Active ingredients in Geography I and Targeted crop(s).
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3266",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Type 1 Diabetes",title:"Type 1 Diabetes",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book contains a series of up-to-date chapters that review our current knowledge of type 1 diabetes as an autoimmune disease, the problems that still remain with existing treatments, and possible solutions for the near future.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-1017-0",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-7102-7",doi:"10.5772/45927",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"type-1-diabetes",numberOfPages:626,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"21684525ccb8c6acd89bc43ce177f90b",bookSignature:"Alan P. Escher and Alice Li",publishedDate:"February 27th 2013",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3266.jpg",numberOfDownloads:70860,numberOfWosCitations:39,numberOfCrossrefCitations:28,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:3,numberOfDimensionsCitations:59,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:5,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:126,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 12th 2012",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 3rd 2012",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 7th 2012",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 5th 2012",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 12th 2013",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"46023",title:"Dr.",name:"Alan",middleName:null,surname:"Escher",slug:"alan-escher",fullName:"Alan Escher",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/46023/images/5359_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Alan Escher, PhD, is Executive Vice President of Technology Development at SEKRIS Biomedical, Inc. (Redlands, California), a biotechnology company that develops innovative DNA immunotherapies for the treatment of inflammatory disorders like type 1 diabetes and organ transplant rejection. Dr. Escher was previously Associate Professor and Associate Director of the Center for Transplant Immunology Research at the Loma Linda University School of Medicine in Loma Linda, California. His training includes a PhD in Microbiology from Cornell University and a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Alberta.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Loma Linda University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"252337",title:"Dr.",name:"Sarah Alice",middleName:null,surname:"Long",slug:"sarah-alice-long",fullName:"Sarah Alice Long",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252337/images/system/252337.jpg",biography:"Dr. Alice Long received her BS degree in Biology from Macalester College in St. Paul, MN, and earned her PhD in Immunology from Emory University in Atlanta, GA. She then pursued post-doctoral studies at the University of California at Davis studying the etiology and pathogenesis of primary biliary cirrhosis, an autoimmune disease of the liver. She next joined a Seattle-based biotechnology company, Xcyte Therapies, where she helped develop adoptive T-cell therapies for multiple diseases. In 2005, she joined Benaroya Research Institute (BRI) as a staff scientist in the laboratory of Dr. Buckner where she applied her T-cell therapy experience to adoptive Treg therapy in T1D while studying the etiology and pathogenesis of T1D. In 2011, she joined the faculty at BRI and is currently a Research Associate Member and Manager of the Human Immunophenotyping Core.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1013",title:"Pediatric Endocrinology",slug:"pediatric-endocrinology"}],chapters:[{id:"40571",title:"The Epidemiology of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus",doi:"10.5772/52893",slug:"the-epidemiology-of-type-1-diabetes-mellitus",totalDownloads:5101,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Thomas Frese and Hagen Sandholzer",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/40571",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/40571",authors:[{id:"42153",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",surname:"Frese",slug:"thomas-frese",fullName:"Thomas Frese"}],corrections:null},{id:"38932",title:"Viruses and Type 1 Diabetes: Focus on the Enteroviruses",doi:"10.5772/52087",slug:"viruses-and-type-1-diabetes-focus-on-the-enteroviruses",totalDownloads:2694,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:null,signatures:"Didier Hober, Famara Sané, Karena Riedweg, Ilham Moumna, Anne Goffard, Laura Choteau, Enagnon Kazali Alidjinou and Rachel Desailloud",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/38932",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/38932",authors:[{id:"60735",title:"Dr.",name:"Didier",surname:"Hober",slug:"didier-hober",fullName:"Didier Hober"}],corrections:null},{id:"43294",title:"Genes Involved in Type 1 Diabetes",doi:"10.5772/52435",slug:"genes-involved-in-type-1-diabetes",totalDownloads:2327,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Marina Bakay, Rahul Pandey and Hakon Hakonarson",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/43294",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/43294",authors:[{id:"45906",title:"Dr.",name:"Hakon",surname:"Hakonarson",slug:"hakon-hakonarson",fullName:"Hakon Hakonarson"},{id:"157888",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",surname:"Bakay",slug:"marina-bakay",fullName:"Marina Bakay"},{id:"157890",title:"Dr.",name:"Rahul",surname:"Pandey",slug:"rahul-pandey",fullName:"Rahul Pandey"}],corrections:null},{id:"43295",title:"Beta-Cell Function and Failure",doi:"10.5772/52153",slug:"beta-cell-function-and-failure",totalDownloads:3994,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Soltani Nepton",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/43295",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/43295",authors:[{id:"56691",title:"Dr.",name:"Nepton",surname:"Soltani",slug:"nepton-soltani",fullName:"Nepton Soltani"}],corrections:null},{id:"43296",title:"The Impact of Inflammation on Pancreatic β-Cell Metabolism, Function and Failure in T1DM and T2DM: Commonalities and Differences",doi:"10.5772/55349",slug:"the-impact-of-inflammation-on-pancreatic-cell-metabolism-function-and-failure-in-t1dm-and-t2dm-commo",totalDownloads:2621,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Philip Newsholme, Kevin Keane, Paulo I Homem de Bittencourt Jr. and Mauricio Krause",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/43296",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/43296",authors:[{id:"40427",title:"Prof.",name:"Paulo",surname:"Homem De Bittencourt, Jr.",slug:"paulo-homem-de-bittencourt-jr.",fullName:"Paulo Homem De Bittencourt, Jr."},{id:"70121",title:"Prof.",name:"Philip",surname:"Newsholme",slug:"philip-newsholme",fullName:"Philip Newsholme"},{id:"168200",title:"Dr.",name:"Kevin",surname:"Keane",slug:"kevin-keane",fullName:"Kevin Keane"},{id:"168201",title:"Dr.",name:"Mauricio",surname:"Krause",slug:"mauricio-krause",fullName:"Mauricio Krause"}],corrections:null},{id:"40673",title:"Beta Cell Function After Islet Transplantation",doi:"10.5772/52952",slug:"beta-cell-function-after-islet-transplantation",totalDownloads:1769,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Morihito Takita, Nigar Seven, Marlon F. 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Graça Pereira and Engrácia Leandro",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/40561",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/40561",authors:[{id:"55154",title:"Prof.",name:"M.Graça",surname:"Pereira",slug:"m.graca-pereira",fullName:"M.Graça Pereira"},{id:"57556",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Cristina",surname:"Almeida",slug:"ana-cristina-almeida",fullName:"Ana Cristina Almeida"},{id:"159350",title:"Prof.",name:"Engracia",surname:"Leandro",slug:"engracia-leandro",fullName:"Engracia Leandro"}],corrections:null},{id:"41898",title:"Nutritional Management in Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus",doi:"10.5772/52465",slug:"nutritional-management-in-type-1-diabetes-mellitus",totalDownloads:2587,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Snežana Marković- Jovanovic",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/41898",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/41898",authors:[{id:"47066",title:"Dr.",name:"Snezana",surname:"Markovic-Jovanovic",slug:"snezana-markovic-jovanovic",fullName:"Snezana Markovic-Jovanovic"}],corrections:null},{id:"41294",title:"Immune Intervention in Type I Diabetes Mellitus",doi:"10.5772/52801",slug:"immune-intervention-in-type-i-diabetes-mellitus",totalDownloads:1777,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Johnny Ludvigsson",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/41294",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/41294",authors:[{id:"155357",title:"Prof.",name:"Johnny",surname:"Ludvigsson",slug:"johnny-ludvigsson",fullName:"Johnny Ludvigsson"}],corrections:null},{id:"43305",title:"Immunotherapies for Type 1 Diabetes",doi:"10.5772/54717",slug:"immunotherapies-for-type-1-diabetes",totalDownloads:1725,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Werner Gurr",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/43305",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/43305",authors:[{id:"54291",title:"Dr.",name:"Werner",surname:"Gurr",slug:"werner-gurr",fullName:"Werner Gurr"}],corrections:null},{id:"43306",title:"DNA Immunotherapies for Type 1 Diabetes",doi:"10.5772/55727",slug:"dna-immunotherapies-for-type-1-diabetes",totalDownloads:1914,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Alice Li and Alan Escher",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/43306",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/43306",authors:[{id:"46023",title:"Dr.",name:"Alan",surname:"Escher",slug:"alan-escher",fullName:"Alan Escher"}],corrections:null},{id:"43307",title:"Antibody-Based and and Cellular Therapies of Type 1 Diabetes",doi:"10.5772/53495",slug:"antibody-based-and-and-cellular-therapies-of-type-1-diabetes",totalDownloads:1851,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Chang-Qing Xia, Yuantao Liu, Qingbo Guan and Michael J Clare- Salzler",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/43307",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/43307",authors:[{id:"46309",title:"Dr.",name:"Chang-Qing",surname:"Xia",slug:"chang-qing-xia",fullName:"Chang-Qing Xia"}],corrections:null},{id:"43308",title:"Cell Replacement Therapy in Type 1 Diabetes",doi:"10.5772/54943",slug:"cell-replacement-therapy-in-type-1-diabetes",totalDownloads:1779,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Elina Linetsky, Luca Inverardi and Camillo Ricordi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/43308",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/43308",authors:[{id:"54890",title:"Dr.",name:"Elina",surname:"Linetsky",slug:"elina-linetsky",fullName:"Elina Linetsky"},{id:"54895",title:"Prof.",name:"Camillo",surname:"Ricordi",slug:"camillo-ricordi",fullName:"Camillo Ricordi"},{id:"162553",title:"M.D.",name:"Luca",surname:"Inverardi",slug:"luca-inverardi",fullName:"Luca Inverardi"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"2666",title:"Diabetes Mellitus",subtitle:"Insights and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"49a714ae0be8a338523befe4ffc9352f",slug:"diabetes-mellitus-insights-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Oluwafemi O. 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Soares, João Silva, Eliseu Monteiro and Abel Rouboa",dateSubmitted:"September 25th 2016",dateReviewed:"March 27th 2017",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"August 30th 2017",book:{id:"5768",title:"Desalination",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Desalination",slug:"desalination",publishedDate:"August 30th 2017",bookSignature:"Taner Yonar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5768.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"32956",title:"Dr.",name:"Taner",middleName:null,surname:"Yonar",slug:"taner-yonar",fullName:"Taner Yonar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"59885",title:"PhD.",name:"Abel",middleName:null,surname:"Rouboa",fullName:"Abel Rouboa",slug:"abel-rouboa",email:"rouboa@utad.pt",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"5768",title:"Desalination",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Desalination",slug:"desalination",publishedDate:"August 30th 2017",bookSignature:"Taner Yonar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5768.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"32956",title:"Dr.",name:"Taner",middleName:null,surname:"Yonar",slug:"taner-yonar",fullName:"Taner Yonar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11998",leadTitle:null,title:"Biocomposites - Recent Advances",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tBiocomposites are biomaterials made up of matrices (resins) and natural fibres reinforcing. Natural fibre has been used as reinforcement in polymeric composites as a result of environmental concerns and the high cost of synthetic fibres. Thus, biofibers are the main constituents of biocomposites, which are made from biological sources such as natural polysaccharides (chitosan, alginate, starch, gelatine, and carrageenan), crop fibres (cotton, hemp, or flax), recycled wood, wastepaper, agricultural processing by-products, or regenerated cellulose fibre.
\r\n\r\n\tBiocomposites are gaining popularity quickly on the industrial level due to their high versatility and excellent performance. Examples of these applications are tissue engineering, drug delivery systems, restorative applications, storage devices, photocatalysts, biosensors, encapsulation of enzymes and cells, construction, energy, and packaging.
\r\n\r\n\tIn this book, we will focus on some of the applications of biocomposites based polysaccharides in immobilized enzymes, drug delivery systems, and packaging. The book will also be covering some of the methods used for the preparation and characterisation of these biocomposites including nanocomposites.
\r\n\t
Shared research core facilities can provide support to campus-wide investigators by providing research infrastructure for the production and purification of recombinant proteins for a variety of research applications. We have designed a research support structure for investigators pursuing research in structural and functional studies that require high yields of pure proteins, particularly suited for structural studies including biomolecular nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and small angle X-ray scattering.
\nThe
In addition to a demand for large quantities of highly pure protein, structural studies also often demand high solubility and stability of the protein in solution. To address this need, a high-throughput fluorescence-based thermal-shift assay, also known as differential scanning fluorimetry (DSF), has been implemented at the large structural genomics and structural proteomics centers [14]. DSF was originally developed as a high-throughput drug discovery assay to screen for small molecules that bind to and stabilize target proteins [15, 16, 17]. The DSF screen has been further adapted to optimize buffer conditions by varying the pH, buffer components, detergents, reducing agents and small molecules to screen for conditions that increase the stability and conformational homogeneity of a protein [14, 17, 18, 19, 20], which is key in obtaining high-quality structural data.
\nWe have established and optimized standard operating procedures for growing and handling bacterial cultures in a shared core laboratory to support Integrative Structural Biology and have used these in our own research [21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29]. The Integrative Structural Biology effort within the Biomolecular Research Center, a shared core facility, allows researchers at Boise State University and collaborating institutions to generate new knowledge about protein and RNA structure and function. We aim to understand how biomolecules assemble into stable structures and how structural dynamics can impact their function. Here we describe specific procedures for growing and handling bacterial cultures for overexpression and isolation of recombinant proteins, 15N/13C uniform labeling of recombinant proteins, protein isolation and purification, and analysis of protein solubility that are ideal for implementation in a shared research core laboratory that serves a multitude of diverse customers and research laboratories. Here we outline a general workflow of essential steps in protein expression and purification that includes plasmid amplification, mini-expression screening, optimized larger-scale protein production, protein isolation and purification, and characterization of optimized experimental solution buffer conditions (Figure 1).
\nA protein expression and purification workflow from plasmid to stable purified protein.
All reagents listed in this chapter are commonly available from commercial vendors. A chemical hygiene plan including storage, shelf life, and safety of all chemicals should be in place at the institution.
\n\n
Ice.
Lysogeny broth (LB) medium: 10 g/L tryptone, 5 g/L yeast extract, 10 g/L NaCl. Sterilize by autoclaving and store at room temperature.
Super optimal broth (SOB, a.k.a. Hanahan’s Broth) medium for DH5α cells: 20 g/L tryptone, 5 g/L yeast extract, 0.5 g/L NaCl, 0.186 g/L KCl. Adjust the pH to 7.0 with NaOH. Sterilize by autoclaving and store at room temperature.
Culture tubes and flasks.
Incubator/shaker.
Centrifuge tubes.
Serological pipettes.
Repeating pipettor.
Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO).
Competent Cell (CC) buffer: 10 mM HEPES (4-(2-hydroxyethyl)-1-piperazineethanesulfonic acid), 15 mM CaCl2, 55 mM MnCl2, 250 mM KCl, pH 6.7. Dissolve all components except MnCl2 and adjust the pH to 6.7 with KOH. Then add the MnCl2 and filter sterilize the solution over a 0.22 μm filter.
\n
Ice.
LB or super optimal broth with catabolite repression (SOC).
Culture tubes and flasks.
Incubator/shaker.
Centrifuge tubes.
Serological pipettes.
Competent cells.
LB-agar plates containing the appropriate antibiotic.
Plasmid DNA.
Heat block set.
\n
Transformed colonies on LB-agar plate (see Section 3.3).
\n
LB.
15 mL conical tube.
Sterile inoculating loop.
Appropriate antibiotics.
Shaker/incubator.
Sterile aluminum foil or culture tube cap.
\n
50% glycerol solution (autoclaved).
Make the 50% glycerol solution by diluting 100% glycerol into water.
Screwtop cryogenic vials.
Liquid nitrogen.
\n
Resuspension buffer: 50 mM Tris-HCl, pH 8.0; 10 mM ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), 20 μg/mL RNase A.
Lysis buffer: 200 mM NaOH, 1% w/v sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS).
Precipitation buffer: 3 M potassium acetate, 2 M glacial acetic acid, 4°C.
Wash buffer: 70% ethanol.
95% (or 100%) ethanol.
TE buffer: 10 mM Tris-HCl, pH 8.0; 0.1 mM EDTA.
\n
LB.
Appropriate antibiotics.
Incubator/shaker.
Microcentrifuge tubes.
Centrifuge.
Isopropyl β-D-1-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG).
\n
Induced cells suspended in lysis buffer with a protease inhibitor cocktail, 0.1 mg/mL DNase I, 1 mg/mL lysozyme and 0.1 mg/mL 4-(2-Aminoethyl) benzenesulfonyl fluoride (AEBSF).
Sonication buffer.
Ice-saltwater bath.
Probe sonicator equipped with ½ inch tip.
\n
Electrophoresis system.
4–12% Bis-Tris mini gel.
Sample loading buffer: 10% glycerol, 0.14 M Tris Base, 0.1 M Tris-HCl, 2% lithium dodecyl sulfate (LDS), 0.5 mM EDTA, 0.02% Blue G250; 0.006% phenol red, 1.25% 2-mercaptoethanol, pH 8.5.
Running buffer: 50 mM 2-(N-morpholino)ethanesulfonic acid (MES), 50 mM Tris base, 0.1% SDS, 1 mM EDTA, pH 7.2.
Coomassie Blue stain.
Protein molecular weight marker.
\n
Buffer A: 50 mM Tris pH 7.5, 100 mM NaCl, 5 mM EDTA, 1 mg/mL lysozyme.
Buffer B: 50 mM Tris pH 7.5, 2 M NaCl, 5 mM EDTA, 1 mg/mL lysozyme.
Buffer C: 50 mM Tris pH 7.5, 100 mM NaCl, 50% detergent, 1 mg/mL lysozyme.
\n
LB.
IPTG.
Culture tubes and flasks.
Incubator/shaker.
\n
LB.
IPTG.
Culture tubes and flasks.
Incubator/shaker.
10X M9 medium: 340 mM Na2HPO4, 220 mM KH2PO4, 85.5 mM NaCl, pH 7.4.
10X Ammonium chloride: 93.5 mM NH4Cl.
20% wt/vol glucose stock.
100 mM CaCl2.
1.0 M MgSO4.
10 mg/mL thiamine.
10 mg/mL biotin.1
Antibiotic for plasmid selection.
Immobilized metal affinity chromatography (IMAC) is a common method for affinity purification. A genetically encoded 6-histidine repeat affinity tag can be introduced to the carboxy or amino terminal end of the protein during cloning, which has high affinity for metal ions. The protocol given here is for affinity purification by immobilization of nickel ions with a chelator molecule, nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA) that is covalently bound to agarose; commonly known as Ni-NTA agarose. The following buffers are meant to represent a general starting point. Depending on the pI of your recombinant protein and the propensity to nonspecifically interact with the column material or resident
Lysis buffer: 0.1 M Tris-HCl, 0.1 M NaCl, pH 8.1.
Wash buffer: Lysis buffer plus 5–20 mM imidazole.
Elution buffer: Lysis buffer plus 100–300 mM imidazole.
Probe sonicator.
1 mg/mL lysozyme.
Protease inhibitor cocktail.
AEBSF.
\n
Low ionic strength buffer (e.g., 10 mM Tris-HCl).
qPCR machine with filter set that matches fluorescent dye and equipped with a ramp rate of minimum 1°C/min.
A fluorescent dye that will bind proteins.
96-well polymerase chain reaction (PCR) microplate.
\n
Inoculate 5 mL of LB (or SOB if preparing DH5α cells) with 10 μL of appropriate
Use the overnight culture to inoculate 250 mL of LB (or SOB if preparing DH5α cells) and incubate at 30°C until the optical density at 600 nm (OD600) is between 0.4–0.6.
Chill the culture for at least 10 min on ice. For steps 4–10, keep the cell suspension on ice.
Spin the cell suspension for 10 min at 6000× g.
Gently resuspend the pellet in 50 mL ice-cold CC buffer into 50-mL conical tubes. Resuspend with a 10-mL serological pipette and avoid introducing bubbles.
Incubate the cell suspension on ice for at least 10 min.
Spin for 10 min at 6000× g at 4°C.
Gently resuspend the pellet in 9.4 mL ice-cold CC buffer and add 0.7 mL DMSO.
Incubate the cell suspension on ice for at least 10 min.
Distribute the cell suspension in 50–200 μL aliquots in 1.5-mL microcentrifuge tubes.3
Flash freeze the cell suspension in liquid nitrogen and store the tubes at −80°C.
At −80°C the cells will be competent for at least 6 months.
\n
Take competent cells out of −80°C and thaw on ice (approximately 20–30 min).
For each transformation, remove two LB-agar plates (containing the appropriate antibiotic) from storage at 4°C and warm to room temperature; optionally warm to 37°C in an incubator.
Mix 10–100 pg. DNA into 20–50 μL of competent cells in a 1.5 mL microcentrifuge tube.
Gently mix by flicking the bottom of the tube with your finger a few times.
Incubate the competent cell/DNA mixture on ice for 20–30 min.
Heat shock each tube at 42°C for 45–60 s.
Put the tubes back on ice for 2 min.
Add 1 mL of LB medium (without antibiotic) to the bacteria and grow at 37°C and 250 rpm in a shaking incubator for 45 min.
Plate 50 μL of the transformed cells onto one of the 10 cm LB-agar plate containing the appropriate antibiotic and the remaining 950 μL onto the second 10 cm LB-agar plate.
Incubate plates at 37°C overnight.
\n
Count the number of colony forming units (CFUs) on the LB-agar plate after transformation (see Section 3.2).
Calculate the transformation efficiency (TrEff) in CFUs/μg of DNA using Eq. (1).
\n
Add 5–10 mL of liquid LB to a culture tube and add the appropriate antibiotic to at correct concentration. A good negative control is LB media plus antibiotic without any bacteria inoculated. You should see no growth in this culture after overnight incubation.
Using a sterile inoculating loop, select a single colony from your LB-agar plate for plasmid purifications and a swipe from 10 to 20 colonies for protein expression (Section 3.2).
Add the inoculating loop to the liquid LB with antibiotics and swirl.
Loosely cover the culture with sterile aluminum foil or a culture tube cap.
After incubation, check for growth, which is characterized by a cloudy haze in the media.
For overnight cultures, incubate bacterial culture at 30°C for 12–16 h in a shaking incubator.4
For long-term storage of the bacteria, you can proceed with Section 3.5.
\n
Follow Section 3.2 for transforming and plating
Follow Section 3.4 for inoculating an overnight culture.
Add 500 μL of the overnight culture to 500 μL of 50% glycerol in a 2 mL screw top cryogenic vial5 and gently mix.
Submerse the glycerol stock tube into liquid nitrogen and store at −80°C. The stock is now stable for years, as long as it is kept at −80°C. Subsequent freeze and thaw cycles reduce shelf life.
To recover bacteria from your glycerol stock: open the tube and use a sterile loop, toothpick, or pipette tip to scrape some of the frozen bacteria off of the top. Do not let the glycerol stock thaw. Streak the bacteria onto an LB-agar plate.
\n
Preheat the TE Buffer in the incubator at 37°C.
Spin 5 mL of the overnight LB culture at 6000× g for 10 min at 4°C. Discard supernatant.
Add 250 μL Resuspension Buffer containing RNase A to the cell pellet and resuspend the pellet by pipetting until homogeneous.
Add 250 μL Lysis Buffer. Mix gently by inverting the capped tube until homogeneous. Do not vortex. Incubate the tube at room temperature for 5 min.
Add 350 μL Precipitation Buffer. Mix immediately by inverting the tube until homogeneous. Do not vortex. Centrifuge the lysate at 16,000× g for 10 min at 4°C.
Add 2–2.5 volumes 95% or 100% ethanol and 1/10 volume of 3 M Na-acetate (pH 4.8) to the supernatant. Invert the microcentrifuge tube to mix. Let stand for 2 min at room temperature.
Centrifuge solution at high speed (at least 16,000× g) for 15–30 min at 4°C. Discard supernatant.
Open and invert the tube on a paper towel to drain it out.
Wash pellet by adding 500 μL cold 70% ethanol.
Centrifuge solution at high speed (at least 16,000× g) for 5 min at room temp. Discard supernatant by pipetting it out of the tube.
Dry the pellet by inverting over paper towel for 5–20 min.
Resuspend dry DNA with TE.
Store plasmid DNA at 4°C (short term) or store the DNA in aliquots at −20°C (long term.)
The following protocol is written for proteins expressed under the control of the lac, tac, or T7 promoters. The method as described is a generic protocol that can be expanded to test expression in different strains of
\n
Transform plasmid into an
Inoculate a liquid LB culture following Section 3.4.
Grow cells for a few hours at 37°C, shaking at 250 rpm. Make sure the tubes are tilted.
Monitor the turbidity. Once the culture reaches an OD600 of 0.4–0.6 (takes ~2–4 h, depending on the sample), take out 2 mL of the culture. Measure the actual OD600.
Transfer the equivalent of 1 mL of cells at OD600 = 0.8 in a 1.5-mL microcentrifuge tube.6
Collect cells by centrifugation at 16,000× g on a tabletop centrifuge for at least 1 min. Carefully remove all of the supernatant. This is the uninduced sample. Store the cells at −20°C.
Add IPTG to a final concentration of 1.0 mM to the remaining culture. Continue shaking at 250 rpm for 12–16 h at 18°C.
Measure the OD600. Collect cells by centrifugation in two tubes containing the equivalent of 1 mL of cells at OD600 = 0.8 and remove the supernatant. These are the induced samples; one tube will be used to test for expression and the second for solubility. Store the cells at −20°C until ready to test for expression.
\n
Take the tube of uninduced and one tube of induced cells and resuspend each in 100 μL of 1X SDS polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) sample buffer.
Boil the samples for 10 min, then cool down to room temperature.
Centrifuge for 5 min at 16,000× g on a tabletop centrifuge at room temperature.
Take 10 μL of each sample from the top of tube taking care not to disturb the pellet.
Analyze the results using SDS-PAGE following Section 3.9 (Figure 2), with western blotting if necessary.
SDS-PAGE gel of pre- and post-induction of an RNA binding protein (RBP) in both rich (LB) and minimal (M9) media. The arrow indicates the recombinant RBP.
\n
Resuspend the remaining induced cell pellet in 50 μL of lysis buffer containing protease inhibitors and 1 mg/mL of lysozyme.
Follow Section 3.8.1 for freeze-thawing to lyse the cells.
Spin down in a microcentrifuge at maximum speed for 10 min at 4°C.
Carefully transfer all of the supernatant into a new microcentrifuge tube. Add 50 μL of 2X SDS-PAGE buffer. This is the soluble fraction.
Resuspend the pellet in 100 μL of 1X SDS-PAGE buffer. This is the insoluble fraction.
Boil the samples for 10 min, then cool down to room temperature.
Centrifuge for 5 min at 16,000× g at room temperature.
Analyze 15 μL of each sample using SDS-PAGE following Section 3.9.
Traditionally cell lysis can be done with physical disruption or reagent-based methods. Freeze-thaw protocol works best for small volumes (less than 1 mL) in 1.5 mL microcentrifuge tubes. Sonication can be done with smaller volumes using a microtip.
\n\n
Freeze the samples to be lysed (typically 0.1–1.0 mL in a 1.5 mL microcentrifuge tube) in a − 80°C freezer, leave for 15 min.
Thaw immediately in a 42°C water bath. Vortex vigorously to mix well.
Repeat the two previous steps three more times (four freeze-thaw-vortex cycles in all).
Spin the tubes for 5 min at maximum speed in a microcentrifuge.
Separate the supernatant (contains soluble protein) from the pellet (contains insoluble protein) by pipetting out the supernatant to a clean tube.
\n
Prepare ice-saltwater bath by sprinkling salt over packed ice in a container.
Place a 50-mL conical tube containing the cell pellet suspended in lysis buffer securely in the ice-saltwater bath.
Insert clean tip of a sonicator in the sample without contacting sides or bottom of the tube.
Set the output power, cycle, and timer to the optimal settings (e.g., five short bursts of 15 s followed by intervals of 30 s for cooling).
Keep the suspension at all times on ice.
\n
Add ~100 μg of protein to SDS sample buffer.
Heat the sample at 70°C for 10 min.
Load the entire volume of sample onto a 4–12% Bis-Tris mini gel.
Run the gel at 200 V for 35 min.
At the end of the electrophoresis, wash the gel in deionized water three times.
Stain the gel with Coomassie Blue stain for 1 h.
Wash the gel with deionized water extensively until the water is clear.
The solubility of a protein depends strongly on the composition of the lysis buffer. Using the procedure described below, the solubility of a specific protein can be tested under neutral (Buffer A), high salt (Buffer B), and with detergent included (Buffer C).
Follow Section 3.7.1 for the best expressing condition and collect four induced samples.
Spin down the cells for 5 min at 12,000× g in a microcentrifuge.
To each cell pellet, add 100 μL of the appropriate buffer (see Section 2.10).
Vortex to resuspend the cells.
Lyse cells using the freeze-thaw method (Section 3.8.1).
To the supernatant, add 25 μL of 4X SDS-PAGE loading buffer.
To the cell pellet, add 125 μL of 1X SDS-PAGE loading buffer.
Heat all samples to 95°C for 5 min.
Vortex briefly and then centrifuge for 5 min at maximum speed.
Load 20 μL on an SDS-PAGE gel; avoid disturbing the pellet.
\n
Transform plasmid into an
Inoculate a liquid LB culture for an overnight growth following Section 3.4.
The next day, use the overnight culture to inoculate 1 L of LB with the appropriate antibiotic.
Grow cultures at 37°C and 250 rpm shaking until the OD600 is ~0.6–0.8.
Induce expression of protein by adding IPTG to a final concentration of 0.1 mM.
Lower the temperature to 18°C and continue 250 rpm shaking for 12–16 h.
Follow Sections 3.7.1 and 3.7.2 to test for protein expression.
Harvest the cells by centrifugation at 6000× g.
Suspend cells in lysis buffer and store at −20°C.
This protocol is for proteins expressed under the control of the lac, tac, or T7 promoters.
\n\n
Transform 10 μL of competent BL21(DE3) cells (or derivatives) with 10 ng of plasmid DNA and plate cells on LB-agar containing the appropriate antibiotics (See Section 3.2).
\n
Prepare 50 mL of unlabeled defined medium for overnight culture as follows, in a 200 mL culture flask:\n
5 mL 10X M9 medium.
5 mL 10X ammonium chloride.
0.75 mL 20% glucose.
50 μL of each CaCl2, MgSO4, thiamine and biotin.
antibiotic at working concentration.
autoclaved water to 50 mL.
Inoculate a 5 mL culture (LB with appropriate antibiotic) with several freshly grown colonies (ca. 10–20).
Incubate cells in tilted tubes for a few hours at 37°C and 250 rpm in a shaking incubator, until the culture is visibly turbid.
Prewarm 50 mL of unlabeled defined medium to 30°C. While warming, centrifuge the LB culture (5 min, 4000× g, 30°C) and discard supernatant.
Resuspend cell pellet in 50 mL unlabeled defined media, for a starting OD600 of ~0.03–0.08. Grow the culture overnight at 30°C in a shaking incubator.
\n
Prepare 500 mL of 13C, 15N labeled defined medium as follows, in a 2 L baffled flask:\n
50 mL 10X M9 medium.
0.5 g 15NH4Cl dissolved in 5 mL water and sterile filtered.
1.5 g 13C glucose dissolved in 10 mL water and sterile filtered.
500 μL of each CaCl2, MgSO4, thiamine and biotin.
antibiotic at working concentration.
autoclaved water to 500 mL.
Prewarm the 500 mL of 13C, 15N labeled defined medium.
Centrifuge the overnight 50-mL unlabeled defined medium culture (5 min, 4000× g, 30°C) and discard supernatant.
Resuspend the cell pellet in 500 mL of 13C, 15N labeled defined medium, for a starting OD600 of 0.03–0.08.
Grow culture at 37°C and 250 rpm in a shaking incubator until cells reach mid-log growth (OD600 ~ 0.5–0.8).
Once cells reach mid-log growth (OD600 ~ 0.5–0.8), measure the OD600. Calculate the corrected volume (in mL) to take for the sample aliquot equivalent of 1 mL of cells at OD600 = 0.8 (See Section 3.7.1 for details).
Transfer aliquot to a microcentrifuge tube, and spin it down at maximum speed for at least 1 min at room temperature. Remove the supernatant. This is an uninduced sample. Store the uninduced cells at −20°C.
Induce protein expression by adding IPTG based on the optimal values of IPTG concentration, incubation time and incubation temperature (See Section 3.7).
After the induced cells have grown for the proper length of time, dilute 200 μL of the culture 10-fold with 1X PBS and measure the OD600. To prepare an induced sample, take an aliquot containing the equivalent of 1 mL of cells at OD600 = 0.8 and immediately process it as described in Section 3.7.2.
Harvest the cells by centrifugation at 6000× g for 20–30 min at 4°C. Discard supernatant. Store the pellet at −20°C until ready for cell lysis.
\n
Resuspend cell pellet in ~35 mL of lysis buffer containing AEBSF, a protease inhibitor cocktail, and 1 mg/mL lysozyme.
Lyse cells (See Section 3.8).
Remove 75 μL of lysate and pipette into a 1.5 mL microcentrifuge tube. Centrifuge the 75 μL aliquot for 10 min at 12,000× g at room temperature.
Separate the supernatant into a new vial and treat with 25 μL of 4X SDS PAGE sample buffer. To the remaining pellet, add 100 μL of 1X SDS PAGE.
Boil separated and SDS buffer-treated samples for 10 min and store at room temperature for further SDS-PAGE analysis.
Centrifuge the remaining lysate (ca. 35 mL) at 16,000× g at 4°C for 20–30 min.
Filter the supernatant over a 0.4-micron syringe filter.
Pre-equilibrate the appropriate amount of Ni-NTA agarose for the amount of protein expressed in desired equilibration buffer; typically, 1–2 mL of settled agarose washed with two column volumes (CVs) of sterile, deionized water followed by two CVs of the buffer.
Bind the filtered lysate to the Ni-NTA agarose either batch or column loading. For batch loading, combine the filtered lysate and Ni-NTA agarose and gently rock for 30–60 min prior to pouring into the column. For column loading, pack Ni-NTA agarose into the column and pass the filtered lysate through the column. Collect the flow through eluent for SDS-PAGE analysis.
Wash the column with 15 CVs of cold lysis buffer. Collect wash eluent for SDS-PAGE analysis.
A step gradient consisting of 15 CVs each of 5, 10, and 20 mM imidazole may be used to determine best washing conditions. Collect wash eluents for SDS-PAGE analysis.
Wash the column with 20 CVs elution buffer, collecting 1 mL fractions.
Evaluate all collected samples by SDS-PAGE (see Section 3.9)7 (Figure 3).
Pool fractions containing pure recombinant protein and dialyze into an appropriate buffer.
Clean Ni-NTA agarose by washing with 0.5 M NaOH for 30 min. Wash with five CVs sterile deionized water and store in 30% ethanol for long-term storage. The Ni-NTA agarose may be re-used for the same protein multiple times.
SDS-PAGE gel of a typical Ni-NTA purification of an RBP (arrow indicates the recombinant RBP). (A) Samples appear in the following order: MW markers, Lysate, Supernatant, Pellet, Flowthrough, Wash #1: 50 mM Tris-Cl, 100 mM NaCl, pH 7.7; washes #2–4: 10 mM Imidazole, 50 mM Tris-Cl, 100 mM NaCl, pH 7.7. (B) MW markers, Elutions #1–9: 200 mM Imidazole, 50 mM Tris-Cl, 100 mM NaCl, pH 7.7. Some protein elutes from the column in the wash steps. All fractions are kept and can be pooled after SDS-PAGE analysis.
\n
Prepare 1500 μL of 18 μM protein in dilution buffer.
Add 1.5 μL of 5000X dye.
Pipette up and down gently to mix.
Divide the protein plus dye solution among 10 vials: 140 μL per vial (some stock solution will remain).
Add 80 μL additive to be screened to one of nine vials.
Add 80 μL of dilution buffer in the tenth vial as a control.
Pipette up and down gently to mix.
Transfer 50 μL of protein plus dye plus additive solution (or control solution) to the 96-well PCR plate in triplicate.8
Cover PCR plate with a sheet of optically clear adhesive and seal each well.
Spin 96-well PCR plate in a centrifuge equipped with a plate holder at 800× g for 2 min at room temperature.
Place 96-well PCR plate into qPCR machine and run the following program:\n
select total volume per well 50 μL
select experiment type melting curve
set the following temperatures: an initial 2 min hold at 25°C, increase in increments of 0.5–1.0°C and hold each for 30 s,9 to a final temperature of 95°C (with a 2 min hold).
Export data for further analysis.
Data can be plotted as the fluorescence vs. temperature (Figure 4).
After buffer optimization, structural data can be collected such as a 1H, 15N 2D NMR spectrum (see Figure 5 for example of spectrum).
DSF analysis of an RBP in buffer (10 mM Tris-Cl) with different additives. (A) A graph of the fluorescence at 602 nm at increasing temperatures for the surveyed additive screen. The inflection point preceding the peak is the melting temperature. (B) A first derivative plot with a four-point smoothing applied helps to visualize the melting temperature, where the peak is the melting temperature. The legend provides a key for both A and B.
1H, 15N 2D NMR spectrum of an RBP prepared using the methods described here.
We have described the workflow for protein expression and purification used in our shared core laboratory. These methods for growing and handling bacterial cultures work well for plasmid amplification, mini-expression screening, optimized larger-scale protein production, protein isolation and purification, and characterization of optimized experimental solution buffer conditions. Future methods can be added as needed by the users of the core and the university research community.
\nThis publication was made possible by Institutional Development Awards (IDeA) from the National Institute of General Medical Sciences of the National Institutes of Health under Grants P20GM109095 and P20GM103408. The authors wish to acknowledge Jackson Wall for careful reading and suggestions.
\nAuthors have no conflict of interest.
The rise in the number of chemicals being introduced into agriculture and horticulture has given rise to some concerns over the safety of the food crop and that of the operator. A working party was established in the UK which passed some regulations over the possible risks to consumers of treated crops. This led directly to the formation of the Advisory Committee on Poisonous Substances used in agriculture, which extended concern to effects on the environment. However, new toxic chemicals and their formulations need to be brought to the notice of the Government before being put on the market. The introduction of the Pesticides Safety Precautions Scheme (PSPS) strengthened the requirement in which manufacturers of the new chemical were required to provide data relating to the safety of the product; full description, proposed uses, mode of action, toxicity and persistence, relevant to the user of the product, consumer of treated produce, domestic animals and wildlife. The outcome of such products was published with the key elements included on product labels; advice on operator safety, target crops, dose rate limitations, harvest interval, and environmental safety. The PSPS was accompanied by the voluntary scheme which evaluates the efficacy of crop protection chemicals prior to the approval of chemical and based on trials efficacy data.
The increasing regulatory requirements are seen over decades, and especially in the past 20 years, have placed much financial pressure on the research-based crop protection companies. Increasing demands for toxicology, metabolism, and environmental data to support registration applications have resulted in a cost of approximately £100 million to discover research, develop and register a new product. Earlier, horticultural and vegetable markets were targeted pesticides markets, today such are far too small to justify the investment in required regulatory studies and can only be considered as “add-on markets” to be considered once success in a major market has been achieved. Markets must also be considered at the international level no single country market would justify the investment in pesticides research and development.
Pesticide is defined as a product that kills or controls various types of pests, plant, or animal that is harmful to man or the environment. Pesticides are used in agriculture to protect crops against insects, fungi, weeds, nematodes, and parasitic plant pests, as well as to protect public health in controlling vectors of tropical diseases. They can also be used to prevent, destroy, repel, or mitigate any pest and can either kill pests or render them ineffective. Pesticides are used on fruits, vegetables, wheat, rice, olives, tree crops, canola pressed into oil, and on non-food crops, such as cotton, grass, and flowers. Pesticides applied to food crops in the field can leave potentially harmful residues after pesticides are applied to the crops, they may interact with the plant surfaces, be exposed to environmental factors, such as wind, sun, and maybe washed off during rainfall. The pesticide may be absorbed by the plant surface (waxy cuticle and root surfaces) and enter the plant transport system (systemic) or stay on the surface of the plant (contact). The pesticides that get into the plant tissues may be transformed (metabolized) or sequestered in the tissues to form the pesticide residue.
Pesticide residues are the deposits of pesticide active ingredients, their metabolites or breakdown products are present in some components of the environment after their application, spillage, or dumping. The presence of pesticide residues is a concern for consumers because pesticides are known to have potentially harmful effects on other nontargeted organisms than pests and diseases. Infants, children, and adults are commonly exposed to pesticides by eating them on and in food and animals equally ingest such through feeds and mills. Pesticides are potentially toxic to humans and have been linked to a wide range of human health hazards, ranging from short-term impacts, such as headaches and nausea to chronic impacts, such as cancer, reproductive harm, and endocrine disruption.
The application of any chemical to a crop or food raises the question of risks and benefits. This discussion of risk has shifted from dealing with toxicity to the user in the field and the consumer to a much wider focus that includes the whole environment and the ecosystem in which the crops are growing. As a consequence, more and more studies are required before a fungicide can be used, leading to enormous development costs. This leads the industry to concentrate on the big markets, while smaller markets are increasingly left out and in urgent need of effective fungicides. Overall, most analyses come to the conclusion that the benefits of fungicides far outweigh the risks, if they are used carefully and according to the label recommendations. Currently, more than 80% of the fruit and vegetable crops have been known to receive a fungicide every season.
There are standard organizations of international reputes that certify and license agricultural products for safe consumption and to fulfill the international requirement for the trade. These standard organizations are also functional at regional and national levels and requirements at these levels are often benchmarked with the provision of the international organizations. Such organizations include but are not limited to 4C Association, Bonsucro (Better Sugar Cane Initiative), Better Cotton Initiative (BCI), Fairtrade International, FSC, RSB, SAN (Sustainable Agriculture Network), and UTZ.
Growers, produce buyers and agents, warehouse owners, manufacturers, and even the general public, have perceived the use of chemicals for various purposes as part of everyday life, either for domestic or agricultural. This has led to the indiscriminate use of pesticides for varied reasons and in search of quick action and effect. The uncoordinated system in this sector of agriculture, lacking regulation and enforcement required for best practices and safety measures in the handling of agrochemicals prompted this study. This in a way undermined the associated risks of indiscriminate use of these agrochemicals, their toxicity, and residues on plants, animals, man, and the environment. Agrochemicals commonly sold in open markets were surveyed; the target crops, associated hazards/risks, and their safety statuses were evaluated based on the benchmark by international standard organizations.
The survey of agrochemical stores and trading facilities was conducted in North Central Nigeria. Agrochemical dealers in three major farm-based stores in central towns were randomly selected and visited with a structured questionnaire. The questionnaire was duly completed with the co-operation and support of the respondent and the interviewee. The identity of the chemical stores in selected locations was kept anonymous. Information was sought on the trade name, type of agrochemicals (herbicide, insecticide or fungicide, etc.), active ingredient(s) present in the pesticides, and the crop(s) in which the pesticides were targeted. However, the trade names of the agrochemicals and locations were kept anonymous but the active ingredients were used as the bases of this report. The active ingredients were benchmarked with the requirements of the international standards organization.
The information obtained from the agrochemical stores on the active ingredients on sale in the open market were subjected to the benchmarks of the international standards organizations, such as 4C Association, BCI, Bonsucro, FSC, Fairtrade, RSB, Rainforest Alliance, SAN, and UTZ, as related to the toxicity, restriction status, and effect of such active ingredients on human, animal, and environment.
The survey of farmers–based agrochemicals stores showed the presence of seventeen (17) active ingredients common in the open market. A total of eighteen (18) trade names; Weed Crusher, Parae Force, Weed Cut, Grass Cutter, Touch Down, Clear Weed, Force Up, Drysate, Round-Up, Sunsate, Cyperthrone, Vestamine, Relimine, Amino Force, Amino Force Granular, Guard Force, Gramaxone and Meta Force were herbicides, thirteen (13) trade names; Super Care, Cyper Force, Cyper-DiForce, Flush Out, Termifos, Termiclor, Pest Off, Rid-Off, LaraForce, Magic Force, Knock Off, DD-Force and Iron Force were insecticides and nine (9) trade names; Fungi Care, Confidor, Storm Force, ImiForce, Dime Force, Fungus Force, ForceLet, Z-Force, and Zeb-Care were fungicides. No record of nematicides or any agrochemicals against parasitic pest plants were found in the study geographies. These agrochemicals were also dominated by herbicides which were 42.67% on average, the insecticides were 35.0% of the stocks while only 25.5% of agrochemicals across study geographies were fungicides (Tables 1–3). This information implied that pesticides used in the geographies were mostly for weed management and insect pests’ control both for agricultural and domestic purposes. The commonly used active ingredients by the indication of sales from the selected geographies showed Paraquat dichloride, Glyphosate, Permethrin + pyriproxyfen, Dimethylamine salt, Cypermethrin, Chlorpyrifos, Dichlorvos, Lambda-cyhalothrin, 2,2-dichlorovinyl Dimethyl phosphate, Hexaconazole, Imidacloprid, Dimethoate, Nicosulfuron, Profenofos + cypermethrin, S-metolachlor, Carbendazim, and Mancozeb. The common active ingredients cut across varied pesticides types across the geographies.
S/N | Status | Active ingredient(s) | Targeted crop(s) |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Herbicide | Paraquat dichloride | Maize, weeds, cowpea, rubber, oil palm |
2 | Herbicide | Glyphosate | Grasses, weeds, woody shrubs |
3 | Herbicide | Permethrin + pyriproxyfen | Maize, weed |
4 | Herbicide | Dimethylamine salt | Maize, tomato, cotton, fruit trees |
5 | Insecticide | Cypermethrin | Smaller insects |
6 | Insecticide | Chlorpyrifos | Vegetables, rice, soya beans, cocoa |
7 | Insecticide | Dichlorvos | Insect of vegetable, rice, yam, cowpea |
8 | Insecticide | Lambda-cyhalothrin | Insect pest in maize, vegetables, rice |
9 | Fungicide | Hexaconazole | Pepper, vegetable |
10 | Fungicide | Imidacloprid | Pepper, watermelon, groundnut, cocoa |
11 | Fungicide | Dimethoate | Carrot, beans, groundnut |
Active ingredients in Geography I and Targeted crop(s).
S/N | Status | Active ingredient(s) | Targeted crop(s) |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Herbicide | 2,4-dimethylamine salt | Rice, rubber, wheat, sugar cane |
2 | Herbicide | Nicosulfuron | Maize |
3 | Herbicide | Glyphosate | Sugar cane, weeds |
4 | Insecticide | 2,2-dichlorovinyl Dimethyl phosphate | |
5 | Insecticide | Lambda-cyhalothrin | Pineapple, carrot, orange, rice, beans |
6 | Insecticide | Profenofos + cypermethrin | Maize, cotton, orange |
7 | Insecticide | Cypermethrin | Carrot, cocoa, groundnut, onion |
8 | Fungicide | Imidacloprid | Pepper, groundnut, cocoa |
9 | Fungicide | Carbendazim | Fruit and vegetables |
Active ingredients in Geography II and Targeted crop(s).
S/N | Status | Active ingredient(s) | Targeted crop(s) |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Herbicide | Glyphosate | Annual grass, sugar cane, |
2 | Herbicide | Paraquat dichloride | Non-selective, grasses, broad-leaved weeds |
3 | Herbicide | S-metolachlor | Potato, yam, groundnut |
4 | Herbicide | Di-methylamine | Corn, weeds, sugarcane |
5 | Insecticide | Cypermethrin | Corn, tomato, cocoa, watermelon |
6 | Fungicide | Dimethoate | Beans, groundnut |
8 | Fungicide | Mancozeb | Fruits, vegetable |
Active ingredients in Geography III and Targeted crop(s).
Table 1 showed that geography I was dominated by herbicides with 45%, 36% insecticides, and only 27% were fungicides. Targeted crops were mostly grains, legumes, vegetables, a few tubers, fruits, and tree crops.
Either one or two of the selected geographies had Paraquat dichloride, Glyphosate, Cypermethrin, Dichlorvos, Lambda-cyhalothrin, Imidacloprid, and Dimethoate common to them while Glyphosate and Cypermethrin are most frequent on sale across all the geographies surveyed. These active ingredients were variedly targeted to manage weeds, insects, and pathogens in grains, legumes, nuts, tubers (root and stem), fruits and vegetables, and tree crops (Tables 1–3).
The presence of insecticides was higher in geography II showing 44% occurrence, the fungicides were only 22% while herbicides showed 33% of the agrochemicals in the open market and these were targeted against varied crop types, for example, corms, vegetables, fruits, grains, and some tree crops (Table 2).
However, the report of geography III as shown in Table 3 indicated that only 12.5% of agrochemicals were fungicide which was the least across the selected geographies and likewise was the 25% insecticides but herbicide occurrence was highest (50%) of the agrochemical in all the geographies (Table 3).
The toxicity analysis of the active ingredients commonly on sale in the open market was based on recorded cases of pesticide active ingredients and formulations that have shown a high incidence of severe or irreversible adverse effects on human health or the environment, in accordance with the recommendation of the standard organizations and Pesticide Action Network International list of highly hazardous pesticide (PAN-HHP). The hazard criteria of the active ingredients were grouped into—acute toxicity, long-term health effects, environmental toxicity, and international regulations (global pesticide-related conventions). The pesticides grouping, hazard, and toxicity status (Table 4) were the recommendations of globally harmonized system of classification and labeling of chemicals (GHS), World Health Organization (WHO) recommended classification of pesticides by hazard, the international agency for research on cancer (IARC), U.S. environmental protection agency (U.S. EPA), and European Union categorization of endocrine disruptors. The recommendation of these organizations was benchmarked by the 4C Association, Bonsucro (Better Sugar Cane Initiative), Better Cotton Initiative (BCI), Fairtrade International, FSC, RSB, SAN (Sustainable Agriculture Network), and UTZ.
S/N | Active ingredient(s) | Status in EU database | Status in Standard Organizations (BCI/RA/FSC/4C/SAN/UTZ) | Status in PAN-HHP |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Paraquat dichloride | Not approved | Prohibited, to be faced out by 2024 Fatal if inhaled/may cause severe effects Highly toxic to birds/may cause severe effect | Added to PAN-HHP list in 2011, 2019. Acute toxicity: Fatal if inhaled. Not yet formally listed but agreed by PIC |
2 | Glyphosate | Approved | May only be used under specific, defined conditions Probable carcinogenic | Added to PAN-HHP list in 2011,2014, 2019. Long-term health effects: possible carcinogens. Environmental toxicity: very persistent in water/sediment. |
3 | Permethrin + pyriproxyfen | Approved | Prohibited, highly restricted/ restricted use/risk-specific mitigation measures are mandatory Identified as hazardous, use with extreme caution Minimization of use Probable carcinogen Highly toxic to honey bees Aquatic risk, pollinator risk, wildlife risk | Added to PAN-HHP list in 2011, 2019. Long-term health effects: probable/likely carcinogen. Environmental toxicity: highly toxic to bees |
4 | Dimethylamine salt | Not listed | Not listed | Not listed |
5 | Cypermethrin | Approved | Highly restricted/restricted use, Risk specific mitigation measures are mandatory Highly aquatic toxicity Highly toxic to honey bees, aquatic risk, pollinator risk | Added to PAN-HHP list in 2011, 2019. Environmental toxicity: highly toxic to bees |
6 | Chlorpyrifos | Not indicated | Potentially to be prohibited Highly restricted/ restricted use/risk-specific mitigation measures are mandatory May only be used under specific conditions/minimization of the use Inhalation risk, high aquatic toxicity/ highly toxic to bees, birds, aquatic risk. Pollinator risk, wildlife risk | Added to PAN-HHP list in 2011, 2019 Environmental toxicity: highly toxic to bees |
7 | Hexaconazole | Not approved | Not listed | Added to PAN-HHP list in 2011. Long-term health effects: possible carcinogens. Environmental toxicity: very persistent in water, highly toxic to bees. |
8 | Dichlorvos | Not approved | Highly restricted/prohibited, to be phased out by 2024 May only be used under a specific, defined condition Highly hazardous, fatal if inhaled. Highly aquatic toxicity/highly toxic to honey bees, birds | Added to PAN-HHP list in 2011, 2019. Acute toxicity: highly hazardous, fatal if inhaled. Long term health effect: possible carcinogen Environmental toxicity: highly toxic to bees |
9 | Lambda-cyhalothrin | Approved | Highly restricted/minimization of use/ may only be used under a specific condition, to be phased out by 2024 Fatal if inhaled Endocrine disruptor, highly aquatic toxicity/highly toxic to honey bees/aquatic risk, pollinator risk | Added to PAN-HHP list in 2011, 2019. Acute toxicity: Fatal if inhaled. Long-term health effects: Endocrine disruptor, reproductive toxicity. Environmental toxicity: highly toxic to bees |
10 | Imidacloprid | Approved | Restricted, prohibited with an exception for certain pests in certain crops and regions/minimization of use. Prohibited without exception/potentially prohibited May cause severe effects Highly toxic to honey bees, birds/Neonicotinoid/may cause severe effects | Added to PAN-HHP list in 2011, 2019. Environmental toxicity: highly toxic to bees |
11 | Dimethoate | Not approved | Restricted, minimization of use/potentially to be prohibited Inhalation risk Highly toxic to honey bees/highly toxic to birds/aquatic risk, pollinator risk, wildlife risk | Added to PAN-HHP list in 2011, 2019. Long-term health effects: probable carcinogen, Endocrine disruptor, reproductive toxicity. Environmental toxicity: highly toxic to bees |
12 | Nicosulfuron | Approved | Not listed | Added to PAN-HHP list in 2019. Very persistent in water /sediments |
13 | 2,2-dichlorovinyl Dimethyl phosphate | Not listed | Not listed | Not listed |
14 | Profenofos + cypermethrin | Not approved + Approved | Restricted, identified as hazardous. Use with extreme caution High aquatic toxicity/ high toxic to honey bees | Added to PAN-HHP list in 2009, 2011,2019. Environmental toxicity: highly toxic to bees |
15 | Carbendazim | Not approved | Prohibited/potential to be prohibited, exceptions may apply for certain pests, in certain crops and regions. May only be used under specific, defined conditions Minimization of the use Mutagenic, Reproductive toxin | Added to PAN-HHP list in 2011, 2019. Long term health effect: induce heritable mutations in germ cells of humans, impair fertility in humans, cause developmental toxicity to humans, probable likely carcinogen, Endocrine disruptor, reproductive toxicity |
16 | S-metolachlor | Approved | Restricted use, Risk specific mitigation measures are mandatory Aquatic risk | Not listed |
17 | Mancozeb | Approved | Restricted use of pesticides, risk-specific mitigation measures are mandatory. May only be used under specific, defined conditions. Minimization of use, prohibited/potentially to be prohibited Probable carcinogen. Endocrine disruptor, wildlife Risk | Added to PAN-HHP list in 2011, 2019. Long-term health effects: Probable likely carcinogen, Endocrine disruptors, reproductive toxicity. |
Pesticides hazardous nature and toxicity status.
Glyphosate, herbicide, and very common active ingredient are used for the management of weeds both in agriculture and domestically. The active ingredient is classified as highly restricted for use, with mandatory risk-specific mitigation measures. The active ingredient is prohibited, identified as hazardous and its use should be extremely cautious and minimized. Di-methylamine (2,4 dimethylamine salt) was found to be commonly used by growers and the public in weed management but no record of this active ingredient was found in the databases of EU, Pesticide Action Network International, and other international standard organizations.
Nicosulfuron is an approved active ingredient for the management of weeds but with the environmental hazard of being very persistent in water/sediment. Profenofos + cypermethrin, an insecticide combination is restricted, to be used with extreme caution, shows high toxicity to honey bees and high aquatic toxicity according to FSC and Fairtrade. Another approved herbicide is S-metolachlor although recommended for restricted use and mandatory risk-specific mitigation measures to be taken and has aquatic risk according to RA, SAN.
The three geographies surveyed were major agrochemical markets in the state, which were purposefully selected for the study. Pesticides poisoning most often comes from swallowing chemicals, after consuming contaminated foods or beverages. Frequently exposed persons are also susceptible to poisoning that can cause organs or systems damage.
Paraquat is a leading cause of fatal poisoning in parts of Asia, the Pacific Islands, and the South and Central Americas. It is rapidly but incompletely absorbed and then largely eliminated unchanged in urine within 12–24 hours, the very high case fatality of paraquat is due to inherent toxicity and lack of effective treatments [1]. Paraquat dichloride was shown to be very immobile in the soil, does not hydrolyze nor photodegrade in aqueous solutions, and is resistant to microbial degradation under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. The primary route of environmental dissipation of paraquat is adsorption to biological materials and soil clay particles [2], Paraquat dichloride is highly toxic to birds/may cause severe effects [3]. It is reported that more than 70% of trusted sources of paraquat poisonings result in death. Ingesting small to medium amounts of it can lead to fatal poisoning, lung scarring, and the failure of multiple organs, heart, respiratory, kidney, and liver failure. Ingesting large amounts of paraquat causes confusion, muscle weakness, seizures, difficulty breathing, fast heart rate, and coma [4]. Paraquat dichloride is not an approved active ingredient by the EU standards on safe pesticides. It has been recently listed in PAN as a highly hazardous pesticide in 2019 [5], with restricted use, it is prohibited from use and to be faced out by the year 2024. The effect on humans includes fatality if inhaled and may cause severe effects (SAN, PIC).
Glyphosate and its formulations may not only be considered as having genotoxic, cytotoxic, or endocrine-disrupting properties but a causative agent of reproduction abnormalities in both wildlife and humans. Furthermore, the extensive use of glyphosate-based herbicides in genetically modified glyphosate-resistant plants grown for food and feed should be of grave concern since they can be sources of genotoxicity, cytotoxicity, and reproductive toxicity in wildlife and humans [6]. Although glyphosate is approved for use by the EU, other standards organizations have listed it as a highly hazardous pesticide in 2011, 2014, and 2019 [5]. This active ingredient has been restricted, only be used under specific and defined conditions. It is also a probable carcinogenic substance to humans and has environmental toxicity by being very persistent in water and sediments [7]. Glyphosate provokes oxidative damage in the liver and kidneys of mammals by disrupting mitochondrial metabolism, disrupting endocrine-signaling systems and residues from glyphosate may pose higher risks to the kidneys and liver, reproductive development impairment [8]. Increases in the frequency of serious, chronic kidney disease were observed among male agricultural workers in some regions with heavy glyphosate use and “hard” water. And that the possible adverse effects of glyphosate exposure on kidney and liver warrant a focused, international research effort [9, 10]. Glyphosate can alter the functioning of hormonal systems and gene expression patterns at various dosage levels. Such effects will sometimes occur at low and likely environmentally-relevant exposures. Contemporary endocrine science has demonstrated that dose-response relationships will sometimes deviate from a linear increase in the frequency and severity of impacts expected as dose levels rise [11]. The timing, nature, and severity of endocrine system impacts will vary depending on the levels and timing of glyphosate exposures, this is pertinent as agrochemical users in Nigeria are indoctrinated in terms of dosage, rate, and timing of application.
Permethrin + Pyriproxyfen is used to kill a large range of pests; fleas, ticks, cockroaches, flies, and mosquitoes. The environmental protection agency (EPA) reviewed the pesticides register showed that permethrin stays a long time in the soil, very low amount stays in the water. Permethrin has some health risks; headaches, dizziness, nausea, shortness of breath, skin irritation, and redness of eyes when used at higher levels [12]. However, it is highly hazardous, with probable carcinogen in humans [13], and highly toxic to honey bees [14], aquatic, pollinator, and wildlife risk [5].
Cypermethrin is a pyrethroid insecticide, first synthesized in 1974, widely used to kill insects as it works quickly by affecting the nervous system, toxicity level in animals varies,for example, in rats includes tremors, seizures, and salivation, in cockroaches when exposed to little amount as 0.02 micrograms per gram causes brain paralysis, restlessness, and prostration. Cypermethrin is approved for use to manage agricultural insect pests. It is however listed as a highly hazardous pesticide in 2011 and 2019. It is classified as highly restricted use with mandatory risk-specific mitigation measures [3, 5]. It has highly aquatic toxicity, toxic on honey bees, and also with aquatic and pollinator risk [15]. Effect of cypermethrin in humans when exposed sometimes causes itching and tingling sensations. The half-life of cypermethrin in the environment takes about 30 days, soil microbes easily break it down because of the low potential to move in the soil but poses little to no risk when used responsibly [2].
The toxicity status of Chlorpyrifos is similar to cypermethrin except that it is not indicated in the EU database but UTZ classified it as highly restricted, may only be used under the specific condition with risk-specific mitigation measures, and is potential to be prohibited. Chlorpyrifos classified as highly hazardous in 2011 and 2019, poses inhalation risk to humans, high aquatic toxicity, highly toxic to bees [14], birds with aquatic pollinator, and wildlife risk [3].
Dichlorvos an organophosphate insecticide, also used as a public health vector control for animals, is registered worldwide for varieties of uses, majorly used as a post-harvest fumigant for control of various pests in food, the acceptable daily intake (ADI) for Dichlorvos was established as 0.004mg/kg bw and the acute reference dose was 0.1mg/kg bw. It can be applied with aerosols, fogging, and sprays equipment. It also breaks down rapidly in humid air, water, and soil, it takes longer time on wood when exposed to humans through food can be acutely toxic with typical cholinergic signs that are highly hazardous, dichlorvos is not teratogenic in mice and rats’ half-lives of recovery is about 15days in human and 2 hours in rats [16].
Dichlorvos is not approved for use but found in open markets, it is restricted in use and meant to be phased out by the year 2024 (BCI). It is highly prohibited, may only be used under specific, defined conditions. The active ingredient is classified as highly hazardous to humans [17], it is fatal if inhaled according to the EU and globally harmonized system (EU, GHS). It is a possible and probable carcinogen [2, 7], with high aquatic toxicity and highly toxic to honey bees and birds [15, 18, 19, 20].
Dimethoate comes in different forms; dustable powder (DP), wettable powder (WP) soluble concentrate, its toxicity was evaluated in 1992 by (WHO), it is used to control a wide range of insects and pests, in cereals, citrus, coffee, cotton, fruits, grapes, potatoes, beetroot, tea, and vegetables. It can also be used to control flies because of its systemic nature and acaricide the solubility of dimethoate in water at 90% purity has 39.8 at 25oC after 4 hours, equilibrium. In rats, the toxicity of dimethoate is mostly acute, such as oral irritation, dermal sensitization, eye irritation in humans, WHO hazard classification of dimethoate is “class moderately hazardous,” UN classification is “Toxic class 6.1,” US EPA Classification is; (Formulation) 11, EC Classification; Risk Xn (R21/22) Reviews by WHOEHC (1986) concluded that when used in proper level and accordingly exposure of human through the air, food, or water can be negligible.
Nicosulfuron is used as post-emergence in forage maize, found to have low dermal and inhalation toxicity, can be slightly irritating in rats, and has not been evaluated by the FAO, JMPR, and WHO/IPCS, although it is currently under review, it is registered in the U.S.A, the WHO Classification of Nicosulfuron is U; unlikely to cause an acute hazard in normal use. This active ingredient does not meet the criteria established in the UN recommendations on the transport of dangerous goods and therefore is not considered hazardous for transportation purposes. It is also not co-formulated with other active ingredients; toxicity in rats includes acute dermal irritation and eye irritation [21].
Profenofos + Cypermerthrin is a co-formulated organo-phosphorous insecticide, studies have shown its toxicity levels on animals, plants, and even the environment’s fate when it comes in contact. Profenofos was evaluated by JMPR in 1990, 1992, 1994, and 1995, toxicological, reviews were also conducted in 2007 when an ADI OF 0 to 0.03mg/kg bw and ARfD of 1mg/kg bw were established, profenofos is a clear liquid with weak odor, its solubility in water at 22oC is 2.8mg/l at a pH of 6.9, profenofos is slowly absorbed in metabolized, it was major residue when crops are harvested several weeks after the last applications, its residues are not expected to occur in succeeding crops. Reviewed by JMPR health risk shows that profenofos is unlikely to present a public health concern.
S-metolachlor is used for varieties of crops for control of grasses, for example, pigweeds (
Lambda-cyhalothrin is a synthetic pyrethroid insecticide used in agricultural and public health to control a wide range of insects and pests at developmental stages, it is a nonsystemic chemical, does not stay long in the soil so has an only limited function when used as soil insecticide. Lambda-cyhalothrin can be applied by spree spraying and residual spraying. Additionally, the provided data on acute toxicity, skin irritation, and sensitization. The mutagenic study reviewed that Lambda-cyhalothrin is nonmutagenic, JMPR has defined an acceptable daily intake (ADI) of 0 0.02mg/kg bw, water solubility is 0.005 mg/l. The IPCS hazard classification of Lambda-cyhalothrin is moderately hazardous Class II (WHO). Lambda-cyhalothrin is approved for use in weed management but listed as highly hazardous in 2011 and 2019 [5]. It is to be phased out by the year 2024 and with highly restricted use, only be used under specific conditions, and according to the globally harmonized system (GHS), it poses a fatal risk to humans if inhaled. This active ingredient also poses a long-term health effect as an endocrine disruptor and as having reproductive toxicity [22].
The 2,2-dichlorovinyl dimethyl phosphate is another insecticide that is not listed in the active ingredients database of the EU. It is however listed as a highly hazardous substance in PAN as an endocrine disruptor, has highly aquatic toxicity, is highly toxic to honey bees, aquatic, and pollinator risk [5].
Carbendazim is a very common fungicide but was recently listed as highly hazardous in 2019 [5] and not on the approved list of EU pesticides. It is restricted, prohibited with exceptions for certain pests, in certain crops and regions, and may only be used under specific, defined conditions as recommended by Fairtrade. This active ingredient has a mutagenic effect on humans and it is a reproductive toxin according to EU and GHS [13, 23]. Carbendazim is a widely used systemic fungicide that is mainly used for protective and curative functions. It is used to control a large number of fungal diseases, such as mold, mildew, rot, and blight, in some crops, such as ginger, nuts, legumes, and even fruits. Additionally, carbendazim has been nominated for chemical program review under Australia Pesticide and Veterinary Medicines Authority (APVMA) because of its effect known to cause impaired human fertility and cause birth defects, the review made a conclusion it causes the above effects, the half-life of carbendazim is as long as 6 months, recommended warning for registered carbendazim products that it must contain the following stated warning “Contains carbendazim which causes birth death and irreversible male infertility, in laboratory animals, avoid contact with carbendazim” recommended usage level in drinking water is 0.09 mg/ls [24]. For safety operators mixing and loading carbendazim must wear gloves to avoid skin irritation, respirator face shield should be worn to prevent ingestion. Even with the use of these safety measures the risk cannot be mitigated, the use of carbendazim is no longer supported for occupational health and safety grounds [2].
Another active ingredient similar to carbendazim is mancozeb, also a fungicide with the recent addition to the highly hazardous list; also has restrictions of use, prohibited, risk-specific mitigation measures are mandatory and may only be used under specific, defined conditions according to FSC, RA, and Fairtrade standards. Mancozeb is a probable carcinogen to humans [13, 23], an endocrine disruptor, and has wildlife risk [3]. Mancozeb is used for a wide range of fungal diseases as protective fungicides for horticultural and agricultural purposes. Mancozeb is a member of the ethylenebisdithiocarbamate (EBDC) group of fungicides which maneb and metiram are some of the related active ingredients, used on crops, such as potatoes, apples, grapes, onions, tomatoes, and melons. Its effects on human health can be toxic because it is majorly harmful to thyroid organ, reviewed to cause thyroid toxicity, thyroid lesions, and thyroid tumors, the residual composition of mancozeb is not to a level of concern to the EPA and other effects, such as cancer risk, effects on terrestrial and aquatic species, are feasible by using restrictions [25].
The 2,2dichlorovinyle dimethyl phosphate is also known as (dichlorvos); it is a colorless to amber liquid, an agricultural chemical used to control insects, diseases, and eliminate storage pests and crops. Application of dichlorvos is mainly expelled into the air for household pesticides and it is usually distributed into the water for pesticide control and sprayed on land when used for agricultural purposes. Furthermore, it is eliminated by hydrolysis and biodegradation, some toxic effects on animals and humans include acute effects such as weakness, severe anemia, anticholinergic symptoms other effects on gastrointestinal tracts and nervous system in rabbits, it causes severe skin irritation. The current regulation in Japan for dichlorvos is Deleterious substance, Class I designated chemical substance.
Imidacloprid is a new insecticide that is related to nicotine chemically, just like nicotine, imidacloprid acts on the nervous system, it is used in large quantities in crops, pests, and turf grasses, when imidacloprid is exposed to animals or humans some of the effects includes, Apathy, emaciation, convulsion, labored breathing, when exposed for a long time it causes loss of weight and thyroid lesions in human. It can be acutely toxic in some animals, bird species, and plants by causing decreasing growth levels.
Hexaconazole is a systemic triazole fungicide that is used in the control of a wide range of diseases of crops example of some diseases are black and yellow Sigatoka diseases of banana, used on banana foliar to control diseases, The Health Effects Division Hazard Identification Assessment Reviews Committee (HIARC), evaluated the toxicological level of hexaconazole on human and animals is reviewed to have enhanced sensitivity to infants and children. In animals such as rats, the study revealed a decrease in body weight gains and decreased pub survival, although the aggregate exposure risk is limited to dietary exposure only, hexaconazole has low toxicity by oral, dermal, and inhalation mode of exposure, it can be slightly irritating to the eye and skin sensitization in animals.
Hexaconazole was found in the open market but not approved by the EU, classified as a highly hazardous substance, a possible carcinogen [26] very persistent/water, and highly toxic to bees [5].
Imidacloprid, a fungicide approved by the EU for the management of fungal diseases in crops, although approved, it is however prohibited with an exception for certain pests in certain crops and without exceptions by some other standards. The active ingredient may cause severe effects on humans and be highly toxic to honey bees and birds [5, 14].
A fungicide named dimethoate is not on the approved list of the EU, it is listed as highly hazardous in 2011 and 2019 [5]. Dimethoate is classified as a probable carcinogen and with reproductive toxicity according to globally harmonized system [13, 23]. This active ingredient is recommended as restricted with minima use and potentially to be prohibited according to FSC, RA, UTZ. It also has inhalation risk to humans, highly toxic to honey bees, birds, and aquatic, pollinator, and wildlife risk according to SAN [21].
People are exposed to pesticides through varied means of handlings for domestic and agricultural purposes. Exposure can be through spray drift, residues in the environment, contaminated food, or drinking water and these can be directly or indirectly.
This exposure can also be through absorption through the skin, ingestion through food, or inhalation during the application or perceived from the environment. Exposure has an impact on the human body as related to the amount of pesticides exposed to (dose) and length of pesticides exposure (time). The health risks associated with pesticide use are a combination of toxicity and exposure. However, responsible pesticides use involves applying the right pesticide, in the right way, dosage, interval, and at the right time.
Figure 1 shows a typical practice of some farmers on the use of pesticides on stored products in rural communities and poor urban areas. Pesticides were applied directly to the product to extend the shelf life in storage, especially against insect infestation. The pesticides were sprayed in overdose, at the wrong time as shown in Figure 1 (around afternoon as depicted in the shadows) and the products were bagged immediately.
Over dose application of pesticides on stored product.
Apart from hazards of residue contamination in the food crops, the human and environmental hazards are also very loud. The humans were not in any way protected from spray drift on their skin and through inhalation or direct exposure. Likewise, was the volatility escape of the sprays into the environment, contaminating and polluting nearby produce and passersby. This practice showed wrongness in terms of quantity of agrochemicals applied, time of application, exposure of the crop, the farmers also unprotected and the environment been polluted.
The indiscriminate disposal of agrochemical contents into the soil, environment, and wrong handling are shown in Figure 2. Rural farmers use this method to prepare pesticides in containers, mixed with hands and occasionally tasted to “ascertain efficacy” of the pesticides.
Indiscriminate disposal and preparation of pesticide on farm.
This practice proves the level of ignorance and literacy of potential risks agrochemicals pose to human health beyond a reasonable doubt. The pesticides residues contaminant in soils were usually washed into the streams during rains, the same water is used for domestic activities, bathing, and even drinking.
The study showed that many of the agrochemicals in open markets have some level of restriction of use or approval based on the recommendation of international standard organizations, with proved risks to humans, animals, and the environment. The general handling and indiscriminate use of these active ingredients in open markets and farmer’s fields showed deficient knowledge and awareness of the potential danger they pose to crops, humans, and the environment.
Enlightenment programs on local broadcasting stations, such as radio, television, and marketplace campaign should be launched to create awareness of the risks and dangers associated with agrochemical use and misuse both for domestic and agricultural purposes. These avenues will reach the rural dwellers who are the most vulnerable to the potential risks. The relevant government/regulatory agencies should fulfill their mandate agrochemical related matters like control/enforcement, acceptable active ingredients, monitoring and safety measures as well as prosecution of offenders of national agrochemical laws.
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So, air and water can potentially become polluted everywhere. Little is known about changes in pollution rates. The increase in water-related diseases provides a real assessment of the degree of pollution in the environment. This chapter summarizes water quality parameters from an ecological perspective not only for humans but also for other living things. According to its quality, water can be classified into four types. Those four water quality types are discussed through an extensive review of their important common attributes including physical, chemical, and biological parameters. 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Accordingly, 80 medicinal plant species were reviewed; leaves and roots are the main parts of the plants used for preparation of traditional medicines. The local practitioners provided various traditional medications to their patients’ diseases such as stomachaches, asthma, dysentery, malaria, evil eyes, cancer, skin diseases, and headaches. The uses of medicinal plants for human and animal treatments are practiced from time immemorial. Stream/riverbanks, cultivated lands, disturbed sites, bushlands, forested areas and their margins, woodlands, grasslands, and home gardens are major habitats of medicinal plants. Generally, medicinal plants used for traditional medicine play a significant role in the healthcare of the majority of the people in Ethiopia. The major threats to medicinal plants are habitat destruction, urbanization, agricultural expansion, investment, road construction, and deforestation. Because of these, medicinal plants are being declined and lost with their habitats. Community- and research-based conservation mechanisms could be an appropriate approach for mitigating the problems pertinent to the loss of medicinal plants and their habitats and for documenting medicinal plants. Chromatography; electrophoretic, macroscopic, and microscopic techniques; and pharmaceutical practice are mainly used for quality control of herbal medicines.",book:{id:"8502",slug:"plant-science-structure-anatomy-and-physiology-in-plants-cultured-in-vivo-and-in-vitro",title:"Plant Science",fullTitle:"Plant Science - Structure, Anatomy and Physiology in Plants Cultured in Vivo and in Vitro"},signatures:"Admasu Moges and Yohannes Moges",authors:[{id:"249746",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Admasu",middleName:null,surname:"Moges",slug:"admasu-moges",fullName:"Admasu Moges"},{id:"297761",title:"MSc.",name:"Yohannes",middleName:null,surname:"Moges",slug:"yohannes-moges",fullName:"Yohannes Moges"}]},{id:"29764",title:"Underlying Causes of Paresthesia",slug:"underlying-causes-of-paresthesia",totalDownloads:192987,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1069",slug:"paresthesia",title:"Paresthesia",fullTitle:"Paresthesia"},signatures:"Mahdi Sharif-Alhoseini, Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar and Alexander R. Vaccaro",authors:[{id:"91165",title:"Prof.",name:"Vafa",middleName:null,surname:"Rahimi-Movaghar",slug:"vafa-rahimi-movaghar",fullName:"Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"2",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81708",title:"High Throughput Methods to Transfer DNA in Cells and Perspectives",slug:"high-throughput-methods-to-transfer-dna-in-cells-and-perspectives",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104542",abstract:"Genome sequencing led to thousands of genes to study and their molecular cloning to provide ORF collection plasmids. The main approach to study their function involves analysis of the biological consequences of their expression or knockdown, in a cellular context. Given that, the starting point of such experiments is the delivery of the exogenous material, including plasmid DNA in cells. During the last decades, efforts were made to develop efficient methods and protocols to achieve this goal. The present chapter will first give a rapid overview of the main DNA transfer methods described so far: physical, chemical, and biological. Secondly, it will focus on the different methods having reached high-throughput nowadays. 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The findings from different studies by use of technologies have thrown light on the importance of HSP70 to heat, other abiotic stresses and environmental challenges in desserts. There is clear evidence that under heat stress, HSP70 gene stabilized the membrane structure, chlorophyll and water breakdown. It was also found that under heat stress, HSP70 decreased the malondialdehyde (MDA) content and increased the production of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and peroxidase (POD) in transgenic plants as compared to non-transgenic plants. Some reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as superoxide, hydrogen peroxide and hydroxyl radical are also synthesized and accumulated when plants are stressed by heat. Hence HSP70 can confidently be used for transforming a number of heat tolerant crop species.",book:{id:"11330",title:"Plant Response Mechanisms to Abiotic Stresses",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11330.jpg"},signatures:"Batool Fatima, Anicet Agossa Batcho, Zainab Y. Sandhu, Muhammad Bilal Sarwar, Sameera Hassan and Bushra Rashid"},{id:"82403",title:"Use of Plant Secondary Metabolites to Reduce Crop Biotic and Abiotic Stresses: A Review",slug:"use-of-plant-secondary-metabolites-to-reduce-crop-biotic-and-abiotic-stresses-a-review",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104553",abstract:"Plant secondary metabolites (PSM) are small molecules of organic compounds produced in plant metabolism that have various ecological functions, such as defense against pathogens, herbivores, and neighboring plants. They can also help to reduce abiotic stresses, such as drought, salinity, temperature, and UV. This chapter reviewed the ecological functions of the PSM and how people utilize these metabolites to reduce crop biotic and abiotic stresses in agriculture. Specific topics covered in this review are (1) extraction of PSM from plant parts and its application on crops; (2) screening of crop/cover crop germplasms for high PSM content and with resistance to pathogens, herbivores, and/or neighboring plants; (3) regulation of PSM biosynthesis (including plant hormones and defense activators) to increase plant readiness for defense; (4) transcriptome and genome technology improvements in the last decade leading to valuable tools to characterize differential gene expression and gene composition in a genome, and lineage-specific gene family expansion and contraction. In addition, there is a critical need to understand how the biosynthesis and release of allelochemicals occur. Filling this knowledge gap will help us to improve and encourage sustainable weed control practices in agriculture.",book:{id:"11331",title:"Secondary Metabolites - Trends and Reviews",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11331.jpg"},signatures:"Ziming Yue, Varsha Singh, Josiane Argenta, Worlanyo Segbefia, Alyssa Miller and Te Ming Tseng"},{id:"82404",title:"Nutrition of Corals and Their Trophic Plasticity under Future Environmental Conditions",slug:"nutrition-of-corals-and-their-trophic-plasticity-under-future-environmental-conditions",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104612",abstract:"Scleractinian corals obtain metabolic energy from their endosymbiotic autotrophic microalgae, and from remineralization of organic matter by bacteria and viruses, along with the heterotrophic food sources. The mutualistic symbiosis is generally stable but can be disrupted when environmental conditions surrounding the corals, such as increasing seawater temperature, become unfavorable to sustain each component of the holobiont. In this connection, the effects of global stressors such as climate change, and local stressors such as pollution, and their combination, are posing serious threats to the metabolic resistance of corals. However, some more resilient coral species have developed specific mechanisms to cope with fluctuating environmental conditions according to the trophic strategy (autotrophy, heterotrophy, or mixotrophy), and by modulating their energy expenditure. In this chapter, the role of nutrition in the coral symbiosis as the energetic budget for metabolic performance will be discussed, with a focus on the role of acquisition of nutrients through feeding, regulation of energy reserves (lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates), and adaptation capability in the natural environment, including the expression of heat-shock proteins (Hsps). Future environmental conditions under a combination of global changes and local impacts will also be discussed, with the aim of identifying the trophic niches of corals and geographical areas as possible refugia.",book:{id:"11342",title:"Corals - Habitat Formers From the Shallow to the Deep",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11342.jpg"},signatures:"Walter Dellisanti, Davide Seveso and James Kar-Hei Fang"},{id:"82397",title:"Gut Microbiota Potential in Type 2 Diabetes",slug:"gut-microbiota-potential-in-type-2-diabetes",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105616",abstract:"Appropriate metabolic regulation is vital for health. Multiple factors play important roles in maintaining the metabolic system in different physiological conditions. These factors range from intestinal metabolism of food and absorption of nutrients, pancreatic hormones and their interplay under feeding and fasting, hepatic regulation of macronutrient formation and metabolism storage of macronutrients in skeletal muscles. Intestinal metabolism of ingested food and subsequent nutrient absorption depends on the symbiotic microbial community residing in the gut. The specific ratio of different microbial phyla in the gut has proved to be extremely important for the beneficial role of the gut microbiome. The importance of gut microbiome in the regulation of metabolism has been highlighted with reports of the abnormal ratio of gut microbial community resulting in different metabolic disturbances ranging from obesity to the development of diabetes mellitus. The physiological impact of insulin on the metabolic regulation of macronutrients has recently been shown to be augmented by the secondary metabolites produced by anaerobic fermentation. The current chapter aims to highlight recent findings in the regulation of extraintestinal metabolism by gut microbiome with a specific emphasis on the physiology and pathophysiology of the pancreas in health and disease.",book:{id:"11631",title:"Gut Microbiota - Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11631.jpg"},signatures:"Shahzad Irfan, Humaira Muzaffar, Haseeb Anwar and Farhat Jabeen"},{id:"81668",title:"Biological and Molecular Effects of Pesticides on Human Health",slug:"biological-and-molecular-effects-of-pesticides-on-human-health",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104811",abstract:"Pesticides are widely used in agriculture and are practical and economical to improve the quality of food safety for the permanent population around the world. Even though insecticides are beneficial to cropping views, their extensive use may result in severe consequences due to their biocompatible and permanent nature. Various pesticides can cause serious health risks of direct or indirectly contaminated air, water, soil, and the general ecosystem. The effect of pesticides on blood in the mammalian cell is significant because blood can act as a target and carrier for pesticides. However, the mechanism by which they bind to biopolymers, particularly blood proteins, is not clearly understood yet. This chapter investigates the molecular effects of pesticides on biomacromolecules, especially hemoglobin.",book:{id:"11318",title:"Pesticides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11318.jpg"},signatures:"Aida Doroudian, Mahdieh Emadi, Reza Hosseinzadeh and Parvaneh Maghami"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:553},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. 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She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334239",title:"Prof.",name:"Leung",middleName:null,surname:"Wai Keung",slug:"leung-wai-keung",fullName:"Leung Wai Keung",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hong Kong",country:{name:"China"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"95",type:"subseries",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",keywords:"Circular economy, Contingency planning and response to disasters, Ecosystem services, Integrated urban water management, Nature-based solutions, Sustainable urban development, Urban green spaces",scope:"