydrocarbons, coal tar and products, petrol, and other physical, chemical, and environmental agents are suggested to play a role in the etiology of occupational acne. The people working in the field of machine, chemistry, and electrical industry are at high risk. The various occupational acne includes chloracne, coal tar, and oil acne. The most common type in clinic is the comedones, and it is also seen as papule, pustule, and cystic lesions. Histopathological examination shows epidermal hyperplasia, while follicular and sebaceous glands are replaced by keratinized epidermal cells. Topical or oral retinoic acids and oral antibiotics could be used in treatment. The improvement in working conditions, taking preventive measures, and education of the workers could eliminate occupational acne as a problem.",book:{id:"5433",slug:"acne-and-acneiform-eruptions",title:"Acne and Acneiform Eruptions",fullTitle:"Acne and Acneiform Eruptions"},signatures:"Betul Demir and Demet Cicek",authors:[{id:"188909",title:"Dr.",name:"Betul",middleName:null,surname:"Demir",slug:"betul-demir",fullName:"Betul Demir"},{id:"194149",title:"Prof.",name:"Demet",middleName:null,surname:"Cicek",slug:"demet-cicek",fullName:"Demet Cicek"}]},{id:"53525",title:"Trichoscopy and Trichogram",slug:"trichoscopy-and-trichogram",totalDownloads:2633,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Hair and scalp examination techniques can be classified into three categories: noninvasive methods (clinical history, general examination, photography, hair count, weighing shed hair, pull test, global hair counts, dermoscopy, electron microscopy, laser scanning microscopy, etc.); semi‐invasive methods (the trichogram, unit areatrichogram); and invasive methods (biopsies in cicatritial alopecia). Scalp dermoscopy or trichoscopy is one of thenoninvasive techniques for the evaluation of patients with hair loss that allows for magnified visualization of the hair and scalp skin. It may be performed with a manual dermoscope (10× magnification) or a videodermoscope (up to 1000× magnification). This method is simple, quick, and easy to perform, is well‐accepted by patients, and is useful for monitoring treatment, determining severity of the disease and follow‐up. It is a simple, minimally invasive and rapid technique for measuring hair follicle activity. Trichogram represents a semi‐invasive technique for the evaluation of patients with hair loss that allows the microscopic examination of hairs plucked from the scalp and provides information about the state of the proximal end of the hair shaft and the distal end. The trichogram is a useful complementary tool for clinical evaluation, diagnosis, and the monitoring of treatment response.",book:{id:"5461",slug:"hair-and-scalp-disorders",title:"Hair and Scalp Disorders",fullTitle:"Hair and Scalp Disorders"},signatures:"Melike Kibar",authors:[{id:"189899",title:"Dr.",name:"Melike",middleName:null,surname:"Kibar Ozturk",slug:"melike-kibar-ozturk",fullName:"Melike Kibar Ozturk"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"175",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81163",title:"Immunomodulatory Effect of Methotrexate Abruptly Controls Keratinocyte Activation in Psoriasis",slug:"immunomodulatory-effect-of-methotrexate-abruptly-controls-keratinocyte-activation-in-psoriasis",totalDownloads:55,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102811",abstract:"In psoriatic skin, epidermal keratinocytes (KCs) undergo deregulated inflammatory response that leads to prolonged expression of inflammatory mediators as well as abnormal keratins. Due to immune and genetic factors, KCs get activated and cell balance gets disturbed. This activation is mainly due to deregulated inflammatory response. A vicious cycle of KC-immune response called KC activation cycle leads to psoriasis. In psoriatic skin, epidermal KCs undergo deregulated inflammatory response that leads to prolonged expression of inflammatory mediators as well as abnormal keratins. Methotrexate (MTX) an immunosuppressive agent has been used as a standard drug to treat severe psoriasis. Acanthosis and abnormal terminal differentiation was mainly due to the mutation in epidermal keratins. In turn, disease severity and relapsing of psoriasis are mainly due to the mutation of hyperproliferative keratins. These novel keratin mutations in psoriatic epidermis might be one of the causative factors for psoriasis. MTX strongly regulates the KC activation cycle by deregulated inflammatory markers and maintains normal keratin phenotype on hyperproliferating KC, thereby controlling acanthosis in psoriasis patients.",book:{id:"11087",title:"Psoriasis - New Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11087.jpg"},signatures:"Tamilselvi Elango, Anburaj Jeyaraj, Haripriya Dayalan, Pushpa Gnanaraj, Xinghui Li and Xuejun Zhang"},{id:"80572",title:"Th17/IL-17, Immunometabolism and Psoriatic Disease: A Pathological Trifecta",slug:"th17-il-17-immunometabolism-and-psoriatic-disease-a-pathological-trifecta",totalDownloads:29,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102633",abstract:"The burgeoning arena of immunometabolism provides evidence of how cellular, as well as local (tissue)/systemic metabolic pathways, are playing an important role in controlling immunity and inflammation. An intricate and elaborate network of various metabolic circuits specifically glycolysis, fatty acid oxidation and synthesis and amino acid metabolism precisely generate metabolites that rewire the immune response. Psoriasis is a chronic progressive self-perpetuated “IL-17-centric” inflammatory disease characterized by the co-existence of autoimmune and autoinflammatory pathways. Metabolic responses, governed by oxygen levels, nutrient availability, growth factors, cytokines, AMP/ATP ratios and amino acids, play a pivotal role in programming Th17 cell fate determination. Understanding the intricate interactions and complex interplay of molecular mechanisms responsible for Th17 cell metabolic rewiring, an important determinant of Th17 cell plasticity and heterogeneity, holds the potential to reshape psoriatic therapeutics in ways currently unimagined. This chapter entails with most recent updates on major cellular and systemic metabolic pathways regulating differentiation of Th17 cells as well their cross-talk with intracellular signaling mediators and also sheds light on how dysregulation of these pathways can be responsible for immune impairment and development of psoriatic disease. A better understanding of these metabolic processes could unveil an intriguing leverage point for therapeutic interventions to modulate metabolic programming and Th17 cell responses in this multi-systemic inflammatory disease.",book:{id:"11087",title:"Psoriasis - New Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11087.jpg"},signatures:"Seema Chhabra, Smrity Sahu, Keshav Sharma, Maryada Sharma, Lekha Rani, Ranjana Minz and Sunil Dogra"},{id:"80809",title:"Dermoscopic Differential Diagnosis of Psoriasis",slug:"dermoscopic-differential-diagnosis-of-psoriasis",totalDownloads:35,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103004",abstract:"Psoriasis is a chronic inflammatory skin disease, which is mainly characterized with erythematous indurated plaques with squams such as many other inflammatory skin diseases. Also different clinical subtypes of psoriasis can show distinctive clinical appearances. As an example, inverse psoriasis does not have squams and resemble erythema intertrigo; or erythrodermic variant cannot be distinguished from other erythroderma causes sometimes. From reasons above, differential diagnosis of psoriasis should be done carefully to manage a chronic and long-term treatment required disease appropriately. Histopathologial examination is gold standard technique for certain diagnosis; however, dermoscope is a noninvasive and easily applicable diagnostic tool with high specificity. In this chapter, we discuss dermoscopic differential diagnosis of psoriasis.",book:{id:"11087",title:"Psoriasis - New Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11087.jpg"},signatures:"Ece Gokyayla, Tubanur Cetinarslan and Aylin Turel Ermertcan"},{id:"80574",title:"Developing Novel Molecular Targeted Therapeutics for Topical Treatment of Psoriasis",slug:"developing-novel-molecular-targeted-therapeutics-for-topical-treatment-of-psoriasis",totalDownloads:70,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102725",abstract:"Psoriasis is a chronic inflammatory skin disorder. The prevalence of psoriasis is estimated at approximately 100 million people worldwide. In mild-to-moderate, as well as moderate-to-severe, psoriasis, 70–80% of patients start with topical agents and continue to use them with other active therapies. This group of patients can benefit from topical treatment with minimal systemic exposure. The expression levels of IL-23 and IL-17 are upregulated in psoriatic skin compared with non-lesional skin, associated with psoriasis pathogenesis. The skin epidermal proliferation and psoriasis are caused by overactive Th17 cells, which are promoted and stabilized by the activated IL-23 receptor, forming part of the positive feedback loop. FDA approved biologics in IL-23/IL-17 axis (ustekinumab, guselkumab, risankizumab, tildrakizumab, ixekizumab, secukinumab and brodalumab) demonstrated superior clinical efficacy in the systemic treatment of moderate-to-severe psoriasis, providing the clinical proof of concept of the IL-23/IL-17 axis as a major immune pathway underlying the pathophysiology of psoriasis. However, due to the large size and poor permeability into skin, biologics are not suitable to deliver via topical route. Current topical treatments of mild-to-moderate psoriasis are corticosteroids and vitamin D analogues, which have limited efficacy with significant side effects so that patients must avoid long-term use. This chapter reviews current molecular targeted therapeutics under development for topical treatment of psoriasis.",book:{id:"11087",title:"Psoriasis - New Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11087.jpg"},signatures:"Suxing Liu, Di Li and Weikang Tao"},{id:"80408",title:"Immune Markers in Psoriasis",slug:"immune-markers-in-psoriasis",totalDownloads:63,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102567",abstract:"Psoriasis is a chronic inflammatory skin disorder with high immunological background caused by a complex interplay between an altered immune system, genetic factors, autoantigens, lifestyle, and environmental factors. Extensive literature in recent years highlighted the crucial role played by the immune system in the pathogenesis of this pathology. Although it is unequivocally accepted that psoriasis is a T-cell mediated autoimmune condition, both innate and specific immune cells are highly involved in the pathogenesis of psoriasis. The aberrant interactions between immune cells and resident hyper-proliferative keratinocytes are mediated by immune and non-immune related molecules which lead to amplification of the local immune responses, that maintain the chronic inflammatory status. In this chapter, we will highlight the immune molecules resident in the psoriatic tissue or appending to the blood circulation that can indicate the prognosis of this systemic autoimmune disease. Moreover, we will focus on immune cells resident or circulating ones that can pinpoint the clinical evolution of the psoriatic disease. All these data can be developed in immune markers patterns that aid psoriasis diagnosis and/or future (immune)therapies.",book:{id:"11087",title:"Psoriasis - New Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11087.jpg"},signatures:"Mihaela Surcel, Adriana Narcisa Munteanu, Carolina Constantin and Monica Neagu"},{id:"80041",title:"Topical Moisturisers for the Management of Psoriasis Vulgaris",slug:"topical-moisturisers-for-the-management-of-psoriasis-vulgaris",totalDownloads:86,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101964",abstract:"The aim of this chapter is to provide an overview of basic and tailored topical moisturisers and discuss how and why they form the backbone for the management of psoriasis. Our discussion begins by describing the main characteristics of psoriasis and by indicating how alterations in the skin’s integrity and barrier function contribute to the initial development of psoriasis and subsequent changes in psoriasis phenotype. Next, we address the evolution of topical moisturisers to ever more sophisticated and beneficial products, and describe the key biophysical effects exerted on the psoriatic skin by their active ingredients, as well as the myriad benefits offered by fundamental and specialty ingredients. Furthermore, we delineate how topical moisturiser formulation modalities can help to improve compromised skin barrier function and to alleviate the symptoms of psoriasis, cosmetically and/or therapeutically as well as discuss the associated concerns and challenges encountered along the way.",book:{id:"11087",title:"Psoriasis - New Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11087.jpg"},signatures:"Dalibor Mijaljica, Fabrizio Spada and Ian P. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. 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His later study in cooperation with experts in nephrology and immunology resulted in the designation of the new diagnostic method of UTI, patented in 2017. He is currently working at the Department of Microbiology, Medical University of Gdańsk (GUMed), Poland. Since many years, he is a member of steering committee of Gdańsk branch of Polish Society of Microbiologists, a member of ESCMID. He is also a reviewer and a member of editorial boards of a number of international journals.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorTwo:{id:"484980",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarzyna",middleName:null,surname:"Garbacz",slug:"katarzyna-garbacz",fullName:"Katarzyna Garbacz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003St8TAQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-07-07T09:45:16.jpg",biography:"Katarzyna Maria Garbacz, MD, is an Associate Professor at the Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland and she is head of the Department of Oral Microbiology of the Medical University of Gdańsk. She has published more than 50 scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals. She has been a project leader funded by the National Science Centre of Poland. Prof. Garbacz is a microbiologist working on applied and fundamental questions in microbial epidemiology and pathogenesis. Her research interest is in antibiotic resistance, host-pathogen interaction, and therapeutics development for staphylococcal pathogens, mainly Staphylococcus aureus, which causes hospital-acquired infections. Currently, her research is mostly focused on the study of oral pathogens, particularly Staphylococcus spp.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. 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Saxena",hash:"105e347b2d5dbbe6b593aceffa051efa",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Influenza - Therapeutics and Challenges",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7064",title:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7064.jpg",slug:"current-perspectives-in-human-papillomavirus",publishedDate:"May 2nd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"d92a4085627bab25ddc7942fbf44cf05",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",hash:"61c627da05b2ace83056d11357bdf361",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. 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\r\n\tThe era of antibiotics led us to the illusion that the problem of bacterial infection is over. However, bacterial flexibility and adaptation mechanisms allow them to survive and grow in extreme conditions. The best example is the formation of a sophisticated society of bacteria defined as a biofilm. Understanding the mechanism of bacterial biofilm formation has changed our perception of the development of bacterial infection but successfully eradicating biofilm remains a challenge. Considering the above, it is not surprising that bacteria remain a major public health threat despite the development of many groups of antibiotics. Additionally, increasing prevalence of acquired antibiotic resistance forces us to realize that we are far from controlling the development of bacterial infections. On the other hand, many infections are endogenous and result from an unbalanced relationship between the host and the microorganism. The increasing use of immunosuppressants, such as chemotherapy or organ transplantation, increases the incidence of patients highly susceptible to bacterial infections in the population.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis topic will focus on the current challenges and advantages in the diagnosis and treatment of bacterial infections. We will discuss the host-microbiota relationship, the treatment of chronic infections due to biofilm formation, and the development of new diagnostic tools to rapidly distinguish between colonization and probable infection.
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The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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