Desired operation of digital relay R1, R2, and R3 at W1, W2, and W3 respectively.
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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When patients with acute respiratory failure recovery from the respiratory insufficiency, they are transitioned to assisted modes of ventilation to start the weaning process. The most common assisted modes are volume assisted ventilation in which the ventilator delivers the same tidal volume during every inspiration, and Pressure support ventilation (PSV) in which the ventilator delivers the same delta pressure assistance during every inspiration. The fixed deliver tidal volume or pressure assistance are the main reason for the occurrence of patient-ventilator asynchrony in these modes of ventilation. In PSV, the inspiratory flow is variable resulting in less asynchrony than in volume assisted ventilation, however asynchrony can still be present in cases of patients with obstructive lung disease and ineffective efforts or under assistance with insufficient tidal volume, can also occur especially in patients with low respiratory system compliance or high respiratory resistance. In these cases, the patients’ tidal volume cannot be guaranteed and the patient can generate a huge inspiratory effort that is often under detected. During PSV, the same assistance is independent of the patient’s demand, allowing under or over-assistance and the occurrence of patient-ventilator asynchrony [1]. The advanced modes of mechanical ventilation emerged from the need of greater control of the ventilator by the patient, the possibility of better synchrony and monitoring of the respiratory mechanics during the assisted modes of mechanical ventilation [1].
Volume assured pressure support ventilation (VAPSV) is a dual mode of mechanical ventilation that associates pressure support ventilation to volume assisted ventilation. This combination optimizes the inspiratory flow, decreasing the patient’s work of breathing while assuring the set tidal volume. Compared to volume assisted ventilation, VAPSV can decrease the patient’s respiratory drive (a lower measure P0.1), the pressure -time product and the patient’s work of breathing. This advanced mode of ventilation extends the benefits of PSV to unstable patients with acute respiratory failure, assuring a pre-set tidal volume (Figure 1) [1].
Volume assisted ventilation (VAV) compared to volume assured pressure support ventilation (VAPSV): note the decrease of the esophageal pressure and the better inspiratory flow synchrony during VAPSV [
Proportional modes deliver assistance in proportion to the patient’s demand, allowing variation of inspiratory pressure and avoiding diaphragm excessive loading and atrophy by disuse. Proportional assist ventilation (PAV) is a form of synchronized ventilator support in which the ventilator generates pressure in proportion to the instantaneous patient effort, or in proportion to flow and volume generated by the same [2, 3, 4]. Therefore, the ventilator allows at any time during inspiration, airway pressure in proportion to the pressure generated by inspiratory muscles (Pmus) and respiratory mechanics [4].
Initially described by Magdy Younes in 1992, PAV amplifies inspiratory efforts with the goal of the patient comfortably attain whatever ventilation and breathing pattern that the control system desires [2].
There is no target tidal volume, mandatory rate and airway pressure preset [5]. The ventilator is able to automatically adapt to changes in ventilatory demand of the patient. The pressure delivered by the ventilator follows the Pmus profile, usually with a progressive increase from the beginning of inspiration, with gradual pressurization, to the end of inspiration [4]. Maximal assistance is achieved until the end of inspiration [4].
Unlike PSV, in which a constant preset level of pressure assists each inspiration, regardless of the patient’s inspiratory effort, PAV allows assistance proportional to the patient’s demand, avoiding under-assistance or over-assistance [4], frequently observed during PSV. Under-assistance can induce respiratory distress and over-assistance can cause overdistension, and both may generate patient-ventilator asynchrony, that are associated with poor outcomes [5].
Therefore, PAV is designated for patients with stable respiratory drive, and can be used in any patient who is being ventilated under pressure support ventilation (PSV) or during weaning from mechanical ventilation [2, 6]. PAV is also designated to improve synchronism, while generating proportional assistance [2, 6].
PAV plus (PAV+) or Proportional Pressure Support (PPS) represent an upgrade to PAV [4] and are the clinically available versions of PAV.
During assisted ventilation, both the patient and ventilator contribute to the pressure required to overcome the elastic and resistive load during tidal breathing, according to the equation of motion [6]:
where Pmus is the pressure generated by respiratory muscles, Pvent is the pressure provided by the ventilator, V′ is the instantaneous flow, V is the volume, R and E are the resistance and elastance of the respiratory system respectively, and finally, PEE, is the elastic recoil pressure at end-expiration [7].
During PAV+, the ventilator software calculates elastance or compliance of the respiratory system and airway resistance using a brief end-inspiratory occlusion performed randomly every four to ten breaths [7, 8]. During each end-inspiratory occlusion, a 300 ms pause allows the ventilator to measure compliance (Crs) or elastance of the respiratory system (Ers) [9] and airway resistance (Raw). Based on inspiratory effort and respiratory mechanics, the ventilator adjusts inspiratory pressure, according to the equation of motion. As patient demand changes, PAV can also change proportionally inspiratory pressure above positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) level.
During Proportional Pressure Support (PPS), a combination of two parameters, generate inspiratory pressure: flow assist (FA) and volume assist (VA).
Airway occlusion pressure (P 0.1) can be monitored during PPS and PAV+, but the work of breathing (WOB) cannot be monitored during PPS.
The transition from inspiration to expiration, or the cycling off criteria occurs when inspiratory flow decreases to a pre-set level between 1 to 10 liters per minute. Cycling of criteria in PAV+ should be adjusted around 10 liters per minute in obstructive patients, while around 1 liter per minute in restrictive and around 3–5 liters per minute in those without respiratory abnormalities.
If apnea occurs, the apnea ventilation is automatically activated as in other spontaneous modes.
In PAV+, the percentage support can be adjusted between 5 to 95%, usually between 10 and 20 to 70–80%. When percentage support is 50%, ventilator amplifies Pmus by two times, while when in 90%, Pmus is amplified by ten times. When the percentage support is set, patient and ventilator are sharing WOB, as defined by the operator. If the percentage support is 60%, the patient will be responsible by 40% of total WOB. The percentage support can be adjusted according to WOB, that can be kept between 0.3 to 0.7 joules/liter. However, WOB is considered normal between 0.2 to 1.0 J/L [10], and eventually, if others criteria are normal, like respiratory rate and P 0.1, percentage support not necessarily should be changed in case of WOB between 0.7 to 1.0 J/L (Figure 2). As the patient improves the percentage support is decreased to 20–30%; if the tidal volume remains 5–6 ml/kg/predicted body weight, respiratory rate less than 28, FIO2 less than 40%, PEEP less than 10 cmH20 and WOB less than 1.0 J/L, the patient can be extubated.
PAV+ adjustments in clinical practice: parameters to set: % of assistance, tube ID, tube type, maximal pressure, maximal spontaneous tidal volume. Monitored parameters: compliance, resistance, auto-PEEP, work of breathing (J/liters). (Obtained from a simulator of the authors laboratory).
During Proportional Pressure Support (PPS), initially, the flow assistance (FA) should be set around 80% of airway resistance and volume assistance (VA), around 80% of elastance of the respiratory system, and then, changed according to the respective variations in these criteria. As higher FA and VA values, highest will be airway pressure and probably, tidal volume. PEEP and fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO2) should preferably be set in less than or equal to 10 cmH2O and 50% respectively.
PAV can also be used during noninvasive ventilation (NIV). As PAV requires clinical estimation of resistance and elastance, and measurements of these criteria with short end-inspiratory occlusions cannot be accurately performed in presence of leaks, it can, however, be of limited reliability [5]. Therefore, PAV as NIV did not present any evidence for daily routine.
Synchronism, proportional assistance and WOB monitoring seem to be the main advantages of PAV as well as to improve the patient-ventilator synchrony. Several studies and reviews evaluated PAV in comparison to PSV [7, 11, 12, 13, 14] showing results favorable to PAV regarding synchronism, weaning success, sleep quality, duration of mechanical ventilation, lung and diaphragm protection and lower proportion of patients requiring reintubation [7, 11, 12, 13, 14]. Although mortality seems to be generally favorable with PAV [11], this hypothesis has not been confirmed and more studies are necessary for this issue. One systematic review and meta-analysis that evaluated 14 randomized controlled studies, involving 931 patients [15] showed no difference on intubation risk (as noninvasive PAV), weaning time, hospital mortality, reintubation, or tracheostomy.
Neurally adjusted ventilatory assist (NAVA) is a mode of mechanical ventilation delivering pressure in response to the patient’s respiratory drive, measured by the electrical activity of the diaphragm (EAdi) [16, 17, 18]. Initially described in 1999, by Christer Sinderby et al. [16], NAVA introduced a new dimension to mechanical ventilation, in which the patient’s respiratory center can assume full control of the magnitude and timing of the mechanical support provided, regardless of changes in respiratory drive. This technology helps to decrease the risk of hyperinflation, respiratory alkalosis and hemodynamic impairment [16].
NAVA captures the EAdi, and uses it to assist the patient’s breathing in synchrony with, and in proportion to respiratory drive [17, 18, 19]. Normal EAdi generally ranges between a few and 10 μV, while patients with chronic respiratory insufficiency may demonstrate signals 5–7 times stronger [17]. Although there is no cutoff for weaning outcome, EAdi above 26 μV can be related to failure [20].
Like PAV, there are no target tidal volume, mandatory rate and airway pressure preset. Ventilator support is proportional to a combination of EAdi, and NAVA level, which defines the magnitude of pressure delivered for a given EAdi [18]. NAVA depends of the captured signal of EAdi via sensing electrodes on a nasogastric tube [17] so, in case of damage on phrenic nerve or alterations on its activity, NAVA cannot be used.
Therefore, NAVA, like PAV, is also designated for patients with stable respiratory drive, and can be used in patients who are ventilated on PSV (as long as EADi is detected), or during weaning from mechanical ventilation. NAVA is also designated to improve synchronism, while generating proportional assistance to EAdi.
A specialized nasogastric feeding catheter with electrodes should be inserted until the electrical activity of the crural diaphragm is observed [17, 21]. Correct positioning of the catheter is checked using the transesophageal electrocardiographies signal recorded by the electrodes as a guide [4], observed on the screen of the ventilator at second and third tracings. The absence of detectable EAdi is a contraindication of NAVA [17].
Ventilator support begins when EAdi starts [18]. As EAdi increases, assistance increases proportionally, and pressure delivered is cycled-off when EAdi is ended by the respiratory center (Figure 3) [17]. Application of a respiratory load, agitation, pain, respiratory distress or other causes that increase respiratory drive, can result in an increased EAdi, while over assistance should reduce EAdi [17].
NAVA curves in the clinical practice: pressure, flow, volume & EAdi (drawn by the author Carmen Barbas).
NAVA trigger is not pneumatic as other ventilatory modes, but utilizes EAdi, a reflection of neural respiratory output to the diaphragm, as its primary source to trigger [17]. Pneumatic trigger is available, but electrical trigger of NAVA allows faster response to inspiratory effort than traditional pneumatic trigger.
When NAVA level is changed, the resulting pressure depends on how respiratory afferents modulate neural output to diaphragm [18]. If the response to an increase in NAVA level is not a reduction in EAdi, delivered pressure increases [17, 18]. In the presence of high inspiratory efforts (inspiratory pressures higher than 7 cmH20), when EAdi is at its highest, pressure delivered could reach extreme levels and may cause lung injury [18]. In this situation, NAVA and other spontaneous modes should be avoided.
Inspiratory pressure above PEEP level is adjusted automatically multiplying the EAdi by a proportionality factor, called NAVA level, expressed as cmH2O/μV [17, 22].
For example: a NAVA level of 1 cmH2O/ μV will give an inspiratory pressure (above PEEP level) of 7 cmH2O when EAdi is 7 μV. Increasing NAVA level to 2 cmH2O/μV with the same EAdi will give an inspiratory pressure of 14 cmH2O.
The transition from inspiration to expiration, or the cycling off criteria occurs when EAdi decreases automatically to 70–40% of the peak inspiratory flow value observed at the same breath, and cannot be modified by the operator [4, 17]. If apnea occurs, the apnea ventilation is automatically activated as in other spontaneous modes.
During NAVA, minimal and maximum EAdi are monitored constantly. The NAVA trigger detects increases in EAdi and should be set to a level where random variation in the background noise does exceed the trigger level. The neural inspiratory trigger default of 0.5 μV, or 0.5 μV above the minimal EAdi is adequate in most cases [4]. Auto-triggering is possible due to a too sensitive trigger setting and /or leak. In case of auto-triggering, neural inspiratory trigger can be slightly increased, until this asynchrony disappears.
Frequently, NAVA level is used between 0.5 to 2.0 μV/cmH2O [4, 19]. Initial value can be around 1.0 μV/cmH2O in most cases. There is no consensus as to best approach and no definitive recommendations are available how to set NAVA level.” [4, 22]. Even so, some proposals deserve to be highlighted:
Pressure support that obtains 6 to 8 ml/kg predicted body weight during PSV, on ventilator function “NAVA preview” estimates the NAVA level that would achieve the same peak inspiratory pressure [4, 22].
To use NAVA level that generates 60 to 75% of maximal EAdi, observed during minimal inspiratory pressure of 3 to 7 cmH2O [22].
To use the minimal NAVA level associated with the absence of respiratory distress [4].
When inspiratory pressure reaches around 5 cmH2O, either by decreasing EAdi or decreasing NAVA level, weaning should be considered. PEEP and fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO2) should preferably be set in less than or equal to 10 cmH2O and 50% respectively.
A limitation of NAVA mode is that it requires a specialized nasogastric feeding catheter with electrodes located in the esophagus for its functioning which adds additional costs. The advantages of NAVA mode are that it can monitor the EAdi (eletroactivity of diaphragm), it improves the inspiratory and expiratory synchrony and it can be used as a non-invasive ventilation (NIV) mode too [17]. Since EAdi is a pneumatically independent signal and not affected by leaks, NAVA can deliver assist synchrony during NIV even with leaks [17]. Only a few larger studies [23, 24] compare NIV-NAVA with NIV-PS. No improved clinical outcomes were observed except a decreased incidence of asynchronies in NIV-NAVA.
In a large, multicenter, randomized, controlled clinical trial that included patients with acute respiratory failure (ARF) from several etiologies [19], NAVA was used in 153 patients, while another 153 enrolled in the control group used volume control ventilation, pressure control ventilation, PSV, or pressure-regulated volume control. NAVA decreased duration of mechanical ventilation, although it did not improve survival in ventilated patients with ARF.
Adaptative Support ventilation (ASV) is a closed- loop controlled ventilatory mode, which is designed to ensure optimization of the patient work of breathing, automatically adjusted according to the patient’s requirements. ASV combines passive ventilation with pressure-controlled ventilation with adaptive pressure support if the patient’s respiratory effort is present.
ASV delivers pressure- controlled breaths according to the set minute ventilation, resulting in the best combination of tidal volume and respiratory rate. As the patient’s inspiratory efforts start, ASV delivers pressure-supported breaths according to the set minute ventilation resulting in the best combination of tidal volume, respiratory rate and the patient’s inspiratory effort. In ASV mode FIO2 and PEEP are set manually [25].
Intellivent ASV is also a closed-loop ventilation that adds the monitoring of SpO2 and Pressure End-tidal CO2 to best manage ventilation and oxygenation. In Intellivent ASV mode the clinician sets patients’ sex, height and choice the following respiratory mechanics situations: normal, ARDS, chronic hypercapnia and brain injury. Intellivent ASV determines the target PETCO2 and SPO2 according to the patient’s condition. The ventilator controller adjusts the best tidal volume and respiratory rate to achieve the minute ventilation and PETCO2 set by the clinician combining pressure-control and or pressure support ventilation according to the patient’s inspiratory effort. In Intellivent ASV, FIO2 and PEEP are adjusted according to the patient’s SpO2 following a PEEP-FIO2 table [25].
Smart Care ® is an automatic weaning protocol, designed to stabilize the patient’s spontaneous breathing in a comfort zone of a preset defined ventilation and to automatically reduce the ventilatory support. Smart Care ® ventilates the patient with pressure support which levels are adjusted according to respiratory rate, tidal volume and End tidal CO2 to meet the patient’s demand. Smart Care ® classifies the patient a minimum of every 5 minutes into one of 8 categories and decreases or increases the pressure support levels accordingly. Smart Care® assesses and indicates the readiness for extubation after a successful automatic spontaneous breathing trial [26].
Volume assured pressure support ventilation can guarantee tidal volume with the advantages of pressure support variable inspiratory flow.
PAV+ can monitor the patient’s respiratory compliance, respiratory resistance, auto-PEEP and work of breathing decreasing patient-ventilator asynchrony in comparison to PSV and other ventilatory modes. PAV plus allow lung and diaphragm protection, avoiding under and over-assistance.
NAVA allows the measurement of the patient’s diaphragmatic eletroactivity and NAVA mode decreases patient-ventilator inspiratory and expiratory asynchrony.
ASV adjust pressure support, according to the respiratory rate to maintain the pre-set minute ventilation.
Intellivent-ASV adds the monitoring of PTCO2 and SpO2 and adjusts of pressure support according to respiratory rate to mantain the minute ventilation according to lung pathology.
Smart-care ventilation can automatically wean the patients, according to distinct patients classifications of lung pathology and indicates readiness for extubation.
The parts of the wind turbine generator are shown in Figure 1. Blades are connected to this rotor hub. By rotating the motor shaft angle, one can turn the blade’s direction, resulting in a change in mechanical power. This rotational mechanical energy rotates the rotor, and by using a gearbox, speed can be changed. By changing the speed, torque will be changed. The frequency of the generated voltage depends on the speed and number of poles. The variable frequency is converted into the constant frequency using a power converter. At this stage, two converters are used. One is an AC-DC converter, and the second is a DC-AC converter called a back-to-back converter. This is often called a gear-less wind turbine generator [2]. As electrical technology is very advanced, mechanical energy to electrical energy can be converted with different machines. Based on this machine used, the wind turbine generators are classified. The most common challenges for the wind turbine are as follows: (1) highly variable wind power injection into the grid, (2) increased penetration of wind energy, (3) Electrically weak distribution network, and (4) heavy reactive power burden by Induction generator (IG).
Parts of wind turbine generator adapted from [
The classification of wind energy conversion system (WECS) is shown in Figure 2. Squirrel cage induction generators (SCIG) are a traditional method, but one cannot get maximum power at different wind speeds. The SCIG is generally known as a fixed-speed wind turbine. At variable rates, wind turbine generators are two types which are gear-less and with gear. Gear-less wind turbine generators may be running at a slower speed, but one can change the number of poles. The wound rotor synchronous generator (WRSG) and permanent magnet synchronous generator (PMSG) is the gear-less wind turbine. The wound rotor synchronous generator (WRSG) and permanent magnet synchronous generator (PMSG) maybe with gear also [3]. Doubly fed induction generator (DFIG), SCIG, wound rotor induction generator (WRIG) with variable rotor resistance also come under the gear category.
Classification of wind turbine generator.
The SCIG has the following main parts: (1) Gear Box, (2) cage induction generator, (3) soft starter, and (4) Capacitor for power factor compensation.
The SCIG is a very simple structure of WTG used in the system. SCIG is directly connected to the grid using a starter and transformer. A soft starter is available in starting only to limit high inrush current. This is the most widely used structure worldwide due to less maintenance and simple design. The main disadvantage is that full power cannot be extracted from the grid. The SCIG needs high reactive power, which the capacitor bank locally supplies, as shown in Figure 3. The machine is run above synchronous speed using pitch control.
Fixed speed SCIG wind turbines from [
A wind farm composed of six 1.5 MW wind turbines is connected to a 25 kV distribution system that exports electricity to a 120 kV network via a 25 km long feeder from a 25 kV bus 4. Three 1.5 MW wind turbines pairs simulate the 9-MW wind farm. Wind turbines use squirrel cage induction generators (SCIG) [5]. Figure 4 shows the system considered for protection in which three wind turbine generators are connected to the grid.
9 MW—Wind farm connected to the grid.
The stator winding is connected directly to the 60 Hz grid, and a controllable-pitch windmill drives the rotor [6, 7]. The pitch angle is controlled to limit the generator’s output power to its nominal value for winds exceeding the little velocity (9 m/s). A protection system is installed at each wind generator from W1 to W3, which measures voltage, current, and speed. Reactive power absorbed by the IGs is partly compensated by capacitor banks connected at each wind turbine low voltage bus [8, 9, 10]. The rest of the reactive power required to maintain the 25-kV voltage at bus B4 close to 1 pu is provided by a 3-Mvar STATCOM with a 3% droop setting. Modeling of Wind Turbine Generator is carried in MATLAB Software [11]. The data of wind turbine generator modeling is shown in Appendix A.
The digital protection system installed on W1 to W3 consist of following protections covers in single digital relay for wind turbine generator [12].
Instantaneous AC overcurrent
Positive-sequence AC overcurrent
Unbalance AC current
Positive-sequence under voltage
Positive-sequence under voltage
Negative-sequence unbalanced voltage
Zero-sequence unbalanced voltage
The desired protection for relay 1 at W1, relay 2 at W2, and relay 3 at W3 are shown in Table 1 for different fault locations.
Fault position | Relay 1 operation | Relay 2 operation | Relay 3 operation |
---|---|---|---|
F1 | Instantaneous | Non-operation | Non-operation |
F2 | Non-operation | Instantaneous | Non-operation |
F3 | Non-operation | Non-operation | Instantaneous |
F4 | Instantaneous | Instantaneous | Instantaneous |
F5 | Instantaneous | Instantaneous | Instantaneous |
F6 | Instantaneous | Instantaneous | Instantaneous |
F7 | Delayed | Delayed | Delayed |
Desired operation of digital relay R1, R2, and R3 at W1, W2, and W3 respectively.
The relay R1, R2, and R3 are located at Bus 1, Bus 2, and Bus 3. The algorithm is explained in this section by considering Relay R1 to protect W1 against internal faults F1. For faults F4, F5 and F6 at POC at Bus 4, R1 reacts instantaneously as both these three faults impact the W1 directly. On the other hand, the relay R1 remains stable for F2, F3 and F7 and maybe operate as a backup to the primary relay addressing these faults. Here, F2 and F3 are parallel feeder faults considered external faults for F1. F7 is a external fault in the grid system. The protection algorithm for such desired operation as per Table 1 is shown in Figure 5. As per the Algorithm, relay R1 measured three-phase voltage and current
Protection algorithm for WTG.
LG faults have been applied at F1 to F7 locations as internal and external faults. Considered F1 fault as LG fault and used at 15 s of simulation time for 0.3 s duration which is an internal fault for W1. in this case-1, the voltages are unbalanced significantly which has V0/V1 ratio found 0.985pu which is greater than a set value and as per algorithm the relay issue tripping after 0.001 s which instantaneous. It is important to note that in this case, relay R2 at W2 and R3 at W3 are not affected and remain immune. The tripping coordination of R1 to R3 for this case-1 is shown in Figure 6. Figure 7 shows that positive sequence and zero sequences are present significantly during the fault, and the ratio of V0/V1 exceeds the set value. Similarly, LG fault has been applied at the F6 location. In this case, the fault is at POC, which required the operation of all the relays operated at 0.2 s. Table 2 shows the other faults and measurement of current and voltage sequence components during the faults at bus 1.
Tripping of at W1, W2, and W3 while LG fault near bus 1.
Positive, negative, and zero sequence voltage variation during internal fault at W1.
Internal fault type | Fault location | Max (Ia,Ib,Ic) (p.u) | I1 (p.u) | I2/I1 (p.u) | V1 (p.u) | V2/V1 (p.u) | V0/V1 (p.u) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
LG | Bus 1 | R1:0 R2: 0.977 R3:0.979 | R1:0 R2:0.983 R3:0.9846 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 | R1:0.998 R2:0.979 R3:0.979 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 | R1:0.985 R2:0.0001 R3:0.0001 |
LL | Bus 1 | R1: 0 R2:0 R3:0 | R1: 0 R2:0 R3:0 | R1:0.037 R2:0.022 R3:0.022 | R1:0.821 R2:0.9015 R3:0.9015 | R1:0.458 R2:0.2568 R3:0.2568 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 |
LLG | Bus 1 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 | R1:0.037 R2:0.022 R3:0.022 | R1:0.0821 R2:0.9015 R3:0.09015 | R1:0.458 R2:0.2568 R3:0.2568 | R1:0.662 R2:0 R3:0 |
LLL | Bus 1 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 | R1:0 R2:0 R3: | R1:0.738 R2:0.738 R3:0.738 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 |
LLLG | Bus 1 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 | R1:0.665 R2:0.738 R3:0.738 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 |
Internal fault on feeder 1, 2, and 3 near SCIG.
As internal and external faults, LL faults have been applied at F1 to F7 locations. Considered F2 fault as LL fault and used at 15 s of simulation time for 0.3 s duration which is an internal fault for W2. In this case-2, the positive sequence voltages less than set value and as per the algorithm the relay issue tripping after 0.001 s. It is important to note that in this case, relay R1 at W1 and R3 at W3 are not affected and remain immune. Additionally, It provides backup protection after 0.15 s and 0.14 s by R1 and R3 to R2. The V1 and V2/V1 variations are shown in Table 2 during the LL fault at bus 2.
As internal and external faults, LLG faults have been applied at F1 to F7 locations. Considered F3 fault as LLG fault and used at 15 s of simulation time for 0.3 s duration which is an internal fault for W3. in this case-3, the positive sequence voltages less than set value and as per algorithm the relay issue tripping after 0.001 s. It is important to note that in this case, relay R1 at W1 and R3 at W3 are not affected and remain immune. Additionally, It provides backup protection after 0.15 s and 0.14 s by R1 and R2 to R3.
LLLG faults have been applied at F1 to F7 locations as internal and external faults. Considered F4 fault as LLLG fault and used at 15 s of simulation time for 0.3 s duration which is the internal fault for W1. in this case-4, the positive sequence voltages less than set value and as per algorithm the relay issue tripping after 0.001 s. In this case, relay R2 at W2 and R3 at W3 is also instantaneous as the fault is on the point of Common Coupling (POC). Table 3 shows that I2/I1 and V1 change significantly during fault at bus 4.
Fault type | Fault location | Max (Ia,Ib,Ic) (p.u) | I1 (p.u) | I2/I1 (p.u) | V1 (p.u) | V2/V1 (p.u) | V0/V1 (p.u) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
LG | Bus 4 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 | R1:0.02 R2:0.02 R3:0.02 | R1:0.88 R2:0.88 R3:0.88 | R1:0.24 R2:0.24 R3:0.24 | R1:0.76 R2:0.76 R3:0.76 |
LL | Bus 4 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 | R1:0.05 R2:0.05 R3:0.05 | R1:0.545 R2:0.545 R3:0.545 | R1:1.0 R2:1.0 R3:1.0 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 |
LLG | Bus 4 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 | R1:0.046 R2:0.046 R3:0.046 | R1:0.473 R2:0.473 R3:0.473 | R1:1.0 R2:1.0 R3:1.0 | R1:0.994 R2:0.994 R3:0.994 |
LLL | Bus 4 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 | R1:0.0007 R2:0.0007 R3:0.0007 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 |
LLLG | Bus 4 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 | R1:0.0007 R2:0.0007 R3:0.0007 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 |
Internal fault on feeder 1, 2, and 3 near POC.
LLL faults have been applied at F1 to F7 locations as internal and external faults. Considered F5 fault as LLL fault and used at 15 s of simulation time for 0.3 s duration which is the internal fault for W2. In this case-5, the positive sequence voltages less than set value and as per algorithm the relay issue tripping after 0.001 s. It is important to note that in this case, relay R1 at W1 and R3 at W3 is also instantaneous as the fault is on the point of Common Coupling (POC).
When LG fault is applied on the F7 location, which is in the grid and considered an external fault to the wind farm, the ratio of negative sequence voltage to positive sequence voltage and negative sequence current to positive sequence current is less than the set value [14]. So, as per the algorithm, relays R1 to R3 issued delayed tripping at 0.21 s after the fault instant. For all the other external faults, the variation of V1, V2/V1, and I2/I1 are shown in Table 4.
Fault type | Fault location | Max (Ia,Ib,Ic) (p.u) | I1 (p.u) | I2/I1 (p.u) | V1 (p.u) | V2/V1 (p.u) | V0/V1 (p.u) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
LG | Bus 5 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 | R1:0.024 R2:0.024 R3:0.024 | R1:0.845 R2:0.845 R3:0.845 | R1:0.289 R2:0.289 R3:0.289 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 |
LL | Bus 5 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 | R1:0.051 R2:0.051 R3:0.051 | R1:0.574 R2:0.574 R3:0.574 | R1:0.897 R2:0.897 R3:0.897 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 |
LLG | Bus 5 | R1:0 R2: R3: | R1:0 R2: R3: | R1:0.042 R2: R3: | R1:0.479 R2: R3: | R1:0.877 R2: R3: | R1:0 R2: R3: |
LLL | Bus 5 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 | R1:0.001 R2:0.001 R3:0.001 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 |
LLLG | Bus 5 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 | R1:0.001 R2:0.001 R3:0.001 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 | R1:0 R2:0 R3:0 |
External fault of W1, W2, and W3 at grid side.
The main challenge in this protection scheme is that the relays R1 to R3 are affected by fault resistance while power swing occurs near them, and they cannot detect it. It is important to note that power swing blocking and out-of-step tripping functions are available to handle these challenges in the existing system [15].
The results of Tables 2–4 clearly show the quantity such as instantaneous overload current (Ia, Ib, Ic), I1, I2/I1, V1, V2/V1, and V0/V1 changes during different faults differently. This variation is used in the digital relay to identify internal and external feeder faults. The relays at W1 to W3 remain immune due to correct settings during grid faults. In this protection scheme, instantaneous overload current (Ia, Ib, Ic) provides instantaneous AC Over current, I1 provides AC Overcurrent (positive-sequence), I2/I1 provides Ac Current unbalance, V1 provides AC over and under-voltage (positive sequence), V2/V1 provides AC unbalance voltage (negative sequence), V0/V1 provides C unbalance voltage (zero sequences) protection to W1 to W3 against internal and external feeder faults correctly.
F1 from F2 and F3 can be detected using positive sequence voltage because the fault current of F2 and F3 can be seen at W1 via step-up transformer and feeder, due to which current is reduced compared to F1 in case of LG fault. While W2 sees F2 directly and W3 sees F3 directly, that is not affected F1, which is a parallel feeder fault. In the case of external fault, zero sequences cannot be used as they are trapped in the winding. So algorithm used negative sequence current and voltage to positive sequence current and voltage ratio, which is less than the set value in case of external fault. So, R1 to R3 does not operate. The proposed Algorithm based digital relay provides all the different fault detection in a single unit suitable for internal and external fault protection of WTG. The main challenge to this scheme is that fault resistance may mal-operate the scheme in some rare events.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
SCIG data | |||
---|---|---|---|
Parameter | Symbol | Unit | Value |
Nominal power | Pn | VA | 3.33 MVA |
Line-to-line voltage | Vn | Volt | 575 |
frequency | fn | Hz | 60 |
Stator | Rs | pu | 0.004843 |
Stator | Lls | pu | 0.1248 |
Rotor | Rr’ | pu | 0.004377 |
Rotor | Llr’ | pu | 0.1791 |
Magnetizing inductance | Lm | pu | 6.77 |
Inertia constant | H | s | 5.04 |
Friction factor | F | pu | 0.001 |
Pairs of poles | P | 3 | |
Nominal wind turbine mechanical output Power (W) | Pm | W | 3 MW |
Base wind speed | Nw | m/s | 9 |
Base rotational speed | N | pu | 1 |
Maximum power at base wind speed | Pm(max) | pu | 1 |
Pitch angle controller gain | Kp and Ki | pu | 5 and 25 |
Maximum pitch angle | deg | 45 | |
Maximum rate of change of pitch angle | deg/s | 2 |
WTG | wind turbine generator |
IG | Induction generator |
WECS | wind energy conversion system |
SCIG | squirrel cage induction generators |
WRSG | |
PMSG | permanent magnet synchronous generator |
WRSG | wound rotor synchronous generator |
WRIG | wound rotor induction generator |
KV | Kilo Volt |
STATCOM | Static Var Compensator |
W1 | Wind turbine 1 |
F1 | Fault 1 |
POC | Point of Common Coupling |
R1 | Relay 1 |
LG | Line to ground |
LL | Line to line |
LLL | Line to line to line |
LLG | Line to line to ground |
LLLG | Line to line to line to ground |
I1 | Positive sequence Current |
V1 | Positive sequence Voltage |
I2 | Negative sequence Current |
V2 | Negative sequence Voltage |
I0 | Zero Sequence Current |
V0 | Zero Sequence Voltage |
pu | Per unit |
IntechOpen publishes different types of publications
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\\n\\nRESEARCH CHAPTER – A research chapter reports the results of original research thus contributing to the body of knowledge in a particular area of study.
\\n\\nREVIEW CHAPTER – A review chapter analyzes or examines research previously published by other scientists, rather than reporting new findings thus summarizing the current state of understanding on a topic.
\\n\\nCASE STUDY – A case study involves an in-depth, and detailed examination of a particular topic.
\\n\\nPERSPECTIVE CHAPTER – A perspective chapter offers a new point of view on existing problems, fundamental concepts, or common opinions on a specific topic. Perspective chapters can propose or support new hypotheses, or discuss the significance of newly achieved innovations. Perspective chapters can focus on current advances and future directions on a topic and include both original data and personal opinion.
\\n\\nINTRODUCTORY CHAPTER – An introductory chapter states the purpose and goals of the book. The introductory chapter is written by the Academic Editor.
\\n\\nMonographs is a self-contained work on a particular subject, or an aspect of it, written by one or more authors. Monographs usually have between 130 and 500 pages.
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\\n\\nCompacts provide a mid-length publishing format that bridges the gap between journal articles, book chapters, and monographs, and cover content across all scientific disciplines.
\\n\\nCompacts are the preferred publishing option for brief research reports on new topics, in-depth case studies, dissertations, or essays exploring new ideas, issues, or broader topics on the research subject. Compacts usually have between 50 and 130 pages.
\\n\\nCollection of papers presented at conferences, workshops, symposiums, or scientific courses, published in book format
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"IntechOpen Edited Volumes are integrated collections of chapters about particular topics that present new areas of research or novel syntheses of existing research and, as such, represent perspectives from various authors.
\n\nEdited Volumes can be comprised of different types of chapters:
\n\nRESEARCH CHAPTER – A research chapter reports the results of original research thus contributing to the body of knowledge in a particular area of study.
\n\nREVIEW CHAPTER – A review chapter analyzes or examines research previously published by other scientists, rather than reporting new findings thus summarizing the current state of understanding on a topic.
\n\nCASE STUDY – A case study involves an in-depth, and detailed examination of a particular topic.
\n\nPERSPECTIVE CHAPTER – A perspective chapter offers a new point of view on existing problems, fundamental concepts, or common opinions on a specific topic. Perspective chapters can propose or support new hypotheses, or discuss the significance of newly achieved innovations. Perspective chapters can focus on current advances and future directions on a topic and include both original data and personal opinion.
\n\nINTRODUCTORY CHAPTER – An introductory chapter states the purpose and goals of the book. The introductory chapter is written by the Academic Editor.
\n\nMonographs is a self-contained work on a particular subject, or an aspect of it, written by one or more authors. Monographs usually have between 130 and 500 pages.
\n\nTYPES OF MONOGRAPHS:
\n\nSingle or multiple author manuscript
\n\nCompacts provide a mid-length publishing format that bridges the gap between journal articles, book chapters, and monographs, and cover content across all scientific disciplines.
\n\nCompacts are the preferred publishing option for brief research reports on new topics, in-depth case studies, dissertations, or essays exploring new ideas, issues, or broader topics on the research subject. Compacts usually have between 50 and 130 pages.
\n\nCollection of papers presented at conferences, workshops, symposiums, or scientific courses, published in book format
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. 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From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. 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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"117248",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Macnab",slug:"andrew-macnab",fullName:"Andrew Macnab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"40",type:"subseries",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",keywords:"Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Fauna, Taxonomy, Invasive Species, Destruction of Habitats, Overexploitation of Natural Resources, Pollution, Global Warming, Conservation of Natural Spaces, Bioremediation",scope:"