More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\n
Our breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
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“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
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Additionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
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We are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\n
Simba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\n
IntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\n
Since the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\n
Our breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n
“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\n
Additionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\n
We are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n
\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"360",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Electroretinograms",title:"Electroretinograms",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Electroretinography (ERG) is a non-invasive electrophysiological method which provides objective information about the function of the retina. 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\r\n\tGame theory is at the core of decision-making methods and technologies, its applications range from strategic studies, economics, management, finance to biology, anthropology, cognitive science, and even engineering. Large scale games using multiagent simulations have become a major part of the Social Sciences and the Life Sciences. On the other hand, computational game theory and multiagent technologies are deeply linked to artificial intelligence (AI) research, with applications to robotics and software agents. The Fourth Industrial Revolution is driving game theory to the center stage, in terms of the interaction between human agents and artificially intelligent agents, incorporated in different systems and devices. Machine learning applications to game theory, as well as multiagent simulations, are crucial for the success of human/AI and human/robot interactions as well as for robot and AI ethics research. The current book aims to provide the reader with the state-of-the-art game theory, dealing with both the established and the new frontiers, involving applications of game theory, the connection with AI and machine learning, multiagent simulation in large scale games and new directions in game theory, including experimental game theory and quantum game theory (now expanded by the possibility of cloud access to quantum computing resources).
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\n\t\t\t
1. Introduction
\n\t\t\t
Direct combustion of fuel for transportation accounts for over half of greenhouse gas emissions and a significant fraction of air pollutant emissions. Because of growing demand, especially in developing countries, emissions of greenhouse and air pollutants from fuels will grow over the next century even with improving of technology efficiency. Most issues are associated with the conventional engines, ICEs (internal-combustion engines), which primarily depend on hydrocarbon fuels. In this contest, different low-polluting vehicles and fuels have been proposed to improve environmental situation. Some vehicle technologies include advanced internal combustion engine (ICE), spark-ignition (SI) or compression ignition (CI) engines, hybrid electric vehicles (ICE/HEVs), battery powered electric vehicles and fuel cell vehicles (FCVs). Fuel cell vehicles, using hydrogen, can potentially offer lower emissions than other alternative and possibility to use different primary fuel option (Ogden, 2005) (Fig. 1.).
\n\t\t\t
Figure 1.
Alternative fuel vehicle pathways.
\n\t\t\t
A fuel cell vehicles fed by pure hydrogen are a “zero emission vehicle”, in fact the only local emission are water vapour. But in this case it is important to consider the full fuel cycle or “well-to wheels” emissions (fuel production, transport and delivery emissions). Primary source for hydrogen production is crucial for the environmental performance of vehicles. Hydrogen produced from renewable energy (i.e. wind or solar power connected with electrolysis process) and used in fuel cells can reduce significantly emissions.Recent studies concerning alternative fuels have been identified the fuel cell vehicles, using hydrogen, as the most promising technology with reference to fuel cycle emissions. An analysis for reductions in emissions and petroleum use is reported in following figure for different hydrogen FCVs pathways.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 2.
Well to wheels analysis of potential reduction in greenhouse gas emissions through the hydrogen from different sources. (DOE 2009, 2010)
\n\t\t\t
In order to develop technologies in ultra-low-carbon vehicles, European Commission considers tree principal power train:
\n\t\t\t
alternative fuels to burn in combustion engines to substitute gasoline or diesel fuel include liquid biofuels and gaseous fuels (including LPG, CNG and biogas);
Electric vehicles;
Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.
\n\t\t\t
Advanced vehicles with internal combustion engines may not achieved full decarbonisation alone (Mc Kinsey & Company 2010). It is therefore important to develop different technologies to ensure the long-term sustainability of mobility in Europe.
\n\t\t\t
According with this strategy, hydrogen fuel cell vehicles and battery electric vehicles have similar environmental benefits (European Commission COM(2010 )186).
\n\t\t\t
Today, in the light of numerous tests in a customer environmental (500 passenger cars – both large and small – covering over 15 million kilometres and undergoing 90,000 refuellings, Mc Kinsey & Company, 2010) FCVs may be considered technologically ready. Moreover, they are still expensive and further research is needed to bring costs down. To became competitive with today’s engine technologies, FCVs must reach large enough markets to reduce the cost via mass production. The figure 3 reports the most important technological challenges of FCVs for commercialization.
\n\t\t\t
Despite great improvements in automotive fuel cell system of last years, significant issues must be still resolved. These challenges include:
\n\t\t\t
Development and cost of hydrogen refuelling infrastructures for direct-hydrogen FCVs;
Storage systems for hydrogen simultaneously safe, compact and inexpensive;
Cost reduction in fuel cell stack and durability;
\n\t\t\t
Figure 3.
FCVs: from demonstration to commercial deployment (Mc Kinsey & Company, 2010).
\n\t\t\t
The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) is working towards activities that address the full range of technological and non-technological barriers facing the development and deployment of hydrogen and fuel cell technologies. The following figure shows the program’s activities conducted to overcome the entire range of barriers to the commercialization of hydrogen and fuel cells.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 4.
The DOE program’s activities for fuel cell commercialization.
\n\t\t\t
Regarding the stacks, the targets are to develop a fuel cell system with a 60 percent of efficiency and able to reach a 5000-hours lifespan, corresponding to 240000 km at a cost of $30/kW (at large manufacturing volumes) by 2015 (fig. 4.). The Program is also conducting RD&D efforts on small solid-oxide fuel cell (SOFC) systems in the 1-to 10-kW range, with possible applications in the markets for auxiliary propulsion units (APUs).
\n\t\t\t
Figure 5.
Target of durability of FCVs in order to reach 240000 km (150000 miles). (DOE 2009).
\n\t\t\t
DOE targets for transportation applications were derived with information from FreedomCAR and Partnership, a collaborative technology organization of Chrysler Group LLC, Ford Motor Company and General Motors Company. In table 1 are showed the targets of direct hydrogen fuel cell power systems.
Energy efficiency @ 25% of rated power b\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
%
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
60
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Energy efficiency @ rated power
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
%
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
50
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Power density
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
W/L
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
650
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Specific power
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
W/kg
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
650
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Cost c\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
$/We
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
30
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Transient response (time from 10% to 90% of rated power)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
s
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
1
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Cold start up time to 50% of rated power @–20°C ambient temperature @+20°C ambient temperature
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
s s
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
30 5
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Start up and shut down energy d\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t from -20°C ambient temperature from +20°C ambient temperature
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
MJ MJ
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
5 1
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Durability with cycling
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
hours
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
5,000 e\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Unassisted start from low temperatures f\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
°C
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
-40
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
Table 1.
Targets exclude hydrogen storage, power electronics and electric drive.b Ratio of DC output energy to the lower heating value (LHV) of the input fuel (hydrogen). Peak efficiency occurs at about 25% rated power.c Based on 2002 dollars and cost projected to high-volume production (500,000 systems per year).d Includes electrical energy and the hydrogen used during the start-up and shut-down procedures.e Based on test protocols in Appendix D.f 8-hour soak at stated temperature must not impact subsequent achievement of targets.DOE targets for automotive application of direct hydrogen fuel cell power systems (DOE, 2010).
\n\t\t\t
An other important issue in fuel cell vehicles commercialization is hydrogen storage. Currently, compressed hydrogen is the principal technology used on board but the research is addressed towards a advanced materials able to store hydrogen at lower pressures and near ambient temperature, in compact and light weight systems ( metal hydrides, chemical hydrogen storage and hydrogen sorption).
\n\t\t\t
In this chapter the prospects of fuel cell in transport application will be discussed and particular attention will be paid to the CNR ITAE experiences. CNR ITAE is the National Council Research of Italy that studies advanced technologies for energy. The Institute is involved in different demonstration projects regarding the development of fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles (FCHEVs) and in particular minibus, citycar, bicycle and tractor. Some kind of projects are addressed to different markets, in particular the so-called “early markets” are deal with. In this case the powertrain is electric and hybrid because it is composed by known technologies, like batteries, but also by supercaps and fuel cells that are innovative technologies. Fuel cells have a small size because are used like on board batteries recharge, “range extender” configuration, allowing to increase the range of traditional electric vehicles. The lower fuel cell power means a reduction in terms of stack size then a less cost of it as well as hydrogen storage amount.
\n\t\t\t
Other one kind of projects is instead addressed to a future market. The configuration used is the “full power fuel cell”, in which FCVs have a big size of power close the electric motor power. The full power fuel cell vehicles are provided with innovative components such as radio systems (information technology systems - ITS) able to broadcast with other similar vehicles and fleet managing station. They represent a new concept of vehicle because they are a high-tech products, equipped with hardware and chassis made with new light materials and with a platform having interchangeable upper bodies.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
2. Fuel cell technology for transport applications
\n\t\t\t
Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC) are the most used technology in FCVs. In part, this dominance is due to large number of companies interested in PEMFC development. In technical terms, PEM fuel cells have high power density, required to meet the space constraints in vehicles, and a working temperature of about 70 ºC allowing a rapid start-up. The electric efficiency is usually 40-60% and the output power can be changed in order to meet quickly demanded load. Other characteristics of PEMFC systems are compactness and lightness. As a result of these characteristics, PEMFC are considered the best candidates for mobile applications. The disadvantages of this technology are sensitive to fuel CO impurities and expensive catalyst, higher CO levels result in loss of fuel cell performance. Furthermore, the electrolyte must be saturated with water and the control of the anode and cathode streams therefore becomes an important issue. In transport applications this technology is used in hybrid configuration with electricity storage devices, such as batteries or super capacitors.
\n\t\t\t
Today real competitors in transport market are SOFC (Solid Oxide Fuel Cell) systems, particularly suited for auxiliary power unit (APU) such as heating, air conditioning, etc (heating, air-condition etc..). SOFCs are characterised by their high working temperature of 800-1000ºC. There are two configuration of stack, tubular and planar. The tubular concept is suitable for large-scale stationary applications while the planar concept is preferred for transport application tanks to the higher power density.The SOFC applications in vehicles are limited to APU rule due to long start-up time and slow dynamic behaviour caused by high temperature operation. However, it is also considered an important option for auxiliary power units on board of vehicles in the 5 kW range. The power density of the SOFC is in the range of 0.15-0.7 W/cm2 but high temperature corrosion is a problem that requires the use of expensive materials. Delphi automotive and BMW companies have already been examined this technology in prototype vehicles.
\n\t\t\t
Other different typologies of fuel cells used in transport are the AFC (Alkaline Fuel Cell). The use of this kind of FC is, today, limited if compared with other FC technologies. Several units are installed in niche transport sectors such as motorbikes, forklift trucks, marine and space applications. Several installations (80%) were introduced before 1990 and used in space applications especially. The rest were installed in transportation development and demonstration vehicles. After 1990 some units were installed in light duty, portable and small stationary end-use. When PEM units were introduced in the 1980s, the interest was shifted to this fuel cell alternative, particularly for the transport sector. Recently, some companies have been considered AFC technology for operation in stationary and portable application. The main problem of this technology is the carbon dioxide poisoning: small amounts of CO2 reduce the conductivity of electrolyte. As consequence of this, pure hydrogen must be used. Besides, air needs to be cleaned from CO2, which limits the application for terrestrial applications considerably.
\n\t\t\t
Finally, DMFC (Direct Methanol Fuel Cell) technology is used to power portable applications and in some niche transport sector such as marine, motorbikes and APU. In the year 2000, Ballard and Daimler Chrysler installed a DMFC system on a light duty but after no other vehicles have been developed. Some years ago DMFC had been considered a promising technology because methanol, that is a liquid fuel, allows to maintain all refuelling infrastructures. However if compared with PEMFC, the DMFC power density is lower but the high energy density of fuel (methanol) has potential to replace batteries with micro fuel cell systems.
Buses, Niche transport, light duty vehicles, APU (niche transport vehicles)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
high power density rapid start-up capacity to meet quickly demand load Solid electrolyte
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
sensitive to fuel CO impurities expensive catalysts
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
SOFC
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
700-1000 °C
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
50-60%
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
APU ((niche transport vehicles)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Tolerance to fuel CO impurities Fuel flexibility Solid electrolyte
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Long start-up Slow dynamic load behaviour High temperature corrosion of components
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
DMFC
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
60-130°C
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
40%
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
APU (niche transport vehicles)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Storage of liquid fuel (methanol)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Low power density high noble metal loadings
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
AFC
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
90-100 °C
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
50-60%
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
APU (niche transport vehicles)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Low cost components
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Sensitive to CO2 in fuel and air
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
Table 2.
Fuel Cell technologies for transport applications.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tTable 2 summarizes fuel cell technologies for transport sector by application. The used technologies are PEM, SOFC, AFC and DMFC while PAFC (Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell) and MCFC (Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell) systems are generally suitable to provide stationary power and generation of heat for residential and industrial applications.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
3. The current market of FCVs
\n\t\t\t
Fuel cell vehicles are still in development and demonstration phase. All automakers have substantial development programs underway. Most attention is focused on the use of PEMFCs for transportation applications. Actually, PEM technology is used in different application as shown in figure 5. The majority of units installed globally are used for portable applications. Niche transportation, light duty vehicles and buses are only around 15% of total installed units because the request is low compared to the other markets.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 6.
Percentage of PEM units installed by application (Gemma Crawley, 2006).
\n\t\t\t
Figure 7.
Buses fuel cells units produced from 1994 to 2008 (Lisa Callaghan Jerram, 2008).
\n\t\t\t
The PEFC systems was chosen for providing primary power train for buses involved in the clean urban transport for Europe (CUTE) (2003-2006). A total of 27 Mercedes-Benz Citaro buses, equipped with fuel cell power train, were used on three continents. Figure 7 shows the buses units number produced per years, the peak number is in 2003 when started the CUTE project. In term of fuel cell bus deployment, Europe is leader with 53% of total deployments and 17 cities involved in demonstration projects. Asia’s projects are focused in Japan, China and South Korea, in USA several activities are presented in California (fig. 8).
\n\t\t\t
With regard to the regions of manufacture the situation mirrors the deployments with Europe 67% of total. The reason of that is the CUTE project, supported by Mercedes Benz fuel cell Citaros, and a Belgian fuel cell buses company, Van Hool.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 8.
Fuel Cell bus deployment (a) and region of manufacture (b) from 2003 to 2008 (Lisa Callaghan Jerram, 2008).
\n\t\t\t
Such as in buses market, in duty vehicles the technology choice is PEM. The annual distribution of units is not constant and reflects the pre-commercial nature of this market (fig. 9). Besides, the targets of past are shifted into next years. The main automaker involved in this sector are Honda, General Motors, Nissan, Hyundai-Kia and Toyota.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 9.
Annual New Light Duty Vehicle (Lisa Callaghan Jerram, May 2009).
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tFigure 10 reports the manufacture and deployment percentage by region. For 2007-2009 (projected) Asia and North America have become the major areas of manufacture. California, with the presence of infrastructures and the ZEV mandate, is a leading market for fuel cell vehicles. Germany, due to government programs, is a promising country for fuel cell market. With regard to Asia, fuel cell vehicles are used as small fleets leased to government officials.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 10.
Light Duty Vehicle deployment (a) and region of manufacture (b) 2007-2009 (Lisa Callaghan Jerram, May 2009).
\n\t\t\t
The Honda fuel cell concept car is shown in figure 11 witch illustrates how modern fuel cell systems can be packaged into a small light-duty vehicles. Like most FC cars, the vehicle is equipped with a compressed hydrogen storage system.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 11.
Fuel cell concept car (manufacturer Honda, type FCX Clarity).
\n\t\t\t
In table 3 the last fuel cell vehicles produced by some carmakers are listed. FC manufacture, range and fuel type are reported.
\n\t\t\t
Transport sector comprises applications as aircraft and aerospace, scooters, motorbikes and other two- and three-wheeled vehicles, materials handling vehicles such as forklift trucks, trains and the ‘other’ category, including such applications as wheelchairs and mobility assistance vehicles. Annual growth from 2005 through 2008 is showed in figure 12. The units installed in 2008 regard principally materials handling vehicles, scooters and motorbikes and the ‘other’ category including mobility assistance vehicles, each of which saw tens to hundreds of units deployed.
Niche transportation: annual growth (Jonathan Butler, July 2008).
\n\t\t\t
The technologies used for this application are PEM and DMFC, very little units installed are SOFC (fig. 13). In particular, there is most units PEM in aerospace and aircraft sector, a two thirds to one third split between PEM and DMFC in the scooters and motorbike market. In the materials handling market, almost exclusively PEM units are used. In the ‘other’ category, there are roughly six times the number of DMFC units compared with PEM units.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 13.
Percentage of units shipment by technologies (Jonathan Butler, July 2008).
\n\t\t\t
Marine and APU market is another interesting application where fuel cells have about 7000 units installed into 2008. Starting with very low units installed in 2005 the numbers increased during 2007/2008.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 14.
Fuel cells units installed in niche transportation sector (APU and marine) from 2005 through 2008 (Dr. Jonathan Butler, 2008).
\n\t\t\t
In terms of technology, DMFC is the principal chose thanks to the liquid fuel and flexibility of refilling. The followed figure shows the percentage by technology. Number of PEM units are limited to APU applications for on board yachts due to their silent operation.
\n\t\t\t
Very interesting is the SOFC technology used mainly for APU demonstration units for road vehicles and marine vessels. In fact, units installed in this transport sector are higher than in large stationary applications (Gemma Crawley, 2007). In this sector SOFC units are used as APUs to supply auxiliary power to selected vehicles. Companies involved in development of automotive system for fuel cell, as Delphi Automotive Systems, believe in SOFC technology for the high efficiency, simply reforming technology and less stringent fuel requirements. The majority fuel cell manufacturer in transportation sector are indicated in table 4.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 15.
APU and Marine sectors: percentage by technology 2007/2008 (Dr. Jonathan Butler, 2008).
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tManufacturer\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tApplication\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tsize\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTechnology\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Ballard
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Transportation/bus/light mobility
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
4 - 85 kW
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
PEM
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
General Hydrogen
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Small/medium/large trucks
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
/
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
PEM
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
SFC Smart Fuel Cell
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Mobile/niche transport
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
600 - 1600 Wh/day
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
DMFC
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
UTC Power
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Transportation
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
120 kW
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
PEM
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Hydrogenics
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Mobility application
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
4 – 65 kW
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
PEM
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Nuvera FC
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
APU, transportation
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
5 – 82 kW
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
PEM
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Delphi Automotive System
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
APU
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
1-5 kW
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
SOFC
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
Table 4.
Fuel cell manufacturers for transport applications.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
4. Vehicles configuration
\n\t\t\t
Fuel cell vehicles are electric vehicles powered by batteries and fuel cell. There are different configurations for fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles (FCHEVs). In particular the configuration depends on the desired hybridization level and on the fuel cell and batteries rules.
\n\t\t\t
In conventional electric vehicles batteries provide power to the electric motor, in the FCHEVs batteries and fuel cell are connected in a parallel system and together provide power.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tFigure 16 shows a fuel cell stack connected with a DC/DC converter needed to provide a regulated voltage at the output. Battery pack is connected with auxiliary devices and with fuel cell. The DC/AC inverter converts the direct current (DC) in alternate current (AC) in order to fed electric motor. The motor is able to recover part of energy that would normally be lost due to braking (regenerative braking). This recovered energy is used to recharge batteries.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 16.
Fuel Cell Hybrid Electric Vehicle configuration
\n\t\t\t
The sizes of batteries and fuel cell define the hybridization level and the configuration.
\n\t\t\t
A conventional electric vehicle (full battery) presents intrinsic limits like the range (that is function of batteries capacity) and recharge time (about 6-8 hours), that can reduce their use. FCHEVs allow to increase the range, in terms of working hours or distance, because it is a function of the on board stored hydrogen and the hydrogen refuelling time isn’t comparable to the batteries recharging time.
\n\t\t\t
In the first configuration, called "total fuel cell" or "full power fuel cell", the electric drive motor is totally fed by fuel cell and a small battery can be installed just for the vehicle start up or for peak power. In this case the fuel cell power is close the electric motor power. A similar architecture, having a big size of fuel cell, means a great quantity of stored hydrogen (also depending on the required range) and high costs.
\n\t\t\t
Another configuration consists of an architecture in which the fuel cell is used as APU (auxiliary power unit) and provides the electrical power required by the auxiliary devices. In this case the fuel cell size is very small and its function is essentially addressed to cover small loads like air conditioning, electric windows, lights, etc.
\n\t\t\t
Finally, the "range extender" configuration is characterized by a small size fuel cell used like on board batteries recharge. This solution, depending on the on board stored hydrogen, allows to increase the range of traditional electric vehicles. Using this configuration it is possible to define a specific batteries recharge strategy; in particular the batteries can be recharged when the electric motor doesn\'t require load, i.e. during the stops and at the terminus. In some case the fuel cell can contribute to the electric traction providing energy when the vehicle runs also. In this way the fuel cell works in optimal operation conditions at a fixed power, avoiding the load following operation that could cause thermal and mechanical stress of materials.
\n\t\t\t
Moreover, the lower fuel cell power means a reduction in terms of stack size then a less cost of it as well as hydrogen storage amount.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
5. CNR ITAE challenges and activities
\n\t\t\t
The automotive strategy of CNR-ITAE is to investigate the fuel cell technology in order to evaluate the stack behavior and its integration in a system, addressing the research towards an efficient system interface and architecture trade off. This includes hydrogen stack modules as well as reformate stack modules. The principal issues regard efficiency, cost, durability and manufacturing. The research activities is focused on SOFC and PEM technologies for applications with hydrogen and Reformed hydrocarbon (NG, GPL). In fact, although the long term target is to implement hydrogen as fuel, since the current limited hydrogen infrastructures, other fuel (such as Reformed NG) can be a short term solution (figure 17).
\n\t\t\t
The projects in which CNR ITAE is involved concern electric vehicles realization, having an electric motor like driving force. This kind of projects are addressed to different markets, in particular the so-called “early markets” are deal with. In this case the powertrain is electric and hybrid because it is composed by known technologies, like batteries, but also by supercaps and fuel cells that are innovative technologies. Fuel cells have a small size because are used like on board batteries recharge, “range extender” configuration, allowing to increase the range of traditional electric vehicles. This approach is a way to introduce the FC technology gradually thanks to the lower power and costs.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 17.
Fuel options for fuel cell power generation.
\n\t\t\t
The other one kind of projects is instead addressed to a future market. The configuration used is the “full power fuel cell”, in which FCs have a big size of power close the electric motor power. The full power fuel cell vehicles are provided with innovative components such as radio systems (information technology systems - ITS) able to broadcast with other similar vehicles and fleet managing station. They represent a new concept of vehicle because they are a high-tech products, equipped with hardware and chassis made with new light materials and with a platform having interchangeable upper bodies.
\n\t\t\t
Demonstration projects regarding the development of fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles (FCHEVs) and in particular minibus, citycar, bicycle, tractor and airplane.The tractor projects intends to demonstrate that the fuel cell can be applied in the farm context because hydrogen could be produced on site using different methods (biomass, wind energy, photovoltaic). In this case the hurdle of hydrogen distribution is avoided.
\n\t\t\t
The research activities of CNR ITAE are supported by numerous partners involved in fuel cell development. This includes collaborations and with fuel cell developers like Nuvera Fuel Cell, SOFCPower and with industrial partners.
\n\t\t\t
The most of important projects in automotive sector which CNR ITAE is involved are “Meccano”, “BHYKE”, “HY-TRACTOR” and “H-BUS”.
\n\t\t\t
The project, called “MECCANO”, is to develop a highly evolved concept vehicle which offers competitive advantages in terms of optimized ergonomics, low running costs, high levels of safety, modularity and low environmental impact. This new product wants to meet societies demand for reduced congestions, low road-space occupation and improved intermodality with public transportation systems. In this context, the vehicle is characterized by the following features (fig. 18):
\n\t\t\t
Very highly efficient propulsion system: the powertrain configurations include full-power fuel cell, plug-in battery electric, battery electric with auxiliary motor-generator (series hybrid), and parallel hybrid with methane fuelled internal combustion engine.
Compact body and short vehicle length (approx. 3m) with high vehicle habitability.
Advanced technologies for integrated preventive, active and passive safety, in order to attain the highest levels of Euro-NCAP consumer ratings.
Latest solutions for human-machine and machine-infrastructure interactions and communication personalized depending on the user and on the specific application.
This economic and ecological urban vehicle aspires to become an ideal mode of transport for environment-aware individuals and municipal authorities. This dual-use concept (ie. individuals as conventional cars or as a means of personalised public transport) introduces radically new opportunities for vehicle design: a) the development of a platform: chassis and low part of the vehicle can be configured in a highly flexible manner in order to accommodate the different propulsions listed above; b) the design of two vehicle bodies and their relative interiors offering different styles and appropriate technologies.
\n\t\t\t
In MECCANO project several automotive companies are directly involved (FIAT, Michelin, Magneti Marelli, Marangoni, ecc.) in conjunction with research institutes.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 18.
Meccano project.
\n\t\t\t
The bicycle project “BHYKE” is the study of an innovative electric bicycle in joint venture with an Italian company, called TRE S.p.A. (Tozzi Renewable Energy). The bike, having pedal assistance, is provided with a 250 W fuel cell and a hydrogen solid state storage cylinder of 900 Sl at 12 bar. The targets for this project are: a range of 130-150 km, a maximum speed of 35 km/h and total weight of 30 kg (fig. 13). The aim of the project is to realize, through a new concept of bike sharing service, a representative sample of field test of hydrogen refuelling station from renewable energy (photovoltaic and wind).
\n\t\t\t
Figure 19.
Hydrogen bicycle and technical characteristics.
\n\t\t\t
In order to demonstrate that fuel cell technology can be used also in farm sector “Hy-Tractor” project wants to develop a fuel cell tractor fed by hydrogen. In farm sector the hydrogen distribution is not a problem because hydrogen can be produced on site using the available renewable energies: wind, photovoltaic, biomass. The main activities are:
\n\t\t\t
Development of a hydrogen production and storage system based on: 1) photovoltaic and electrolyzer (fig. 14), 2) biomass, 3) low temperature thermolysis, 4) high temperature pyrolysis;
Design and development of tractor equipped with fuel cell powertrain, on board hydrogen storage system and other needed auxiliary subsystems.
Development of energy saving systems for efficiency increase. Some of these are: photovoltaic roof, high efficiency air-conditioning and external lights, hydraulic systems and power take-off (PTO) with electric drive.
Replacement of hydraulic drive with electric drive, avoiding oil (that is a polluting substances) and increasing the check.
Design of a Multi-Power Testing-Trailer able to carry out simultaneous tests on the traction, hydraulic system and electric devices.
Field test of the FC tractor during operation both in external sites and inside places (hayloft).
\n\t\t\t
Figure 20.
“Hy-Tractor”: Project layout with photovoltaic plant.
\n\t\t\t
The H-BUS is a joint project of National research Council of Italy and two supplier companies to develop a range extender Fuel Cell/Battery Hybrid Electric city bus. The aim of H-BUS project is to realize a pre-commercial Fuel Cell/Battery HEV able to increase the range (at least 30%) with respect to same bus in a standard electric configuration, using a small size of fuel cell that works as batteries recharge on board. Within the project, CNR TAE Institute is involved in determining the optimal level of hybridization assessing all boundary conditions (mission, performances, hydrogen consumption, range, etc...). The bus selected for the prototype realization is an electric vehicle having an 85 kW rated power of electric drive motor and a capacity of 44 passengers (Fig.21).
\n\t\t\t
Figure 21.
The selected bus for the H-BUS project
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
5.1. Fuel cell systems development
\n\t\t\t\t
The CNR ITAE collaborations with fuel cell developers are focused on improving durability, architecture and cost reduction of fuel cell systems and stacks. As above said, in automotive sector, PEMFC and SOFC are the principal technologies studied. The development of PEM fuel cell systems is summarized in table 5, all devises are fed by pure hydrogen. Gen 3 is a hybrid system composed by a stack of 5 kWe and a battery pack with a power output of 4 kW. Besides, this system is equipped with a new kind of hydrogen recirculation system which increases stack durability up to 10000 hr.
\n\t\t\t\t
A fuel cell system is composed by fuel cell stack and the linked ancillaries: a blower for the air, a pump for the water and a fan for the cooling circuit (Fig 22). Dedicated micro–computer and software are used for the management of the entire system in terms of operation and safety
\n\t\t\t\t
The stack is the core componentof a fuel cell system but, for the electrical energy production, hydrogen and air have to be fed into the stack. Excess heat must be removed through a cooling system. The operational characteristic curve of a stack (polarization curve) illustrates the device’s performance unambiguously. The experimental curve of the fuel cell PEM system is is shown in Fig. 23a.It demonstrates that the stack works in a defined range of voltage of 0.65-1Vcell. In this range of voltage it is possible to obtain high performance in terms of efficiency and to limit the materials stress in order to assure a long durability. The figure also reports cell voltage of stack (average voltage of two contiguous cells) at different power levels (fig.23b). The stack is composed by 40 cells.
\n\t\t\t\t
An important issue in automotive sector is the response time of system. For this reason start-up/warm-up times have been evaluated at different temperatures in order to determine system limitations and the best operative conditions. The aim was to minimize the battery pack that supply the load and the FC system ancillaries at the same time. The first remark is that batteries cannot be completely eliminated, due to start-up operations. In fact, during the
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Rated Power (kW)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5 kW FC + 4 kW batteries
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Number of cells
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
40
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
40
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
40
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Temperature (°C)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
80
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
80
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
80
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Active area (cm2)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
500
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
500
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
500
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Efficiency (%)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
52
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
54
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
54
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Durability (hr)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1500
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3000
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
10000
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 5.
PEM Fuel Cell Systems development.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 22.
Schematic diagram of the Fuel Cells System.
\n\t\t\t\t
start-up, system drains an average current of 13.5 A (P = 648W), from an external power supply (Fig. 18). The minimum time needed by the FC system to generate power is ever 7 seconds (FC system software setting), but its value never reaches the maximum value (5 kW) before the warm-up.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 23.
Polarization curve (A) and voltage distribution (B) for a stack of 40 cells PEM.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 24.
Current demand from external 48V power supply by FC system during then start-up.
\n\t\t\t\t
The minimum time needed by the FC system to generate power is ever 7 seconds (FC system software setting), but its value never reaches the maximum value (5 kW) before the warm-up. FC system produces the best response when it starts to run at the nominal temperature as shown in the following figure 19, where is reported the start-up/warm-up time depending on the different initial FC system temperature. At the nominal temperature, FC system generates maximum power after 76 seconds during start-up routine runs (7 seconds) and FC stack is warmed-up (69 seconds) at the nominal temperature.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 25.
Start-up times at different initial FC system temperatures.
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Rated Power (kW)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.248
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.811
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.096
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Number of cells
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
75
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
10
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
32
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Temperature (°C)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
650
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
500
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
750
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Active area (cm2)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
92
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
360
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
50
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
NG reforming
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Internal with pre-reforming
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Internal
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Internal
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 6.
Features of the three SOFC stacks.
\n\t\t\t\t
Among Fuel Cells, SOFCs show the great advantage of working with more flexible gas than than polymer electrolyte fuel cells. The table 6 reports the performance of three intermediate temperature SOFC stacks. The aim is to build a complete SOFC power generation system around the stack. All these three stacks have planar bipolar plate, but they are arranged with different technical solutions: active areas, volumes, dimensions, ect.
\n\t\t\t\t
A polarization curve of a SOFC system tested is showed in figure 26. The stack power output is 500 W and 55% of electric efficiency is expected. The working temperature is about 750 ºC.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 26.
Polarization curve of a SOFC system with a power of 500 W.
\n\t\t\t\t
These systems are suitable for small recreation vehicles (i.e. motor cycles, golf car), utility vehicles ( i.e. fork-lift trucks) and hybrid vehicles in range extended configuration.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
5.2. Hybrid powertrain studies
\n\t\t\t\t
Over the years, CNR ITAE has evaluated different powertrain configurations in terms of the energy flows and system components size. Here are reported some architectures chosen for hybrid powertrains used in small vehicles and buses.
\n\t\t\t\t
The structure of a hybrid powertarin for a golf car is the same showed in figure 16. The hybrid powertrain is composed by the following main devices: fuel cell power soure, battery pack, static power converter (inserted between FC and load diode between the static power converter and load). The fuel cell system is a compact power module with a nominal power of 5kWe, developed with Nuvera Fuel Cells. The lightweight vehicle was adequately instrumented for data acquisition by applying speed transducer, voltage and current sensors (fig. 27); it was subjected to a work cycle with heavy load conditions, both on road and in laboratory simulated by electric load.
\n\t\t\t\t
In this latter configuration, the fuel cell is used as main power source for the powertrain, also providing battery charge. The battery has the role to provide peak power during the start up of the vehicle and to supply the necessary energy to the fuel cell system during the start up. The hybrid powertrain has shown a fast response even at extreme and impulsive loads and a wider range compared to a battery vehicle, without compromising the weight limitations on the vehicles.
\n\t\t\t\t
The figure 28 shows the response of the battery and the fuel cell system during a rising transient. The behaviour of starting batteries is characterized by a short delay in the load response when rising transient begins. This phenomenon is due to a small power inlet from fuel cell to batteries. The batteries package is connected directly to the electronic load and, in correspondence of the power demand, voltage decreases. As a consequence the recharging current of the batteries increases, since the voltage difference between PowerFlow and batteries is higher than the pre-fixed control value. During this very short time (0.1 s) the fuel cell tries to recharge the batteries even if the demand is higher than its rated power. This delay occurs every time the load changes. Moreover, the load response is slightly lower than the electronic load demand.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 27.
Golf car Hybrid Powertrain.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 28.
Response of the battery and the fuel cell system during a rising transient.
\n\t\t\t\t
An important instrument to identify the most favourable vehicle configuration in specified operating conditions is the computer simulations. Figure 29 shows a power train simulation for a bus in range extended configuration. A range-extender HEV is essentially an EV with an on-board charging system(Suppes GJ et al., 2004). Simulation studies have been performed to evaluate the potential SoC saving and autonomy increase with respect of pure battery EV bus. The simulation models have been developed in the Matlab® Simulink® environment utilizing the SimPowerSystems tool.
\n\t\t\t\t
In the proposed configuration FC system works as batteries recharge that provides, following an identified strategy, the necessary power to the driving cycle to increase the autonomy of the vehicle. The storage system (traction batteries) provides, however, the energy required to satisfy the peak power demand. PEM Fuel Cell and ZEBRA® (Zero Emission Battery Research Activities) technologies have been selected for the fuel cell system and batteries, respectively.
\n\t\t\t\t
The study has demonstrated that a power train with 6 ZEBRA® batteries connected with 5 kW FC system appears as the best solution. This configuration allows to increase the range of about 40% as shown Figure 30.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 29.
Simulink® model of the powertrain for bus application.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 30.
SoC (%) analysis: Comparison of proposed HEV (blue) and pure battery EV (green).
\n\t\t\t\t
The obtained results show that Fuel Cells and Batteries achieve an optimal synergy because their combination provides better performance and lower costs than batteries or total fuel cells vehicles.
\n\t\t\t\t
With regard to the integration of fuel cell in the vehicles, the figure 31 shows the layout bus for the project "H-Bus". The fuel cell system and hydrogen storage are assembled on the top of the vehicle in substitution of Nº1 batteries box. TIn order to reduce costs and improve the fuel cell system technological development the exiting vehicle structure and electric drive train technology have been used.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 31.
Position of batteries packs on the top of the electric Bus version (only battery electric vehicle).
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 32.
Example of distribution of the power between SOFC and battery.
\n\t\t\t\t
Some studies are focused on SOFC technology used mainly for APU demonstration units for road vehicles having a hybrid configuration (Battery and FC). The work here reported regards the integration of a little SOFC system of 500 W with a battery. In particular, a specific control algorithm was developed for utilizing the SOFC system as a base power source and battery as a complementary source (Fig.32). In fact, on the contrary of PEM technology, SOFC device is not able to follow fast and wide changes of the load because its high working temperature. The aim is to develop an efficient hybrid system able to deliver the power requirement, to combine energy storage and to ensure durable operation.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
To obtain benefits from the operation of a hybrid system, the flows of power within the system must be carefully planned and regulated in accordance with an appropriate energetic strategy to optimize the total efficiency and to preserve the devices from stress that may reduce their lifecycle. This research with a power of 500 W can be scaled-up and optimized for specific conditions.
\n\t\t
\n\t\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/18666.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/18666.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/18666",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/18666",totalDownloads:7161,totalViews:1314,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"October 28th 2010",dateReviewed:"April 14th 2011",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"September 6th 2011",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/18666",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/18666",book:{slug:"electric-vehicles-the-benefits-and-barriers"},signatures:"Nicola Briguglio, Laura Andaloro, Marco Ferraro and Vincenzo Antonucci",authors:[{id:"32072",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicola",middleName:null,surname:"Briguglio",fullName:"Nicola Briguglio",slug:"nicola-briguglio",email:"nicola.briguglio@itae.cnr.it",position:null,institution:null},{id:"40746",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Ferraro",fullName:"Marco Ferraro",slug:"marco-ferraro",email:"ferraro@itae.cnr.it",position:null,institution:{name:"National Research Council",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"40747",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Andaloro",fullName:"Laura Andaloro",slug:"laura-andaloro",email:"andaloro@itae.cnr.it",position:null,institution:null},{id:"40748",title:"Dr.",name:"Vincenzo",middleName:null,surname:"Antonucci",fullName:"Vincenzo Antonucci",slug:"vincenzo-antonucci",email:"vincenzo.antonucci@itae.cnr.it",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Fuel cell technology for transport applications",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. The current market of FCVs",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Vehicles configuration",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. CNR ITAE challenges and activities",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"5.1. Fuel cell systems development",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"5.2. Hybrid powertrain studies",level:"2"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\n\t\t\t\tWorld Resources Institute, Sustainable Development Information Service, The global commons: Proceed with caution: Growth in the global motor vehicle fleet.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B2",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tOgden\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. M.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2005Alternative fuels and prospects-Overview, In: Handbook of Fuel Cell. Wolf Vielstich Arnold Lamm Hubert A. Gasteiger, 3\n\t\t\t\t\t24Wiley, England.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B3",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tEuropean CommissionCOM(2010April 2010. A European strategy on clean and energy efficient vehicles. Available from: < http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2010:0186:FIN:EN:PDF>.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B4",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tMcKinsey & Company on behalf of a consortium of 31 public and private companies.November 2010\n\t\t\t\t\tA Portfolio of Powertrains for Europe: A Fact Based Analysis: The role of Battery Electric Vehicles, Plug-in Hybrids and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles. Available from :< www.zeroemissionvehicles.eu\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B5",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tDOE, (January\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tHydrogen and Fuel Cell Activities, Progress, and Plans. Report to Congress. Available from: < http://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/epact_report_sec811.pdf\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B6",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tDOE,\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tWell-to-Wheels Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Petroleum Use for Mid-Size Light-Duty Vehicles. Available from: < www.hydrogen.energy.gov/program_records.html\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B7",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tLisa Callaghan Jerram.\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tBus Survey, Available from < http://www.fuelcelltoday.com/\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B8",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGemma\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCrawley. .\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMarch\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2006\n\t\t\t\t\tProton Exchange Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cells, Available from < http://www.fuelcelltoday.com/\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B9",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGemma\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCrawley. .\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAugust\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2007\n\t\t\t\t\tDirect Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFC). Available from < http://www.fuelcelltoday.com/\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B10",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tDOE\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tResearch and Development of Fuel Cells for Stationary and Transportation. Available from: < www.energy.gov/>.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B11",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tLisa Callaghan Jerram (May,\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tLight Duty Vehicle Survey. Available from < http://www.fuelcelltoday.com/\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B12",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tDr. Jonathan Butler\n\t\t\t\t\t2008Niche Transport 2Available from< http://www.fuelcelltoday.com/\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B13",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tGemma Crawley (\n\t\t\t\t\t2007\n\t\t\t\t\tSolid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC). Available from< http://www.fuelcelltoday.com/\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B14",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFuel Cell 2000\n\t\t\t\t\t2011Available from< http://www.fuelcells.org/info/charts/carchart.pdf>.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B15",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tDr.Jonathan Butler (July 2008Niche Transport Survey 1Available from < http://www.fuelcelltoday.com/\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B16",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSuppes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLopes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChiu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC. W.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2004\n\t\t\t\t\tPlug-in fuel cell, hybridsas transition technology to hydrogen infrastructure”. Int. J Hydrogen Energy 29\n\t\t\t\t\t369\n\t\t\t\t\t374\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Nicola Briguglio",address:"",affiliation:'
CNR-ITAE, Via Salita S. Lucia sopra Contesse, Messina, Italy
CNR-ITAE, Via Salita S. Lucia sopra Contesse, Messina, Italy
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De",surname:"Lucena",fullName:"Samuel Lucena",slug:"samuel-lucena"}]},{id:"18662",title:"Electric Vehicles in an Urban Context: Environmental Benefits and Techno-Economic Barriers",slug:"electric-vehicles-in-an-urban-context-environmental-benefits-and-techno-economic-barriers",totalDownloads:4138,totalCrossrefCites:4,signatures:"Adolfo Perujo, Christian Thiel and Françoise Nemry",authors:[{id:"40430",title:"Dr.",name:"Adolfo",middleName:null,surname:"Perujo",fullName:"Adolfo Perujo",slug:"adolfo-perujo"},{id:"41647",title:"Mr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Thiel",fullName:"Christian Thiel",slug:"christian-thiel"},{id:"41648",title:"Ms.",name:"Françoise",middleName:null,surname:"Nemry",fullName:"Françoise Nemry",slug:"francoise-nemry"}]},{id:"18663",title:"Electric Vehicle Waves of History: Lessons Learned about Market Deployment of Electric Vehicles",slug:"plug-in-electric-vehicles-a-century-later-historical-lessons-on-what-is-different-what-is-not-",totalDownloads:3136,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"D. J. Santini",authors:[{id:"47633",title:"Dr.",name:"Danilo",middleName:null,surname:"Santini",fullName:"Danilo Santini",slug:"danilo-santini"}]},{id:"18664",title:"What is the Role of Electric Vehicles in a Low Carbon Transport in China?",slug:"what-is-the-role-of-electric-vehicles-in-a-low-carbon-transport-in-china-",totalDownloads:2210,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Jing Yang, Wei Shen and Aling Zhang",authors:[{id:"36603",title:"Prof.",name:"Aling",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",fullName:"Aling Zhang",slug:"aling-zhang"},{id:"40154",title:"Ms.",name:"Jing",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",fullName:"Jing Yang",slug:"jing-yang"},{id:"97309",title:"Dr.",name:"Wei",middleName:null,surname:"Shen",fullName:"Wei Shen",slug:"wei-shen"}]},{id:"18665",title:"Plug-in Hybrid Vehicles",slug:"plug-in-hybrid-vehicles",totalDownloads:2799,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Vít Bršlica",authors:[{id:"43551",title:"Prof.",name:"Vít",middleName:null,surname:"Bršlica",fullName:"Vít Bršlica",slug:"vit-brslica"}]},{id:"18666",title:"Fuel Cell Hybrid Electric Vehicles",slug:"fuel-cell-hybrid-electric-vehicles",totalDownloads:7161,totalCrossrefCites:3,signatures:"Nicola Briguglio, Laura Andaloro, Marco Ferraro and Vincenzo Antonucci",authors:[{id:"32072",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicola",middleName:null,surname:"Briguglio",fullName:"Nicola Briguglio",slug:"nicola-briguglio"},{id:"40746",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Ferraro",fullName:"Marco Ferraro",slug:"marco-ferraro"},{id:"40747",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Andaloro",fullName:"Laura Andaloro",slug:"laura-andaloro"},{id:"40748",title:"Dr.",name:"Vincenzo",middleName:null,surname:"Antonucci",fullName:"Vincenzo Antonucci",slug:"vincenzo-antonucci"}]},{id:"18668",title:"Integration of Electric Vehicles in the Electric Utility Systems",slug:"integration-of-electric-vehicles-in-the-electric-utility-systems",totalDownloads:3452,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Cristina Camus, Jorge Esteves and Tiago Farias",authors:[{id:"25689",title:"Prof.",name:"Cristina",middleName:"Inês",surname:"Camus",fullName:"Cristina Camus",slug:"cristina-camus"}]},{id:"18669",title:"Communication with and for Electric Vehicles",slug:"communication-with-and-for-electric-vehicles",totalDownloads:4831,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Jonas Fluhr and Theo Lutz",authors:[{id:"26499",title:"Mr.",name:"Jonas",middleName:null,surname:"Fluhr",fullName:"Jonas Fluhr",slug:"jonas-fluhr"},{id:"26502",title:"Mr.",name:"Theo",middleName:null,surname:"Lutz",fullName:"Theo Lutz",slug:"theo-lutz"}]},{id:"18670",title:"Applications of SR Drive Systems on Electric Vehicles",slug:"applications-of-sr-drive-systems-on-electric-vehicles",totalDownloads:4370,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Wang Yan, Yin Tianming and Yin Haochun",authors:[{id:"31966",title:"Dr.",name:"Wang",middleName:null,surname:"Yan",fullName:"Wang Yan",slug:"wang-yan"},{id:"39518",title:"Mr.",name:"Yin",middleName:null,surname:"Tianming",fullName:"Yin Tianming",slug:"yin-tianming"},{id:"83518",title:"Ms.",name:"Yin",middleName:null,surname:"Haochun",fullName:"Yin Haochun",slug:"yin-haochun"}]},{id:"18671",title:"LiFePO4 Cathode Material",slug:"lifepo4-cathode-material",totalDownloads:10770,totalCrossrefCites:14,signatures:"Borong Wu, Yonghuan Ren and Ning Li",authors:[{id:"33263",title:"Dr.",name:"Borong",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",fullName:"Borong Wu",slug:"borong-wu"},{id:"37692",title:"Dr.",name:"Yonghuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ren",fullName:"Yonghuan Ren",slug:"yonghuan-ren"},{id:"37693",title:"MSc",name:"Ning",middleName:null,surname:"Li",fullName:"Ning Li",slug:"ning-li"}]},{id:"18672",title:"An Integrated Electric Vehicle Curriculum",slug:"an-integrated-electric-vehicle-curriculum",totalDownloads:4776,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Francisco J. 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Neji",authors:[{id:"25907",title:"Mr.",name:"Jaber",middleName:null,surname:"Karim",fullName:"Jaber Karim",slug:"jaber-karim"},{id:"38695",title:"Prof.",name:"Fakhfakh",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",fullName:"Fakhfakh Ahmed",slug:"fakhfakh-ahmed"},{id:"38696",title:"Prof.",name:"Rafik",middleName:null,surname:"Neji",fullName:"Rafik Neji",slug:"rafik-neji"}]},{id:"19573",title:"Control of Hybrid Electrical Vehicles",slug:"control-of-hybrid-electrical-vehicles",signatures:"Gheorghe Livinţ, Vasile Horga, Marcel Răţoi and Mihai Albu",authors:[{id:"25879",title:"Prof.",name:"Gheorghe",middleName:null,surname:"Livint",fullName:"Gheorghe Livint",slug:"gheorghe-livint"},{id:"40500",title:"Dr.",name:"Vasile",middleName:null,surname:"Horga",fullName:"Vasile Horga",slug:"vasile-horga"},{id:"40501",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcel",middleName:null,surname:"Ratoi",fullName:"Marcel Ratoi",slug:"marcel-ratoi"},{id:"40502",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Albu",fullName:"Mihai Albu",slug:"mihai-albu"}]},{id:"19574",title:"Vehicle Dynamic Control of 4 In-Wheel-Motor Drived Electric Vehicle",slug:"vehicle-dynamic-control-of-4-in-wheel-motor-drived-electric-vehicle",signatures:"Lu Xiong and Zhuoping Yu",authors:[{id:"27064",title:"Dr.",name:"Lu",middleName:null,surname:"Xiong",fullName:"Lu Xiong",slug:"lu-xiong"},{id:"40329",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhuoping",middleName:null,surname:"Yu",fullName:"Zhuoping Yu",slug:"zhuoping-yu"}]},{id:"19575",title:"A Robust Traction Control for Electric Vehicles Without Chassis Velocity",slug:"a-robust-traction-control-for-electric-vehicles-without-chassis-velocity",signatures:"Jia-Sheng Hu, Dejun Yin and Feng-Rung Hu",authors:[{id:"26744",title:"Dr.",name:"Jia-Sheng",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",fullName:"Jia-Sheng Hu",slug:"jia-sheng-hu"},{id:"36727",title:"Dr.",name:"Dejun",middleName:null,surname:"Yin",fullName:"Dejun Yin",slug:"dejun-yin"},{id:"36728",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng-Rung",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",fullName:"Feng-Rung Hu",slug:"feng-rung-hu"}]},{id:"19576",title:"Vehicle Stability Enhancement Control for Electric Vehicle Using Behaviour Model Control",slug:"vehicle-stability-enhancement-control-for-electric-vehicle-using-behaviour-model-control",signatures:"Kada Hartani and Yahia Miloud",authors:[{id:"37440",title:"Dr.",name:"Hartani",middleName:null,surname:"Kada",fullName:"Hartani Kada",slug:"hartani-kada"},{id:"97746",title:"Dr.",name:"Yahia",middleName:null,surname:"Miloud",fullName:"Yahia Miloud",slug:"yahia-miloud"}]},{id:"19577",title:"FPGA Based Powertrain Control for Electric Vehicles",slug:"fpga-based-powertrain-control-for-electric-vehicles",signatures:"Ricardo de Castro, Rui Esteves Araújo and Diamantino Freitas",authors:[{id:"31661",title:"Mr.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"de Castro",fullName:"Ricardo de Castro",slug:"ricardo-de-castro"},{id:"31663",title:"Prof.",name:"Rui Esteves",middleName:"Esteves",surname:"Araújo",fullName:"Rui Esteves Araújo",slug:"rui-esteves-araujo"},{id:"39792",title:"Prof.",name:"Diamantino",middleName:null,surname:"Freitas",fullName:"Diamantino Freitas",slug:"diamantino-freitas"}]},{id:"19578",title:"Global Design and Optimization of a Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine Used for Light Electric Vehicle",slug:"global-design-and-optimization-of-a-permanent-magnet-synchronous-machine-used-for-light-electric-veh",signatures:"Daniel Fodorean",authors:[{id:"29312",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Fodorean",fullName:"Daniel Fodorean",slug:"daniel-fodorean"}]},{id:"19579",title:"Efficient Sensorless PMSM Drive for Electric Vehicle Traction Systems",slug:"efficient-sensorless-pmsm-drive-for-electric-vehicle-traction-systems",signatures:"Driss Yousfi, Abdelhadi Elbacha and Abdellah Ait Ouahman",authors:[{id:"25726",title:"Dr.",name:"Driss",middleName:null,surname:"Yousfi",fullName:"Driss Yousfi",slug:"driss-yousfi"},{id:"40985",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdelhadi",middleName:null,surname:"Elbacha",fullName:"Abdelhadi Elbacha",slug:"abdelhadi-elbacha"},{id:"84090",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdellah",middleName:null,surname:"Ait Ouahman",fullName:"Abdellah Ait Ouahman",slug:"abdellah-ait-ouahman"}]},{id:"19580",title:"Hybrid Switched Reluctance Motor and Drives Applied on a Hybrid Electric Car",slug:"hybrid-switched-reluctance-motor-and-drives-applied-on-a-hybrid-electric-car",signatures:"Qianfan Zhang, Xiaofei Liu, Shumei Cui, Shuai Dong and Yifan Yu",authors:[{id:"29494",title:"Dr.",name:"Qianfan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",fullName:"Qianfan Zhang",slug:"qianfan-zhang"},{id:"34345",title:"Mr.",name:"Xiaofei",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",fullName:"Xiaofei Liu",slug:"xiaofei-liu"},{id:"34346",title:"Prof.",name:"Shumei",middleName:null,surname:"Cui",fullName:"Shumei Cui",slug:"shumei-cui"},{id:"34347",title:"MSc",name:"Shuai",middleName:null,surname:"Dong",fullName:"Shuai Dong",slug:"shuai-dong"},{id:"34348",title:"Mr",name:"Yifan",middleName:null,surname:"Yu",fullName:"Yifan Yu",slug:"yifan-yu"}]},{id:"19581",title:"Mathematical Modelling and Simulation of a PWM Inverter Controlled Brushless Motor Drive System from Physical Principles for Electric Vehicle Propulsion Applications",slug:"mathematical-modelling-and-simulation-of-a-pwm-inverter-controlled-brushless-motor-drive-system-from",signatures:"Richard A. Guinee",authors:[{id:"25913",title:"Dr",name:"Richard",middleName:"Anthony",surname:"Guinee",fullName:"Richard Guinee",slug:"richard-guinee"}]},{id:"19582",title:"Multiobjective Optimal Design of an Inverter Fed Axial Flux Permanent Magnet In-Wheel Motor for Electric Vehicles",slug:"multiobjective-optimal-design-of-an-inverter-fed-axial-flux-permanent-magnet-in-wheel-motor-for-elec",signatures:"Christophe Versèle, Olivier Deblecker and Jacques Lobry",authors:[{id:"27025",title:"Dr.",name:"Christophe",middleName:null,surname:"Versèle",fullName:"Christophe Versèle",slug:"christophe-versele"},{id:"31944",title:"Prof.",name:"Olivier",middleName:null,surname:"Deblecker",fullName:"Olivier Deblecker",slug:"olivier-deblecker"},{id:"31945",title:"Prof.",name:"Jacques",middleName:null,surname:"Lobry",fullName:"Jacques Lobry",slug:"jacques-lobry"}]},{id:"19583",title:"DC/DC Converters for Electric Vehicles",slug:"dc-dc-converters-for-electric-vehicles",signatures:"Monzer Al Sakka, Joeri Van Mierlo and Hamid Gualous",authors:[{id:"27098",title:"Dr.",name:"Monzer",middleName:null,surname:"Al Sakka",fullName:"Monzer Al Sakka",slug:"monzer-al-sakka"},{id:"40637",title:"Prof.",name:"Joeri",middleName:null,surname:"Van Mierlo",fullName:"Joeri Van Mierlo",slug:"joeri-van-mierlo"},{id:"40638",title:"Prof.",name:"Hamid",middleName:null,surname:"Gualous",fullName:"Hamid Gualous",slug:"hamid-gualous"}]},{id:"19584",title:"A Comparative Thermal Study of Two Permanent Magnets Motors Structures with Interior and Exterior Rotor",slug:"a-comparative-thermal-study-of-two-permanent-magnets-motors-structures-with-interior-and-exterior-ro",signatures:"Naourez Ben Hadj, Jalila Kaouthar Kammoun, Mohamed Amine Fakhfakh, Mohamed Chaieb and Rafik Neji",authors:[{id:"38696",title:"Prof.",name:"Rafik",middleName:null,surname:"Neji",fullName:"Rafik Neji",slug:"rafik-neji"},{id:"29789",title:"Dr.",name:"Ben Hadj",middleName:null,surname:"Naourez",fullName:"Ben Hadj Naourez",slug:"ben-hadj-naourez"},{id:"35742",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed Amine",middleName:null,surname:"Fakhfakh",fullName:"Mohamed Amine Fakhfakh",slug:"mohamed-amine-fakhfakh"},{id:"41036",title:"Dr.",name:"Chaeib",middleName:null,surname:"Mohamed",fullName:"Chaeib Mohamed",slug:"chaeib-mohamed"},{id:"41037",title:"Dr.",name:"Kammoun",middleName:null,surname:"Jalila Kaouthar",fullName:"Kammoun Jalila Kaouthar",slug:"kammoun-jalila-kaouthar"}]},{id:"19585",title:"Minimization of the Copper Losses in Electrical Vehicle Using Doubly Fed Induction Motor Vector Controlled",slug:"minimization-of-the-copper-losses-in-electrical-vehicle-using-doubly-fed-induction-motor-vector-cont",signatures:"Saïd Drid",authors:[{id:"118714",title:"Prof.",name:"Said",middleName:null,surname:"Drid",fullName:"Said Drid",slug:"said-drid"}]},{id:"19586",title:"Predictive Intelligent Battery Management System to Enhance the Performance of Electric Vehicle",slug:"predictive-intelligent-battery-management-system-to-enhance-the-performance-of-electric-vehicle",signatures:"Mohamad Abdul-Hak, Nizar Al-Holou and Utayba Mohammad",authors:[{id:"27260",title:"MSc",name:"Mohamad",middleName:null,surname:"Abdul-Hak",fullName:"Mohamad Abdul-Hak",slug:"mohamad-abdul-hak"},{id:"45785",title:"Prof.",name:"Nizar",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Holou",fullName:"Nizar Al-Holou",slug:"nizar-al-holou"},{id:"93928",title:"Mr.",name:"Utayba",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammad",fullName:"Utayba Mohammad",slug:"utayba-mohammad"}]},{id:"19587",title:"Design and Analysis of Multi-Node CAN Bus for Diesel Hybrid Electric Vehicle",slug:"design-and-analysis-of-multi-node-can-bus-for-diesel-hybrid-electric-vehicle",signatures:"XiaoJian Mao, Jun hua Song, Junxi Wang, Hang bo Tang and Zhuo bin",authors:[{id:"44807",title:"Dr.",name:"Junhua",middleName:null,surname:"Song",fullName:"Junhua Song",slug:"junhua-song"},{id:"44818",title:"Dr.",name:"Mao",middleName:null,surname:"Xiaojian",fullName:"Mao Xiaojian",slug:"mao-xiaojian"},{id:"44819",title:"Dr.",name:"Wang",middleName:null,surname:"Junxi",fullName:"Wang Junxi",slug:"wang-junxi"},{id:"44820",title:"Mr.",name:"Tang",middleName:null,surname:"Hangbo",fullName:"Tang Hangbo",slug:"tang-hangbo"},{id:"44821",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhuo",middleName:null,surname:"Bin",fullName:"Zhuo Bin",slug:"zhuo-bin"}]},{id:"19588",title:"Sugeno Inference Perturbation Analysis for Electric Aerial Vehicles",slug:"sugeno-inference-perturbation-analysis-for-electric-aerial-vehicles",signatures:"John T. Economou and Kevin Knowles",authors:[{id:"38329",title:"Dr.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Economou",fullName:"John Economou",slug:"john-economou"},{id:"40521",title:"Prof.",name:"Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Knowles",fullName:"Kevin Knowles",slug:"kevin-knowles"}]},{id:"19589",title:"Extended Simulation of an Embedded Brushless Motor Drive (BLMD) System for Adjustable Speed Control Inclusive of a Novel Impedance Angle Compensation Technique for Improved Torque Control in Electric Vehicle Propulsion Systems",slug:"extended-simulation-of-an-embedded-brushless-motor-drive-blmd-system-for-adjustable-speed-control-in",signatures:"Richard A. Guinee",authors:[{id:"25913",title:"Dr",name:"Richard",middleName:"Anthony",surname:"Guinee",fullName:"Richard Guinee",slug:"richard-guinee"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"73015",title:"Thinning: An Overview",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93436",slug:"thinning-an-overview",body:'\n
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1. Introduction
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Stand and forest management encompasses a set of silvicultural practices which are designed according to its goals. Among these, thinning is of primordial importance as it influences stand structure, tree and stand growth, products, yields and diversity.
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In time, the trees of a stand occupy gradually the available growing space, developing simultaneously facilitation and competitive interactions [1]. The balance between these two interactions is dynamic, but competition increases with the decrease of the growing space. The result is that individuals with competitive advantages reallocate the growing space formerly occupied by other individuals with less competitive advantages and suppress them. This originates from the development of a social structure which, when growing space is fully occupied, derives in the death of the suppressed individuals, that is, self-thinning [2].
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Thinning implies always the removal of trees with the main goal of allocating the growing space to those better suited to the desired productions and yields [2, 3, 4, 5, 6]. The removal of trees can have both positive and negative effects. The positive, are related to the reduction of competition, anticipation of volume losses due to self-thinning, increase of diameter growth rate, increase of timber value and revenue and reduction of the damages due to the abiotic and biotic disturbances. The negative, are associated with the reduction of total volume, risk of mortality or growth stagnation, cost of the operation, damages in the remaining trees and risk of damages by abiotic and biotic agents [2, 6].
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In literature, thinning has been analysed according to its method and intensity as well as with the tree selection criteria. Yet, while some methods are of generalised use, others were developed for specific purposes. The main goal of this review is to compile the existing information regarding tree selection, thinning methods and intensity as well as their effects on trees and stands. The chapter is organised in four sections. Section 2 describes and characterises tree selection criteria. Section 3 analyses the thinning methods and intensity. Section 4 analyses the effects of thinning on stand structure, growth, products and as an adaptive measure.
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2. Tree selection
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Tree selection plays one of the key roles in thinning, as one of its main objectives is the reallocation of growing space to a set of trees in the stand. Care has to be taken so that the trees maintained in the stand are able to use the growing space made available [2, 6, 7]. Thus, it has to be thought at two complementary levels: (i) at tree level, reallocating the growing space to the trees kept so that they reach the desired growth rates, yields and product quality and (ii) at stand level, optimising yield for the desired production cycle, which is also related to density, spatial arrangement and site quality. These levels derive from two tree development traits, namely, the intrinsic and the external. The former is mainly driven by genetics, preponderant when trees grow isolated. In the latter, the growing space availability determines trees development [1, 2, 8]. These complementary objectives enable balancing interactions to achieve growing space use optimization and improve the overall stand quality and yield.
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The need of selecting trees enhanced the development of tools to evaluate growing stock, stability, potential photosynthetic ability and growth rate [1, 2, 3, 6, 9]. One of the mostly used is the tree classification system. Their main advantages are that tree and stand description, evaluation and monitoring (both spatial and temporal) can be carried out with a set of qualitative criteria, needless of forest inventories. The stand evaluation is quick with low costs and helps to implement silvicultural practices. The disadvantages are related to their development or adaptation to stand structure and management goals, to not enabling a quantitative evaluation and to the need of skilled practitioners [2, 6, 7, 8, 10].
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Due to the variety of stand structures and management goals, many tree classification systems were developed. They evolved in time, increasing in complexity, as more criteria were included to increase accuracy and precision [7, 8, 11]. Typically, tree classification systems are grouped in two broad classes according to the stand structure and production goals. One is directed towards pure even-aged stands with one main production (timber), for example, of kraft [10], of 1902 [10], English [12], of Assmann [2], Belgian [3], of Meadows and Skojac [11]. The other is directed to pure or mixed uneven-aged systems with one main production or several ones, for example, of Assmann [2], of Florence [8], of IUFRO [7], of Meadows [13] and of Perkey classification [14].
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The concept of future trees is related to tree characteristics, moment of selection, number of trees per unit area and their spatial arrangements.
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The criteria associated with the future tree characteristics referred in independent studies (e.g. [3, 6, 7, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19]) are similar, and eight criteria can be pointed out: (i) vigour and good sanitary conditions, (ii) social position (dominant or codominant), (iii) suitability of the species mixture, (iv) vertical straight stem, (v) without stem deformation (forks) up to 6–8 m for timber and 2–4 m for bark and fruit production, (vi) wood without serious defects, (vii) final ramification, few small branches in the case of timber production and to be promoted to increase production in the case of bark and fruit and (viii) balanced crown. These criteria can be totally or partially used depending on the management and production goals.
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The moment to designate the future trees is not consensual, however, some guidelines have been reported [3, 7, 17, 19]: (i) social position maintenance – young trees have higher probability of social regression than adult ones; (ii) species tolerance to shade – shade-tolerant trees are able to live suppressed and, after release, are able to ascend to dominant positions whether intolerant are not; (iii) low risk of sudden death or break and free of wounds – trees should be vigorous, stable, in good sanitary conditions and without injuries; (iv) stability – trees should be stable enough so that after release they are able to develop with low probability of falling down and (v) longevity – it should be ensured that they are able to reach the end of the production cycle. The selection should then be made as earlier as possible, as soon as the probability of changing social status is low. It can be done when trees reach 10–25 cm of diameter at breast height [3, 17], or 20 m of dominant height [17] or 10–14 m of stem height [17]. When it is convenient to designate future trees very early in time, a preselection of the future trees is recommended, followed by their selection later, for example, after 30–40 years [3, 4, 7].
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The number of trees per unit area is determined by the release from the competition of the future trees during the entire production cycle, to optimise their development. A density between 80 and 250 trees ha−1 is suggested [4, 7]. The better the site quality and the shorter the production cycle, the higher their number. The larger the crowns and the lower the shade tolerance, the lower their number [7].
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The spatial arrangement of the future trees should be uniform to enable a more efficient and complete use of the growing space while maintaining the growth rate at highest desired levels, which corresponds to a mean spacing of ≈7–12 m, depending on the species ecological and cultural characteristics [4, 7].
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3. Thinning method and intensity
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Thinning method or type can be defined by the classes and social position of the removed trees, although other parameters such as stem and crown characteristics are also important [2, 3, 4, 5, 6]. Nine methods have been identified, namely from below, from above, selective or Schädelin, of dominants, mechanical, free, compensation, crown release and variable density thinning.
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\nThinning from the below main goal is to favour the best trees of the upper layer, of better dimensions and crowns. The removal of the individuals starts with the dead, dying and dominated, and only if necessary the codominant and dominant individuals (mainly, individuals of bad characteristics) are removed. It has low effect in the subsequent growth of the remaining stand. Thus, it only anticipates the normal pattern of tree senescence and dead in an unthinned stand. It is suited for sites where water is a limiting factor [2, 3, 4, 5, 6]. The best results are attained with intolerant species, where the stems of the inferior layers do not have or only have a limited reaction to release [6].
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\nThinning from the above main goal is to favour the best trees of the upper layer until the end of rotation. The trees to be removed are predominantly in the upper layer and in direct competition with the best trees. The inferior layers are maintained with the objectives of enhancing natural pruning, soil protection, reducing spontaneous vegetation development, increasing resistance to wind and maintaining or enhancing wildlife habitat. However, the tree removal in the inferior layers can be considered for aesthetical reasons or to reduce the risk of fire, creating vertical discontinuity [2, 3, 4, 5, 6]. It is better suited for shade or semi-shade-tolerant species, in pure and mixed stands, especially when quality trees are found in an adequate number in the superior layers. It is not suited for shade-intolerant species, especially in the later stages of development [6].
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\nSelective or Schädelin thinning’s main assumption is the selection of the future trees. They can be selected in all social classes, according to a set of criteria (cf. Section 2). The thinning is focused on the release of the future trees, with the removal of all competitors and the maintenance of trees that can be useful or do not interfere with them. Also, the future trees should have, as much as possible, a uniform spacing. Its selection is not static in time, especially in young development stages. Thus, before each thinning they have to be checked and, if necessary, reselected [7, 20, 21]. The main goal of this thinning is the optimization of the production in value rather than in volume, favouring at the same time the mechanical and ecological stability [7, 20].
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\nThinning of dominants is focused on the upper layers. The dominant and the codominant trees are removed, including the more promising and those of the intermediate and inferior layers are favoured. It is suited for a reduced set of objectives, and care should be taken so that it does not derive in the harvest of the best trees. Three approaches can be considered, as a function of the objectives and number interventions [6]:
Thinning of dominants with temporary character: The goal is to improve the overall stand, with the promotion of lower layers that have individuals with good characteristics, both in growth and quality. It is suited for stands where the irregular or low density has originated dominants of bad quality; for shade-tolerant species, as the stems in the lower layers maintain their vigour and ability to react to release and it is less suited for intolerant species, yet it can be used in young stands where trees have not lost their vigour. It should be done as earlier as possible and should be replaced by the thinning from below as soon as the trees reach the superior layer.
Thinning of dominants with permanent character: The goal is the production of small- and medium-dimension timber. The objective is to promote canopy gaps that enhance regeneration with the largest possible number of individuals with the removal of dominant trees. When the stand is dense and uniform, this method is replaced by the thinning from below. The rotation length is considerably shortened.
Thinning of dominants combined with thinning from below: The goal is forming a superior layer with codominant individuals. It minimises the negative effects of the thinning of dominants, especially in very dense unthinned stands. Its main disadvantage is the tendency to increase the losses due to biotic and abiotic disturbances.
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\nMechanical or geometric thinning is associated to large spacing silviculture with selected material, in which the removal of a tree is more related with its location than with its position, because the goal is to maintain a regular cover. It is advantageous in young, very dense unthinned stands. Two subtypes can be identified: spacing, where the trees at a certain distance of the selected tree are removed; and row or strip, where the individuals of one or several lines are removed [6].
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\nFree thinning goal is the selection of a set of trees which are maintained in free growth until the end of the rotation in order to produce high quantity of timber with high quality [22]. It is directed to oak species and rotations of less than 100 years. It begins with the selection of the future trees with a density of 60–80 trees ha−1, uniformly spaced. It is followed by the removal of all the trees whose crown distance from a future tree is less than 25% of the mean crown width (assumption to be maintained throughout rotation, to keep future trees in free growth). As a secondary silvicultural practice, pruning is recommended up to a height of 6 m as well as removing the epicormic branches [22, 23]. It has also been used in mixtures of conifers and oaks, and oaks in pure or mixed stands with Fraxinus excelsior, Acer pseudoplatanus and Prunus avium [24].
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\nCompensation thinning’s (éclairci de ratrapage) aim is favouring the future trees that have sufficient stability and well-balanced crowns, being less important in their spatial distribution and their optimal distance. It is frequently linked with the goal of keeping stand stability and should have light intensity. It is preferred in stands without or with thinnings of low intensity in the past. In these cases, only the dominant stems are able to react to release, and thus codominant individuals should be preferably removed. It is especially suited for stands in steep slope areas where it is easy to overestimate distances due to crown overlapping and asymmetry [7].
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\nCrown releasing thinning’s (éclairci misse en lumiére) main goal is regulating future trees in old growth development stage. The trees’ metabolism and growth, capacity of reaction to release and ability to redo their crowns are lower than in the mature ones. The social positions are nearly definite, and the probability of individuals of the inferior social classes to ascend to upper classes is low. Future trees are released from competition from those of the intermediate layers as the dominant competitors were removed in the former thinnings. The objective is to maintain or increase diameter growth, to allow the largest possible increase of productivity in value. The intensity should be light and periodicity should be long, according to the trees’ growth rates [7].
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\nVariable density thinning’s goal is to promote variability and heterogeneity, both spatial (horizontal and vertical) and structural [25, 26, 27, 28], as well as stimulate late-successional forest structures, reduce stand density, alter species composition [25, 26, 29] and be a restauration tool [27, 30, 31]. It assumes the unevenly removal of trees, creating gradients of density in the stand. This is implemented with the creation of patches with variable spatial distribution, where canopy gaps and patches of different densities coexist [26, 27, 32]. The proportion of each patch type is also variable according to the intended complexity of stand structure, the existing stand structure, the species composition and spatial arrangement [31, 32]. Six protocols are referred, which due to their similarities were grouped in four types [32]:
\nRandomised grid: Stand area is divided in a grid with cells of equal area and the number of individuals to be maintained is randomly sorted. Two target densities can be chosen, low (≈185 trees ha−1) and moderate (≈370 trees ha−1).
\nDx rule: Selected trees define density depending on site variability and tree dimensions. The area of influence of each selected tree is defined by a circle proportional to the diameter at breast height by k-fold (e.g. k = 2). In this area, trees between a diameter range are removed, while those outside it are kept. The upper and lower thresholds can be defined per stand or per species. The areas outside the circles are not thinned.
\nSpacing thinning: Stand area is divided in a square point grid (e.g. ≈5 × 5 or 6 × 6 m) as well as a buffer for each point (e.g. ≈1.2 m). For each buffer area, the best tree larger than a diameter threshold is selected and released from the competition.
\nLocalised release: Stand area is divided in a point square grid associated to a buffer (e.g. 7.6 m of radius). In each circular area, three trees are selected irrespective of their spatial arrangement with the same rules as the former type, while the areas outside the buffers are either thinned with about 3.6 m spacing in the row space outside the buffers or remain unthinned (e.g. third or fourth row).
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Thinning intensity or degree is more frequently evaluated by the number of trees or basal area, as function of the amount of removed in relation of the total number of stems (\n\nR\nN\n=\n\nNrem\n\nN\nt\n\n\n\n, where Nrem is the number of removed trees, and Nt is the total number of trees) or basal area (\n\nR\nG\n=\n\nGrem\n\nG\nt\n\n\n\n, where Grem is the basal area removed, and Gt is the total basal area). It is frequently grouped in three classes: light, moderate and heavy. The most consensual ranges for light intensity are ≤25% of the number of trees and <20% of the basal area, for moderate 50% of the number of trees and 20–35% of the basal area and for heavy >50% of the number of trees and >35% of the basal area [33, 34].
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4. Thinning effects
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The main goals of thinning are to improve residual trees’ efficiency, encompassing to concentrate growth on a selected subset of trees, thus controlling density and reallocating the growing space and reducing competition among trees while promoting their growth [35, 36, 37, 38, 39]. It is also considered as a mean of capturing tree mortality, providing early financial return, increasing future merchantable volume and financial value of timber [39, 40, 41]. Moreover, density threshold (or thinning intensity) enables to keep volume growth [42], which depends too on the species, stand development stage and site [41, 43, 44]. The thinning effects will be discussed for density, stand structure, stability, mortality and growth stagnation, growth, wood, biomass and carbon stocks, soil and understorey and as an adaptive measure.
\n
Regardless of the method and intensity of thinning, density decreases always. All thinning methods increase individual tree growth due to the increase in growing space and reduction of competition [45, 46, 47, 48], especially in the long term [47]. The method affects differently tree interactions post thinning. In the thinning from below, the interactions in the upper layer are maintained [7, 49], while in the thinning from above, compensation and crown releasing thinning are reduced [7, 34, 50]. In the thinning of dominants, there is a change in the interactions in the intermediate layer, which is a consequence of the removal of the upper layer [6, 51, 52]. In the free and mechanical thinnings, the spatial pattern of interactions is kept [6, 22, 23]. In the Schädelin and variable density thinnings, future trees are released from competition, resulting in the alteration of the spatial patterns of interaction, both horizontal and vertical [7, 32].
\n
In general, the heavier the thinning intensity, the higher the decrease of density and the lower the competition. This derives in different growth reactions post thinning, which is also related to stand development stage and site quality, with growth rates increasing with thinning intensity and site quality and decreasing from initial to old growth development stages [41, 43, 50, 53].
\n
\nStand structure is affected by thinning, producing more or less accentuated changes depending on its method and intensity. This changes with the increase of light, water and nutrients levels (e.g. [54, 55]). These alterations can be observed in the diameter and height distributions, canopy stratification and spatial arrangements of trees. Thinning from below and of dominants narrow the range of diameter and height distributions and decrease canopy stratification due to the preferential removal of trees with smaller and larger dimensions, respectively [52]. Thinning from above and of Schädelin keep the range of diameter and height distributions and maintain or increase canopy stratification [20, 39, 52, 56, 57]. Compensation and crown releasing, free and mechanical thinnings tend to keep diameter and height distribution ranges and canopy stratification [6, 7, 23]. Variable density thinning increases diameter and height distribution ranges and maintains or increases canopy stratification [29, 58, 59, 60]. The tree spatial arrangements after thinning depend on those prior to thinning. A regular spacing was reported for thinnings from below, while from above and of dominants have been referred as a trend towards cluster one at low and intermediate distances [52]. Schädelin thinning tends to derive in a uniform or cluster distribution when future trees are at uniform distances or in clusters [20].
\n
\nStand stability depends on individual tree morphology and their spatial arrangement. It is frequently evaluated by diameter at breast height, total height, hd ratio (defined as quotient between total height and diameter at breast height, with both variables in the same units), stem taper, crown dimensions, crown eccentricity and crown inclination as well as root architecture [61, 62, 63]. For the same diameter at breast height, the taller the total height, the higher the hd ratio and the lower the stability. The increase of stability can be achieved with thinning, as it promotes diameter growth, the hd ratio reduction and stem taper increase [21, 61, 63]. The crown dimensions (width and length), eccentricity and inclination depend on stand structure and species traits, which are determined primordially by the amount of light. The higher the light level and the wider the spacing, the higher crown volume, and the higher the shade tolerance, the higher the crown dimensions. The constellation of neighbours reducing or promoting irregular available aerial space can promote the development of eccentric crowns and stem inclination and thus reducing stability [64, 65]. Stability is attained more efficiently with thinnings at younger ages as it enables a more favourable above- and below-ground morphology [21, 66]. Also, heavy thinnings promote tree morphologies that are more stable than moderate or light ones [21, 41, 66]. Thinnings from below increase stability by the removal of trees with the less suited morphologies (e.g. higher hd ratio), and increase with the increase of intensity due to the reduction of hd ratio and increase of stem taper [37, 67, 68] and crown length and crown ratio (the coefficient between crown length and total height) [69, 70]. Thinnings from above and of dominants removing trees from the upper layer may decrease stability, especially when associated to trees with high hd ratio and due to unbalance of aerial/root systems, eccentric crowns and the swaying of trees [35, 52, 71]. Schädelin, variable density and free thinning maintain or improve stability of thinning as the trees more stable are selected [20, 22, 32, 72]. Compensation and crown release thinning maintain stability [7].
\n
\nMortality after thinning can be caused by increased tree swaying due to wind or snow [71, 73] or is associated to shallow root systems’ water stress [35, 36]. In general, it is higher in the thinning from above and of dominants than from below [52] or Schädelin [72]. Growth stagnation [74] is linked to the reduction of growth increment [75, 76], sometimes associated to drought events [77, 78, 79].
\n
The thinning effects on growth are related to a suite of factors such as method and intensity, age, species traits, density (cf. density section), stand structure (cf. stand structure section) and time after thinning.
\n
In general, thinning increases growing space and favours certain classes of trees. This results in asymmetric competition [80, 81], that is, the share of resources used by larger trees is disproportionally larger than those used by smaller trees, resulting in the growth suppression of the latter [35, 80]. Thus the increase in growth at tree level is maintained or enhanced by the methods where release occurs in the upper layers and/or favours future trees (from above, Schädelin, free, compensation, crown release or variable density thinnings) [7, 20, 23, 30, 31, 39, 59, 60, 82, 83]. This is especially true if the thinning is carried out before canopy closure and crown recession [47]. It can be explained by two factors: the available growing space and the individual tree growth strategies. In closed canopy stands, the upper layers absorb most radiation, the taller trees cast shade on their smaller neighbours and tree swaying may derive branch abrasion [1]. These three factors promote height growth and constrain crown lateral development [84]. In fact, it has been reported that the dominant height increases with density for broadleaved species [41, 85], due its effects on epinastic control and specificities of stand development at early ages [41]. The inverse has been reported for the conifers [86, 87].
\n
Thinning intensity influences directly density and thus the availability of growing space for individual stems, which in turn affects height, stem and crown growth [69, 88, 89]. Growth, at tree-level basis, increases with thinning intensity [37, 50, 71, 89, 90]. In general, smaller/medium and/or younger trees react faster and with higher growth rates than larger ones [50, 75, 91]. After moderate and heavy thinnings, especially those carried out early, dominant and codominant trees have higher radial growth than supressed ones [37, 38, 67, 71, 75]. Stand age and site also curtails the response to thinning, the younger the stand and the better site quality, the larger the diameter increments [37]. Moreover, dominant trees have higher diameter growth [37] and need less time to react to release [91]. This is especially true with mature trees that have reached their maximum growth potential [35, 71]. However, a positive trend in above-ground biomass has been reported for large trees [92, 93, 94]. This trend seems to be linked with shade tolerance. Shade-intolerant species increase growth with light increase, though reaching maximum annual growth at younger ages conversely to shade-tolerant species [35, 77]. Also, according to Bose et al. [35], thinning intensity plays a less important role in growth increase after thinning in very shade-tolerant species than in shade-intolerant ones as the former are not able to use the increased growing space after thinning (especially light) efficiently.
\n
Differences in tree reaction to thinning with age also depend on the stand history. While in unthinned stands, recovery decreased with stand age, it did not decrease in thinned stands [95], at least partially explained, by the larger crowns in thinned stands that enable a faster recovery of growth [95, 96].
\n
After thinning, the trees increase their growth, frequently 1–3 years after thinning [50, 82] due to the availability of growing space. The growth increase derives in the increase of crown volume (width and length), crown cover [90, 97] and foliar mass enhancing photosynthetic capacity, as the lower parts of the crowns receive more light than unthinned stands [98]. As trees occupy gradually the available growing space, the growth rate decreases [35, 36, 99] after reaching the maximum (about 3 years after thinning), attaining 7–8 years after thinning, growth levels similar to the unthinned stands [50]. Primicia et al. [99] reported that magnitude and duration of thinning effects on growth (stem and crown diameter) as well as on mortality seem to be more related to thinning intensity than with thinning method.
\n
\nWood quantity and quality can be improved by thinning. In general, quantity per tree increases with thinning intensity [100], though it depends also on the species and their ecological and cultural traits. Light thinnings favour more regular growth rings, especially interesting for timber, though with overall smaller diameter growth, while heavy thinnings promote larger annual growth rings [77, 101]. The counterpart of thinning is the development of large branches that reduce the wood quality. Consequently, a compromise has to be equated between low and high densities as function of the species and its traits (e.g. epinastic control and natural pruning ability), associated frequently to future tree selection, pruning and early silvicultural operations [21, 37, 38, 83], especially in what regards wolf trees, which should be removed as early as possible [102].
\n
In general, thinning reduces biomass and carbon storage when compared with unthinned stands, the decrease is higher in thinning from above and of dominants [39, 103] than from below [104, 105]. Yet, the effects of thinning are dependent also on the individual tree development stage, their growth rates and density after thinning [106, 107]. In the short term, thinning of young trees results in a reduction of above-ground carbon even if there is an increase of the individual tree’s growth rate, because they are not able to use all the growing space available, that is, they do not fully occupy the site [104, 108]. In general, increasing thinning intensities result in decreasing standing and deadwood biomass and literfall [109, 110]. At stand level, it seems that biomass and carbon storage is the result of the interaction between the density and size of the overstorey trees. Though with an inverse relationship, they balance each other, resulting in a rather constant above-ground carbon stock, regardless of whether stands are thinned or not [39, 41], especially with early thinning from below [41].
\n
\nSoil and understory vegetations are affected by thinning. If biomass residues are kept in the stand, their decomposition incorporates carbon in the soil. Thinning increasing decomposition rates decreases the soil carbon stocks. In the 0–10 cm of the soil layer, carbon stock is higher than in the 10–20 cm layer [39, 40], due to higher decomposition rates [111]. Yet, with time and tree growth, soil carbon stocks tend to be similar in thinned and unthinned stands [112]. Zhang et al. [39] reported that soil carbon stocks prior and 5 years after thinning were similar. Thinnings originate higher light levels in the lower storeys, which can result in higher transpiration and water loss by evaporation (e.g. [54, 55]) and increase of the understorey vegetation, the higher the thinning intensity [39]. This is particularly negative if it is composed mainly by shrub vegetation [39]. Yet, heavy thinnings favour pasture production, a suitable option for agroforestry systems [90, 113].
\n
Thinnings are considered primordial adaptive measures as they can reduce vulnerability to climate change, fires, droughts and increase diversity.
\n
Thinning can reduce vulnerability to climate change [95] as it controls stand density [41]. It can improve tree and stand growth by releasing growing space (e.g. [41, 77, 114]), including increasing water availability and their use efficiency [77, 101], thus mitigating the effects of the droughts (i.e. water deficits) [77, 95, 114, 115].
\n
Fire prevention is enhanced by thinnings (including also pruning) as they reduce the quantity and horizontal and vertical continuity of fuel, [116] enabling stands to withstand surface fires [117] and increase the canopy seed bank storage [118].
\n
Thinning intensity has a primordial effect on the magnitude and duration of the drought effects on trees and stands. The higher the proportion of crown cover removed, the longer the effects of thinning, that is, more water reaches the soil, enabling drought effects’ mitigation [95, 101, 119]. Less-intensive thinnings reach pre-thinning transpiration levels in a few years, [55, 114] while in heavy ones they last longer [119], occasioning tree growth rates’ increase [95, 101, 120]. Broadleaved species seem to have developed resistance mechanisms, mitigating diameter growth reduction [121]. This can be due to the deeper root systems [122] and spring radial growth (especially in the ring-porous species) is much larger than in the autumn one [123]. Conifers seem to have improved recovery and resilience mechanisms, probably due to more precipitation reaching the soil and transpiration reduction [95, 121]. Regardless of tree species, the stronger the drought severity, the longer the recovery period in diameter growth [95], which is probably related to the longer period needed to restore the soil water and to rebuild fine root system [124]. Thus, species with higher expansion rates, increase of leaf area (assimilation ability) and fine roots (water absorption ability), are expected to have more benefits from thinning [115, 125].
\n
An increased diversity in stand structure, especially in pure even-aged stands, particularly in plantations, can be derived from thinning in tree’ dimensions [126] and/or their variability [20, 39, 52, 57] as well as in species and their proportions [127] and produces greater trade-offs with other ecosystem services [128, 129]. This is especially valid with methods that promote variability, such as Schädelin or variable density thinnings.
\n
\n
\n
5. Conclusion
\n
Stand structure and production goals influence the thinning method and its intensity, which in turn affects stand structure and the quantity and quality of the products. Thus, it is of primordial importance the selection of the most suitable methods (that can be more than one during the production cycle) as well as their intensities (which can vary too along the production cycle) that have also to be suited to the products and services desired to the forest stand. Thinning is frequently linked to tree selection. Tree classification systems are quick, low-cost tools that enable thinning implementation and are also a monitoring tool that enables the evaluation of the dynamics of the forest stands.
\n
All thinnings reduce density, however, their effects on density, stand structure, growth, soil, understorey vegetation and diversity depend on the method and intensity of thinning, stand development stage and site quality. The positive effects of thinning are the increase in growth and production, especially in value, and the reduction of the vulnerability of the forest systems to climate change, droughts and fire. The negative effects are related to the reaction of the trees to release, which can cause mortality, growth stagnation or no increase of the growth rates.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
This work is funded by National Funds through FCT–Foundation for Science and Technology, under the Project UIDB/05183/2020 (MED) and Project UID/EMS/50022/2019 (through IDMEC, under LAETA).
\n
\n',keywords:"method, intensity, stand structure, growth, adaptive measure",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/73015.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/73015.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73015",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73015",totalDownloads:74,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"March 20th 2020",dateReviewed:"July 21st 2020",datePrePublished:"August 18th 2020",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"August 18th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Thinning is one of the primordial silvicultural practices. It has been analysed by its methods and intensities, associated to the tree selection criteria. Yet, while some methods are of generalised use, others were developed for specific purposes. The goal of this review is to compile the existing information regarding tree selection, thinning methods and intensity as well as their effects on trees and stands. The effects of thinning indicate a reduction of density and a trend towards an increase of growth rates at tree level for a short time after thinning. Biomass and volume show similar or smaller values when compared to unthinned stands. Mortality and growth stagnation, especially in stands with low stability or vigour, can also occur. The modifications in stand structure can enhance its role as an adaptive measure.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/73015",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/73015",signatures:"Ana Cristina Gonçalves",book:{id:"9727",title:"Silviculture",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Silviculture",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Ana Cristina Gonçalves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9727.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"194484",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"ana-cristina-goncalves",fullName:"Ana Cristina Gonçalves"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"194484",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Ana Cristina Gonçalves",slug:"ana-cristina-goncalves",email:"acag@uevora.pt",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Tree selection",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Thinning method and intensity",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Thinning effects",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nOliver CD, Larson BC. Forest Stand Dynamics. Update ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc; 1996. pp. 544\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nAssmann E. The Principles of Forest Yield Study. Pergamon Press; 1970. pp. 506\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nBoudru M. Forêt et Sylviculture. Le Traitement des Forêts. Vol. Tome 2. Gembloux: Presses Agronomiques de Gembloux; 1989. pp. 344\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nLanier L, Badré M, Delabraze P, Dubourdieu J, Flammarion JP. Précis de Sylviculture. Engref: Nancy; 1986. pp. 468\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nMatthews JD. Silvicultural Systems. Oxford: Claredon Press; 1989. pp. 284\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nSmith DM, Larson BC, Kelty MJ, Ashton PMS. The Practice of Silviculture. 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A comparison of thinning methods in red pine: Consequences for stand-level growth and tree diameter. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 2009;39(3):489-496\n'},{id:"B52",body:'\nKuehne C, Weiskittel A, Pommerening A, Wagner RG. Evaluation of 10-year temporal and spatial variability in structure and growth across contrasting commercial thinning treatments in spruce-fir forests of northern Maine, USA. Annals of Forest Science. 2018;75(1):20\n'},{id:"B53",body:'\nPretzsch H. Stand density and growth of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) and European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.): Evidence from long-term experimental plots. European Journal of Forest Research. 2005;124(3):193-205\n'},{id:"B54",body:'\nBrooks JR, Mitchell AK. Interpreting tree responses to thinning and fertilization using tree-ring stable isotopes. New Phytologist. 2011;190(3):770-782\n'},{id:"B55",body:'\nLagergren F, Lankreijer H, Kučera J, Cienciala E, Mölder M, Lindroth A. Thinning effects on pine-spruce forest transpiration in central Sweden. Forest Ecology and Management. 2008;255(7):2312-2323\n'},{id:"B56",body:'\nGagné L, Sirois L, Lavoie L. Comparaison du volume et de la valeur des bois résineux issus d’éclaircies par le bas et par dégagement d’arbres-élites dans l’Est du Canada. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 2016;46(11):1320-1329\n'},{id:"B57",body:'\nSchütz J-P, Ammann PL, Zingg A. Optimising the yield of Douglas-fir with an appropriate thinning regime. European Journal of Forest Research. 2015;134(3):469-480\n'},{id:"B58",body:'\nCurtis RO, Harrington CA, Brodie LC. Stand development 18 years after gap creation in a uniform Douglas-Fir plantation. In: Report No.: PNW-RP-610. USDA Forest Service; 2017. p. 38\n'},{id:"B59",body:'\nDavis LR, Puettmann KJ, Tucker GF. Overstory response to alternative thinning treatments in young Douglas-fir forests of Western Oregon. Northwest Science. 2007;81(1):1-14\n'},{id:"B60",body:'\nWillis JL, Roberts SD, Harrington CA. Variable density thinning promotes variable structural responses 14 years after treatment in the Pacific Northwest. Forest Ecology and Management. 2018;410:114-125\n'},{id:"B61",body:'\nGardiner B, Blennow K, Carnus J-M, Fleischer P, Ingemarson F, Landmann G, et al. Destructive Storms in European Forests. Joensuu: European Forest Institute; 2010. p. 138\n'},{id:"B62",body:'\nLindström A, Rune G. Root deformation in plantations of container-grown Scots pine trees: Effects on root growth, tree stability and stem straightness. In: Stokes A, editor. The Supporting Roots of Trees and Woody Plants: Form, Function and Physiology. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands; 2000. pp. 31-39\n'},{id:"B63",body:'\nSchmidt M, Hanewinkel M, Kändler G, Kublin E, Kohnle U. An inventory-based approach for modeling single-tree storm damage—Experiences with the winter storm of 1999 in southwestern Germany. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 2010;40(8):1636-1652\n'},{id:"B64",body:'\nBinkley D, Campoe OC, Gspaltl M, Forrester DI. Light absorption and use efficiency in forests: Why patterns differ for trees and stands. Forest Ecology and Management. 2013;288:5-13\n'},{id:"B65",body:'\nLee MJ, García O. Plasticity and extrapolation in modeling mixed-species stands. Forest Science. 2016;62(1):1-8\n'},{id:"B66",body:'\nKeskitalo E, Bergh J, Felton A, Björkman C, Berlin M, Axelsson P, et al. Adaptation to climate change in Swedish Forestry. Forests. 2016;7(2):28\n'},{id:"B67",body:'\nMäkinen H, Isomäki A. Thinning intensity and long-term changes in increment and stem form of Norway spruce trees. Forest Ecology and Management. 2004;201(2-3):295-309\n'},{id:"B68",body:'\nNilsson U, Agestam E, Ekö P-M, Elfving B, Fahlvik N, Johansson U, et al. Thinning of Scots pine and Norway spruce monocultures in Sweden effects of different thinning programmes on standlevel gross- and net stem volume production. Studia Forestalia Suecica. 2010;219:1-46\n'},{id:"B69",body:'\nSullivan TP, Sullivan DS. Acceleration of old-growth structural attributes in lodgepole pine forest: Tree growth and stand structure 25 years after thinning. Forest Ecology and Management. 2016;365:96-106\n'},{id:"B70",body:'\nVarmola M, Salminen H, Timonen M. Thinning response and growth trends of seeded Scots pine stands at the arctic timberline. Silva Fennica. 2004;38(1):71-83\n'},{id:"B71",body:'\nPeltola H, Miina J, Rouvinen I, Kellomäki S. Effect of early thinning on the diameter growth distribution along the stem of Scots pine. Silva Fennica. 2002;36(4):813-825\n'},{id:"B72",body:'\nBachofen H, Zingg A. Effectiveness of structure improvement thinning on stand structure in subalpine Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) stands. Forest Ecology and Management. 2001;145(1-2):137-149\n'},{id:"B73",body:'\nPeltola H. Swaying of trees in response to wind and thinning in a stand of Scots pine. Boundary Layer Meteorology. 1996;77(3-4):285-304\n'},{id:"B74",body:'\nSharma M, Smith M, Burkhart HE, Amateis RL. Modeling the impact of thinning on height development of dominant and codominant loblolly pine trees. Annals of Forest Science. 2006;63(4):349-354\n'},{id:"B75",body:'\nMäkinen H, Isomäki A. Thinning intensity and growth of Scots pine stands in Finland. Forest Ecology and Management. 2004;201(2-3):311-325\n'},{id:"B76",body:'\nMoulinier J, Brais S, Harvey B, Koubaa A. Response of Boreal Jack Pine (Pinus banksiana Lamb.) stands to a gradient of commercial thinning intensities, with and without N fertilization. Forests. 2015;6(12):2678-2702\n'},{id:"B77",body:'\nAldea J, Bravo F, Bravo-Oviedo A, Ruiz-Peinado R, Rodríguez F, del Río M. Thinning enhances the species-specific radial increment response to drought in Mediterranean pine-oak stands. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology. 2017;237-238:371-383\n'},{id:"B78",body:'\nFernández-de-Uña L, Cañellas I, Gea-Izquierdo G. Stand competition determines how different tree species will cope with a warming climate. Liang E, editor. PLoS One. 2015;10(3):e0122255.\n'},{id:"B79",body:'\nMartín-Benito D, Del Río M, Heinrich I, Helle G, Cañellas I. Response of climate-growth relationships and water use efficiency to thinning in a Pinus nigra afforestation. Forest Ecology and Management. 2010;259(5):967-975\n'},{id:"B80",body:'\nSchwinning S, Weiner J. Mechanisms determining the degree of size asymmetry in competition among plants. Oecologia. 1998;113(4):447-455\n'},{id:"B81",body:'\nThomas AD, Walsh RPD, Shakesby RA. Nutrient losses in eroded sediment after fire in eucalyptus and pine forests in the wet Mediterranean environment of northern Portugal. CATENA. 1999;36(4):283-302\n'},{id:"B82",body:'\nDobner M, Nicoletti MF, Arce JE. Influence of crown thinning on radial growth pattern of Pinus taeda in southern Brazil. New Forests. 2019;50(3):437-454\n'},{id:"B83",body:'\nLiziniewicz M, Ekö PM, Klang F. Effects of five tree-selection strategies when thinning spruce (Picea abies) stands: A case study in a field trail in southern Sweden. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research. 2016;31(5):495-506\n'},{id:"B84",body:'\nTrouvé R, Bontemps J-D, Seynave I, Collet C, Lebourgeois F. Stand density, tree social status and water stress influence allocation in height and diameter growth of Quercus petraea (Liebl.), Mäkelä A, editor. Tree Physiology. 2015;35(10):1035-1046.\n'},{id:"B85",body:'\nWeiskittel A, Kenefic L, Seymour R, Phillips L. Long-term effects of precommercial thinning on the stem dimensions, form and branch characteristics of red spruce and balsam fir crop trees in Maine, USA. Silva Fennica. 2009;43(3):397-409\n'},{id:"B86",body:'\nAnton-Fernandez C, Burkhart HE, Strub M, Amateis RL. Effects of initial spacing on height development of Loblolly Pine. Forest Science. 2011;57(3):201-211\n'},{id:"B87",body:'\nZhao D, Kane M, Borders BE. Growth responses to planting density and management intensity in loblolly pine plantations in the southeastern USA Lower Coastal Plain. Annals of Forest Science. 2011;68(3):625-635\n'},{id:"B88",body:'\nSchaedel MS, Larson AJ, Affleck DLR, Belote RT, Goodburn JM, Wright DK, et al. Long-term precommercial thinning effects on Larix occidentalis (western larch) tree and stand characteristics. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 2017;47(7):861-874\n'},{id:"B89",body:'\nValinger E, Sjögren H, Nord G, Cedergren J. Effects on stem growth of Scots pine 33 years after thinning and/or fertilization in northern Sweden. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research. 2019;34(1):33-38\n'},{id:"B90",body:'\nMartínez Pastur G, Soler R, Lencinas MV, Cellini JM, Peri PL. Long-term monitoring of thinning for silvopastoral purposes in Nothofagus antarctica forests of Tierra del Fuego, Argentina. Forest Systems. 2018;27(1):e01S\n'},{id:"B91",body:'\nMehtätalo L, Peltola H, Kilpeläinen A, Ikonen V-P. The response of basal area growth of Scots pine to thinning: A longitudinal analysis of tree-specific series using a nonlinear mixed-effects model. Forest Science. 2014;60(4):636-644\n'},{id:"B92",body:'\nSillett SC, Van Pelt R, Kramer RD, Carroll AL, Koch GW. Biomass and growth potential of Eucalyptus regnans up to 100 m tall. Forest Ecology and Management. 2015;348:78-91\n'},{id:"B93",body:'\nSillett SC, Van Pelt R, Koch GW, Ambrose AR, Carroll AL, Antoine ME, et al. Increasing wood production through old age in tall trees. Forest Ecology and Management. 2010;259(5):976-994\n'},{id:"B94",body:'\nStephenson NL, Das AJ, Condit R, Russo SE, Baker PJ, Beckman NG, et al. Rate of tree carbon accumulation increases continuously with tree size. Nature. 2014;507(7490):90-93\n'},{id:"B95",body:'\nSohn JA, Saha S, Bauhus J. Potential of forest thinning to mitigate drought stress: A meta-analysis. Forest Ecology and Management. 2016;380:261-273\n'},{id:"B96",body:'\nGuiterman CH, Seymour RS, Weiskittel AR. Long-term thinning effects on the leaf area of Pinus strobus L. as estimated from Litterfall and individual-tree allometric models. Forest Science. 2012;58(1):85-93\n'},{id:"B97",body:'\nPeri PL, Martínez Pastur G, Monelos L. Natural dynamics and thinning response of young lenga (Nothofagus pumilio) trees in secondary forests of Southern Patagonia. Bosque Valdivia. 2013;34(3):5-6\n'},{id:"B98",body:'\nAussenac G. Interactions between forest stands and microclimate: Ecophysiological aspects and consequences for silviculture. Annals of Forest Science. 2000;57(3):287-301\n'},{id:"B99",body:'\nPrimicia I, Artázcoz R, Imbert J-B, Puertas F, Traver M-C, Castillo F-J. Influence of thinning intensity and canopy type on Scots pine stand and growth dynamics in a mixed managed forest. Forest Systems. 2016;25(2):e057\n'},{id:"B100",body:'\nPretzsch H, Rais A. Wood quality in complex forests versus even-aged monocultures: Review and perspectives. Wood Science and Technology. 2016;50(4):845-880\n'},{id:"B101",body:'\nD’Amato AW, Bradford JB, Fraver S, Palik BJ. Effects of thinning on drought vulnerability and climate response in north temperate forest ecosystems. Ecological Applications. 2013;23(8):1735-1742\n'},{id:"B102",body:'\nFahlvik N, Ekö P-M, Pettersson N. Influence of precommercial thinning grade on branch diameter and crown ratio in Pinus sylvestris in southern Sweden. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research. 2005;20(3):243-251\n'},{id:"B103",body:'\nD’Amato AW, Bradford JB, Fraver S, Palik BJ. Forest management for mitigation and adaptation to climate change: Insights from long-term silviculture experiments. Forest Ecology and Management. 2011;262(5):803-816\n'},{id:"B104",body:'\nJimenez E, Vega JA, Fernandez C, Fonturbel T. Is pre-commercial thinning compatible with carbon sequestration? A case study in a maritime pine stand in northwestern Spain. Forestry. 2011;84(2):149-157\n'},{id:"B105",body:'\nSkovsgaard JP, Stupak I, Vesterdal L. Distribution of biomass and carbon in even-aged stands of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.): A case study on spacing and thinning effects in northern Denmark. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research. 2006;21(6):470-488\n'},{id:"B106",body:'\nKeyser TL. Thinning and site quality influence aboveground tree carbon stocks in yellow-poplar forests of the southern Appalachians. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 2010;40(4):659-667\n'},{id:"B107",body:'\nSkovsgaard JP. Analysing effects of thinning on stand volume growth in relation to site conditions: A case study for even-aged Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr.). Forestry. 2009;82(1):87-104\n'},{id:"B108",body:'\nDe las Heras J, Moya D, López-Serrano FR, Rubio E. Carbon sequestration of naturally regenerated Aleppo pine stands in response to early thinning. New Forests. 2013;44(3):457-470\n'},{id:"B109",body:'\nBlanco JA, Imbert JB, Castillo FJ. Influence of site characteristics and thinning intensity on litterfall production in two Pinus sylvestris L. forests in the western Pyrenees. Forest Ecology and Management. 2006;237(1-3):342-352\n'},{id:"B110",body:'\nFinkral AJ, Evans AM. The effects of a thinning treatment on carbon stocks in a northern Arizona ponderosa pine forest. Forest Ecology and Management. 2008;255(7):2743-2750\n'},{id:"B111",body:'\nJobbágy EG, Jackson RB. The distribution of soil nutrients with depth: Global patterns and the imprint of plants. Biogeochemistry. 2001;53:51-77\n'},{id:"B112",body:'\nHoover CM, Heath LS. A commentary on ‘Mineral soil carbon fluxes in forests and implications for carbon balance assessments’: A deeper look at the data. GCB Bioenergy. 2015;7(2):362-365\n'},{id:"B113",body:'\nPeri PL, Bahamonde HA, Lencinas MV, Gargaglione V, Soler R, Ormaechea S, et al. A review of silvopastoral systems in native forests of Nothofagus antarctica in southern Patagonia, Argentina. Agroforestry Systems. 2016;90(6):933-960\n'},{id:"B114",body:'\nBréda N, Granier A, Aussenac G. Effects of thinning on soil and tree water relations, transpiration and growth in an oak forest (Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl.). Tree Physiology. 1995;15(5):295-306\n'},{id:"B115",body:'\nSohn JA, Hartig F, Kohler M, Huss J, Bauhus J. Heavy and frequent thinning promotes drought adaptation in Pinus sylvestris forests. Ecological Applications. 2016;26(7):2190-2205\n'},{id:"B116",body:'\nFulé PZ, Waltz AEM, Covington WW, Heinlein TA. Measuring forest restoration effectiveness in reducing hazardous fuels. Journal of Forestry-Washington. 2001;99(11):24-29\n'},{id:"B117",body:'\nFernandes PM, Vega JA, Jiménez E, Rigolot E. Fire resistance of European pines. Forest Ecology and Management. 2008;256(3):246-255\n'},{id:"B118",body:'\nVerkaik I, Espelta JM. Post-fire regeneration thinning, cone production, serotiny and regeneration age in Pinus halepensis. Forest Ecology and Management. 2006;231(1-3):155-163\n'},{id:"B119",body:'\nBren L, Lane P, Hepworth G. Longer-term water use of native eucalyptus forest after logging and regeneration: The Coranderrk experiment. Journal of Hydrology. 2010;384(1-2):52-64\n'},{id:"B120",body:'\nBréda N, Huc R, Granier A, Dreyer E. Temperate forest trees and stands under severe drought: A review of ecophysiological responses, adaptation processes and long-term consequences. Annals of Forest Science. 2006;63(6):625-644\n'},{id:"B121",body:'\nSohn JA, Gebhardt T, Ammer C, Bauhus J, Häberle K-H, Matyssek R, et al. Mitigation of drought by thinning: Short-term and long-term effects on growth and physiological performance of Norway spruce (Picea abies). Forest Ecology and Management. 2013;308:188-197\n'},{id:"B122",body:'\nChristina M, Laclau J-P, Gonçalves JLM, Jourdan C, Nouvellon Y, Bouillet J-P. Almost symmetrical vertical growth rates above and below ground in one of the world’s most productive forests. Ecosphere. 2011;2(3):art27\n'},{id:"B123",body:'\nFoster TE, Schmalzer PA, Fox GA. Seasonal climate and its differential impact on growth of co-occurring species. European Journal of Forest Research. 2015;134(3):497-510\n'},{id:"B124",body:'\nMainiero R, Kazda M. Depth-related fine root dynamics of Fagus sylvatica during exceptional drought. Forest Ecology and Management. 2006;237(1-3):135-142\n'},{id:"B125",body:'\nDieler J, Pretzsch H. Morphological plasticity of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) in pure and mixed-species stands. Forest Ecology and Management. 2013;295:97-108\n'},{id:"B126",body:'\nCrecente-Campo F, Pommerening A, Rodríguez-Soalleiro R. Impacts of thinning on structure, growth and risk of crown fire in a Pinus sylvestris L. plantation in northern Spain. Forest Ecology and Management. 2009;257(9):1945-1954\n'},{id:"B127",body:'\nPeri PL, Dube F, Varella A. Silvopastoral Systems in Southern South America. Heidelberg, New York: Springer; 2016. pp. 270\n'},{id:"B128",body:'\nMartínez Pastur G, Peri PL, Huertas Herrera A, Schindler S, Díaz-Delgado R, Lencinas MV, et al. Linking potential biodiversity and three ecosystem services in silvopastoral managed forest landscapes of Tierra del Fuego, Argentina. International Journal of Biodiversity Science, Ecosystem Services & Management. 2017;13(2):1-11\n'},{id:"B129",body:'\nPeri PL, López DR, Rusch V, Rusch G, Rosas YM, Martínez Pastur G. State and transition model approach in native forests of Southern Patagonia (Argentina): Linking ecosystem services, thresholds and resilience. International Journal of Biodiversity Science, Ecosystem Services & Management. 2017;13(2):105-118\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Ana Cristina Gonçalves",address:"acag@uevora.pt",affiliation:'
Department of Rural Engineering, School of Sciences and Technology, MED-Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development, Institute of Research and Advanced Education (IIFA), University of Évora, Évora, Portugal
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"9727",title:"Silviculture",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Silviculture",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Ana Cristina Gonçalves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9727.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"194484",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"ana-cristina-goncalves",fullName:"Ana Cristina Gonçalves"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"197890",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Enea",middleName:null,surname:"Cippitelli",email:"e.cippitelli@univpm.it",fullName:"Enea Cippitelli",slug:"enea-cippitelli",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:{name:"Marche Polytechnic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Human Action Recognition with RGB-D Sensors",slug:"human-action-recognition-with-rgb-d-sensors",abstract:"Human action recognition, also known as HAR, is at the foundation of many different applications related to behavioral analysis, surveillance, and safety, thus it has been a very active research area in the last years. The release of inexpensive RGB-D sensors fostered researchers working in this field because depth data simplify the processing of visual data that could be otherwise difficult using classic RGB devices. Furthermore, the availability of depth data allows to implement solutions that are unobtrusive and privacy preserving with respect to classic video-based analysis. In this scenario, the aim of this chapter is to review the most salient techniques for HAR based on depth signal processing, providing some details on a specific method based on temporal pyramid of key poses, evaluated on the well-known MSR Action3D dataset.",signatures:"Enea Cippitelli, Ennio Gambi and Susanna Spinsante",authors:[{id:"197890",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Enea",surname:"Cippitelli",fullName:"Enea Cippitelli",slug:"enea-cippitelli",email:"e.cippitelli@univpm.it"},{id:"198036",title:"Prof.",name:"Ennio",surname:"Gambi",fullName:"Ennio Gambi",slug:"ennio-gambi",email:"e.gambi@univpm.it"},{id:"198037",title:"Dr.",name:"Susanna",surname:"Spinsante",fullName:"Susanna Spinsante",slug:"susanna-spinsante",email:"s.spinsante@univpm.it"}],book:{title:"Motion Tracking and Gesture Recognition",slug:"motion-tracking-and-gesture-recognition",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"17156",title:"Dr.",name:"Grazia",surname:"Cicirelli",slug:"grazia-cicirelli",fullName:"Grazia Cicirelli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/17156/images/system/17156.jpg",biography:"Grazia Cicirelli received the Laurea degree (summa cum laude) in Computer Science from the University of Bari (Italy) in 1994. Until 2001 she held grants from the Italian National Research Council (CNR) for research activities in Robotics and Image Processing. From 2001 she is a Technologist Researcher at the Institute of Intelligent Systems for Automation (ISSIA) of CNR in Bari. Her principal interests include pattern recognition, artificial intelligence, image processing for robotic applications and intelligent systems for video-surveillance. She has worked on and directed numerous research projects in different research areas such as Quality Control, Intelligent Transportation Systems, Autonomous Mobile Robotics. She is author of numerous research papers published in International Conference Proceedings, National and International Journals. She is a co-inventor of 1 international patent on the development of a visual system for event detection in a sport context.\n\nDr. Cicirelli regularly serves as reviewer on various Conferences and International Journals including:\n\nIndustrial Robot: An International Journal\nInternational Journal of Advanced Robotics Systems\nIEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems.\nShe received the 2013 Award for Excellence as Outstanding Reviewer to “Industrial Robot: An International Journal” (Emerald) for the significant contribution made throughout 2012. She is a member of the Editorial Board at the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS). Furthermore, she is Editor of the permanent Topic “Robot Navigation” and Associate Editor of the permanent Topic “Vision Systems” at the same journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Research Council",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"148883",title:"Prof.",name:"Yassine",surname:"Ruichek",slug:"yassine-ruichek",fullName:"Yassine Ruichek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"149571",title:"Dr.",name:"Wenwu",surname:"Wang",slug:"wenwu-wang",fullName:"Wenwu Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"174877",title:"Dr.",name:"Tiziana",surname:"D’Orazio",slug:"tiziana-d'orazio",fullName:"Tiziana D’Orazio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"197075",title:"Dr.",name:"Houssam",surname:"Salmane",slug:"houssam-salmane",fullName:"Houssam Salmane",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"197235",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",surname:"Kılıç",slug:"volkan-kilic",fullName:"Volkan Kılıç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"197788",title:"Prof.",name:"Jiande",surname:"Sun",slug:"jiande-sun",fullName:"Jiande Sun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Shandong Normal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"198036",title:"Prof.",name:"Ennio",surname:"Gambi",slug:"ennio-gambi",fullName:"Ennio Gambi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"198037",title:"Dr.",name:"Susanna",surname:"Spinsante",slug:"susanna-spinsante",fullName:"Susanna Spinsante",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"204821",title:"Dr.",name:"Louahdi",surname:"Khoudour",slug:"louahdi-khoudour",fullName:"Louahdi Khoudour",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"retraction-and-correction-policy",title:"Retraction and Correction Policy",intro:"
IntechOpen implements a robust policy to minimize and deal with instances of fraud or misconduct. As part of our general commitment to transparency and openness, and in order to maintain high scientific standards, we have a well-defined editorial policy regarding Retractions and Corrections.
",metaTitle:"Retraction and Correction Policy",metaDescription:"Retraction and Correction Policy",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/retraction-and-correction-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
IntechOpen’s Retraction and Correction Policy has been developed in accordance with the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) publication guidelines relating to scientific misconduct and research ethics:
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1. RETRACTIONS
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A Retraction of a Chapter will be issued by the Academic Editor, either following an Author’s request to do so or when there is a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct. Upon receipt of a report by a 3rd party, the Academic Editor will investigate any allegations of scientific misconduct, working in cooperation with the Author(s) and their institution(s).
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A formal Retraction will be issued when there is clear and conclusive evidence of any of the following:
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Data fabrication
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Data recycling in a purportedly original research article
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Severe plagiarism - whether or not the plagiarism is to be deemed severe will be determined by the Academic Editor and verified by plagiarism checking software
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Double publication
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Copyright infringement - for example, if a Chapter uses copyrighted figures without permission.
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Unreliable findings
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Unethical research practices
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Any other practice or act considered potentially harmful to the scientific community.
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Publishing of a Retraction Notice will adhere to the following guidelines:
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All relevant bibliographic information about a retracted Chapter will be given in the title.
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A Retraction Notice will be published as a regular book Chapter and will be given its own Chapter number.
\\n\\n\\n
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Authors shall be required to approve a proposed retraction of their Chapter. If Authors maintain that their Chapter should not be retracted, the Academic Editor may issue a Statement of Concern (see 2. below).
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\\n\\n
1.2. REMOVALS AND CANCELLATIONS
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Additionally, a Chapter retracted on grounds of copyright infringement (e.g. double publication) may be Removed by the publisher should the original copyright owner request such action. A Chapter retracted on grounds of its potential to harm the scientific community, for example, when a Chapter is defamatory in nature, may also be subject to removal.
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A Statement of Concern detailing alleged misconduct will be issued by the Academic Editor or publisher following a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct when:
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Authors refuse to approve a retraction proposed by the Academic Editor
\\n\\t
There is inconclusive evidence of scientific misconduct
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Authors and their respective institutions fail or refuse to provide adequate assistance in an investigation
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An article PDF for which a Statement of Concern is published will remain available online without being edited or watermarked
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IntechOpen believes that the number of occasions on which a Statement of Concern is issued will be very few in number. In all cases when such a decision has been taken by the Academic Editor the decision will be reviewed by another editor to whom the author can make representations.
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\\n\\n
3.1. ERRATUM
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3.2. CORRIGENDUM
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\\n\\n
4. FINAL REMARKS
\\n\\n
IntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
\\n\\n
In the case of Retraction or removal of the Work, the publisher will be under no obligation to refund the APC.
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The general principles set out above apply to Retractions and Corrections issued in all IntechOpen publications.
IntechOpen’s Retraction and Correction Policy has been developed in accordance with the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) publication guidelines relating to scientific misconduct and research ethics:
\n\n
1. RETRACTIONS
\n\n
A Retraction of a Chapter will be issued by the Academic Editor, either following an Author’s request to do so or when there is a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct. Upon receipt of a report by a 3rd party, the Academic Editor will investigate any allegations of scientific misconduct, working in cooperation with the Author(s) and their institution(s).
\n\n
A formal Retraction will be issued when there is clear and conclusive evidence of any of the following:
\n\n
\n\t
Data fabrication
\n\t
Data recycling in a purportedly original research article
\n\t
Severe plagiarism - whether or not the plagiarism is to be deemed severe will be determined by the Academic Editor and verified by plagiarism checking software
\n\t
Double publication
\n\t
Copyright infringement - for example, if a Chapter uses copyrighted figures without permission.
\n\t
Unreliable findings
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Unethical research practices
\n\t
Any other practice or act considered potentially harmful to the scientific community.
\n
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Publishing of a Retraction Notice will adhere to the following guidelines:
\n\n\n\t
All relevant bibliographic information about a retracted Chapter will be given in the title.
\n\t
A Retraction Notice will be published as a regular book Chapter and will be given its own Chapter number.
\n\n\n
\n\t
Authors shall be required to approve a proposed retraction of their Chapter. If Authors maintain that their Chapter should not be retracted, the Academic Editor may issue a Statement of Concern (see 2. below).
\n
\n\n
1.2. REMOVALS AND CANCELLATIONS
\n\n
\n\t
Additionally, a Chapter retracted on grounds of copyright infringement (e.g. double publication) may be Removed by the publisher should the original copyright owner request such action. A Chapter retracted on grounds of its potential to harm the scientific community, for example, when a Chapter is defamatory in nature, may also be subject to removal.
\n\t
No formal Removal Notice will be published but a notice citing the reason for removal will be prominently displayed in place of a retracted and subsequently removed Chapter.
\n\t
Chapters published due to inadvertent production mistakes shall be canceled and the cancellation notice will be published.
\n
\n\n
2. STATEMENTS OF CONCERN
\n\n
A Statement of Concern detailing alleged misconduct will be issued by the Academic Editor or publisher following a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct when:
\n\n
\n\t
Authors refuse to approve a retraction proposed by the Academic Editor
\n\t
There is inconclusive evidence of scientific misconduct
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Authors and their respective institutions fail or refuse to provide adequate assistance in an investigation
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The publication of a Statement of Concern will adhere to the Retraction Notice guidelines outlined above
\n\t
An article PDF for which a Statement of Concern is published will remain available online without being edited or watermarked
\n
\n\n
IntechOpen believes that the number of occasions on which a Statement of Concern is issued will be very few in number. In all cases when such a decision has been taken by the Academic Editor the decision will be reviewed by another editor to whom the author can make representations.
\n\n
3. CORRECTIONS
\n\n
A Correction will be issued by the Academic Editor when:
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Only a small portion of a Chapter is flawed in a way that does not severely affect any findings.
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It is determined that the scientific community would be better served by a Correction rather than a Retraction.
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\n
\n\n
3.1. ERRATUM
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An Erratum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter originates from the production process handled by the publisher.
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A published Erratum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
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3.2. CORRIGENDUM
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A Corrigendum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter is a result of an Author’s miscalculation or oversight. A published Corrigendum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\n\n
4. FINAL REMARKS
\n\n
IntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
\n\n
In the case of Retraction or removal of the Work, the publisher will be under no obligation to refund the APC.
\n\n
The general principles set out above apply to Retractions and Corrections issued in all IntechOpen publications.
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