The six classes of CFTR mutations and their effects at the protein level.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-80355-607-9",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-606-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-608-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"6cf0b844f6881c758c61cca10dc8b134",bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Gülşen Akın Evingür and Dr. Önder Pekcan",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11830.jpg",keywords:"Elasticity, Toughness, Modulus, Compression, Extension, Optical Properties, Swelling, Drying, Diffusion, Release, Transmission Loss, Sound Absorption Coefficient",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 5th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 15th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 14th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 2nd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 1st 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"21 days",secondStepPassed:!1,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Evingür is a researcher in polymer composites and a lecturer at a maritime university. She has edited 2 books and has had 5 chapters published in international books, and 3 international and 5 national projects, respectively.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Prof. Pekcan received their Ph.D. from the University of Wyoming, United States of America, in 1974. He has more than 362 SCI articles, 26 chapters, and 10 projects and is a member Science Academy in Turkey.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"180256",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Gülşen",middleName:null,surname:"Akın Evingür",slug:"gulsen-akin-evingur",fullName:"Gülşen Akın Evingür",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180256/images/system/180256.jpeg",biography:"Gülşen Akın Evingür graduated from Physics Department at the Yıldız Technical University (YTU, İstanbul, Turkey) in 1996. She completed her Master of Science degree in 2002 at the same department. The titled of her thesis was 'Electrical Properties of Polystyrene”. She received her PhD from Physics Engineering at İstanbul Technical University in 2011. The title of the thesis was 'Phase Transitions in Composite Gels”. She worked as an Assistant Professor between 2011 and 2018, and she is currently working as an Assosciate Professor at Pîrî Reis University, Istanbul, Turkey. She has been engaged in various academic studies in the fields of composites and their mechanical, optical, electrical, and acoustic properties. She has authored more than 60 SCI articles, 92 proceedings in national and international journals, respectively. She has edited \n 2 book, and has had 5 chapters published in international books, 3 international and 5 national projects, respectively.",institutionString:"Piri Reis University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Piri Reis University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"27949",title:"Dr.",name:"Önder",middleName:null,surname:"Pekcan",slug:"onder-pekcan",fullName:"Önder Pekcan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27949/images/system/27949.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Pekcan received his MS Degree in Physics at the University of Chicago in June 1971, and then in May 1974 his PhD thesis on solid state physics was accepted at the University of Wyoming. \n\nHe started his career at Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey as Assistant Professor in 1974. Habilitation thesis on solid state physics was accepted in 1979. He became Associate Professor at Hacettepe University in 1979. \nHe visited ICTP Trieste, Italy as Visiting Scientist between June and August 1980. Between 1980 and 1981 he was a Visiting Scientist at the Technical University of Gdansk, Poland. \nHe worked as Visiting Professor at the Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Canada between 1981 and 1988. \nHe was appointed as full Professor at the Department of Physics, Istanbul Technical University, Turkey and worked there between 1988 and 2005. \nHe became an Elected Member of the Turkish Academy of Sciences (TÜBA) in January 1995. \nHe became the Dean of School of Arts and Sciences at the Istanbul Technical University in 1997. \nHe received the Science Award from the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK) in 1998. Prof. Pekcan was elected as Member of the Council of TÜBA in 2001 and Scientific Board of TÜBİTAK in 2003, respectively. \nHe was Head of the Department of Physics, and then became Dean of School of Arts and Sciences at the Işık University between 2005 and 2008.\nHe worked as Dean at the School of Art and Sciences, Kadir Has University (2008—2012). \nNow he is Professor at the Department of Bioinformatics and Genetics, Kadir Has University. Since 2012 he is a member of Science Academy. In the last few years Prof. Pekcan’s work covers mostly the area of biopolymers and nanocomposites.",institutionString:"Kadir Has University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Kadir Has University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"14",title:"Materials Science",slug:"materials-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"185543",firstName:"Maja",lastName:"Bozicevic",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185543/images/4748_n.jpeg",email:"maja.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Although CF is a chronic disease affecting many organs, the lung manifestations are still today the major cause of morbidity and mortality of these individuals and are the consequences of an ongoing inflammatory process, which stems either in the absence or in the presence of opportunistic bacterial infections. Lung inflammation and respiratory infections affect the prognosis of CF patients [3, 4]; indeed, they are associated with the progressive destructive changes that are responsible for most of the morbidity and mortality in CF [5]. Over 1000 microbial species (viruses, bacteria, mould, and fungi) have been found in the airways of CF patients [6].
Mutations in the 250‐kb
CFTR structure and CF lung disease. (a) A supposed CFTR structure when inserted in the plasma membrane. CFTR is composed of a two‐membrane spanning domain (MSDs), each linked to nucleotide‐binding domains (NBD1 and NBD2). Unique to CFTR, NBD1 is connected to the NBD2 by a regulatory domain (R). (b) The pathophysiological cascade of CF lung disease.
CFTR mutation class | \nExample | \nEffect on CFTR protein |
---|---|---|
Class I (stop mutation) | \nG542X | \nNo expression |
Class II (trafficking mutants) | \nF508del | \nVery low expression |
Class III (low ATP binding) | \nG551D | \nVery low function |
Class IV (low conductance) | \nR117H | \nLow function |
Class V (low synthesis) | \nA455E | \nLow expression |
Class VI (high turnover) | \n120del23 | \nLow expression |
The six classes of CFTR mutations and their effects at the protein level.
The hallmark of the CF lung disease is a neutrophil‐dominated inflammatory response; however, the link between CFTR mutations and the complex inflammatory milieu of the CF lungs is largely still poorly understood. The pathophysiological cascade which leads from the lack/dysfunction of CFTR chloride channel activity to the airway inflammation and infection, and eventually to tissue damage and destruction, is represented in Figure 1(c). In the airways, the low excretion of chloride ions and bicarbonate, along with the hyperabsorption of sodium by the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) and subsequently of water, contributes to the volume depletion from the periciliary liquid and its acidification. Thus, the loss of CFTR reduces the effectiveness of at least two defences—mucociliary transport and anti‐microbial activity [10–12]. This eventually brings the colonization and infection by opportunistic bacterial pathogens and opposing inflammation, which, far from being resolutive, seems to be dysregulated, becoming chronic. In this context, polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs) are thought to play a fundamental role on the onset and progression of lung tissue damage. Observational clinical studies made in the past have ascertained that infants with CF do show an airway inflammation prior to overt infection [13], indicating that the inflammatory response is dysregulated a priori before any bacterial infection and also suggesting that CFTR mutations are implicated in this abnormal response (Figure 1(b)). This is supported by the findings showing that free and bound airway neutrophil elastase is detected very early in CF infants and predicts the development of bronchiectasis later in life [14]. Furthermore, it has been found that CFTR is involved in some functions of innate immune cells that are diverted by CFTR mutations. We will discuss these evidences in Section 4.
\nNeutrophils are the main cell types involved in the first‐line defence of many organs, including the respiratory tract. However, they remain in the blood circulation unless they are recruited in the tissue. In the airways, they are marginated along the endothelium of capillaries and are ready to migrate first through the endothelium and then across the respiratory epithelium [15]. Marginated neutrophils are recruited rapidly to sites of inflammation, where their primary role is to kill invading bacteria and certain fungal species through phagocytosis and production of a range of oxygen species within the phagolysosomes and also by preformed granular enzymes and proteins. Tissue inflammation results in the release of multiple inflammatory mediators and subsequent neutrophil priming. Priming results in a marked change in neutrophil shape and rheology that leads to their increased stiffness and retention within the capillary microvascular bed of the lung [16]. These mediators include an early wave comprised of cytokines, such as tumour necrosis factor (TNF)‐α, interleukin (IL)‐1β, and pathogen‐associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) such as endotoxin, the ligand of Toll‐like receptor (TLR)‐4, followed by a late wave of chemoattractants and growth factors including IL‐8, leukotriene B4 (LTB4), and granulocyte‐macrophage colony‐stimulating factor (GM‐CSF).
\nIn the airways, macrophages and epithelial cells are the main cell types which sense the pathogens and secrete a wealth of factors both inducing priming and full activation of neutrophils, as well as their extravasation. Upon exposure to bacteria, respiratory epithelial cells release reactive oxygen species (ROS) as an innate anti‐infective mechanism, together with several anti‐microbial peptides such as human beta‐defensins (hBD‐1/2/4) and cathelicidins (LL‐37). The major pro‐inflammatory cytokines (e.g. IL‐1β, TNF‐α, and IL‐6) are initially expressed and released by surface epithelial cells of the conductive airways, which also release chemokines directed to recruit neutrophils (e.g. IL‐8, GRO‐α/γ) [17–22]. Besides the phagocytosis of inhaled pathogens and apoptotic cells, alveolar macrophages (AMs) play an important role in orchestrating innate immune defences by releasing inflammatory mediators. One of the important regulatory functions of AMs may be to dampen immune responses [23] so that dysfunction of AMs in CF could be related to increased inflammation. Both airway epithelial cells and AMs have been shown to be dysfunctional in CF, contributing to the onset and progression of chronic lung disease [24, 25]. This is reflected by the high burden of cytokines, chemokines, and other mediators found in the airway secretion of CF patients [26]. The CF airways contain massive amounts of cytokines and chemoattractants for neutrophils such as TNF‐α, IL‐1β, IL‐6, IL‐8, IL‐17, IL‐33, LTB4, C5a, high‐mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), proline‐glycine‐proline (PGP), and N‐acetyl PGP [27–32]. For example, TNF‐α enhances the neutrophil oxidative capacity, the granule release, and, with IL‐1β, induces the priming of neutrophils [33]. The concentration of IL‐8 in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid is generally elevated and often correlates with the number of neutrophils in the airways [34]. It is thought that both extrinsic (e.g. microbes) and intrinsic (e.g.
Besides chemokines, such as CXCL8 (IL‐8) [35], and lipid products, such as LTB4 [36], other mediators have also been recently implicated in the recruitment of neutrophils into the CF airways. UDP‐glucose levels are abnormally elevated in lung secretions from CF patients and from a mouse model of CF/chronic bronchitis, the βENaC‐Tg transgenic mouse [37]. Moreover, instillation of UDP‐glucose into mouse lung resulted in robust accumulation of neutrophils in BAL. Levels of damage‐associated molecular patterns (DAMP), HMGB1, were found elevated in CF sputum and in BAL from βENaC‐Tg transgenic mouse and shown to be chemotactic for neutrophils [38]. Upon activation, neutrophils secrete matrix metalloproteinases (MMP)‐8 and ‐9, which perform an initial digestion of collagen from the macromolecule\'s size. Subsequently, neutrophils release prolyl endopeptidase (PE), a serine protease previously only known to be a processor of neuropeptides. PE performs the final digestion of collagen to the tri‐peptide PGP, which, upon binding to the same receptors as IL‐8, CXCR1 and CXCR2, acts as a neutrophil chemoattractant and activator [39]. Thus, release of this peptidic collagen fragment provides a positive feedback mechanism that contributes to persistent neutrophilic inflammation in the CF lung [40]. During the adaptive immune response phase, neutrophils are recruited to the lung via the IL‐23/IL‐17A axis. Dendritic cells, activated by bacterial antigens, produce IL‐23, which, in turn, binds to IL‐23 receptor on T cells and stimulates them to produce IL‐17A. This cytokine induces granulopoiesis via the induction of G‐CSF and neutrophil recruitment via induction of chemotactic mediators such as IL‐8. Both IL‐23 and IL‐17A have been found at high levels in the sputum from CF patients in acute exacerbation [41] and in stable condition [42], amplifying the extravasation and activation of neutrophils already induced by the innate immune response.
\nOnce extravasated, neutrophils locate all along the CF bronchial tree and particularly in segmental bronchi, where they preferentially locate at the level of the lamina propria and in the lumen [43]. In this position, they are already activated and try to phagocytose microbes (e.g.
In the following subsections, we shall revise the main features of neutrophil physiology and how these are modified in the CF airway microenvironment (Figure 2).
\nThe role of neutrophils in maintaining inflammation and respiratory infections. The increased burden of neutrophils in the CF airways is the hallmark of the mucus plugs contained in the bronchioles lumen. From this location, PMNs secrete proteases and reactive oxygen species that overwhelm antiproteases and antioxidants, respectively, ensuing in various effects: (1) cleavage of pattern recognition receptors (PRR), (2) cleavage of opsonophagocytic receptors, and (3) disabling PMNs themselves and other immune cells. All these alterations facilitate bacterial infections.
Neutrophils recruited from the blood into the CF airway environment undergo marked functional changes. They express high levels of markers conventionally found on long‐lived antigen‐presenting cells (APCs), including class II molecules of the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC), the costimulatory molecule CD80, and the chemoattractant receptor of Th2 cells (CD294), all of which suggest profound reprogramming [45]. CF airway neutrophils present marked increases in glucose, amino acid, and phosphate transporters as compared with blood neutrophils [46], indicating that metabolic adaptation of neutrophils occurs as they are recruited to CF airways. However, these changes are not equal for all neutrophil subsets found in CF airways.
\nApoptosis is a physiological process necessary for the clearance of inflammatory cells. Neutrophils are short‐living cells which undergo apoptosis at the end of the inflammatory response, attracting macrophages which eventually ingest apoptotic cells in a process called
It seems for a number of reasons that neutrophils are resistant to apoptosis when they have extravasated into the CF airways; for example, it has been suggested that the oversecretion of cytokines might be responsible of apoptosis inhibition of airway neutrophils. The release of G‐CSF or GM‐CSF by epithelial cells, stimulated by
In cystic fibrosis, there is a tendency for bacterial colonization that may be due to dysfunction of phagocytosis. Airway neutrophils of CF patients showed a blunted phagocytic capacity and a reduced expression of cell surface recognition receptors, namely TLRs, leading to impaired bacterial killing [63]. Recent studies have demonstrated that CF neutrophils display an absence or dysfunction of CFTR at the level of phagolysosomes [64]. Likely due to this defect, CF neutrophils are impaired in chlorination of engulfed pathogens due to defective hypochlorous acid (HOCl) production [65].
\nOne of the major mechanisms through which neutrophil phagocytosis kills pathogens entrapped inside the phagolysosomal vacuole is the release of high quantities of ROS [66]. The activation of the nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase (NOX2) in the neutrophils induces the production of superoxide anion and consequently the other ROS. Excessive activation of the neutrophil NOX2 results in exaggerated ROS release in the external surroundings, which increases the oxidative damage to tissues [67]. Furthermore, the inflammatory response can be enhanced by imbalance created by excessive release of pro‐oxidative and impaired release of anti‐oxidative molecules. While some authors have reported that ROS production by CF blood PMNs can be higher than or identical to that of healthy controls [68, 69], others have demonstrated that ROS generation varied according to the infecting pathogen [70] or to the method employed to detect respiratory burst activity [71]. For example, it has been shown that an extracellular polysaccharide of non‐mucoid
Neutrophils are identified by the presence of cytoplasmic primary (azurophilic), secondary (specific), and tertiary (gelatinase) granules as well as the secretory vesicles [75]. Focusing on granules, neutrophils abundantly express a cell‐type specific set of neutrophil serine proteases, namely cathepsin G, proteinase 3, and neutrophil elastase (NE), which are stored in the azurophilic granules. Also, myeloperoxidase (MPO) is stored in primary granules. Secondary granules are characterized by the presence of lactoferrin and cathelicidins, such as hCAP-18, while tertiary granules are enriched with gelatinase, an old name for MMPs, in particular MMP‐9.
\nA dysregulated neutrophil degranulation capacity in CF has been shown. Neutrophils obtained from CF patients have an increased capacity to release primary granule contents such as MPO and NE [76]. In the airways, CF neutrophils undergo active exocytosis of primary granules, leading to a massive release of enzymes (e.g. NE, MPO) that damage the airway tissue and perpetuate inflammation [45]. On the other hand, Pohl et al. [77] have demonstrated that blood neutrophils obtained from CF patients can release less secondary (lactoferrin and hCAP‐18) and tertiary (MMP‐9) granule components compared with cells obtained from healthy individuals. The dysfunction of CFTR channel in neutrophils results in the deactivation of the GTP‐binding protein Rab27a and in an impaired granule exocytosis. Interestingly, hypoxia, which is a hallmark of the CF bronchiolar environment, augmented neutrophil degranulation and possibly enhanced damage to respiratory airway cells in a hypoxia‐inducible factor (HIF)‐independent but PI3Kγ‐dependent mechanism [78].
\nThe neutrophils are the first immune cells to achieve the site of injury or infection and are key players in microbial killing, because they are equipped with three main anti‐bacterial weapons: phagocytosis, release of ROS, and granule release. Aside from these traditional mechanisms, neutrophils are also able, upon activation, to release DNA fibres decorated with anti‐microbial proteins or neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) to immobilize and to kill bacteria. NETs are composed of chromatin fibres coated with anti‐microbial proteins, such as histones, NE, MPO, and α‐defensins [79–82]. Moreover, NETs and their associated molecules are able to directly induce epithelial death, and massive NET formation has been reported in several pulmonary diseases including CF [83]. NETs are present in excess in CF sputum and the normal host defence functions become pathological [84]. CF patients with poor pulmonary functions presented higher levels of NETs compared to patients with mild lung disease, and the G protein‐coupled receptor (GPCR) CXCR2 mediates NOX2‐independent NET formation [85]. Histones and protease‐coated DNA structures are released by neutrophils in response to respiratory bacteria (whole cells or virulence factors such as LPS, pilus, pyocyanin) or to inflammatory mediators (IL‐8, interferon type I [IFN I], C5a) [86]. The exotoxin pyocyanin, a virulence factor of
As already pointed out above, there are many synergistic mediators which prime, activate, and attract neutrophils in the CF airways. Neutrophils also contribute to the CF airway environment by producing mediators that are pro‐inflammatory and modify the function of other immune cells. CF airway neutrophils were found to increase TLR‐4 expression on their surface and produce excessive IL‐8 at the baseline, while failing to increase secretion in response to LPS or repress it in response to IL‐10 [94]. Neutrophils in the sputum and blood of F508del CF subjects at the time of pulmonary exacerbation were found to express IL‐17 RNA and protein as well as IL‐23 receptor [95]. These investigators also showed a positive correlation between percent‐IL‐17‐producing neutrophils and the total sputum activity of NE and MMP‐9 and that IL‐17 was absent following antibiotic treatment. IL‐17 production by neutrophils may therefore contribute to tissue damage in the lungs of patients with CF.
\nNeutrophilic myeloid‐derived suppressor cells (MDSC) are innate immune cells that are functionally characterized by their potential to suppress T‐ and natural killer (NK)‐cell responses. Circulating neutrophilic MDSC have been found to be increased in patients with CF infected with
While bacteria and their products, cytokines and chemokines, are important triggers of neutrophil activation in CF airways, it is an emerging picture that a primary CFTR defect in cells of the innate immune system, including neutrophils, monocytes, and lymphocytes, contributes significantly to CF lung pathology [24]. Pharmacologic inhibition of CFTR and genetic mutation (F508del) in murine neutrophils activated the nuclear factor kappa‐light‐chain enhancer of activated B cells (NF‐κB) and increased macrophage inflammatory protein‐2 (MIP‐2) and TNF‐α production, as compared to non‐inhibited and control neutrophils. Interestingly, under LPS challenge, neutrophil‐depleted wild‐type mice reconstituted with F508del neutrophils displayed a more severe lung inflammation in comparison with neutrophil‐depleted wild‐type mice reconstituted with wild‐type neutrophils [98]. Altogether, these data strongly indicate that the lack of functional CFTR could result in excessive NF‐κB activation in neutrophils and therefore propagate a hyper‐inflammatory response.
\nCF neutrophils have a reduced phagocytic activity [19, 99] and defects in the respiratory burst, attributed to disrupted chloride transport to the phagolysosome [65, 100–102]. While wild‐type CFTR is transported to neutrophil phagosomes, the F508del protein is not targeted efficiently to these organelles [64], explaining why a correct chlorination of phagosomes in CF does not occur and hence the bactericidal defect. A still debated question is, however, the CFTR expression in neutrophils. Morris and colleagues, although found a defect in iC3b‐mediated phagocytosis, did not detect CFTR in circulating and airway neutrophils by either immuno‐labelling or a Western blot [99]. Others found that CFTR expression was limited or undetectable in neutrophils by flow cytometry and also that no role for CFTR in neutrophil‐mediated phagocytosis was observed [103]. On the other hand, Zhou and colleagues found CFTR at the phagosome level, although a lentiviral‐expressing system was used to achieve high protein levels. It might be that CFTR, expressed in hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells [104, 105], is down‐regulated to low levels during neutrophil maturation, which is nevertheless sufficient for neutrophil phagocytic and killing activities. The lack/dysfunction of CFTR in the bone marrow may lead to an irreversible functional defect. In this context, it is worth mentioning that knocking out CFTR in the myeloid compartment of mice resulted in poor survival, increased inflammation with recruitment of neutrophils, elevated cytokine production, and inability to resolve infection upon challenge with
Excess neutrophil recruitment to the lungs results in the discharge of their destructive weapons not only directed to kill pathogens (see Section 2) but also to damage the lung and airway tissue. A large number of mediators produced by neutrophils, mainly oxidants and proteases, escape from neutrophils during cell death and phagocytosis. NE, a serine protease capable of digesting several substrates including structural proteins, is a direct mediator degrading elastin, which drives towards bronchiectasis and bronchomalacia [18]. Importantly, NE is associated with lung function decline [107]. In the lung, the main protease inhibitors, the prototypical α1‐antitrypsin (α1‐AT) secreted by hepatocytes and secretory leukoprotease inhibitor (SLPI) produced by the respiratory epithelium in bronchi and bronchioles, are designed to oppose free proteases and prevent their deleterious effects. These protease inhibitors are eventually overwhelmed by the protease burden in the lung and degraded by bacterial and human NE. It has been documented that despite normal antigenic concentrations of α1‐AT and SLPI in children with CF, the majority of α1‐AT and SLPI were complexed and/or degraded [108]. In addition, CF airways are exposed to ROS (O2, H2O2, HOCl), derived mainly from the host\'s immune response. This oxidative stress exacerbates pulmonary deterioration and advances bronchiectasis in patients with CF [109]. Similar to the protease/antiprotease balance, antioxidants produced by airway epithelial cells (reduced glutathione [GSH] and thiocyanate [SCN−]) are overwhelmed by the burden of oxidants in the CF airways. Activated neutrophils are also capable of oxidizing glutathione by HOCl [110], contributing to GSH deficiency in CF airways. Hypochlorous acid is also able to oxidize calprotectin thereby inhibiting its ability to sequester manganese and zinc ions and consequently to limiting the growth of
An important role in the degradation of structural proteins in CF airways is played synergistically by serine proteases, such as NE, proteinase 3, and cathepsin G [114]. In cystic fibrosis, neutrophil activation and degranulation result in the excessive release of proteinase 3, cathepsin G, and NE into the extracellular medium as active enzymes. Part of these serine proteases are exposed at the cell surface of immune cells and are important as modulators of the inflammatory response. Proteinase 3 has been shown to convert IL‐8 to more potent, amino‐terminally truncated forms [115], indicating that neutrophil proteases released in the inflamed lung convert IL‐8 to enhance its chemotactic activity. Besides serine proteases, neutrophil‐derived metalloproteinases, including MMP‐8 and MMP‐9, have also been involved in CF lung disease and chronic neutrophilic inflammation [116]. NE contributes to MMP‐9 activation early in CF disease as the ratio of active/pro‐enzyme MMP‐9 was found to be higher in the presence of free neutrophil elastase activity, but not infection, and active MMP‐9 was associated with progression of bronchiectasis [117]. In the context of CF, it is important to recall that neutrophil proteases increase mucin secretion in the airways and reduce ciliary beat frequency, contributing to the impairment in mucociliary clearance [118, 119], induce airway epithelial cells to produce neutrophil chemoattractants [120], and activate the apical epithelial sodium channel ENaC [121].
\nUnopposed serine proteases and metalloproteinases are responsible for degradation of soluble pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). NE proteolytic activity present in the CF sputum has been shown to degrade the prototypic long pentraxin PTX3, explaining the low levels of this PRR in CF airway secretions [122]. Released cathepsin G upon neutrophil activation degrades both components of the extracellular matrix and the surfactant protein A, a peptide that facilitates bacterial clearance by alveolar macrophages [123]. MMP‐9 cleaves the pulmonary collectin surfactant protein D (SP‐D) more efficiently than NE; this cleavage causes SP‐D to no longer be able to agglutinate bacteria and affects SP‐D\'s innate immune functions, as bacteria are no longer efficiently phagocytosed by alveolar macrophages in vitro [124].
\nHigh levels of neutrophil proteases further worsen the immune response by disabling immune cell functions. NE has several potential roles in disabling neutrophils including cleavage of opsonophagocytosis proteins, such as iC3b, complement receptor 1 (CR1) and C5a receptor [125–127], the chemokine receptor CXR1 [128], and TIM3 receptor leading to decreased galectin‐9/TIM3 interactions [129]. Overall, the loss of these proteins is responsible for suboptimal local neutrophil priming and bacterial clearance. PMN‐derived cathepsin G also thwarts efficient phagocytosis by macrophages, resulting in the cleavage of receptors and causing inefficient opsonization and impaired bacterial killing [18]. Cathepsin G cleavage of serum amyloid P component (SAP) renders it anti‐opsonic, as evidenced by the increased binding of SAP to
The mainstays of CF lung disease management are commenced early in infancy and presently include chest physiotherapy to remove mucus plugs from the airways and antibiotic therapy to control infections [12]. Other therapeutic approaches such as hypertonic saline, finalized to increase mucociliary clearance, should be corroborated by efficacy data [135]. Recombinant human DNAse (Dornase alpha) is a strong mucolytic which improves lung function [136] but is given to CF infants only on indication due to its cost [137]. The recent breakthrough in CF, represented by the use of CFTR‐correcting therapies, is a milestone in the clinical management of these patients. Ivacaftor (Kalydeco®, Vertex Pharmaceuticals, USA) is a CFTR potentiator given successfully to patients with class III gating mutations. This drug not only improves lung function and normalizes sweat chloride in children above 6 years of age [138], but its efficacy has also been proven in preschoolers [139].
\nAt whatever age, the control of therapeutic efficacy of medications is granted by functional respiratory tests. However, more specific and sensitive assays are urgently needed to monitor the halt in the progression of lung disease, especially now that we entered the era of personalized medicine in CF [140]. Neutrophils, the main cell type involved in the onset and progression of CF lung disease, are clearly an interesting target in this context and are being evaluated for such a purpose. The best indication that neutrophils and their products are sensitive biomarkers of CF lung disease comes from the clinical data about NE. Sputum NE levels have been validated as the most predictive biomarker of lung decline and reduced survival [107, 141], being, however, of no utility in non‐expectorating young children. Being easy to isolate from the peripheral blood, circulating neutrophils are more at hand to being studied. Conese et al. [142] analysed blood neutrophils by microarray gene expression in 10 CF patients, homozygous for the F508del mutation, given a course of parenteral antibiotics for an acute exacerbation, before and after therapy. mRNAs of three genes were found downregulated in CF patients before therapy and returned to ‘healthy’ levels after therapy: phorbol‐12‐myristate‐13‐acetate‐induced protein 1 (
CF neutrophils display a number of abnormalities including increased survival, hyperactivation with increased protease and ROS production, defects in phagocytosis, and increased NET formation. Altogether, these neutrophil anomalies are derived from an intrinsic CFTR defect and are compounded by bacterial products. The unbalanced protease/antiprotease ratio in favour of proteases is responsible, together with excess oxidative stress, for the structural damage of CF airways and for secondary defects in an innate immune response as well as a skewed adaptive immune response. The neutrophil protease production is thus one of the main targets for therapy today to be explored. CF neutrophils can be also envisaged as a biomarker of therapies. The sensitivity to therapy of neutrophil genes is worthy of further investigation in the clinical setting. A higher number of patients are needed for studies aimed to consider neutrophils and their products as predictors of acute exacerbation and follow up.
\nThis work was supported by the Italian Ministry of Health (Law 548/93). Stefano Castellani is a researcher funded by Intervento Cofinanziato dal Fondo di Sviluppo e Coesione 2007–2013—APQ Ricerca Regione Puglia ‘Programma regionale a sostegno della specializzazione intelligente e delle sostenibilità sociale ed ambientali—Future In Research’.
\nIncreasing consumption of oil in modern society has led to more oil/oil refinery waste generation. The oil processing wastewater/waste has high concentrations of aliphatic, aromatic petroleum hydrocarbons, etc. Direct discharge of this will affect plants and aquatic life of surface and ground water sources. Due to its organic origination, complex nature, and toxic effects, wastewater treatment prior to discharge is obligatory. The biological treatment process is normally applied to reduce the effects of petrochemical waste.
\nStringent regulations have motivated researchers to design advanced treatment facilities to give high treatment efficiency, low maintenance, footprint, and operational costs. Biological anaerobic, anoxic, and aerobic digestion (or a combination of each other) have been implemented to treat petrochemical wastewater. Optimizing pretreatment process using physicochemical processes is also important for getting suitable pretreatment wastewater for efficient biological secondary treatment. An overview and update of the petrochemical wastewater treatment processes will contribute to the knowledge development both theoretically and practically.
\nIn this section, the petrochemical wastewater treatment by biological processes is shortly reviewed and discussed. Section 2 introduces the petrochemical wastewater sources and their components in general. Section 3 introduces the normally applied pretreatment process prior to biological treatment processes. Section 4 presents the commonly applied anaerobic, aerobic, and combined anaerobic and aerobic biological systems for petrochemical wastewater treatment. Section 5 shows two case studies on the petrochemical wastewater treatment using Biowater Technology AS’s continuous flow intermittent cleaning (CFIC) and hybrid vertical anaerobic biofilm (HyVAB) processes. Section 6 summarizes challenges and further studies in the petrochemical wastewater treatment.
\nPetrochemical wastewater is a general term of wastewater associated with oil-related industries. The sources of petrochemical wastewater are diverse and can originate from oilfield production, crude oil refinery plants, the olefin process plants, refrigeration, energy unities, and other sporadic wastewaters [1, 2]. The compositions of wastewater from different sources consist of varying chemicals and show different toxicity and degradability in terms of biological treatment. In this chapter, to better compare the treatment efficiency with varying pretreatment processes, the petrochemical wastewater has been categorized to oilfield-produced wastewater, petrochemical refinery, and oily wastewater based on the originates.
\nOilfield-produced wastewater is generated in crude oil extraction from oil wells that contain high concentrations of artificial surfactants and emulsified crude oil characterized of high COD and low biodegradability [3]. It is produced during oil extraction in oil fields and contains complex recalcitrant organic pollutants such as polymer, surfactants, radioactive substances, benzenes, phenols, humus, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and different kinds of heavy mineral oil [4, 5]. Table 1 presents the commonly found compositions of wastewater obtained from oilfield production.
\nParameter | \nValues | \nHeavy metal | \nValues (mg/L) | \n
---|---|---|---|
Density (kg/m3) | \n1014–1140 | \nCalcium | \n13–25,800 | \n
Surface Tension (dynes/cm) | \n43–78 | \nSodium | \n132–97,000 | \n
TOC (mg/L) | \n0–1500 | \nPotassium | \n24–4300 | \n
COD (mg/L) | \n1220 | \nMagnesium | \n8–6000 | \n
TSS (mg/L) | \n1.2–1000 | \nIron | \n<0.1–100 | \n
pH | \n4.3–10 | \nAluminum | \n310–410 | \n
Total oil (IR; mg/L) | \n2–565 | \nBoron | \n5–95 | \n
Volatile (BTX; mg/L) | \n0.39–35 | \nBarium | \n1.3–650 | \n
Base/neutrals (mg/L) | \n<140 | \nCadmium | \n<0.005–0.2 | \n
(Total non-volatile oil and grease by GLC/MS) base (g/L) | \n275 | \nChromium | \n0.02–1.1 | \n
Chloride (mg/L) | \n80–200,000 | \nCopper | \n<0.002–1.5 | \n
Bicarbonate (mg/L) | \n77–3990 | \nLithium | \n3–50 | \n
Sulfate (mg/L) | \n<2–1650 | \nManganese | \n<0.004–175 | \n
Ammoniacal nitrogen (mg/L) | \n10–300 | \nLead | \n0.002–8.8 | \n
Sulfite (mg/L) | \n10 | \nStrontium | \n0.02–1000 | \n
Total polar (mg/L) | \n9.7–600 | \nTitanium | \n<0.01–0.7 | \n
Higher acids (mg/L) | \n<1–63 | \nZinc | \n0.01–35 | \n
Phenols (mg/L) | \n0.009–23 | \nArsenic | \n<0.005–0.3 | \n
VFA’s (volatile fatty acids) (mg/L) | \n2–4900 | \nMercury | \n<0.001–0.002 | \n
\n | \n | Silver | \n<0.001–0.15 | \n
\n | \n | Beryllium | \n<0.001–0.004 | \n
Wastewater parameter form oilfield production [6].
Petroleum refinery wastewater is generated in oil refinery processes that produce more than 2500 refined products. The wastewater can be from cooling systems, distillation, hydrotreating, and desalting. The compositions of the refinery wastewater can vary depending upon the operational units for different products at specific time and locations. Different concentrations of ammonia, sulfide, phenols, Benzo, and other hydrocarbons are normally present in such wastewater [7, 8].
\nThe oily wastewater is defined here to be any wastewater that does not clearly belong to the two categories mentioned earlier. This wastewater can be from petrochemical-related industries such as from oil transportation tank, garage oil wastewater, etc. The composition of such wastewater is diverse with high COD that can be over 15 g/L [9].
\nWastewater from petrochemical industries consists of different chemicals. The treatment processes depend and are specialized by wastewater sources, discharge requirements, and treatment efficiencies. Normally, pretreatment processes are applied in the treatment of petroleum refinery wastewater before it is sent to biological process for organic elimination [8]. A primary treatment includes the elimination of free oil and gross solids; elimination of dispersed oil and solids by flocculation, flotation, sedimentation, filtration, microelectrolysis, etc.; increasing the biodegradability of wastewater, etc. [8]. This chapter lists a few commonly applied methods for petrochemical wastewater pretreatment.
\nDepending on the wastewater characteristics, physical treatment such as adsorption by active carbon, copolymers, zeolite, etc. can be used for removing hydrocarbons in the petrochemical wastewater [6]. Evaporation is proposed to remove oil residuals in saline wastewater. Dissolved air flotation (DAF) is commonly used for wastewater containing oil/fat as well as suspended solids, which can also be applied for petrochemical wastewater.
\nMicrofiltration (MF) and ultrafiltration (UF) are also applicable for pretreatment before the wastewater passes through, for example, reverse osmosis (RO) process for reusing purposes [10].
\nEnhancing hydrolysis by adding chemicals for removing the long-chain organics, toxic material, or suspended solids can increase the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) ratio of the wastewater. Three chemical treatment processes are listed here.
\nMicroelectrolysis of petrochemical wastewater has been tested with positive effects on the COD removal as well as increasing the BOD-to-COD ratio levels [14].
\nBiological treatment incorporates actions of different microbes to eliminate organics and stabilize hazardous pollutants in petrochemical wastewater. Stringent environmental standards and recycling of water for reuse have shifted focus to biological treatments because of its cost and pollutant removal efficiency. As the nature of petrochemical wastewater is very complex, biological treatment to remove pollutants still has challenges despite immense potentials. Complex structures of aromatic, polycyclic, and heterocyclic ringed chemicals are known to be restraint to biological degradation [15]. However, recent research activities have produced notable removal percentages of pollutants from petrochemical wastewater [16].
\nAnaerobic digestion (AD), aerobic digestion, or an integration of both methods is commonly applied in biological processes to treat petrochemical wastewater.
\nAnaerobic digestion has the advantages of producing methane as a renewable energy, requiring less space and having lower sludge generation than aerobic process. A literature review of anaerobic digestion on the petrochemical wastewater is given in Table 2. Petrochemical wastewater treated in anaerobic baffled reactor (ABR), sequence batch, and up-flow sludge blanket reactor (UASB) was commonly applied. It shows that organics in the petrochemical wastewater could be partially anaerobic digested at a removal efficiency depending on the chemical constituents, reactor type, operational conditions (temperature, loading rate, etc.), and wastewater sources [24].
\nNO. | \nTypes of wastewater | \nTreatment system | \nOperating conditions | \nPollutants monitored | \nRemoval efficiencies (%) | \nReferences | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | \nCrude oil extractions* | \nBatch reactors | \nThermophilic conditions (55 ± 1°C) | \nCOD | \n70.7 59.9 62.1 | \n[1] | \n
UASB | \nMesophilic | \nCOD | \n81.7 23.5 35.7 | \n[17] | \n||
2 | \nCrude oil extractions** | \nBatch reactors | \nThermophilic conditions (55 ± 1°C) | \nCOD | \n68.2–69.2 55.9–50.4 | \n[18] | \n
3 | \nCrude oil extractions*** | \nUASB | \nMesophilic 1.06 kg COD/m3.d 0.78 kg COD/m3.d | \nCOD | \n93 26 | \n[19] | \n
4 | \nCrude oil extraction of light petroleum | \nUASB | \nMesophilic 4.7 kg COD/m3.d 0.78 kg COD/m3.d | \nCOD | \n23.8 86.1 | \n[20] | \n
UASB | \nMesophilic 5.6 kg COD/m3.d Thermophilic 5.6 kg COD/m3.d | \nCOD VSS COD VSS | \n40–80 42–73 67–84 52–67 | \n[21] | \n||
UASB | \nThermophilic 1.1 kg COD/m3.d | \nCOD | \n78 | \n[22] | \n||
UASB | \n4.1 kg COD/m3.d | \nCOD | \n82 | \n[23] | \n||
5 | \nHeavy oil refinery | \nUASB | \n3.4 kg COD/m3.d | \nCOD Total oil | \n70 72 | \n[9] | \n
ABR | \n0.5 kg COD/m3.d | \nCOD Oil | \n65 88 | \n[24] | \n
Overview of anaerobic treatment of petrochemical wastewater.
Water from light petroleum, medium petroleum and heavy petroleum, respectively.
Water from medium petroleum and heavy petroleum, respectively.
Water from light petroleum, medium petroleum, respectively.
COD removal efficiency is used here as a general parameter to assess the performance of different systems. Crude oil extraction of light, medium, and heavy petroleum wastewater treatment by different anaerobic digestion systems at mesophilic or thermophilic conditions showed that in batch test over 56–71% COD removal was achievable at thermophilic condition [1, 18] (Table 2), while UASB system can achieve over 93% COD removal at mesophilic conditions for wastewater from light petroleum extraction (Table 2). It seems light petroleum extraction wastewater was generally easily degradable (over 71–93% removal) compared to the medium and heavy oil extraction wastewater. The setup of plug flow pattern and granular sludge application in UASB might also enhance the interaction between wastewater and organisms, giving higher efficiency. The removal efficiency decreases as the loading rate increases, indicating the inhibition effects to the organisms.
\nMedium- and heavy oil-produced wastewater treatment efficiency was relatively low. Batch system gives generally a better treatment efficiency for these two wastewaters at about 50–60% removal (Table 2), while UASB shows low efficiency at around 20–30% removal efficiency. The effects of toxic chemicals in the wastewater and high content of large organic molecules can be the reason for low efficiency.
\nAerobic process has been applied widely in petrochemical wastewater treatment attributed to its features of easy operation, less sensitiveness to toxic effects, higher organisms’ growth rate, etc. than the anaerobic system. Different aerobic reactors such as traditional active sludge, contact stabilization active sludge, sequence batch reactor (SBR) that applies active sludge and biological aerated filter (BAF), membrane bioreactor (MB), moving bed biofilm reactor (MBBR), aerobic submerged fixed-bed reactor (ASFBR) that applies biofilm, etc. have been tested to treat petrochemical wastewater from varying sources and presented in Table 3. Generally higher COD and chemical removal efficiencies by aerobic process are achieved than the anaerobic processes (Tables 2 and 3). The sludge retention time, hydraulic retention time, dissolved oxygen level, feed to organism ratio, and temperature are some of the important factors that determine the treatment efficiency.
\nS.N | \nTypes of wastewater | \nTreatment system | \nOperating conditions | \nPollutants monitored | \nRemoval efficiencies (%) | \nReferences | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | \nPetroleum refinery | \nContact stabilization | \nF/M 0.38 | \nCOD BOD NH3-N H2S TSS | \n97.9 95.8 87.5 97.5 98.6 | \n[25] | \n
Activated sludge | \nCOD BOD NH3-N H2S TSS | \n93.4 94.4 83.3 95 97.6 | \n||||
Activated sludge | \n\n | COD TOC TSS | \n94–95 85–87 98–99 | \n[8] | \n||
SBR | \n\n | COD TOC | \n80 84 | \n[26] | \n||
MSBR | \nSRT: 20 days HRT: 8 h | \nCOD Oil and grease TPH | \n80 82 93.4 | \n[27] | \n||
HF-UF MBR | \nHRT: 25–36 h | \nCOD TSS Turbidity | \n82 98 98 | \n[28] | \n||
CF-MBR | \nDO: 4 mg/L F/M: 0.2–1.15 | \nCOD | \n93–94 | \n[29] | \n||
BAF | \n1.9 kg COD/m3.d | \nCOD Oil SS | \n84.5 94 83.4 | \n[30] | \n||
ASFBR | \n2.4 kg COD/m3.d HRT: 12 h | \nCOD TSS | \n70±7 65±16 | \n[31] | \n||
2 | \nOilfield | \nBAF with immobilized carriers | \n1.1 kg COD/ m3.d | \nTOC Oil | \n78 94 | \n[5] | \n
MBBR with Activated sludge | \n4.2 kg COD/ m3.d | \nCOD | \n74 | \n[32] | \n||
Activated sludge | \nSRT: 20 days MLSS: 730 mg/L | \nTHP | \n98–99 | \n[33] | \n||
Airlift reactor | \nHRT: 12 days | \nCOD TOC Phenols NH4 + -N | \n65 80 65 40 | \n[34] | \n||
3 | \nOily wastewater | \nActivated sludge | \nTemperature: 25–37°C | \nCOD | \n89 99 92 80 | \n[35] | \n
Ethylene dichloride | \n||||||
Vinyl chloride | \n||||||
Total hydrocarbons | \n||||||
Activated sludge and contact oxidation | \n1.1 kg COD/ m3.d | \nCOD NH4+-N | \n84.9 60 | \n[36] | \n||
\n | \n | UF Membrane bioreactor | \nTemperature–35°C | \nCOD TOC Oil | \n97 98 99.9 | \n[37] | \n
\n | \n | RBC | \nDiesel concentration: 0.6% | \nTPH COD | \n98.1 97.2 | \n[38] | \n
\n | \n | CFIC | \nTemperature–35°C | \nCOD | \n92 | \nCase study in chapter 5 | \n
Overview of aerobic treatment process of petrochemical wastewater.
Petroleum refinery wastewater COD removal was generally high from 70 to 98% in the mentioned aerobic system (Table 3), which in anaerobic system is from 70 to 93%. The contact and extended active sludge process can achieve high COD removal rate of 89–95% (Table 3) at a feed to microorganism ratio of 0.38 [25]. The applied aeration to the mixed liquor and the sludge recycle rate was found to be critical parameters in the successful optimization of the contact stabilization process. The treatment efficiency of NH4-N, H2S, and TSS were also high [25]. Traditional SBR has relatively lower treatment efficiency at 80% COD removal (Table 3).
\nThe membrane reactors such as BAF, cross-flow membrane bioreactor (CF-MBR), membrane sequencing batch reactor (MSBR), and hollow fiber ultrafiltration membrane bioreactor (HF-UF MBR) including ultrafiltration MBR systems treating higher OLR or food to organisms’ ratio can achieve over 80% COD removal (Table 3). MBBR system applying biofilm can achieve 74% COD removal at a high OLR of 4.2 kg COD/m3·d (Table 3). It also can be seen that NH4-N and H2S removal are above 60% that cannot be obtained in anaerobic system. The Total Organic Compounds (TOC) and oil removal are also better than the anaerobic system.
\nOilfield wastewater is relatively reluctant to aerobic digestion due to the complex ingredient. The removal efficiency of such water has a COD removal at around 30–74% (Table 3) by BAF, MBBR, etc. Active sludge process seems to handle well the wastewater and achieve high total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) removal.
\nThe oily wastewater COD removal is generally high by using different aerobic methods, indicating its easily degradable nature (Table 3). The case study in Section 5 presents the advanced biofilm technology named CFIC process by Biowater Technology AS. The full-scale plant data show consistently high COD removal efficiency over 90%.
\nThe treatment efficiencies of individual anaerobic and aerobic systems show good capability in treating certain petrochemical wastewater. An integrated system combining anaerobic and aerobic processes can possibly take the advantages of both and achieve even better removal efficiency for chemicals that are not easily degraded by either anaerobic or aerobic process. An integrated system that is focused in this chapter can be a hybrid reactor consisting of an anaerobic and an aerobic system in a vertical design, such as a hybrid vertical flow anaerobic aerobic biofilm reactor (HyVAB) [9], provided by Biowater Technology AS, or a combination of different treatment processes in series, for example, a system consists of traditional anaerobic reactor and an aerobic stage in series. The performance of integrated systems for petrochemical refinery, oilfield-produced wastewater, and other oily wastewaters is presented in Table 4. The integrated system could effectively remove easily degradable COD in the anaerobic stage first and convert it to biogas with the residual COD and other chemicals such as ammonium, sulfide, etc. degraded in the aerobic stage (Table 4).
\nS.N | \nTypes of wastewater | \nTreatment system | \nOperating conditions | \nPollutants monitored | \nRemoval efficiencies (%) | \nReferences | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | \nOilfield produced | \nUASB coupled with immobilized biological aerated filters (I-BAFs) | \nHRT 12 h (Min) | \nCOD NH4+-N SS | \n74 94 98 | \n[39] | \n
UASB-two stage BAF | \nTemperature: 26–33°C | \nCOD NH4+-N Oil PAHs | \n90.2 90.8 86.5 89.4 | \n[3] | \n||
hydrolysis, MBBR, O3 and biological active carbon reactor | \n\n | COD Oil Ammonia | \n95.8 98.9 94.4 | \n[40] | \n||
2 | \nPetroleum refinery | \nMBBR with anaerobic-aerobic (A/O) | \nHRT: 72 h HRT: 36 h | \nCOD | \n<60 mg/L (effluent) | \n[41] | \n
UASB-aerobic packed bed biofilm reactor (PBBR) | \n0.5 kg COD/m3.d Temperature: 35 ± 1 °C | \nCOD PAHs | \n81.1 100 | \n[42] | \n||
3 | \nOily wastewater | \nHyVAB reactor containing anaerobic and aerobic in vertical | \nTo 23 kg COD/m3.d | \nCOD | \n86 | \n[9] | \n
Bioaugmentation anoxic-oxic (A/O) | \nHRT 17.5 h | \nCOD NH4+-N | \n91 89 | \n[5] | \n
Overview of integrated treatment process of petrochemical wastewater.
Hybrid system combining UASB and aerobic stage treating oilfield wastewater showed good effects on COD removal by enabling acidification prior to the aerobic stage where organisms are actively reacting with organic chemicals. The COD removal rates were over 70–95%. Oil and ammonia removal was also recorded over 87% (Table 4).
\nFor petrochemical refinery treatment, direct discharge of treatment effluents after combining anaerobic and aerobic MBBR system is possible. The PAH removal reached even 100% by combining the UASB and packed bed biofilm reactor (PBBL) at 0.5 kg COD/m3·d (Table 4).
\nThe pilot study of hybrid vertical flow anaerobic biofilm (HyVAB) treating oily wastewater had substantially high organic loading rate over 23 kg COD/m3·d. The COD removal efficiency was consistently good over 86% [9]. A case study based on this HyVAB concept is followed in the next section with detailed performance data presentations and discussions.
\nPetrochemical wastewater of different sources, such as from manufacturing industries, auto repair shops, and washing water of oil tanks, is collected and delivered to a full-scale aerobic treatment plant at Bamble, Norway, for resource recovery and biological stabilization. The collected wastes are stored in storage tanks before being distilled to extract oil residuals. The wastewater after oil extraction still contains high COD and is therefore further treated by biological processes. The full-scale CFIC plant was designed and delivered by Biowater Technology AS and has been running continuously for 3 years. A pilot study of the integrated system HyVAB was also carried out on site of the full-scale plant running with the same feed water and the results showed good performance and can be referred to [9]. In this chapter, the full-scale CFIC operation data and a continuous study of HyVAB applying pure oxygen as aeration media are presented.
\nThe full-scale plant applies continuous flow intermittent cleaning biofilm (CFIC) technology. The CFIC technology is an advanced biofilm system based on MBBR concept. It is compact and is operated with alternating a normal and a washing mode while continuously feeding the reactor. CFIC contains highly packed biofilm carriers (over 90% filling ratio) to a degree that oxygen is utilized efficiently by enhancing gas transfer and limiting carriers’ movement in the reactor. The biofilm grows in condition of sufficient oxygen, organic substrates, and nutrients. Excess aerobic sludge grown on the carriers’ surface is washed off during the intermittent washing that helps maintain a thin and effective biofilm.
\nThe full-scale plant layout is shown in Figure 1. Distilled wastewater is pumped to a conditioning chamber where nutrients are dosed and pH is corrected. Effluent from CFIC goes through chemical precipitation and DAF to remove solids before being discharged to the sea. Sludge is temporally stored and dewatered to be tanked away for specific treatment.
\nUp, layout of the full-scale CFIC plant with 1. Storage tank; 2. CFIC reactor; 3. DAF; 4. Sludge storage tank; 5. Dewatered sludge tanker. Down, applied BWTS® biofilm carriers.
The full-scale system is treating wastewater of fluctuating concentrations with COD concentration ranging from 7 to 35 g/L at a designed daily flow rate of 240 m3/d. The wastewater pH is around 5 and a total dissolved solid content of 4 g/L. BWTS® (Biowater Technology AS) with a surface area of 650 m2/m3 is applied as biofilm carriers in CFIC (Figure 1).
\nOperational data of the full-scale plant in 2017 is summarized here. The COD feed to the reactor and the final effluent after DAF is shown in Figure 2 together with removal efficiency. It shows that on average over 90% feed COD was removed by the system. At the early days of the year, sludge flocculation process chemical dosing was not well established; the total COD removal was fluctuating around 80–90%. When the system was stabilized even high COD feed from 100 to 200 days did not reduce treatment efficiency. The high removal efficiency indicates that CFIC is a stable and robust system.
\nFeed and effluent total COD and COD removal efficiency.
The suspended solid content of the final effluent shows that the average value was within 100 mg/L (Figure 3). The CFIC system running in normal mode generally worked as a filter bed which retains suspended solid in the reactor. When washing mode starts, raised water level in the reactor coupled with increased aeration induces a well-mixed moving bed biofilm system. The extra biofilm/sludge in carrier voids are washed off due to intensified shear force and are carried out of the system by continuous effluents. The washing washes away on average 30% of the total solids on the biofilm carriers.
\nEffluent suspended solid concentration after DAF.
The concept of the HyVAB system is illustrated in Figure 4. The system consists of a bottom anaerobic and a top aerobic biofilm stage in a vertical mode. Biogas generated from the anaerobic stage can be collected through the three-stage separator. Due to the close integration of two processes, the dissolved gases (methane, H2S, etc.) in liquid that are generated in the AD stage will not be released to the atmosphere but captured and oxidized by aerobic organisms, avoiding a commonly observed emission problem in anaerobic treatment plants [43]. Returning of the excess aerobic sludge to the AD stage by gravity where the solids undergo stabilization simplifies the sludge treatment which also contributes to methane production. The detailed longer-term pilot study with reactor layout and performance can be referred to [9], where air was applied as aeration source.
\nSketch of the HyVAB (hybrid vertical anaerobic biofilm) bioreactor with the anaerobic stage at the bottom and a CFIC stage at the top. Numbers are sampling points.
This chapter presents the pilot study of pure oxygen effects on HyVAB performance. Oxygen aerations were known to be less energy intensive, high in efficiency, and give good biofilm development due to its close contact with biofilm layers. Results show that the HyVAB COD removal using air and pure oxygen reached similar ratios on average 94 and 85% for the soluble and total feed COD removal, respectively. Oxygen aeration minimized the flushing effects on biofilm carriers and reduced the effluent suspended solid to 500 mg/L and effluent pH was overall 1.1 less than applying air aeration.
\nThe anaerobic stage was filled with granular sludge, with relatively equal size (∼2 mm) from an industrial wastewater treatment facility. Similar biofilm carriers (Figure 1) were used in the aerobic stage. Pure oxygen was applied as aeration oxygen source and air washing was introduced intermittently during the washing mode in the study. The pilot was running continuously for 115 days at 21 ± 2°C.
\nWith OLR increased gradually to close to 30 kg COD/m3·d at lower HRT of 15 h, the HyVAB system still performed well with over 90% soluble COD removal when the oxygen aeration was introduced after 32 days (Figure 5). The air aeration was conducted before 31 days and the results were treated as reference. With oxygen aeration, the anaerobic stage generated high methane content biogas (82%) and the soluble COD removal efficiency was comparable with air aeration (Figure 5).
\nCOD removal at different organic loading rate (OLR) and HRT.
The sludge yield with oxygen aeration was at 0.04 g VSS/g CODremoved and less variations showed comparing to the air aeration stage (Figure 6). The reasons can be that the fine bubbles of the aeration from oxygen did not give high shear force on the biofilm to scratch it off. The low mixing effects also retained the solids in the reactor. The low sludge yield at high organic loading rate indicates high efficiency of the HyVAB system in removing petrochemical organic substances. Consistently lower effluents of less than 500 mg/L were observed with oxygen aeration.
\nBiomass yield at different OLR and with/without oxygen aeration, vertical line separate air and oxygen aeration.
Some petrochemical wastewater contains high salinity and nutrients such as ammonia and phosphate, especially after anaerobic treatment. The high content of dissolved solids might precipitate on biofilm carriers when pH is high and temperature is in good range. Oxygen aeration showed good pH control effects compared with air aeration which induced high pH (over 8.5) (Figure 7) in the aerobic stage. Good biofilm development was observed in the pilot test with such petrochemical wastewater and the scaling effects on carriers were minimal with oxygen aeration.
\npH variations in different streams, vertical line separate air and oxygen aeration.
Biological treatment of petrochemical wastewater is an economic and efficient waste stabilization method. The treatment of wastewater containing organic contaminants of refractory nature can be ineffective in biological treatments [44]. The challenges are as follows: (1) activated sludge method can fail while treating strong petrochemical wastewater with high COD concentration (>10 g/L) and contain some aromatic compounds (phenol and its derivatives, etc.); [45] (2) variations in the strength of the organic load due to various sources of petrochemical refinery can cause shock to the biomass; (3) petrochemical wastewater contains large amounts of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and can cause odor and air pollutions around the biological treatments, and aerobic treatments like activated sludge should not be considered in this case; (4) oil, fat, and grease can cause floatation of the sludge and this can cause sludge washout ultimately failing the treatment system.
\nApplication of certain organisms for specific wastewater components’ treatment after secondary biological treatment can be a topic in the future. Isolation of specific bacteria to treat recalcitrant compounds can lead to effective removal, for example, the bacterium
The authors would like to thank for the funding provided by Skattefunn No. 265293 and University of South-eastern Norway.
\nThere is no conflict of interest.
The authors would like to thank Norsk Spesialolje for supporting this research during pilot study and by providing operational data. Also, our thank goes to University of South-eastern Norway for research cooperation and Praxair for supporting on the pilot study.
\nAs an Open Access publisher, IntechOpen is dedicated to maintaining the highest ethical standards and principles in publishing. In addition, IntechOpen promotes the highest standards of integrity and ethical behavior in scientific research and peer-review. To maintain these principles IntechOpen has developed basic guidelines to facilitate the avoidance of Conflicts of Interest.
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\\n\\nA Conflict of Interest is a situation in which a person's professional judgment may be influenced by a range of factors, including financial gain, material interest, or some other personal or professional interest. For IntechOpen as a publisher, it is essential that all possible Conflicts of Interest are avoided. Each contributor, whether an Author, Editor, or Reviewer, who suspects they may have a Conflict of Interest, is obliged to declare that concern in order to make the publisher and the readership aware of any potential influence on the work being undertaken.
\\n\\nA Conflict of Interest can be identified at different phases of the publishing process.
\\n\\nIntechOpen requires:
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\\n\\nAll Authors are obliged to declare every existing or potential Conflict of Interest, including financial or personal factors, as well as any relationship which could influence their scientific work. Authors must declare Conflicts of Interest at the time of manuscript submission, although they may exceptionally do so at any point during manuscript review. For jointly prepared manuscripts, the corresponding Author is obliged to declare potential Conflicts of Interest of any other Authors who have contributed to the manuscript.
\\n\\nCONFLICT OF INTEREST – ACADEMIC EDITOR
\\n\\nEditors can also have Conflicts of Interest. Editors are expected to maintain the highest standards of conduct, which are outlined in our Best Practice Guidelines (templates for Best Practice Guidelines). Among other obligations, it is essential that Editors make transparent declarations of any possible Conflicts of Interest that they might have.
\\n\\nAvoidance Measures for Academic Editors of Conflicts of Interest:
\\n\\nFor manuscripts submitted by the Academic Editor (or a scientific advisor), an appropriate person will be appointed to handle and evaluate the manuscript. The appointed handling Editor's identity will not be disclosed to the Author in order to maintain impartiality and anonymity of the review.
\\n\\nIf a manuscript is submitted by an Author who is a member of an Academic Editor's family or is personally or professionally related to the Academic Editor in any way, either as a friend, colleague, student or mentor, the work will be handled by a different Academic Editor who is not in any way connected to the Author.
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\\n\\nEXAMPLES OF CONFLICTS OF INTEREST:
\\n\\nFINANCIAL AND MATERIAL
\\n\\nNON-FINANCIAL
\\n\\nAuthors are required to declare all potentially relevant non-financial, financial and material Conflicts of Interest that may have had an influence on their scientific work.
\\n\\nAcademic Editors and Reviewers are required to declare any non-financial, financial and material Conflicts of Interest that could influence their fair and balanced evaluation of manuscripts. If such conflict exists with regards to a submitted manuscript, Academic Editors and Reviewers should exclude themselves from handling it.
\\n\\nAll Authors, Academic Editors, and Reviewers are required to declare all possible financial and material Conflicts of Interest in the last five years, although it is advisable to declare less recent Conflicts of Interest as well.
\\n\\nEXAMPLES:
\\n\\nAuthors should declare if they were or they still are Academic Editors of the publications in which they wish to publish their work.
\\n\\nAuthors should declare if they are board members of an organization that could benefit financially or materially from the publication of their work.
\\n\\nAcademic Editors should declare if they were coauthors or they have worked on the research project with the Author who has submitted a manuscript.
\\n\\nAcademic Editors should declare if the Author of a submitted manuscript is affiliated with the same department, faculty, institute, or company as they are.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-09
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"In each instance of a possible Conflict of Interest, IntechOpen aims to disclose the situation in as transparent a way as possible in order to allow readers to judge whether a particular potential Conflict of Interest has influenced the Work of any individual Author, Editor, or Reviewer. IntechOpen takes all possible Conflicts of Interest into account during the review process and ensures maximum transparency in implementing its policies.
\n\nA Conflict of Interest is a situation in which a person's professional judgment may be influenced by a range of factors, including financial gain, material interest, or some other personal or professional interest. For IntechOpen as a publisher, it is essential that all possible Conflicts of Interest are avoided. Each contributor, whether an Author, Editor, or Reviewer, who suspects they may have a Conflict of Interest, is obliged to declare that concern in order to make the publisher and the readership aware of any potential influence on the work being undertaken.
\n\nA Conflict of Interest can be identified at different phases of the publishing process.
\n\nIntechOpen requires:
\n\nCONFLICT OF INTEREST - AUTHOR
\n\nAll Authors are obliged to declare every existing or potential Conflict of Interest, including financial or personal factors, as well as any relationship which could influence their scientific work. Authors must declare Conflicts of Interest at the time of manuscript submission, although they may exceptionally do so at any point during manuscript review. For jointly prepared manuscripts, the corresponding Author is obliged to declare potential Conflicts of Interest of any other Authors who have contributed to the manuscript.
\n\nCONFLICT OF INTEREST – ACADEMIC EDITOR
\n\nEditors can also have Conflicts of Interest. Editors are expected to maintain the highest standards of conduct, which are outlined in our Best Practice Guidelines (templates for Best Practice Guidelines). Among other obligations, it is essential that Editors make transparent declarations of any possible Conflicts of Interest that they might have.
\n\nAvoidance Measures for Academic Editors of Conflicts of Interest:
\n\nFor manuscripts submitted by the Academic Editor (or a scientific advisor), an appropriate person will be appointed to handle and evaluate the manuscript. The appointed handling Editor's identity will not be disclosed to the Author in order to maintain impartiality and anonymity of the review.
\n\nIf a manuscript is submitted by an Author who is a member of an Academic Editor's family or is personally or professionally related to the Academic Editor in any way, either as a friend, colleague, student or mentor, the work will be handled by a different Academic Editor who is not in any way connected to the Author.
\n\nCONFLICT OF INTEREST - REVIEWER
\n\nAll Reviewers are required to declare possible Conflicts of Interest at the beginning of the evaluation process. If a Reviewer feels he or she might have any material, financial or any other conflict of interest with regards to the manuscript being reviewed, he or she is required to declare such concern and, if necessary, request exclusion from any further involvement in the evaluation process. A Reviewer's potential Conflicts of Interest are declared in the review report and presented to the Academic Editor, who then assesses whether or not the declared potential or actual Conflicts of Interest had, or could be perceived to have had, any significant impact on the review itself.
\n\nEXAMPLES OF CONFLICTS OF INTEREST:
\n\nFINANCIAL AND MATERIAL
\n\nNON-FINANCIAL
\n\nAuthors are required to declare all potentially relevant non-financial, financial and material Conflicts of Interest that may have had an influence on their scientific work.
\n\nAcademic Editors and Reviewers are required to declare any non-financial, financial and material Conflicts of Interest that could influence their fair and balanced evaluation of manuscripts. If such conflict exists with regards to a submitted manuscript, Academic Editors and Reviewers should exclude themselves from handling it.
\n\nAll Authors, Academic Editors, and Reviewers are required to declare all possible financial and material Conflicts of Interest in the last five years, although it is advisable to declare less recent Conflicts of Interest as well.
\n\nEXAMPLES:
\n\nAuthors should declare if they were or they still are Academic Editors of the publications in which they wish to publish their work.
\n\nAuthors should declare if they are board members of an organization that could benefit financially or materially from the publication of their work.
\n\nAcademic Editors should declare if they were coauthors or they have worked on the research project with the Author who has submitted a manuscript.
\n\nAcademic Editors should declare if the Author of a submitted manuscript is affiliated with the same department, faculty, institute, or company as they are.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-09
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Explanation and insights towards their method of preparation, properties and applications will be discussed. 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While the development had been remarkable, the rapid rise of industrialization had provoked the sustainable chain of diversity which is reflected by rising pollution level, particularly on the water pollution. On account of the cutting edge of water security issue, engineering photocatalytic material remains crucial in finding new ways to combat the challenge of water pollution through photocatalytic pollutants degradation while at the same time acts as the frontlines for energy conversion and environmental protection. To date, graphitic carbon nitride, g-C3N4 had emerged as a promising material of interest in photocatalytic application due to its appealing characteristics such as excellent optical properties and high physiochemical and thermal stability. This chapter will comprehensively discuss an insight into the most recent progress in synthesis, properties and the photocatalytic application of g-C3N4, particularly in environmental pollution remediation. Special emphasis is also placed on the most recent strategies for enhancing the photocatalytic performance of the g-C3N4 photocatalyst. Finally, the future directions and perspectives will be presented.",book:{id:"8384",slug:"nanocatalysts",title:"Nanocatalysts",fullTitle:"Nanocatalysts"},signatures:"Mohamad Fakhrul Ridhwan Samsudin, Nurfatien Bacho and Suriati Sufian",authors:[{id:"216561",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamad Fakhrul Ridhwan",middleName:null,surname:"Samsudin",slug:"mohamad-fakhrul-ridhwan-samsudin",fullName:"Mohamad Fakhrul Ridhwan Samsudin"},{id:"267034",title:"Dr.",name:"Suriati",middleName:null,surname:"Sufian",slug:"suriati-sufian",fullName:"Suriati Sufian"},{id:"268627",title:"Ms.",name:"Nurfatien",middleName:null,surname:"Bacho",slug:"nurfatien-bacho",fullName:"Nurfatien Bacho"}]},{id:"51306",doi:"10.5772/64054",title:"Flexible Low-Voltage Carbon Nanotube Heaters and their Applications",slug:"flexible-low-voltage-carbon-nanotube-heaters-and-their-applications",totalDownloads:1832,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Carbon nanotube heaters recently gained more attention due to their efficiency and relative ease of fabrication. In this chapter, we report on the design and fabrication of low-voltage carbon nanotube (CNT) heaters and their potential applications. CNT sheets drawn from CNT arrays have been used to make the heaters. The sheet resistance of the CNT sheet is dependent on the number of layers accumulated during their formation, and it ranges from 3.57 kΩ/sq. for a 1-layer sheet to 6.03 Ω/sq. for a 300-layer sheet. The fabricated and studied CNT heaters revealed fast heating and cooling rate. Potential applications of these heating devices have been illustrated by manufacturing and testing heatable gloves and via deicing experiments using low-voltage CNT heaters.",book:{id:"5264",slug:"advances-in-carbon-nanostructures",title:"Advances in Carbon Nanostructures",fullTitle:"Advances in Carbon Nanostructures"},signatures:"Seyram Gbordzoe, Rachit Malik, Noe Alvarez, Robert Wolf and\nVesselin Shanov",authors:[{id:"154058",title:"Prof.",name:"Vesselin",middleName:null,surname:"Shanov",slug:"vesselin-shanov",fullName:"Vesselin Shanov"},{id:"185721",title:"Mr.",name:"Seyram",middleName:null,surname:"Gbordzoe",slug:"seyram-gbordzoe",fullName:"Seyram Gbordzoe"},{id:"185722",title:"Mr.",name:"Rachit",middleName:null,surname:"Malik",slug:"rachit-malik",fullName:"Rachit Malik"},{id:"185723",title:"Dr.",name:"Noe",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez",slug:"noe-alvarez",fullName:"Noe Alvarez"},{id:"185724",title:"Mr.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Wolf",slug:"robert-wolf",fullName:"Robert Wolf"}]},{id:"51437",doi:"10.5772/64319",title:"Magnetic-Graphene-Based Nanocomposites and Respective Applications",slug:"magnetic-graphene-based-nanocomposites-and-respective-applications",totalDownloads:3350,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Preparation, properties, and applications of magnetic-graphene-based nanocomposites are reviewed. Graphene magnetic nanocomposites include those on the basis of elemental metals (Fe, Co, Ni), magnetic nanoclusters, various morphological forms of iron oxides (Fe2O3, Fe3O4), ferrites MFe2O4, 3D graphene aerogels@hierarchical Fe3O4 nanoclusters, single-molecule magnets like TbPc2 (Pc: phthalocyanine), other organometallic-containing composites (benzene-metal-graphene), as well as polycomponent nanocomposites such as Ag/Fe3O4/G (G: graphene), Fe3O4/CdS/G, or FePc/Fe3O4/GO (GO: graphene oxide), among others. Their available synthesis methods consist commonly of hydrothermal and solvothermal techniques, sol-gel autocombustion, sonoelectrochemical polymerization, thermal expansion and thermal reduction, microwave-assisted technique, and covalent bonding chemical methods. Their current and potential applications are distinct devices, in particular for colorimetric detection of glucose, construction materials, analytical, sensor and biosensor applications, environmental remediation, compounds with antibacterial properties, catalysis and photocatalysis, biological imaging, oil absorption, etc.",book:{id:"5264",slug:"advances-in-carbon-nanostructures",title:"Advances in Carbon Nanostructures",fullTitle:"Advances in Carbon Nanostructures"},signatures:"Oxana Vasilievna Kharissova, Beatriz Ortega García, Boris Ildusovich\nKharisov and Ubaldo Ortiz Méndez",authors:[{id:"13939",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",middleName:null,surname:"Kharisov",slug:"boris-kharisov",fullName:"Boris Kharisov"},{id:"13941",title:"Dr.",name:"Oxana V.",middleName:null,surname:"Kharissova",slug:"oxana-v.-kharissova",fullName:"Oxana V. Kharissova"},{id:"13942",title:"Dr.",name:"Ubaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Ortiz Mendez",slug:"ubaldo-ortiz-mendez",fullName:"Ubaldo Ortiz Mendez"},{id:"181033",title:"Ms.",name:"Beatriz",middleName:null,surname:"Ortega García",slug:"beatriz-ortega-garcia",fullName:"Beatriz Ortega García"}]},{id:"65702",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83628",title:"Transition Metal Chalcogenide (TMC) Nanocomposites for Environmental Remediation Application over Extended Solar Irradiation",slug:"transition-metal-chalcogenide-tmc-nanocomposites-for-environmental-remediation-application-over-exte",totalDownloads:1454,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Demand for environmental protection is gaining more public attention and legislative support. The development in industrial and technological sectors results in severe environmental issues, such as environmental contamination and energy shortage. Therefore, the development of new nanocomposites that can effectively act toward environmental remediation is necessary to overcome the detrimental environmental impacts. Transition metal chalcogenides (TMC) have gained worldwide attention in recent decades and are being researched for use in different applications due to their indirect bandgaps, optoelectronic behavior, and their stability that can enable the catalysts to absorb visible light that is abundant in solar radiation. In this chapter, synthesis, characterization, and application of TMCs, such as MSx and MSex, toward environmental remediation application are reviewed. Efficiency of different TMC materials and different experimental conditions is also elaborated.",book:{id:"8384",slug:"nanocatalysts",title:"Nanocatalysts",fullTitle:"Nanocatalysts"},signatures:"Sivagowri Shanmugaratnam and Shivatharsiny Rasalingam",authors:[{id:"201759",title:"Dr.",name:"Yohi",middleName:null,surname:"Shivatharsiny",slug:"yohi-shivatharsiny",fullName:"Yohi Shivatharsiny"},{id:"271607",title:"BSc.",name:"Sivagowry",middleName:null,surname:"Shanmugaratnam",slug:"sivagowry-shanmugaratnam",fullName:"Sivagowry Shanmugaratnam"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"65702",title:"Transition Metal Chalcogenide (TMC) Nanocomposites for Environmental Remediation Application over Extended Solar Irradiation",slug:"transition-metal-chalcogenide-tmc-nanocomposites-for-environmental-remediation-application-over-exte",totalDownloads:1456,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Demand for environmental protection is gaining more public attention and legislative support. The development in industrial and technological sectors results in severe environmental issues, such as environmental contamination and energy shortage. Therefore, the development of new nanocomposites that can effectively act toward environmental remediation is necessary to overcome the detrimental environmental impacts. Transition metal chalcogenides (TMC) have gained worldwide attention in recent decades and are being researched for use in different applications due to their indirect bandgaps, optoelectronic behavior, and their stability that can enable the catalysts to absorb visible light that is abundant in solar radiation. In this chapter, synthesis, characterization, and application of TMCs, such as MSx and MSex, toward environmental remediation application are reviewed. Efficiency of different TMC materials and different experimental conditions is also elaborated.",book:{id:"8384",slug:"nanocatalysts",title:"Nanocatalysts",fullTitle:"Nanocatalysts"},signatures:"Sivagowri Shanmugaratnam and Shivatharsiny Rasalingam",authors:[{id:"201759",title:"Dr.",name:"Yohi",middleName:null,surname:"Shivatharsiny",slug:"yohi-shivatharsiny",fullName:"Yohi Shivatharsiny"},{id:"271607",title:"BSc.",name:"Sivagowry",middleName:null,surname:"Shanmugaratnam",slug:"sivagowry-shanmugaratnam",fullName:"Sivagowry Shanmugaratnam"}]},{id:"67023",title:"Introductory Chapter: Salient Features of Nanocatalysis",slug:"introductory-chapter-salient-features-of-nanocatalysis",totalDownloads:1063,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:null,book:{id:"8384",slug:"nanocatalysts",title:"Nanocatalysts",fullTitle:"Nanocatalysts"},signatures:"Alkadevi Verma, Madhulata Shukla and Indrajit Sinha",authors:[{id:"56688",title:"Dr.",name:"Madhulata",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"madhulata-shukla",fullName:"Madhulata Shukla"},{id:"213995",title:"Dr.",name:"Indrajit",middleName:null,surname:"Sinha",slug:"indrajit-sinha",fullName:"Indrajit Sinha"},{id:"300191",title:"Dr.",name:"Alkadevi",middleName:null,surname:"Verma",slug:"alkadevi-verma",fullName:"Alkadevi Verma"}]},{id:"51437",title:"Magnetic-Graphene-Based Nanocomposites and Respective Applications",slug:"magnetic-graphene-based-nanocomposites-and-respective-applications",totalDownloads:3352,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Preparation, properties, and applications of magnetic-graphene-based nanocomposites are reviewed. Graphene magnetic nanocomposites include those on the basis of elemental metals (Fe, Co, Ni), magnetic nanoclusters, various morphological forms of iron oxides (Fe2O3, Fe3O4), ferrites MFe2O4, 3D graphene aerogels@hierarchical Fe3O4 nanoclusters, single-molecule magnets like TbPc2 (Pc: phthalocyanine), other organometallic-containing composites (benzene-metal-graphene), as well as polycomponent nanocomposites such as Ag/Fe3O4/G (G: graphene), Fe3O4/CdS/G, or FePc/Fe3O4/GO (GO: graphene oxide), among others. Their available synthesis methods consist commonly of hydrothermal and solvothermal techniques, sol-gel autocombustion, sonoelectrochemical polymerization, thermal expansion and thermal reduction, microwave-assisted technique, and covalent bonding chemical methods. Their current and potential applications are distinct devices, in particular for colorimetric detection of glucose, construction materials, analytical, sensor and biosensor applications, environmental remediation, compounds with antibacterial properties, catalysis and photocatalysis, biological imaging, oil absorption, etc.",book:{id:"5264",slug:"advances-in-carbon-nanostructures",title:"Advances in Carbon Nanostructures",fullTitle:"Advances in Carbon Nanostructures"},signatures:"Oxana Vasilievna Kharissova, Beatriz Ortega García, Boris Ildusovich\nKharisov and Ubaldo Ortiz Méndez",authors:[{id:"13939",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",middleName:null,surname:"Kharisov",slug:"boris-kharisov",fullName:"Boris Kharisov"},{id:"13941",title:"Dr.",name:"Oxana V.",middleName:null,surname:"Kharissova",slug:"oxana-v.-kharissova",fullName:"Oxana V. Kharissova"},{id:"13942",title:"Dr.",name:"Ubaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Ortiz Mendez",slug:"ubaldo-ortiz-mendez",fullName:"Ubaldo Ortiz Mendez"},{id:"181033",title:"Ms.",name:"Beatriz",middleName:null,surname:"Ortega García",slug:"beatriz-ortega-garcia",fullName:"Beatriz Ortega García"}]},{id:"51584",title:"Laser-Scribing Technology for Wafer-Scale Graphene Devices",slug:"laser-scribing-technology-for-wafer-scale-graphene-devices",totalDownloads:1872,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Graphene has attracted a lot of attention due to its amazing properties. A huge number of novel devices, covering the electric, acoustic, photonic, magnetic and mechanical domains, can be developed with graphene. Its ultrahigh mobility can enable ultra-fast transistors or photodetectors. However, the natural zero bandgap of graphene, with insufficient on/off ratio, limits its practical applications. In this chapter, we introduce laser-scribing technology that enables wafer-scale production of graphene devices. Moreover, such laser-scribed graphene (LSG) is, infact, semi-reduced graphene oxide with a finite bandgap, which is suitable for practical applications. We show five kinds of representative LSG devices and their integration. These devices are a resistive memory, an earphone, a strain sensor, a pressure sensor and a light-emitting device. These LSG devices are high-performance, flexible and low cost, which demonstrates the practical nature of laser-scribed graphene-based materials. Finally, an outlook is presented regarding how laser scribing, a serial patterning method, may lead to similar developments in various other serial lithography techniques, such as ion beam lithography.",book:{id:"5264",slug:"advances-in-carbon-nanostructures",title:"Advances in Carbon Nanostructures",fullTitle:"Advances in Carbon Nanostructures"},signatures:"He Tian, Mohammad Ali Mohammad, Wen-Tian Mi, Yi Yang and\nTian-Ling Ren",authors:[{id:"16043",title:"Prof.",name:"Tian-Ling",middleName:null,surname:"Ren",slug:"tian-ling-ren",fullName:"Tian-Ling Ren"},{id:"179567",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad Ali",middleName:"Ali",surname:"Mohammad",slug:"mohammad-ali-mohammad",fullName:"Mohammad Ali Mohammad"},{id:"179571",title:"Dr.",name:"Yi",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"yi-yang",fullName:"Yi Yang"},{id:"180990",title:"Dr.",name:"He",middleName:null,surname:"Tian",slug:"he-tian",fullName:"He Tian"},{id:"191694",title:"Mr.",name:"Wen-Tian",middleName:null,surname:"Mi",slug:"wen-tian-mi",fullName:"Wen-Tian Mi"}]},{id:"67597",title:"Iron Oxide Nanoparticles: An Inorganic Phosphatase",slug:"iron-oxide-nanoparticles-an-inorganic-phosphatase",totalDownloads:921,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Phosphorus is one of the most important macronutrients for the primary production. The transformation of dissolved organic phosphorus in the environment and its contribution to biological production in the different ecosystems is still a mystery. Recently, it was demonstrated that phosphate ester can be rapidly hydrolyzed in solutions containing iron oxide nanoparticles with enzyme kinetics. The catalyst is sensitive to temperature and pH changes and inhibited by tetrahedral oxyanions with an order of PO4 < MoO4 < WO4. The oxo-Fe structure in the iron oxide nanoparticles, like the metal center of natural phosphatase (e.g., purple acid phosphatase, PAP), might contribute to the observed catalytic activity. Iron oxide nanoparticles are very common and widely exist in the current earth environment, and phosphate esters are the main component of dissolved organic phosphorus in soil and waters. It is expected that iron oxide nanoparticles in aqueous environments, as an inorganic phosphatase, play a critical role for the phosphorus transformation from the view of the phosphorus cycle.",book:{id:"8384",slug:"nanocatalysts",title:"Nanocatalysts",fullTitle:"Nanocatalysts"},signatures:"Xiao-Lan Huang",authors:[{id:"259542",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiao-Lan",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",slug:"xiao-lan-huang",fullName:"Xiao-Lan Huang"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"498",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:288,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",issn:"2753-894X",scope:"\r\n\tThis series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in business and management, economics, and marketing. 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",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/22.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 18th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"356540",title:"Prof.",name:"Taufiq",middleName:null,surname:"Choudhry",slug:"taufiq-choudhry",fullName:"Taufiq Choudhry",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000036X2hvQAC/Profile_Picture_2022-03-14T08:58:03.jpg",biography:"Prof. Choudhry holds a BSc degree in Economics from the University of Iowa, as well as a Masters and Ph.D. in Applied Economics from Clemson University, USA. In January 2006, he became a Professor of Finance at the University of Southampton Business School. He was previously a Professor of Finance at the University of Bradford Management School. He has over 80 articles published in international finance and economics journals. His research interests and specialties include financial econometrics, financial economics, international economics and finance, housing markets, financial markets, among others.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Southampton",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"86",title:"Business and Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/86.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11970,editor:{id:"128342",title:"Prof.",name:"Vito",middleName:null,surname:"Bobek",slug:"vito-bobek",fullName:"Vito Bobek",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/128342/images/system/128342.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vito Bobek works as an international management professor at the University of Applied Sciences FH Joanneum, Graz, Austria. He has published more than 400 works in his academic career and visited twenty-two universities worldwide as a visiting professor. Dr. Bobek is a member of the editorial boards of six international journals and a member of the Strategic Council of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Slovenia. He has a long history in academia, consulting, and entrepreneurship. His own consulting firm, Palemid, has managed twenty significant projects, such as Cooperation Program Interreg V-A (Slovenia-Austria) and Capacity Building for the Serbian Chamber of Enforcement Agents. He has also participated in many international projects in Italy, Germany, Great Britain, the United States, Spain, Turkey, France, Romania, Croatia, Montenegro, Malaysia, and China. Dr. Bobek is also a co-founder of the Academy of Regional Management in Slovenia.",institutionString:"Universities of Applied Sciences FH Joanneum, Austria",institution:null},editorTwo:{id:"293992",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatjana",middleName:null,surname:"Horvat",slug:"tatjana-horvat",fullName:"Tatjana Horvat",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hXb0hQAC/Profile_Picture_1642419002203",biography:"Tatjana Horvat works as a professor for accountant and auditing at the University of Primorska, Slovenia. She is a Certified State Internal Auditor (licensed by Ministry of Finance RS) and Certified Internal Auditor for Business Sector and Certified accountant (licensed by Slovenian Institute of Auditors). At the Ministry of Justice of Slovenia, she is a member of examination boards for court expert candidates and judicial appraisers in the following areas: economy/finance, valuation of companies, banking, and forensic investigation of economic operations/accounting. 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Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356823",title:"MSc.",name:"Seonghee",middleName:null,surname:"Min",slug:"seonghee-min",fullName:"Seonghee Min",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu University",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"353307",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoosoo",middleName:null,surname:"Oh",slug:"yoosoo-oh",fullName:"Yoosoo Oh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Yoosoo Oh received his Bachelor's degree in the Department of Electronics and Engineering from Kyungpook National University in 2002. He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"346530",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"ibrahim-kaya",fullName:"Ibrahim Kaya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}},{id:"351158",title:"Prof.",name:"David W.",middleName:null,surname:"Anderson",slug:"david-w.-anderson",fullName:"David W. Anderson",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Calgary",country:{name:"Canada"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"17",type:"subseries",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11413,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983"},editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",slug:"attilio-rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",slug:"yanfei-(jacob)-qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:8,paginationItems:[{id:"81791",title:"Self-Supervised Contrastive Representation Learning in Computer Vision",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104785",signatures:"Yalin Bastanlar and Semih Orhan",slug:"self-supervised-contrastive-representation-learning-in-computer-vision",totalDownloads:12,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"79345",title:"Application of Jump Diffusion Models in Insurance Claim Estimation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99853",signatures:"Leonard Mushunje, Chiedza Elvina Mashiri, Edina Chandiwana and Maxwell Mashasha",slug:"application-of-jump-diffusion-models-in-insurance-claim-estimation-1",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Data Clustering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"81471",title:"Semantic Map: Bringing Together Groups and Discourses",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103818",signatures:"Theodore Chadjipadelis and Georgia Panagiotidou",slug:"semantic-map-bringing-together-groups-and-discourses",totalDownloads:12,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Data Clustering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"79491",title:"Fuzzy Perceptron Learning for Non-Linearly Separable Patterns",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101312",signatures:"Raja Kishor Duggirala",slug:"fuzzy-perceptron-learning-for-non-linearly-separable-patterns",totalDownloads:14,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Raja Kishor",surname:"Duggirala"}],book:{title:"Data Clustering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"81331",title:"Machine Learning Algorithm-Based Contraceptive Practice among Ever-Married Women in Bangladesh: A Hierarchical Machine Learning Classification Approach",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103187",signatures:"Iqramul Haq, Md. 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