\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-partners-with-ehs-for-digital-advertising-representation-20210416",title:"IntechOpen Partners with EHS for Digital Advertising Representation"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-new-contract-with-cepiec-china-for-distribution-of-open-access-books-20210319",title:"IntechOpen Signs New Contract with CEPIEC, China for Distribution of Open Access Books"},{slug:"150-million-downloads-and-counting-20210316",title:"150 Million Downloads and Counting"},{slug:"intechopen-secures-indefinite-content-preservation-with-clockss-20210309",title:"IntechOpen Secures Indefinite Content Preservation with CLOCKSS"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-to-all-global-amazon-channels-with-full-catalog-of-books-20210308",title:"IntechOpen Expands to All Global Amazon Channels with Full Catalog of Books"},{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6569",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Recent Applications in Data Clustering",title:"Recent Applications in Data Clustering",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Clustering has emerged as one of the more fertile fields within data analytics, widely adopted by companies, research institutions, and educational entities as a tool to describe similar/different groups. 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\r\n\tUbiquitous computing is often mentioned as an application domain with blurry or even undefined rules, boundaries, and examples. Fortunately, there are several concepts, developments, and pieces of research that have been put forward into this book (data integration, distributed systems, data enhancement via blockchain or machine learning, etc.) which explain what ubiquitous computing is and how it can be used to everyone´s advantage. All these contributions are based on research works and developments involving areas of knowledge such as the Internet of Things, Autonomous Systems, Cyber-Physical Systems, and Wireless Sensor Networks. Among other topics, heterogeneous hardware integration, low capability distributed systems, microservices, security deployments for autonomous devices, or data mining procedures are fully mentioned and described here. In this way, this book provides a holistic view onto the field of ubiquitous computing and all its features, both related to the software and hardware, while at the same time offering knowledge from cutting edge projects that provide the backbone of the contents that have been included.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-690-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-689-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-691-7",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"adf308a0840ede98439d031a21ba73a6",bookSignature:"Dr. Ishwar Singh and Dr. Zhen Gao",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9977.jpg",keywords:"Distributed Systems, Data Formatting, Actuators, Communication Protocols, Hardware Integration, Machine Learning, Interfaces, Unmanned Vehicles, Digital Twins, UAVs, UGVs, AUVs",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 3rd 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 1st 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 30th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 18th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 19th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"7 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr.Ishwar Singh has an extensive history of leadership, program, and course development, at Mohawk College, in the McMaster-Mohawk Bachelor of Technology (B.Tech.) Partnership and in SEPT. At Mohawk College, he designed and developed the first-ever degree program in Process Automation, in addition, to jointly securing funding with two other colleagues to establish a Process Automation Applied Research Centre.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Gao has published over 100 journal and conference papers, 1 book,\r\nand 4 book chapters in areas of advanced robotics, automation, and artificial Intelligence. \r\nHe serves as the Editor-in-Chief of the International Journal of Intelligent Machines and\r\nRobotics; he is also the Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Robotic and Mechatronic Systems.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"333793",title:"Dr.",name:"Ishwar",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"ishwar-singh",fullName:"Ishwar Singh",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031TBdSQAW/Profile_Picture_1616070554137",biography:null,institutionString:"McMaster University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"McMaster University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"353808",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhen",middleName:null,surname:"Gao",slug:"zhen-gao",fullName:"Zhen Gao",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y0000364SnZQAU/Profile_Picture_1615808028038",biography:"Zhen Gao is an assistant professor in the School of Engineering Practice and Technology\r\n(SEPT) at McMaster University which he joined in July 2014. Since September 2020, he was\r\nappointed as Program Lead for a Master’s program in Systems & Technology which was focused\r\non Cyber Physical System. He has published over 100 journal and conference papers, 1 book,\r\nand 4 book chapters in areas of advanced robotics, automation and artificial Intelligence. Dr. Gao\r\nis the Associate Editor for the Conference Editorial Board of the IEEE Robotics and Automation\r\nSociety, 2021 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation. He was the sessional\r\nchair For 9th International Conference on Interactive, Collaborative, and Blended Learning, and\r\nfor International Conference on Interactive Mobile Communication, Technologies and Learning.\r\nDr. Gao served as the Program Committee Member for World Congress on Intelligent Control\r\nand Automation, International Conference on Information and Automation, IEEE Conference on\r\nRobotics and Biomimetics, IEEE International Conference on Real-time Computing and\r\nRobotics, IEEE International Conference on Automation and Logistics, and International\r\nConference on Intelligent Robotics and Applications, and IEEE Canadian Conference on\r\nElectrical and Computer Engineering. His current research interests include industrial\r\ncontrollers, advanced robotics and automation, artificial intelligence, neural network and pattern\r\nrecognition. 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\nThe tourism sector accounts for an increasingly large share of the global economy. Growth of tourism makes the destination, as the basic resource, more vulnerable. The share of tourism sector’s energy consumption is growing significantly on a daily basis. The analyses of global tourism growth indicate increasing growth of urban tourism.
\nA massive influx of tourists into the cities poses considerable challenges, including the preservation of cultural resources and the built environment, the sustainability of social interaction between local citizens and tourists, waste management, increased energy consumption and other.
\nSustainable development is a ‘sine qua non’ for building a sustainable future. Preservation and protection of natural, cultural and social resources are an unconditional necessity to us and future generations. Unfortunately, despite all the strategies, scientific and research activities, the increasingly frequent statements made by experts and quite homogeneous position of profession (economists, sociologists, architects and urban planners), we are still witnessing tourism development mainly going in the wrong direction towards the unsustainable mass tourism. Mass tourism strongly affects the recourses it is dependent on, ruining its own existence like cutting off the branch one is standing on.
\nEuropean Travel Commission (ETC) authors of Global Development Tourism Analysis [1] point out that urban tourism is a constantly growing segment. Urban centres have become tourist destinations. In that respect, it is crucial to understand the specificity of the city in relation to other tourist destinations.
\nUrbanisation has had important consequences for many aspects of social, political and economic life [2].
\nUrbanisation and, consequently, greater concentration of citizens as well as people in general (travellers, traders, residents of nearby places, etc.) enabled exchange of ideas, goods and objects, focusing on products of human creativity such as the literature and poetry, philosophy, architecture, art, craftsmanship, trade, law, administration and other achievements.
\nSince the archaeological evidence is fragmentary, we still cannot define the exact moment when the process of urbanisation started. Furthermore, there are different definitions of urban structures identified as cities. In the study of the ancient world, the city is generally defined as a large populated urban centre of commerce and administration with sanitation and sewerage system [3].
\nBearing in mind the complexity of defining the term city, we can conclude that in this process the following factors should be considered: population (number and density), spatial structure and organisation, buildings (number, height, function and complexity), sewer and sanitation system and defence system (walls and/or fortifications).
\nSettlements preceded the development of cities and their establishment coincided with mankind’s abandonment of nomadic living and beginning of organised dwelling in specific locations. Cities had most commonly developed at the intersection of ancient trade routes.
\nThe origin of urbanisation can be traced to Sumer and Mesopotamia. The first Sumerian city was Eridu (present day Abu Shahrein, Iraq), founded in 5400 BCE. Uruk was the earliest city in Mesopotamia region dated around 4500 BCE and then Ur around 3800 BCE. Both Uruk and Ur were situated in proximity to the banks of the Euphrates River. After Sumer and Mesopotamia, urbanisation spread to Egypt. Some cities in ancient Egypt grew out of the agricultural developments and other settlements as a result of the state’s need to organise its unifying political centres. While two most powerful city-states in ancient Greece were Athens and Sparta, other influential city-states were Corinth, Thebes, Argos, Delphi and Rhodos. The largest cities during the Roman Empire were Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, Carthage, Ephesus, Constantinople, Smyrna, Pergamon, Jerusalem and Leptis Magna.
\nFor several millennia, cities appeared in more and more regions across the world, but the size of the largest cities did not substantially exceed 10,000 inhabitants.
\nThis changed only from 1500 BC onwards when Thebes in Egypt might have exceeded 100,000 inhabitants and Babylon reached 200,000 inhabitants in 600 BC [4].
\nDuring the eighth and ninth century AD many cities in Europe, Asia and Middle East, such as Bagdad, reached population of several hundred thousand inhabitants. Water supply, waste management and sanitation were most important limiting factors for further development. Furthermore, the urbanisation level, also, depended on the quantity of food production and resources coming from peripheral areas, as well as the possibility of delivery to the city region.
\nAfter the decline of the Roman Empire, cities spread further across the world, but no region reached comparable urbanisation levels until the eighteenth century [5].
\nThe proximity of trade routes, food sources and other vital resources has significantly contributed to the speed of urbanisation and city development, but they pale in comparison to the effect of the Industrial Revolution beginning in the second half of the eighteenth century in Great Britain.
\nGreat Britain was the global leader of urbanisation happening all over the world at that time.
\nIndustrial revolution has led to increased labour demand at particular location, and that was the primary driver of the fast-paced urbanisation. As a larger population could be sustained from farming the same amount of land, the number of people that could live in cities increased strongly [6].
\nLondon population continued to grow, and at the beginning of the nineteenth century, it reached 3 million inhabitants. In 1863, the first underground railway line was opened. Initially, it was operated on steam and then electrified from 1890 onwards. The underground lines with the horse-drawn omnibus were the first comprehensive urban mass transport system in the world. This resulted in further growth of the city and the number of inhabitants, which increased to 6.5 million in 1900.
\nBy the turn of the twentieth century, steel frame construction structures were one of the most important technological innovations that contributed significantly to the transformation of city and city views. At that time, and for most of the past millennium, churches were always the peaks of city skylines. Their construction had a little weight and provided with none or small usable space. At the same time, the tallest office or residential buildings reached heights of only a few dozen metres. Steel-framed construction and reinforced concrete increased heights for residential and office buildings tenfold and exceeded 300 m. This building structure technological innovation contributed to increased population density.
\nIn the first half of the twentieth century, labour-saving innovation slowed down the growth of employment in manufacturing. Jobs were created in the service sector and in knowledge-intensive professions. Although expected, the shift away from manufacturing did not entail de-urbanisation trends. The urbanisation continued and reasons for that can be found in the amenities that cities offer, such as various types of entertainment places (pub concert rooms, cinemas, theatres, restaurants and concert halls), better healthcare, education facilities and specialised shopping opportunities. Agglomeration effects ensured advantage for businesses located in cities.
\nNew technological innovation played a crucial role in shaping post-industrial urbanisation: electric trolley line (1888, Richmond, Virginia), automobile (1890s European and North American cities) and construction of freeways or highways (1950s onward).
\nFrom the 1920s onwards, automobiles became more common due to lower prices made possible by Henry Ford’s revolutionary assembly-line production techniques. The affordable automobile price, city trolley line network and high-quality sub-urban and inter-urban roads allowed the increase of distance between working and place of residence for the majority of the population.
\nIt is important to emphasise that in 1800 only 3% of the world’s population lived in cities. For example, the three largest cities in population size were Boston (18,230 citizens), Philadelphia (28,522 citizens) and New York (33,131 citizens) [7].
\nSince the 1800s, the process of urbanisation has moved rapidly in the entire world. In 1950, about two-third of the population worldwide lived in rural settlements and one-third in urban settlements [8].
\nToday, more than half of the world’s population lives in urban areas, and the number of cities over 1 million stands at more than 400. By 2030, almost two-thirds of the world’s population is projected to live in urban areas. The number of megacities (cities with populations over 10 million) rose from 3 in 1975 to 16 in 2000 and is expected to reach 27 by 2025 [9].
\nAccording to the Sustainable Urbanisation Policy Brief, urban centres currently occupy less than 5% of the world’s landmass. Nevertheless, they account for around 70% of both global energy consumption and greenhouse gas emission [10].
\nAccording to Demographia World Urban Areas 13th Annual Edition 2017, a slight majority (51.4%) of the large urban area population lives in built-up urban areas between 4000 and 10,000 persons per square kilometre. Approximately one-quarter (0.9%: 40,000 and over; 4.8%: 20,000–40,000; 18.3%: 10,000–20,000) lives at higher densities and one-quarter (15.2%: 2000–4000; 9.4% under 2000) lives at lower urban area densities.
\nThere are 37 megacities in the world (urban areas over 10 million population). A total of 84 urban areas are indicated with 5,000,000 or more population [11].
\nUrban population accounted for 34% in 1960 will continue to grow approximately 1.84% per year between 2015 and 2020, 1.63% per year between 2020 and 2025, and 1.44% per year between 2025 and 2030 [12].
\nThe World Cities Report 2016, Urbanization and Development: Emerging Futures, projects that by 2030, the urban population of developing countries will double, while the area covered by cites could triple [13].
\nSuch concentration of people and their activity creates increased demands on the environment. In order to reduce the effects of the urban areas to an ecologically acceptable level, planning and design processes should take into consideration the assessment of the ecological footprint and ecological deficit, urban heat islands, construction activities’ impact, urban aerodynamic influence, the land use, traffic,
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The surface area that makes up a footprint is a sum of all land required to supply resources and absorb wastes, wherever that land may be on earth. Throughout history, areas with rich agricultural hinterlands have enabled the growth of cities. Nowadays, cities may draw on resources travelling great distances from where they are located. When urban areas use resources above their regeneration boundaries, an ecological deficit occurs. This situation can be improved with importing bio-capacity through trade or liquidating regional ecological assets.
\nToday, among first 20 built-up urban areas, with 500,000 and over population and with occupied land area from 11,875 to 3212 square kilometres, 11 cities are from the United States, 3 from Japan, 3 from China, 1 from Russia, 1 from Indonesia and 1 from Argentina. When we increase the number analysing the top 50 urban areas with occupied land from 11,875 to 1917 square miles, we have again United States on the 1st place with 22 cities, followed by China with 5 cities, Japan and Australia sharing the 3rd place with 3 cities and all other countries with 1 city. Those countries are Russia, Indonesia, Argentina, Brazil, Thailand, France, South Korea, Germany, South Africa, Mexico, Canada, US Puerto Rico, India, Malaysia, Nigeria and Egypt [15].
\nAbove-mentioned data underline that the wealthier the cities are, the greater the ecological footprint they create.
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Additional impacts include short-term increased transportation density; road and bridge modification due to shipments of heavy, oversized and hazardous loads; new roads or expansion of existing roads and parking area development; limited access to the urban area of significant interest to residents and tourists and potential urban visual identity deterioration.
\nThe complex
In the cities, the wind speeds are generally lower compared to those in the natural environment because of the buildings obstructing the airflow. This urban aerodynamics influences the temperature and evaporation processes and is therefore an important factor at the microclimatic level. High-rise buildings can cause complex streams of airflow, which often result in wind turbulence in some areas or concentric pollution due to impending airflow in other areas. “With the change in urban topology, an individual building immersed in a complex surrounding can experience different flow mechanisms, such as wake effects and channelling. These flow mechanisms depend on the shape, height and location of the surrounding structures, which alter with the city development.” [17].
\nThe
The urban land use is interrelated with transport, CO2 emissions, etc. It could be said that the city is an organism in which population density, transport organisation, both public and individual, air pollution and the health and safety of citizens interact with one another. Therefore, the organisation of life in the city and the possible problem resolution should take this into account.
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Human activity, especially in more developed economies, is increasingly leading to endangered
In addition to all these, there is the so-called
Air pollution in cities can be reduced and combined solutions should be applied simultaneously. To improve air quality, the city administrations should be working actively on reducing traffic by promoting walking and cycling, eliminating polluting vehicles with limited access zones, issuing permits exclusively to developers and contractors of building planed and design according to the sustainable architecture principles, decreasing unnecessary road building and freeing up city surface capacity, as well as improving air quality and reclaiming space for public parks, pedestrians and cyclists. Additionally, the city administration should introduce incentives to retrofit polluting vehicles and green the city by maintaining and increasing green urban areas that could enhance air quality.
\nUnsustainable city lifestyle and conventional urban water management create increasing barriers for efficient management, faced by the city’s administration and residents, of scarcer and less reliable water resources. To minimise environmental degradation, the sustainable city development plans and design integrate the urban water cycle, including storm water, groundwater and wastewater management and water supply. For example, very often dust, dirt and other solid waste go into drains with rainwater or other unregulated watercourses. By increasing the area of hard, impermeable surfaces in cities, appropriate and more efficient collection and drainage of rainwater are possible.
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Urban tourism has been present since the beginnings of Mesopotamia and Sumer. Old Romans travelled to Greek cities, especially to Alexandria and Athens. Cities were then the centres of music, art, literature, architecture and places of encounter of different cultures. In the Middle Ages, long trips were recorded when young aristocrats visited several European cities [20].
\nThe most significant tourist trips to cities date back to the end of the nineteenth century. At the end of the 1970s, tourism has become an increasingly important part of the economy of European cities. Trends, statistical indicators of the number of overnight stays, tourist consumption and total tourist traffic in the first decade of the twenty-first century show that the share of urban tourism in the overall European economy is becoming more and more significant [21].
\nUrban tourism and its definitions are based on the city as a complex social and economic system as well as the city as the destination with many tourist attractions and valuable resources. The national conference on urban tourism (Rennes, 1988) concluded that urban tourism is a set of tourist resources or activities located in towns and cities and offered to visitors from elsewhere [22].
\nMany researchers attempted to define the term urban tourism, as Ashwoth [23], Law [24], Howie [25].
\nConsidering the definitions of the aforementioned authors, it is possible to state that urban tourism is a multi-layered complex of activities arising as a consequence of many resource attractions in a town or a city.
\nUrban tourism has been developed especially in cities with open urban spaces, landscaped parks, unique urban and architectural design solutions, attractive material and intangible cultural heritage, efficient traffic solution, well-known universities and scientific research centres, concentration of well-equipped shops and shopping centres, restaurants with quality gastronomic offer and dynamic street life. Furthermore, urban tourism is well developed in cities that are the base of tourists who have recognised the entire region as a worthwhile tour destination. Some authors point out the attraction of the city as a tourist destination [26] or specific elements of urban tourism products, i.e. city tourism resources that determine the city’s attractiveness to its visitors [27].
\nThe contents of the attractions are divided into three main groups:
Urban tourism integrates with urban development. Urban development and the city are in constant interaction. The city as a tourist destination is a complex social and economic system. On architectural-urban level, the city is a dynamic structure subject to constant change and development.
\nCities, where national cultural institutions, university and science centres, religious architecture, museums, galleries and other valuable buildings are located, are subject to the influence of an increasing number of tourists. This pressure on historic cities results in ever greater challenges for the city, population and city administration.
\nThe main challenges are certainly the preservation of cultural resources; the built environment and social interaction of the local population and visitors.
\nUN Expert Group meeting on Sustainable Tourism in 2013, New York, emphasised the following challenges for the sustainability of EU tourism: (1) reducing the seasonality of demand; (2) addressing the impact of tourism transport; (3) improving the quality of tourism jobs; (4) maintaining and enhancing the community prosperity and quality of life, in the face of change; (5) minimising resource use and production of waste; (6) conserving and giving value to natural/cultural heritage; (7) making holidays available to all; (8) tourism as a tool in global sustainable development [28].
\nAdditionally, research of urban tourism and sustainability should certainly consider the following challenges: increased energy demand and CO2 emissions; pollution of air, water and land; noise pollution; potential increase of blight and crime; land value overvaluation and speculations; decreasing or excluding less profitable but still significant business for the local economy; overcrowding the city with increased number of visitors causing the phenomenon of automobile congestion; facilities, services and infrastructure pressure: place saturation; and uncontrolled growth of the tourism industry.
\nOverall, tourism growth is often faster than adoption of environmental friendly solution.
\nThe lifestyle incoherence of city residents on one side and tourists on the other, in an unquenchable number of cases and examples, ends with sacrificing the needs of city residents.
\nFurthermore, another significant challenge is globalisation. Although an important development factor that creates opportunities such as access to knowledge, expansion of partnership, cross-fertilisation of cultures etc., globalisation also affects the intangible and tangible cultural heritage eminently.
\nAnd the last challenge, but not the least, would be the issue of tourism and urban tourism in many developing countries with no alternative. It might be said that their government and other shareholders are encouraging uncontrolled and rapid tourism growth as completely legitimate and appropriate way of creating jobs and foreign currency earnings for the rapidly growing unemployed working-age population.
\nAt the beginning of the 1990s, more efforts were made to develop the sustainability indicators of economic and tourist development. Indicative systems for assessing and monitoring sustainability of tourism were created by international organisations, academic institutions and government agencies such as United Nations World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO), European Environment Agency (EEA), Eurostat and Tourism SustainabilityGroup (TSG).
\nThe UNWTO methodology consists of 12 key steps grouped into three levels (initial level, benchmark development and implementation level) with the aim to develop a system of tourism sustainability indicators for a particular destination, which may be applied to a particular tourist location, but also the region or country as a whole.
\nSpecial attention was paid to indicators relating to the following issues: tourism volume and value, including seasonality; employment in tourism; the development impact on the environment and communities; the conservation and valorisation of cultural heritage; solid waste management; visitor and resident satisfaction; other indicators (energy use, water use and pollution of air and water) [29].
\nEurostat and the European Tourism Sustainability Group (TSG) have published their lists of tourism sustainability indicators in the mid-2000s. To a large extent, both lists rely on the European Environmental Agency’s methodology (Drivers-Pressures-State-Impact-Responses).
\nIn the conference on ‘Responsible Tourism in Destination’ held in 2002, Cape Town, a consensus was reached among most of the 208 representatives of all tourism sectors, coming from 20 countries resulting with a declaration. The main purpose of the declaration was to call upon country representatives, multilateral agencies, destination representatives and enterprises to develop similar practical guidelines and to encourage planning authorities, tourism businesses, tourists and local communities—to take responsibility for achieving sustainable tourism and to create better places for people to live in and for people to visit.
\nAccording to the conference participants, responsible tourism has the following characteristics: it minimises negative economic, environmental and social impacts; generates greater economic benefits for local people and enhances the well-being of host communities, improves working conditions and access to the industry; involves local people in decisions that affect their lives and life chances; makes positive contributions to the conservation of natural and cultural heritage and to the maintenance of the world’s diversity; provides more enjoyable experiences for tourists through more meaningful connections with local people and a greater understanding of local cultural, social and environmental issues; provides access for physically challenged people; and is culturally sensitive, engenders respect between tourists and hosts, and builds local pride and confidence.
\nThe declaration guiding principles are as decided in three fundamental groups: guiding principles for economic responsibility; guiding principles for social responsibility and guiding principles for environmental responsibility. For detailed description, see [30].
\nIn 2004, UNWTO defined the following baseline sustainable tourism indicators: local satisfaction with tourism; effects of tourism on communities; sustaining tourist satisfaction; tourism seasonality; economic benefits of tourism; energy management; water availability and conservation; drinking water quality; sewage treatment; solid waste management; development control and controlling use intensity [31].
\nIn 2005, UNWTO and UNEP, in the publication ‘Making Tourism More Sustainable: A Guide for Policy Makers’ [32], presented the study results addressed to the development and the implementation of sustainable tourism policies, strategies and tools. The guide sets 12 aims for sustainable tourism: economic viability; local prosperity; employment quality; social equity; visitor fulfilment; local control; community well-being; cultural richness; physical integrity; biological diversity; resource efficiency and environmental purity.
\nEU’s policies and measures in support of a quality urban environment are continuously evolving; therefore, additional policies and programmes are being developed. In 2010, the publication ‘Making Our Cities Attractive and Sustainable’ [33] defines the basic principles of sustainable city development as foundation for sustainable urban tourism development.
\nThe above-mentioned principles, their basic groups and subgroups, are as follows: clean and healthy: safe water to drink, clean air to breathe, collection and disposal of solid waste, toxic free; green and pleasant: green urban areas, biodiversity-friendly, quiet places, respect for urban heritage, sustainable land use; efficient and sustainable: resource efficiency, energy efficiency, green mobility, local actions on climate change, technological innovations and green jobs; well-managed and democratic: integrated environmental management systems, green public procurement, participatory urban planning, assessing environmental impacts and tracking progress.
\nUrban development and urban tourism are in constant interaction. Sustainable development of cities simultaneously provides numerous solutions, but it also presents challenges for all stakeholders in the process, from government representatives to local people. Cities that are attractive tourist destinations unfortunately often get the negative consequences of irresponsible and unsustainable urban tourism. Urban tourism, on the one hand, offers the possibility of economic growth, while on the other hand, it shows the vulnerability of the destination, which is the result of over-excitation and excessive and unplanned growth.
\nSustainable cities are those that have transport systems that enable rapid and efficient movement, provide a supply of clean and accessible water, provide quality health care and employment and provide friendly economic environments. In sustainable cities, waste management is solved in a way that protects the environment from pollution. Governing structures of the city and city institutions work predictably in predetermined terms. Sustainable cities have pre-established security measures and protection plans in case of natural disasters and major accidents.
\nSustainable urban tourism is responsible tourism. Following the above-mentioned principles and indicators of sustainable urban tourism, it is possible to conclude that sustainable tourism and sustainable city can and should support each other’s development.
\nArchitecture and spatial planning are important elements of urban tourism. Recognition of the existing architectural heritage and responsible planning and design of architecture and urban space according to the sustainable development principles contribute significantly to the development of sustainable urban tourism, as well as tourism in general.
\nTourism is the fastest growing economic sector in the world [34], with urban tourism among the fastest growing segments [35].
\nTourists are drawn to the cities attracted by the diversity on offer in cities worldwide. It is unquestionable that their arrivals contribute to the local economy making a strong socio-economic impact. All participants involved in tourism planning and development today should clearly be aware of the necessity to reduce the environmental impact.
\nThis certainly applies to the architecture in tourism, since hospitality industry is among the largest polluters and resource consumers.
\nSustainable urban planning and sustainable architecture are prerequisite to sustainable urban tourism development. All relevant stakeholders should consider the environmental, social and economic impacts, highlighting the conscientious use of resources especially the non-renewable energy and water, waste minimisation and application of energy-efficient systems and optimisation of technology solution.
\nHotels, directly and indirectly, affect the environment. Energy, water and raw materials are consumed during construction, building use, maintenance, renewal and destruction. In addition, waste is generated and harmful substances are released into the atmosphere during those processes. These facts prompted the creation of standards and certification systems aimed to mitigate environmental impact in accordance to the principles of sustainable development.
\nIn the 1990s, the first so-called green building was certified in the United States by the Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM). In 2000, the US Green Building Council (USGBC) defined the certification criteria to improve energy efficiency and environmental protection and set up a Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED). Under the influence of BREEAM and LEED systems, other systems have been developed, tailored to national priorities and needs and some of them coming out as the usual framework of building practice and existing legislation, applying the principles of sustainable development and concepts such as building of nearly-zero energy use or passive-solar buildings.
\nHotel certification systems were initiated with the aim to manage the hotel’s environmental impacts, both globally and locally. Those systems were focused on: reduction of water and non-renewable energy consumption; environmentally sound waste management; protection and preservation of natural habitats; sustainable building and operational practices; responsible resource response with zero-waste strategies; effective damage and accident control at the construction site; self-sustainability with the utmost utilisation of renewable energy sources and passive solar systems; sustainability of all phases of the construction process; the use of environment-friendly materials; indoor air quality; promoting the concepts of sustainability among hotel guests, employees, suppliers and business partners with implementation of positive operational procedures; responsible attitude towards cultural heritage and biodiversity; partnerships with non-governmental organisations and the local community; socially responsible behaviour with the inclusion of community members.
\nFurthermore, the necessity for the high-quality hotel certification systems is the ‘Greenwash’ prevention. The most widespread and most common form of ‘greenwash’ is a hidden trade, lack of evidence, inaccuracy, irrelevance, inaccurate data on origin and content of recycled materials, possession of internationally recognised certificates, false labels on materials (such as, ‘ecologically’ on products containing pesticides and other toxins) and the alike.
\nIn addition to the above-mentioned BREEAM and LEED systems, the following systems should be highlighted: Certified Passive House Building (by International Passive House Association [iPHA]), Deutsche Gesellschaft für Nachhaltiges Bauen (DGNB), Excellence in Design for Greater Efficiencies (EDGE), Energy Star, Green Building Evaluation Label (NR China) and nearly Zero Energy Hotel (neZEH, UK).
\nIn 2016, the web site greenhotelworld.com announced the results of ‘Certified Global Green-Hotel Density’ research. The research was based on just over 130,000 hotels worldwide certified by a total of 50 hotel certification systems, in accordance with the standards set by the Global Sustainable Travel Council (GSTC). The established standards wanted to objectify green-hotel certification systems globally, as a support and incentive for sustainable tourism development. According to the research results, global density is 6.2%, while densities per continents are North America, 10.1%; South America, 2.7%; Europe, 6.1%; Oceania, 4.8%; Africa, 3.7% and Asia, 0.9%. Data show insufficient density of green hotels, both globally and regionally [36].
\nIn the past, climate adaptability was of fundamental importance to the planning and construction of traditional settlements. The vernacular and urban architecture often contain and still embody the extraordinary knowledge of local climatic and geographic potential for sustainable development. Much before Vitruvius wrote his work ‘Ten Books of Architecture’, builders were forced to optimise their life environment, organise the land and surroundings and design the interior space and external parts of the building. During the industrial revolution, in the mid-nineteenth century, architecture was less dependent on local energy sources, relying more and more on abundant—as it seemed—fossil fuels. Trends in architecture and urbanism too often continue to ignore environment-friendly and sustainable design principles.
\nApplication of sustainable development strategies and sustainable design principles should enable the fulfilment of maximum human requirements with minimum environmental loads. Hospitality industry facility architects’ and urban planners’ continuous task in designing processes is to incorporate the globally important fact that energy and raw material resource are limited, as well as the capacity of the ecosystem to absorb waste.
\nThis important task is best achieved by pollution suppression and by implementation of energy-efficient concepts, elements and systems, and they are as follows:
\nA sustainable urban design, spatial planning for sustainable tourism development, should promote the diversity of architectural solutions complementary to the activities of potential users, the diversity of green areas and the diversity of renewable energy sources, thus reducing dependence on one non-renewable resource.
\nFurthermore, building construction should consist of integrated systems, self-sufficient energy production and water supply, sustainable waste management and reduced raw-material use. Planning and design should contribute to the mitigation of climatic extremes and be harmonised with the bio-climatic and ecological principles or the principles of sustainable development.
\nAnalysis of carrying capacity is crucial for assessing the location, site and land use of energy-efficient architecture and sustainable tourism development. The renovation and reconstruction of existing building will encourage the greatest savings of energy, materials, land and technical and social infrastructure.
\nThe land-use planning will ensure that users meet their vital needs in a sustainable way by reducing energy consumption and CO2 emissions, reducing the use of environmentally unacceptable construction materials and more heavily relying on local resources. Pre-planning scheduled development process prevents irreparable damages.
\nThe best project solution will come as a result of a well-organised design process, a carefully selected design team, a precisely defined end goal, a study of applicable principles and model testing.
\nAppropriate location, selection of a site with good solar access, proper orientation with building’s position towards solar gain during winter and limited western exposure in the summer, compact spatial concept, natural lighting, shading (natural and architectural), thermal mass, preheating, double envelope, well-dimensioned thermal insulation made of environment-friendly materials, air permeability, natural ventilation, solar chimneys and solar walls and system optimisation are the basic principles of passive solar architecture.
\nThis primarily refers to wind generators, biomass plants, photovoltaic solar systems, solar heating and hot water systems, split solar systems, heat pumps, active facades, energy-efficient building elements (structures, materials, building openings, thermal insulation and minimising thermal bridges) and energy-efficient Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) system.
\nWaste analysis is the foundation of any zero waste and nearly-zero waste programme. Sustainable design will respect the waste management hierarchy before the final disposal of potential residual waste.
\nResponsible occupants’ behaviour has a significant impact on the thermal balance and energy-efficiency, water consumption, as well as on waste management of the facility. These facts raise importance of informing and educating the hospitality industry participants, guests, visitors and employees on how technology and occupant behaviour can be integrated into realising the sustainable lifestyle.
\nThe hospitality industry sector is energy intensively demanding. The use of renewable energy sources reduces operational costs, increases competitiveness and strengthens the green-building identity. In addition to reducing energy consumption from non-renewable sources, the application of the principles of energy-efficient architecture in tourism, such as energy-efficient concepts, elements and systems, brings many significant benefits such as reducing CO2 emissions, improving guest comfort and reducing the possibility of the ‘sick building syndrome’.
\nTourism is the fastest growing economic sector in the world, with urban tourism among its fastest growing segments. It is crucial to understand the specificity of the city in relation to other tourist destinations. Urban tourism, undoubtedly, needs to preserve the resource that allows its existence according to the three pillars of sustainable development. Urban tourism can and should support sustainable urban development.
\nUrban tourism, on the one hand, offers the possibility of economic growth, while on the other hand, it exposes the vulnerability of the destination, which is the result of over-excitation and excessive and unplanned growth.
\nSustainable urban planning and sustainable architecture are prerequisite to the sustainable urban tourism development.
\nSustainable urban tourism and energy-efficient architecture are interdependent. All relevant stakeholders should take into account the environmental, social and economic impacts by highlighting the conscientious use of resources especially the non-renewable energy and water, waste minimisation and application of energy-efficient systems and optimisation of technology solution.
\nGreen building certification programs (e.g. USGBC, LEED, BREEAM, etc.) promote costefficient and resource-saving framework as well as integration of sustainable development strategies during construction, use, maintenance, renewal and destruction of architecture in tourism. In addition, waste is generated and harmful substances are released into the atmosphere during those processes. These facts prompted the creation of standards and certification systems aimed to mitigate environmental impact in accordance to the principles of sustainable development.
\nThe hospitality industry sector is energy intensively demanding. The use of renewable energy sources reduces operational costs, increases competitiveness and strengthens the green-building identity. In addition to reducing energy consumption from non-renewable sources, the application of the principles of energy-efficient architecture in tourism brings many significant benefits such as reduction of energy consumption, CO2 emissions, improvement of guest comfort and reduction of the possibility for the occurrence of the ‘sick building syndrome’.
\nUnfortunately, most hotels all around the world are energy in-efficient and have negative impact on the environment [37].
\nHowever, hotel companies’ owners are reacting to positive ecological trends. Investing in sustainable architecture in tourism is often perceived as an obstacle to ambiguity about the ultimate goal. As Rincones notes [38], despite the usual assumption that initial investment is considerably higher for a sustainable, energy-efficient hotel, practice shows that if the holistic approach to a project that has integrated all the necessary strategies and principle into the planning stage, the total investment will be slightly increased, or in some examples (for the time being rare), zero-rise and even the reduction of the initial investment has been achieved.
\nArchitecture in urban tourism, with its design and spatial solutions, is playing an important role for the identity and tourism development of a city. Although initially potentially higher, but certainly varying low-risk investments subjected to numerous external and internal factors will, in a relatively short period of time, result in faster revenue returns, lower costs, financial growth and positive cash flow.
\nFinally, and most importantly, consistent application of energy-efficient principles contributes significantly to the sustainability of urban tourism.
\nThe evolution of body shaping techniques in the last decades has affected new technologies as well as vaser ultrasound liposuction; new blunt and narrow cannulas, which replaced sharp, larger diameter ones; and wet and superwet infiltrations which have replaced aggressive dry liposuction. Moreover, the art of fat harvesting and fat transfer, combined with the new studies of stem cell and their capability of generating new tissues, has led to a more sophisticated way to intend the art of body contouring. The new vision has a more artistic impact on the tridimensional sculpture of body frame. Another fundamental issue has been the understanding of the skin retraction capabilities enhanced by new technologies and the importance of full understanding of the anatomy of body muscles to help define and shape the body.
\nNew technologies have entered the market in the last decade, as power-assisted technology, ultrasound technology, and laser technology, in order to facilitate fat removal, reduce trauma, and improve skin retraction. I have personally been one of the pioneers of ultrasound-assisted liposuction since they appeared in the early 2000s and contributed to the realization of the new vaser device, more advanced and safer than previous ultrasound-assisted devices in commerce 20 years ago. In vaser technology (Figure 1), vaser is an acronym of vibration amplification sound at resonance and is a third generation of ultrasound-assisted liposuction that uses ultrasound energy to melt fat tissue, ultrasound technology emulsifies the fat for removal in such a delicate way that preserves as much of the tissue of the matrix as possible while emulsifying the desired amount of fatty tissue. Special titanium probes deliver the ultrasound energy to fat tissue, after proper infiltration with tumescent solution, allowing the selective destruction of only the fat tissue through three mechanisms: (1) cavitation, (2) mechanical, and (3) thermal.
\nVaser system.
In cavitation effect (Figure 2), the vaser probes vibrate at ultrasonic frequencies creating compressive and rarefactive forces around the grooved tip; cavitation microbubbles expand and then implode, releasing energy that disrupts the adipocyte architecture until an emulsion of fat and fluid is formed.
\nCavitation.
Mechanical disruption of fat occurs at the tip of the probe, where the vibrating metal surface comes in contact with the adipocytes. Cavitation and mechanical disruption of adipose tissue occur due to relative fragility of this tissue compared to other tissues such as vessels, muscle, and nerves. This is why this process is safe and effective, spears the connective and vascular network of the skin and subcutaneous tissue, allows a safe subcutaneous superficial undermining of the skin, and is thus a major skin retraction of tissue. The thinnest is the dermal tissue, the highest is the skin retraction, and liposuction is the term to define vaser smoothening of the fat. Careful emulsification, not an aggressive fat removal, is selective where needed in two different layers: subcutaneous for superficial definition and deep dermal for volume removal.
\nMinding the advantages of this technology, the plastic surgeon must be able to achieve superior results in terms of definition and shaping.
With superficial fattening and careful undermining, he can achieve a thin layer of skin flap, ideal for superior skin retraction.
Deeper fat removal can be done in a less traumatic mode, leaving less scar tissue, with less chances of seroma formation and induration and asymmetry.
Fat removal can be accomplished with fat preservation, harvesting, and preparation for further implant. Fat emulsified still contains the same amount of viable adipocytes as in standard liposuction, with same stem-derived cells that are vital to enhance fat survival rate when transferred to target areas (breast, thighs, buttocks, face, etc.).
All those potential weapons must be utilized by surgeon to better define the body shape and achieve better contouring [1, 2].
\nThe subcutaneous tissue is divided into three layers: a superficial adipose tissue layer, an intermediate membranous layer, and a deep adipose tissue.
\nThe thickness and proportion of those layers vary throughout the body depending on the anatomic region: the abdominal has a prominent fascial plane, making it easier to distinguish between the two fatty layers.
\nIn the leg, there is an attenuated fibrous membrane which separates from the muscle fascia. In the trunk, the adipose tissue is similar, as in gross appearance and density and structure (Figure 3).
\nFat anatomy.
In the thighs and gluteus, the subcutaneous fascia fuses with the gluteal crease and intergluteal fold [3].
\nThe introduction of vaser allows efficient and safe emulsification of fat in superficial and deep layers while preserving vascular and neural structures.
\nThis is a new chisel in surgeon hands to sculpture the body as a work of the artist, working in all subcutaneous planes, by adding and subtracting fat with delicate instruments and refined techniques. The subdermal plane is no longer a taboo area; controlled deformities are desirable, and muscular definition is attainable through lipoplasty by revealing the underlying anatomy.
\nThe full understanding of muscle anatomy is essential to try to recreate a muscle-shaped body and enhance definition and contouring (Figure 4).
\nMuscle anatomy.
The lines of body are described as natural curves which are defined by muscle, bone frame, and fat deposit. Posture is another component to assess the natural body appearance, and man and woman are different of course. Lipoplasty can address only subcutaneous tissue and is not a solution for abdominal protrusion secondary to muscle weakness or intraabdominal fat. This will require muscle exercise and diet to compensate. The achievement of symmetry and proportion is the goal of any body contouring procedure. The man of Vitruvio, designed by Leonardo da Vinci, remains the golden reference of human proportions. In the recent age, new trends in fashion have defined new more athletic figure, more toned, even in woman, answering to the so popular attended gym all over the world.
\nThe surgeon view and sense of artistry are essential in planning a good shaped body. He must create in his mind a tridimensional view of the new body to shape: ideally must thin the subcutaneous tissues as much as to display and reveal the superficial musculature, removing fat and highlighting major muscle groups. The salient features of the muscular anatomy relevant to body contouring are outlined such as origin, insertion, orientation, form created, and relationship to adjacent muscle groups.
\nMain muscles involved are the rectus muscles, the oblique muscle, the pectoralis in the front appearance, the latissimus dorsi, the lumbaris, and the gluteus in the back.
\nThe muscle edges and the intermuscular digitations must be outlined to better define an athletic abdomen, together with the linea alba and linea semilunaris recreation.
\nLines of transition between muscles must be obtained with more suction in a superficial manner. The main concept is removing and revealing what is underneath in normal-weighted patient, while traditional liposuction focuses in removing fat in overweight patient. The sculpturing surgeon tries to reveal the underlying musculature and body anatomy; shaping is a combination of removal to reveal what is underneath and adding in areas of deficiency to give more curvature.
\nIt is a mixture of light and shadow and depression and concavities to give the impression of more defined and toned body. In man, fullness is desirable in the upper pectoral region, deltoid, and biceps, and frequently, fat is grafted to augment the pectoralis and deltoids. In woman, the buttocks and breasts often require augmentation to improve fullness and increase curves.
\nAn example of this high-definition surgery in man is given:
\n32-year-old athletic body, looking for definition (Figure 5).
\nPlanning high-definition frontal view.
The areas of biceps muscle are marked, the area of male gland reduction is circled, the area of superficial fattening of male breast is marked, and the area of fat transfer to pectoralis muscle to add volume is marked as well.
\nThe linea alba is marked in the central abdomen; the outer margin of the rectus muscle and the interdigitations of the muscle area are marked as well.
\nThe margin of the oblique muscles, the inguinal ligament to create a marked depression, and the extra fat surrounding the navel are circled, and finally, the lateral flanks are lined where fat needs to be removed (Figure 6) [3, 4].
\nPlanning of lateral side. Margin of the oblique muscle outlined, edge of latissimus muscle, the inguinal ligament, and in red the outer medium gluteus zone to be grafted with fat to increase roundness.
Result of definition of an athletic young body is shown, after linea alba and linea semilunaris deepening and oblique muscle and inguinal ligament being enhanced.
\nNote the concavities and shadows created with false deformities to give more power and more density to muscle areas (Figures 7–10).
\nPreop appearance.
Postop appearance at 3 months.
Preop oblique view.
Postop oblique view.
The gluteal region is approached in a distinct way: lateral flanks are reduced in an aggressive way; the inguinal ligament is enhanced and glutes’ prominence reduced, while the outer medium gluteus muscle is filled to improve athletic definition (Figures 11 and 12).
\nPregluteal definition and torso contouring.
Postgluteal definition and torso contouring.
Woman body is different from man body, in human form, bone shape, muscle density, and fat distribution. Hormones influence woman body through all life and are responsible for fat distribution changes and shape changes.
\nMaternity affects body volume and shape as well, with radical changes which need to be addressed in body contouring surgery.
\nForty-five-year-old lady had two pregnancies and never regained young body appearance after first pregnancy from preop figure, flanks appear large, abdomen is fatty, and there are no lines, no curvature, and no definition in body shape.
\nThe posterior trunk appears heavy, and back rolls are located in the middle of the trunk.
\nVaser liposuction is planned, with definition of anterior rectus muscle, flattening, and contouring and reshaping back and creating more female lines (Figures 13–16).
\nPlanning.
Planning.
Preop.
Postop.
About 4000 ml of fat is removed from anterior upper and lower abdomen, back and flanks, and inner thighs.
\nButtocks area is one of the most requested by women nowadays. Reshaping means enhancing volume and giving more roundness and projection. Women are often lucky to have enough donor fat areas from abdomen, posterior trunk, and flanks.
\nThis 28-year-old woman asked for body reshaping and buttock enhancement.
\nVaser liposuction was performed, 4500 ml removed, and 1500 ml of fat harvested and then grafted to buttocks, outer and top buttock areas.
\nResults after 3 months are presented (Figures 17–25) [5].
\nPlanning of fat removal.
Planning of buttocks fat grafting.
Preop.
Postop 3 months.
Pre- and immediate postop result after 1400 ml fat grafting buttocks.
Pre- and immediate postop result after 1400 ml fat grafting buttocks.
Pre- and immediate postop result after 1400 ml fat grafting buttocks.
Pre- and immediate postop result after 1400 ml fat grafting buttocks.
Pre- and immediate postop result after 1400 ml fat grafting buttocks.
Body contouring surgery has changed deeply in the last decade—new technologies, more sophisticated technique—and has led to superior result in terms of definition. This is an art and must be considered in this way—plastic surgeon is a sculpturing boy and uses his chisel and talent to shape in a tridimensional space using fat removal and fat enhancement.
\nThe authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.
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",metaTitle:"Waiver Policy",metaDescription:"We feel that financial barriers should never prevent researchers from publishing their research. With the need to make scientific research more publically available and support the benefits of Open Access, more institutions and funders have dedicated funds to assist their faculty members and researchers cover the APCs associated with publishing in Open Access. Below we have outlined several options available to secure financing for your Open Access publication.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/waiver-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"At IntechOpen, the majority of OAPFs are paid by an Author’s institution or funding agency - Institutions (73%) vs. Authors (23%).
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'At IntechOpen, the majority of OAPFs are paid by an Author’s institution or funding agency - Institutions (73%) vs. Authors (23%).
\n\nThe first step in obtaining funds for your Open Access publication begins with your institution or library. IntechOpen’s publishing standards align with most institutional funding programs. Our advice is to petition your institution for help in financing your Open Access publication.
\n\nHowever, as Open Access becomes a more commonly used publishing option for the dissemination of scientific and scholarly content, in addition to institutions, there are a growing number of funders who allow the use of grants for covering OA publication costs, or have established separate funds for the same purpose.
\n\nPlease consult our Open Access Funding page to explore some of these funding opportunities and learn more about how you could finance your IntechOpen publication. Keep in mind that this list is not definitive, and while we are constantly updating and informing our Authors of new funding opportunities, we recommend that you always check with your institution first.
\n\nFor Authors who are unable to obtain funding from their institution or research funding bodies and still need help in covering publication costs, IntechOpen offers the possibility of applying for a Waiver.
\n\nOur mission is to support Authors in publishing their research and making an impact within the scientific community. Currently, 14% of Authors receive full waivers and 6% receive partial waivers.
\n\nWhile providing support and advice to all our international Authors, waiver priority will be given to those Authors who reside in countries that are classified by the World Bank as low-income economies. In this way, we can help ensure that the scientific work being carried out can make an impact within the worldwide scientific community, no matter where an Author might live.
\n\nThe application process is open after your submitted manuscript has been accepted for publication. To apply, please fill out a Waiver Request Form and send it to your Author Service Manager. If you have an official letter from your university or institution showing that funds for your OA publication are unavailable, please attach that as well. The Waiver Request will normally be addressed within one week from the application date. All chapters that receive waivers or partial waivers will be designated as such online.
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