Studies to obtain materials with cellulose in its composition.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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\r\n\tOrganic synthesis has always been one of the central topics of research for the scientific community in the academic laboratories and industrial world. Many striking journal articles and remarkable reviews and books have been published in the past year describing the practicability and applications of the subject demonstrating the importance of organic synthesis. In the present book, we will be putting together the topics in organic synthesis which may include but not limited to, (1) the basic terms and concepts, (2) various organic reactions including reduction, oxidation, addition, elimination, rearrangements, and cycloadditions, (3) Total Synthesis of Natural products, (4) transition metal catalysts, organocatalysts, enzymes and biotransformations, (5) applications in medicinal chemistry and drug design and development, (6) purification methods and characterization techniques, etc. To set a limit and to increase the scope of the book, author(s) are encouraged to send the chapters that include selected examples with practical applications and good yielding reactions reported within the past decade. Older topics with significant findings or their essence to prepare the foundation may be included in the chapter are welcomed as well.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:null,priceUsd:null,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f3bbbd989d0896f142d317ccb8abcc35",bookSignature:"Dr. Prashant S Deore",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8807.jpg",keywords:"Natural Product Synthesis, Organic Reaction Mechanism, Stereoselective synthesis, Chirality, C-H Functionalization, Cross-Coupling Reactions, Heterogeneous Catalysis, Homogeneous Catalysis, Green Synthesis, Green Solvents and Reagents, Bioorganic synthesis, Click Chemistry",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"December 10th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"January 14th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 15th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 20th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 19th 2019",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"251769",title:"Dr.",name:"Prashant",middleName:"S",surname:"Deore",slug:"prashant-deore",fullName:"Prashant Deore",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251769/images/system/251769.png",biography:"Dr. Prashant S. Deore was born in India. He received a Master’s degree in organic chemistry from Pune University in 2007. In the same year, he qualified with the SET and CSIR-NET (JRF) and joined in the group of Prof. Narshinha P. Argade for the doctoral studies in National Chemical Laboratory, India. In 2014, he awarded with a Ph. D. in Chemistry and was a recipient of the 2nd prize in “2014 Eli Lilly and Company Asia Outstanding Thesis Awards”. In July 2014 he moved to Canada and joined as a postdoctoral researcher in the group of Prof. Richard Manderville at the University of Guelph, Canada. Presently, Dr. Deore is working on the collaborative project between the University of Guelph and Aterica health Inc., and providing consulting to the company. His research interest includes organic synthesis, fluorescent probes development, nucleic acid synthesis and modifications, and aptasensor development for proteins and food toxins.",institutionString:"University of Guelph",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"8",title:"Chemistry",slug:"chemistry"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"270935",firstName:"Rozmari",lastName:"Marijan",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/270935/images/7974_n.png",email:"rozmari@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3621",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"silver-nanoparticles",bookSignature:"David Pozo Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3621.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6667",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Pozo",slug:"david-pozo",fullName:"David Pozo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"69280",title:"Biodegradable Polymers: Opportunities and Challenges",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88146",slug:"biodegradable-polymers-opportunities-and-challenges",body:'The increasing environmental impacts of pollution derived from fossil polymers are drawing attention to the need to produce sustainable materials. And the biodegradable polymers generated from renewable sources are an alternative to this problem [1]. They are made from renewable or synthetic sources that have the capacity to degrade by the action of microorganisms [2, 3].
In the search for biodegradable and renewable materials, the biopolymers that are gaining prominence are those that have greater availability: cellulose, chitosan, starch and proteins (collagen, soy, casein). As these sources are widely used in the food, pharmaceutical, agricultural, and other industries, material research has been developing in the quest to recover them from agroindustrial waste. These could be reinserted into the process as a source for synthesizing biodegradable polymers, as both industries and agriculture generate waste that is sometimes incorrectly disposed of in the environment.
Residues and by-products generated in larger quantities include fruit and vegetable residues (husks, seeds and stems), grain residues (rice, wheat, soy) and protein products (chitosan, gelatin, whey protein) [4]. Approximately 26% of food waste is generated from the beverage industry, followed by the dairy industry (21%), fruit and vegetables (14.8%), cereals processing (12.9%), preservation of meat products (8%), processing of oils of vegetable and animal origin (3.9%), among others (12.7%) [5].
The use of residues is seen as an opportunity for sustainability due to its ease of production and low cost, non-toxicity, biocompatibility, biodegradability, chemical and thermal stabilities [6]. Associated with the concern to replace materials of fossil origin, attention to the reuse of wastes/by-products of agricultural or agroindustrial origin is of extreme importance. In this way, in addition to contributing to the reduction of disposal of waste in landfills or the burning of landfills, the principle of reuse affects the economy in a positive way.
Despite these advantages, the water absorption is very high, due to the number of hydrophilic groups contained in the structure of the materials of renewable origin. To overcome this factor, techniques have been applied to improve the physical and mechanical properties of these materials, ensuring a better application performance. In addition, there is still a large gap between policy and implementation of these new technologies [7].
The following sections discuss the main sources of biodegradable polymers, aiming to know their specificities, so that to facilitate the link between possible sources to obtain them from agricultural or industrial waste, as well as the applicability of the material.
In the search for biodegradable and renewable materials, the biopolymers that are gaining prominence are those that present greater availability: cellulose, chitosan, starch and proteins.
These sources are widely used in the food, pharmaceutical and agricultural industries, causing the generation of large amounts of waste. This problem has aroused interest in research aimed at obtaining biopolymers from the recovery of the same, relating low cost, availability and sustainability.
Cellulose is the agroindustrial waste most reuse. Its main sources of production are mainly of vegetal origin (wood and cotton), however, it is also synthesized by algae, tunicates and some bacteria [8, 9, 10].
The cellulose molecule ((C6H10O5)n) has a linear ribbon-like conformation, and its compounds bound together by the so-called β1-4, glycosidic bonds. The number of chain repeats n varying according to the source of the obtainment, wherein in wood, for example, is about 10,000 and 15,000 in cotton. These chains impart rigidity to the cellulose, providing good mechanical properties and thermal stability. However, cellulose dissolution is a difficult process and it is necessary to develop new techniques that allow the use of regenerated cellulose as a component of polymeric materials [11, 12].
The materials produced from regenerated cellulose acquire exceptional physical and chemical characteristics, as well as clear benefits for society, especially when minimizing environmental impacts. During the regeneration of the cellulose solution, physical and chemical treatments can be applied generating functional and biocompatible materials, organic hybrids or porous membranes, making the use of cellulose comprehensive [12].
In this sense, the cellulose modification has been the focus of several studies, aiming to evaluate it as a substitute raw material to obtain synthetic polymers, fibers, films and membranes, hydrogels and aerogels, bioplastics, beads and microspheres as shown in (Table 1).
Author | Objective of study |
---|---|
Fibers | |
[13] | Obtaining of magnetically activated cellulose fibers by moist spinning cellulose/Fe3O4 solution in 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride. |
[14] | Manufacture of regenerated cellulose multifilaments by means of pilot scale spinning equipment from the cellulose solution in NaOH/Urea. |
Films and membranes | |
[15] | Development of new cellulose films via low temperature solvents. |
[16] | Manufacture of flexible, transparent and fortified regenerated films by crosslinking the cellulose with epichlorohydrin (ECH) in NaOH/Urea. |
[17] | New method of preparation of hydrated membranes of cellulose in NaOH/Urea, employing a process of pregelatinization. |
[18] | Direct production of films with cellulose nanocomposites from cellulose microfibers using nano-soldering based on ionic liquid. |
[10] | Manufacture of optically clear paper from densely packed cellulose nanofibers. |
Hydrogels and aerogels | |
[19] | Manufacture of a series of cellulose hydrogels directly from the cellulose solution followed by crosslinking with epichlorohydrin (ECH) via heating and freezing. |
[20] | Production of regenerated cellulose hydrogels made from lithium chloride/dimethylacetamide by slow coagulation with water. |
[21] | Preparation of hydrogel from a cellulose solution in an ionic liquid of 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride and water at room temperature. |
[22] | Carbonized aerogels after pyrolysis under nitrogen flow and doping with platinum nanoparticles. |
Beads and microspheres | |
[23] | Manufacture of cellulose beads from thin plates of Cellulose/NaOH solution in a water bath. |
[24] | Preparation of macroporous spheres with viscose cellulose xanthogenate densified with high density tungsten carbide via thermal regeneration in water-in-oil suspension with starch as a porogenic. |
Bioplastics | |
[25] | Construction of new cellulose bioplastics (CBP) from cellulose hydrogels prepared by cellulose solution in NaOH/Urea via simple hot pressing. |
Studies to obtain materials with cellulose in its composition.
Recent studies have turned their efforts to provide reuse and value adding to industrial waste. In order to convert lignocellulosic materials into nanocellulose, [26] used the residues of tobacco stalks after steam blasting followed by bleaching and refining to produce nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC), successfully reaching the objective of the study, and generating a promising alternative for the reuse of this residue organic.
Reference [27] extracted microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) and spherical nanocrystalline cellulose (SNCC) by acid hydrolysis from cotton fabric waste, concluding that the developed process is suitable for industrial scale application, since the generation of cotton waste is high, as well as the cellulose content contained in them (about 94%).
Reference [28] isolated microcrystalline cellulose powder (MCC) from waste paper from three sources (books, newspapers and cardboard), evaluating the effect of the treatment using various concentrations of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) on the properties of the powders obtained, concluding that the lowest concentration, which was 5% (m/v) NaOH in the medium, was ideal for MCC isolation in these paper wastes.
Aiming to reduce the environmental impacts caused in aquatic life due to the contamination of water by complex substances such as petroleum and vegetable oils, [29] developed a hydrophobic aerogel with high sorption capacity, from cellulose nanofibres obtained from waste from the furniture industry, processed via acidic hydrolysis by steam explosion for oil sorption. The authors tested the sorption capacity of the aerogel produced in homogeneous media (pure oil and vegetable oil) and heterogeneous medium (oil in water), where it had high sorption capacity in both media, 19.55 and 19.21 goil gaerogel−1, for petroleum and oil respectively.
The chitosan is a molecule with a carbohydrate structure like cellulose, consisting of two types of repeating units, N-acetyl-D-glucosamine and D-glucosamine, linked by β1-4 glycosidic bonds [30]. They are the most abundant organic compounds after cellulose [31].
It is widely distributed in the animal kingdom (shells of crustaceans and mollusks, the backbone of squid and the cuticle of insects) and vegetable (algae, protozoa and the cell wall of several fungal species) [32].
The degree of acetylation differentiates chitin from chitosan, when the polymer has a degree of acetylation greater than 50%, is called chitin, and when the degree of acetylation is less than 50%, it is called chitosan [33].
Reference [34] discuss the main methods of chitosan extraction, measure alkaline treatment, which is most commonly used at the industrial level, and sodium hydroxide (NaOH), which is commonly used for the deacetylation process. The enzymatic deacetylation that uses chitin deacetylases obtained from different biological sources, such as fungi and insects to effect treatment. And steam explosion, which performs a hydrothermal treatment where the chitin is treated with a blow gun, with saturation vapor at increased pressure and temperature for several minutes, followed by explosive decomposition.
There are several studies that provide application opportunities for a chitosan. For the food area: active films, antioxidants, antimicrobials, chitosan compounds, edible coatings, application in fruits and vegetables and application in seafood products [35]. [36] made a comparison between nano-composite films based on gelatin and starch modified by nanocellulose and chitosan for packaging applications. And [37] developed and evaluated an antioxidant film and pH indicator based on sources of chitosan and food waste. [38] incorporated the extract of mango leaves to the antioxidant film of chitosan for active food packaging.
In addition, it can be used in a number of areas, such as biomedicine, pharmaceuticals, food, agriculture, personal care products and the environmental sector [39]. [40] developed nanoparticles of chitosan coating for the treatment of brain diseases. [41] studied nanogels of chitosan as nanocarriers of polyoxometalates for breast cancer therapies. In the environmental area [41] have developed a lysozyme-chitosan biocomposite for the effective removal of dyes and heavy metals from aqueous solutions. [42] have made antibacterial and ecologically correct membranes of chitosan and polyvinyl alcohol for air filtration. In the area of agriculture [43] chitosan nanoparticle delivery systems for sustainable agriculture and [44] biocompatible chitosan nanoparticles loaded with agrochemicals for pest management.
However, there is a great waste of chitosan in marine waste from processing industries, there has been a significant increase in recent years, due to modern seafood processing practices that result in the accumulation of a large volume of waste (skin, head, tails, shells, scales, spine). As the rate of biodegradation of this material is low because chitin is not soluble in water, this volume accumulates and consequently causing environmental impacts. [45, 46].
These marine residues are potential materials for extracting chitin and chitosan. This requires the recovery of chitosan present in these wastes. [47] extract and characterize the fish scale chitosan (Labeo rohita). While [48] make the extraction from abundant shrimp residues (exoskeleton - shells). Already [49] use as extraction source the blue crab. And [50] performed alkaline hydrolysis to recover the chitin and chitosan from the squid feather and used the residual water of this process to recover the proteins and evaluate the antioxidant action.
The challenge is to obtain materials with properties equivalent to fully synthetic products [45]. Since, in the preparation of films, for example, when only chitosan is used, there are disadvantages as poor mechanical and barrier properties due to the absorption of moisture [51]. The ideal would be to use materials that add these absent characteristics.
Starch can be found in many vegetables in the granule formula and its composition is basically from two polysaccharides: amylose (linear) and amylopectin (branched) [52]. It is one among foods that have significant energy source in the human diet. In addition to the use for consumption, the starch can be used for pharmaceutical and functional purposes and is widely used for its desirable physicochemical properties such as grain swelling, viscosity, gel formation capacity and water binding affinity [53].
The modification in the structure of starches is closely linked to the process of retrogradation, which generates a reorganization of the molecules present. Research on this phenomenon generally occurs in aqueous dispersions at different concentrations. Other factors that may be associated in the modification of starch are the disorganization and rupture of the granules, which occur in the presence of high temperatures [54].
When the starch is heated at a characteristic temperature called the gelatinization temperature (60–70°C) in aqueous solution, the swelling step of the grain occurs, where the amylose is solubilized. At temperatures lower than 100°C and without mechanical shear the granules have their integral structure and are characterized as viscoelastic [52].
In order to obtain improvements in starch properties, as well as to solve some problems, starch modification has occurred, that can occur genetically, physically, chemically or even enzymatically [55].
With genetically modified starches there are opportunities for starch production with improved functionality, for example with high levels of amylose and phosphates, with amylopectin short chains without the presence of amylose, and as properties one can mention stability to freezing and thawing [55].
As an example of physical modifications, high pressure homogenization has resulted in a physically modified starch having crystallinity reduction properties in the starch grain that could produce a hydrogel with stronger gel networks [56]. Modification by treatment of humidity and heat that generates interactions and new associations between the amylose and amylopectin structures, besides the ultrasound that can also be used as a physical method for the modification of starches [57].
Among the chemical modifications it is important to mention acid hydrolysis, acetylation, esterification, double modification and oxidation. The purpose of the chemical modification is to replace a new functional group that would add desired properties to the starch [58].
The modification of starch through enzymes mainly involves the use of hydrolyzing enzymes, an important aspect is that the enzyme must be free of components that can cause damage to starch molecules [39].
The starch after conversion into thermoplastic presents itself as an alternative for the replacement of polymers of fossil origin, mainly in relation to the properties and biodegradability of the final product. Further, on starch thermoplastic studies show that the higher proportion of amylose to amylopectin provides more flexibility and makes it even more thermoplastic [59].
Since starch can come from a variety of plant sources, it is therefore comprehensive and has high availability, recent studies highlight the use of this biopolymer through alternative sources such as starch recovery or reuse of waste in various applications, such as residual starch from the milling process, or maize residues to obtain bioethanol [60, 61] and applications as biodegradable films as shown in Table 2.
Author | Objective of study |
---|---|
[60] | To evaluate ethanol production by Zymomonas mobilis ZM4 and an industrial ethanol producing strain of Saccharomyces cerevisiae using as substrate residual starch of wet flour milling, supplemented with crushed wheat grains, with subsequent hydrolysis. |
[61] | The residue flow of potato starch produced during chip manufacturing was used as an economical source to produce biomass and bioethanol by Saccharomyces cerevisiae. |
[62] | Production of biodegradable films based on thermoplastic corn starch and starch extraction residues from Pachyrhizus ahipa. |
[63] | Mechanical and chemical treatment of turmeric residue, aiming application in the production of films with improved properties. |
[64] | Extraction and characterization of pineapple stems using common mechanical extraction with water. |
[65] | The production of ethanol using as raw material an agroindustrial residue rich in complex starches, called thippi, which after combined treatment with steam and enzymatic hydrolysis, was subjected to mixed culture fermentation. |
[66] | Recovery of mixed biopolymers composed of starch and curcuminoids from the extraction of supercritical fluid and pressurized liquid. |
Studies from recovered starch.
Proteins are polymers of natural origin, consisting of peptide bonds, the result of hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds and cross-links between amines that can originate from plant or animal material [67]. Some examples of proteins that are used as substitution of polymers of petroleum origin are: soy protein, casein, collagen and some others not so used, as wheat gluten and ovalbumin, due to the low availability of the material [68].
Collagen is a natural protein present in animals and is responsible for ensuring the structure that supports the skin and organs. Beyond the skins, it can be found in bones, cartilage and some other structures. Formed by amino acids, the collagen is structured by a helix triple consisting of proline, hydroxyproline and glycine molecules [69].
The origin of this collagen can be derived from residues from slaughterhouses, as well as from fishing activities [70]. The volume of waste from these activities can generate high environmental impact, since there is very little reuse on them. Thus, their destination is usually for landfills, or mostly, in irregular deposits in nature, contributing to contamination of soil and water resources. The high volume and little reuse can be justified by the leftovers during the processing of the raw material and low commercial value of the by-products generated.
Collagen, in its natural form, has little application. Therefore, one chooses to extract the gelatin present in its composition for use. In order to obtain the gelatin, it is necessary for the collagen to undergo a hydrolysis process (acidic, alkaline or enzymatic), associated with high temperatures, to break the covalent bonds, releasing the gelatin molecules, through denaturation of the helix triple. After cooling the solution, the chains absorb the water, forming gelatin [69].
Gelatin is the result of water-soluble proteins, that after extraction, can be purified and concentrated, eliminating some salts or undesirable substances contained in its structure that may compromise its application. This is another factor that may imply its applicability, generating a water absorption in the material larger than the desired one. Depending on the origin of the residue, salts such as chromium and sodium can be found (residues of leather trimmings, for example). The presence of magnesium and chlorine can be observed due to alkaline or acidic hydrolysis, respectively, that was employed in the gelatin extraction process.
Collagen and gelatin are considered good materials for application in several areas, including medical, pharmaceutical and cosmetic areas [71]. For application in the health area, purification should be more complex, involving filtration steps, generally carried out by ultrafiltration membranes.
For the food area, as referred in films for food coating, gelatin extracted from fish waste (bone and cartilage) can be used without contraindications, however gelatin extracted from tanning waste leather is not allowed for use by legislation, due to chrome remnants that exist in the solution. Gelatin from leather residue can be reused to produce films for soil cover [72]. Studies on the use of this polymer for cover application have been increasing, due to the fact of the optimum biodegradability of the material.
For the leather waste there are also other alternatives, besides the use for extraction of gelatin. Many authors have studied its use as fertilizer, due to its high potential for containing nitrogen content in its composition [73]. For use as fertilizers, the residue can be treated by adding more essential mineral salts to the soil with phosphorus and potassium.
Soybean is the main grain marketed in the world and is used in many processes to obtain different consumer goods. Because it is widely applied in the industry, it is also capable of generating a lot of waste. Soybean meal, considered as a by-product of the extraction of oil contained in grain for food production or biofuel, is mainly destined for animal feed [74].
Protein isolate from soybean has been the subject of many studies. Despite its high protein content, its reuse is restricted due to its high stiffness and low water resistance [75]. Materials that use soy protein have great potential for replacement of polymers of fossil origin. It can be used as an adhesive for food coatings, as packaging for use in horticulture, guaranteeing its function as both container and fertilizer [76].
When used as a base for packaging manufacture, the soy protein isolate has good advantages such as biodegradability and good gas barrier property. However, its low tensile strength makes its application difficult [77].
Techniques such as coatings and crosslinking are applied to the polymer matrix, resulting in a material with improved mechanical properties, as well as increasing the shelf life of the film.
The coating, when employed, provides low water permeability, while the crosslinking technique provides better mechanical properties when compared to the coating. In addition, it can be seen that the amount of hydrophilic groups is reduced.
Although it is shown as a more efficient technique, the crosslinking uses agents that can present certain toxicity, limiting its application in the food industry [75]. Thus, it is sought to use biological macromolecular materials, such as starch, chitosan, cellulose, for the formation of films [78].
Casein is the protein found in milk, of high nutritional value. It can be found in one of the residues that in recent years have generated many problems for dairy products: whey. Despite this being used in dairy production with its due treatment, was once considered as a by-product in the food industry.
Casein can be used in films for food coatings and pharmaceuticals, its main application despite the few studies on its excellent characteristics such as biodegradability, thermal stability and non-toxicity translate a high value-added material for use in drugs. Despite these advantages, the mechanical strength of the material is still quite limited [79, 80].
Even with promising trends for applicability, biodegradable polymers obtained from renewable sources present some disadvantages, such as low mechanical properties, rapid degradation rate, high hydrophilic capacity, and in some cases, poor mechanical properties, especially in humid environments, rendering their application unviable [81, 82].
In this context divergent opinions arise about the acceptability of biodegradable polymers in industry. While some believe in their potential to replace petroleum polymers, others presume that their shortcomings, both in technical and economic aspects, hinder their rapid adoption, at least in the near future [83].
The challenge is to obtain materials with properties equivalent to synthetic products [45]. To achieve this objective, different techniques are studied to promote modifications of biodegradable polymers, as shown in Table 3.
Author | Material studied | Aim of the study/Results obtained |
---|---|---|
[84] | Cellulose | Evaluation of the mechanical barrier, and interfacial properties of Methylcellulose (MC) films reinforced Poly (caprolactone)-based biodegradable films. It was found that MC film contributed to the improvement of mechanical properties of the composites. It was found that the methylcellulose film acted as a satisfactory reinforcing agent, contributing to the improvement of the mechanical and oxygen barrier properties of the composites for packaging applications. |
[85] | Simultaneously achieve impact strength and bending properties (flexural strength and tensile strength) by improving the impact strength of modified cardanol (PAA) -bound cellulose diacetate (CDA) by adding flexible resins. In conclusion, the impact resistance of PAA-bound CDA was dramatically increased by the addition of a small amount of olefinic resins (polyethylene and polypropylene). | |
[86] | Chitosan | Evaluation of the effects of adding the silicone liquid rubber to formulations of chitosan and alginate membranes both with and without silver-containing antimicrobial agent, to improve the overall mechanical properties of the dressings. It found that membranes containing the silicone rubber had a more homogeneous appearance and adequate flexibility and adhesiveness, increasing in tensile strength, both with and without the antimicrobial agent. In addition, the membranes without the antimicrobial agent resulted in a decrease in absorption of all physiological solutions tested. |
[87] | Chitosan and gelatin | Development chitosan/gelatin composite films embedded with various amounts of wool nanoparticles. In conclusion, it was found that incorporation of wool nanoparticles into chitosan/gelatin composite led to a reduction in swelling, moisture content, dissolution degree and degradation rate of the films. However, tensile strength and elongation at break decreased upon loading the films with wool nanoparticles. |
[88] | Starch | Incorporation of saturated fatty acids in the development of films made of starch and the biodegradable synthetic polymer poly (butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT), concluding that the incorporation of saturated fatty acids until 12 carbon atoms reduces the permeability to water vapor and improves the mechanical properties of films made of starch, glycerol, and PBAT produced by extrusion, contributing to the formation of a cohesive and homogeneous polymer matrix. |
[89] | Investigation of polyol mixtures including glycerol as plasticizer and high molecular weight polyol such as xylitol, sorbitol and maltitol used to plasticize corn starch, it being understood that the extra addition of high molecular weight polyol together with glycerol favored an improvement of the thermal stability and mechanical strength of the starch composite. | |
[90] | Verification of the influence of starch oxidation with sodium periodate on the functionality of active films based on gelatin and starch, obtaining an improvement in the properties of strength and barrier to water vapor and oxygen, reducing the water absorption capacity. | |
[91] | Evaluation of the effect of irradiation on the physicochemical properties, rheological and in vitro digestibility of the Kithul starch (Caryota urens). Concluded that the irradiation decreased the pH, swelling index, amylose and moisture content of the starch, increasing the content of carboxylic acid, acidity and solubility. | |
[92] | Characterization of rice starch gels reinforced with enzymatically produced resistant starch, resulting in an increase in the gel strength of about 60%, while cohesion decreased and the elasticity remained stable. | |
[93, 94] | Gelatin | Crosslinking induced by the enzyme transglutaminase in gelatin films, evidencing improvements in the physical, chemical and mechanical properties of the films. |
[95] | Casein and soybean | Development and characterization of novel meltable polymers and composites based on casein and soybean proteins. In addition to the investigation of the effect of inert (Al2O3) and bioactive (tricalcium phosphate) ceramic reinforcements on the mechanical performance, water absorption and bioactivity behavior of injection molded thermoplastics, aiming at biomedical applications. And concluding that thermoplastics developed on the basis of casein and soy protein present an adequate range of mechanical properties and degradation as well as a bioactive character (especially when reinforced with bone-like ceramics) that may possibly allow its use as biomaterials in medicine. |
Studies to improve the properties of biopolymers.
This chapter addressed a theoretical review of the opportunities and challenges of biopolymers, considering aspects such as generation and use of waste, sustainability and properties that make their applicability unfeasible.
In addition, it is necessary to continue the studies aimed at improving the poor properties of biopolymers, in order to contribute directly to scientific knowledge, ensuring sustainability, environmental preservation and consequently future generations.
This work was supported by the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Rio Grande do Sul (FAPERGS) and University of Passo Fundo (UPF) for space and research support.
Culture in public sector organizations varies in its dimensions. Organizations comprise people. People are divided into nation-states and are variably exposed to different things such as events and information, which help form their own beliefs, values, and attitudes. These differences in beliefs, values, and attitudes result in different cultural practices, which in turn get a reflection in the organizations of their respective societies. Within a society, different subgroups exist with distinct beliefs and practices. The different generational cohorts within a society become exposed to things, technologies, and events that are particular to their own time. Therefore, subgroups within a society develop thinking and behaviors that may be considered distinct. The societal general culture and subcultures affect the cultural beliefs and practices of the organizations of society.
It is generally taken for granted that culture motivates the employees of an organization to behave in a particular way. Not much research is done on how culture affects the performance of organizations. The limited number of studies investigating the cultural influence on performance reports the linkage to be positive [1, 2]. In some other contexts, despite deliberate efforts, in the public sector, organizations have shown indifference to the adoption of the prescribed culture [3]. In spite of the influences from the new public management tools, public sector organizations tend to be internal-oriented rather than being external-oriented [4]. Organizations can develop the practice of subculture, which can be considered a management technique [2, 5].
This chapter focuses on the cultural practices of the frontline bureaucrats in Bangladesh. The few studies conducted on the bureaucratic culture in Bangladesh are different from the current one in their focuses and methodologies. Jamil [6] conducted a survey in December 1992 and January 1993 on 161 bureaucrats working in both the central level administration and the field level administration and found that the bureaucrats inculcate power distance, uncertainty avoidance tendency, and are less participatory in their decision-making process. Haque and Mohammad [7], analyzing the historical accounts, relevant literature, and their observations, concluded that the prevalence of pervasive corruption in the Bangladeshi bureaucracy could be explained in terms of the existence of some culture dimensions in the public administration. Conducting 40 qualitative semi-structured interviews with bureaucrats from the central and field administration, Rahman [8] found that the bureaucrats suffer from indecision over maintaining political neutrality and political responsiveness. Zafarullah [9] found in his study of bureaucratic culture in Bangladesh that the bureaucrats support clientelism and self-preservation and oppose change initiatives. Based on personal experience and review of literature, Rashid [10] concluded that bureaucrats had less engagement with members of the civil society and non-government organizations.
The above studies had a limitation in terms of their sample size and sampling process. This study covered a larger sample chosen from the field administration only. It investigated how four dimensions of organizational culture were practiced by the frontline bureaucrats. There are two broad types of bureaucrats in the public services of the country—cadre services and non-cadre services. Recruitment, training, and mobility of the bureaucrats of these two categories are different. Therefore, how the two groups of frontline bureaucrats differ in practicing culture dimensions of power distance, uncertainty avoidance, participation, and team orientation had remained unexplored, and this has been the main objective of this study. The second section discusses how organizational culture is understood, followed by a discussion on culture dimensions in the third section. The fourth section discusses the relevance of the four dimensions of organizational culture to frontline bureaucracies, followed by a short section introducing frontline bureaucrats in Bangladesh in the fifth section. The sixth and seventh sections discuss the methods followed and the findings of the study, respectively. The last two sections present a discussion on the findings and conclusion of the study.
Hofstede, Hofstede, and Minkov [11] described culture as a “mental programming” or “software of the mind.” It is shared patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting. Therefore, it is always a collective phenomenon. The patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting differentiate one group of people from others. Thus, culture is “the collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from others” ([11] p. 6). The patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting come from the unwritten rules of the social game. The understanding of culture given by Hofstede et al. [11] is similar to that of Pettigrew ([12], p. 574), who defined it as a “system of such publicly and collectively accepted meanings operating for a given group at a given time” and provides “a general sense of orientation” to the group.
O’Reilly, Chatman, and Caldwell [13] have argued that organizational culture as a concept has a long history and goes back to early sociological studies of the early 1950s. It received prominence in the 1980s. Hofstede, Neuijen, Ohayv, and Sanders [14] found no consensus on the definition of the concept. However, they identified several characteristics of organizational culture. Organizational culture is: (1) holistic, (2) historically determined, (3) related to anthropological concepts, (4) socially constructed, (5) soft, and (6) difficult to change. Schein ([15], p. 111) published an article defining organizational culture as “(1) a pattern of basic assumptions, (2) invented, discovered, developed by a given group, (3) as it learns to cope with its problems of external adaptation and internal integration, (4) that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore (5) is to be taught to new members as the (6) correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to these problems.” Schein [15] identified three levels of organizational culture: (1) artifacts, (2) values, and (3) assumptions. However, Hofstede et al. [14], in their study, found that shared perceptions of daily practices rather than shared values represent the core of an organization’s culture.
Organizational culture has also been described as an administrative culture or bureaucratic culture or corporate culture. Jamil [6] argued that there is something additional in an administrative culture than can be found in organizational culture. This additional item is politics. Most culture studies focus on the private organization where politics is not an issue of interest. These studies look at the internal context of an organization. Any framework for understanding administrative culture has to incorporate politics, i.e. how bureaucrats interact with politics and society as a whole. Jamil’s [6] arguments obtain strength from the fact that the mission of public sector organizations significantly differs from that of private sector organizations. Most public sector organizations are not profit-making and do not rely on profits for their existence.
In contrast, private sector organizations are profit-oriented and rely on profits for their existence. Public sector organizations cannot avoid politics because they execute the government’s policies. There is a subtle nuance between the usages of the concepts of “bureaucratic culture” and “corporate culture.” The concept of bureaucratic culture refers to the values and practices in public sector organizations, while corporate culture usually refers to private sector organizations.
Whatever the characteristics or levels of organizational culture are, it is a “powerful force” in an organization [3] and immensely affects the well-being and success of an organization. It is described as the glue that holds the organization together [16]. The culture encourages the members in the organization to behave similarly. It impacts how well the organization will function. Rong and Hongwei [17] argue that organizational culture stems from the social culture and works as an “invisible hand” in public sector management. This hand is relatively stable but transforms itself in the long run in line with social change.
Lloyd [18] found that there are debates about what organizational culture is. Some believe it as what an organization “is” and others believe that it is what an organization “has.” However, both arguments converge in the belief that culture is something to be made up of such concepts as beliefs, assumptions, and values. Values have received prominence in the definitions of organizational culture. Values are defined as a criterion using which one tends to prefer certain states of affairs over others. Beliefs are something that one considers as truth. The learned linkage between beliefs and values becomes attitudes. When the values, beliefs, and attitudes become so entrenched in an organization that they are no longer doubted or debated, they become assumptions. These values, beliefs, and assumptions are shared among the members of the organizations. Hofstede et al. [14] in a cross-organization study of 20 organizations in two countries found that practices rather than values play a major role. Organizational cultures are acquired on the job and are exchangeable when one takes a new job. While social cultures reside in values, organizational cultures reside in practices. These practices are visible and consciously carried out.
Organizational culture is not a one-dimensional concept. Culture researchers have found different dimensions in organizational culture. Hofstede et al. [14] in their cross-organization study have identified six dimensions of organizational culture with respect to the practices where organizations differ. These dimensions are (1) process orientation vs. results orientation, (2) employee orientation vs. job orientation, (3) parochialism vs. professionalism, (4) open system vs. closed system, (5) loose control vs. tight control, and (6) normative vs. pragmatic. They argue that these dimensions may not be universally valid or sufficient. Organizational cultures in different contexts may require additional dimensions or some of the identified six dimensions may seem less useful. Along with these six practice dimensions of organizational culture, they also identified three value dimensions, which are (1) the need for security (uncertainty avoidance), (2) work centrality (job involvement), and (3) the need for authority (power distance).
The first practice dimension of organizational culture in Hofstede et al.’s [14] study opposes a concern for means to a concern for goals. They equate this contrast with the distinction made between the mechanistic and organic management systems of Burns and Stalker [19]. With a process or mechanistic orientation, an organization tends to focus on technical improvements of means rather than the accomplishment of ends. An organic system tends to focus on concern as a whole. The second practice dimension opposes concern for the employees to concern for the job to be done. In the third practice dimension, a contrast is made between the identification of the employees deriving from the organization (parochial) and the type of job (professionalism). The fourth dimension focuses on the tendency of the organization to respond to its environment. The fifth practice dimension shows the contrasts in the internal structuring of an organization. The sixth practice dimension shows how an organization is oriented toward its customers. A normative organization looks at its task toward its customers as the implementation of inviolable rules. A pragmatic organization tends to stay close to its customers. The authors distinguish results orientation from customer orientation in that “trying to serve the customer does not automatically imply a results orientation” ([14], p. 304).
Ghosh and Srivastava [20] noted that the concept of organizational culture has been interpreted differently and not all complement or converge. After reviewing a sample of the literature on the instruments used in survey studies of organizational culture, the authors concluded that no two instruments were alike, and no two instruments shared a common theoretical basis. These authors reported that Ashkanasy, Wilderom, and Peterson [21] and Wilderom, Glunk, and Maslowski [22] had studied 18 culture measure questionnaires published between 1975 and 1992 and 10 empirical culture research studies respectively. Both studies found great variation in the definition and operationalization of organizational culture and its dimensions.
Ghosh and Srivastava [20], based on Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s [23] model, identified seven dimensions of organizational culture: (1) participation, (2) respect for individual, (3) attitude to risk, (4) attention orientation, (5) trust, (6) openness, and (7) power distance. Schein [15] in attempting to understand the content of a culture identifies some of its dimensions and presents questions to be asked regarding each dimension. Answers to these questions will identify the content of that culture, but he cautions about the danger of over-generalizing the dimensions.
Harrison and Baird [3] compared the organizational culture of public sector organizations in Australia with that of private sector organizations using O’Reilly et al.’s [13] organizational culture profile (OCP) and by focusing on five dimensions: (1) outcome orientation, (2) respect for people, (3) attention to detail, (4) team orientation, and (5) innovation. O’Reilly et al. [13] developed the OCP in order to quantitatively assess organizational culture in their study examining the person-culture fit and its implications for work attitudes and behaviors. These researchers carried out two types of factor analyses—for the individual and as organizational profiles. The first analysis produced eight dimensions of an organization’s culture: (1) innovation and risk-taking, (2) attention to detail, (3) orientation toward outcome or results, (4) aggressiveness and competitiveness, (5) supportiveness, (6) emphasis on growth and rewards, (7) a collaborative and team orientation, and (8) decisiveness. The second analysis produced seven dimensions: (1) innovation, (2) stability, (3) respect for people, (4) outcome orientation, (5) attention to detail, (6) team orientation, and (7) aggressiveness. Denison and Mishra [1] used four organizational traits—involvement, adaptability, consistency, and mission—in their research to determine the relationship between organizational culture and organizational performance.
Jamil [6] studied bureaucratic culture in the context of Bangladesh in order to determine the dominant type of culture and its consequences and also to identify the bearers of administrative subcultures. He noted that most studies on organizational culture have dealt with private sector organizations. He argued that public sector organizations are different from the private sector ones in that politics play a major role in the public sector organizations. Any study about public sector organizational culture has to take into account its external context, that is, its relationship with politics and the society in general.
Jamil [6] argued that bureaucrats’ attitudes in the external context could be typified in terms of their relationships to politics and relationships to citizens and civil society. In the case of the first typology, Jamil [6] argued, borrowing from Putnam [24], that bureaucrats can be classified into classical or political. Classical bureaucrats are procedure-oriented or rule-oriented, whereas political bureaucrats are problem-oriented or program-oriented. In the case of the second typology, bureaucrats can be universal or clientelistic. Universal bureaucrats believe in impartial applications of rules, which in Weberian terms are called the rational-legal type. Clientelism, on the other hand, serves in return for patronage and a power base. A recent development in the bureaucrat-citizen relationship has revealed that citizens are considered as customers in Western nations and as subjects in developing countries.
In the internal context, bureaucrats’ attitudes, Jamil [6] continued, can vary in specific characteristics such as power distance, uncertainty avoidance, guiding decision-making, and preferred employees. Power distance is a character that affects the decision-making behavior of bureaucrats. Where power distance is high, top bureaucrats take decisions, and lower bureaucrats carry out them. Where power distance is low, superiors and subordinates make consultations to take decisions.
According to Jamil [6], uncertainty avoidance is another character that affects decision-making behavior as well. Bureaucrats with a high tendency toward uncertainty avoidance tend to follow the rules and regulations strictly and do not take risks. Contrarily, a low tendency toward uncertainty avoidance encourages them to take risks in terms of bending or breaking the rules.
Bureaucrats need information for making decisions. Jamil [6] argued that the nature of the decision-making structure affects information search behavior. A top-down or hierarchic type of decision-making structure leads bureaucrats to limit their information search within its boundaries, their superiors, colleagues, or juniors. However, a collegial structure of decision-making leads bureaucrats to search beyond its boundaries, that is, politicians; citizens; academic, economic, and voluntary organizations.
Another characteristic of bureaucratic decision-making, where bureaucrats differ in their attitudes, Jamil [6] argued, is preferred employees. The attribute of preferred employees argues that the employees for an organization should be chosen considering their social values and cultural characteristics. The social values and the cultural characteristics of the chosen employees should benefit the organization.
A comparison of the dimensions of the organizational culture identified by the different studies is presented in Table 1. It reveals that scholars do not agree in identifying common cultural dimensions. However, some of them agree with some of the dimensions. Some other dimensions are given different names by different authors.
Frontline bureaucracies—also known as street-level bureaucracies—are located at the bottom of the governmental pyramid. The citizens experience their government through the frontline bureaucracies because these are the service providing windows of the government. Therefore, the cultural practice of the frontline bureaucrats is of paramount importance to the government. Alom [26] identified four culture dimensions that affect transparency and accountability behaviors of the frontline bureaucrats. These culture dimensions are power distance, uncertainty avoidance tendency, participation, and team orientation. One of the critical features of good governance is accountability, which comes through transparency. In this sense, the four culture dimensions affect good governance the most.
Most frontline bureaucracies bear two common characteristics—they enjoy discretion but suffer from resources. The resource limitation characteristic may vary from context to context based on economic development of the countries, but discretion has been reported to exist irrespective of the level of economic development. Discretion is a structural feature, while resources are issues of an endowment. Therefore, these are not cultural factors. However, these factors in interaction with the cultural beliefs and practices—power distance, uncertainty avoidance, participation, and team orientation—may impact on the good governance practices of the frontline bureaucrats. A brief discussion of these four cultural beliefs and practices is given below.
Power Distance: Power distance is the tendency to accept inequality among ranks in the system [14]. Bureaucrats, in socially backward contexts such as Bangladesh, believe that they are socially superior, and they are not accountable to the service seekers. They protect this power position. Therefore, any reform initiatives that are directed to change this power position are not acceptable to them or at least will hinder the implementation of such initiatives [27, 28]. Redistribution of power in a social structure that has traditionally practiced a patron-client relationship among its members is particularly problematic. Bureaucrats that possess power distance in relation to their clients will also possess the same in their organizational structure. Rong and Hongwei [17] suggested that organizational culture stems from social cultures. Jamil’s [6] study supports this argument. He found that the traditions from the samaj (society as a whole) and the British colonial administration dominate bureaucratic culture in Bangladesh. The samaj and the colonial traditions maintain a hierarchical or patron-client social structure. The influence of these traditions is reflected in the bureaucracy in the form of high power distance. Therefore, high power distance supports a hierarchical power structure in the organization as well as in society.
Uncertainty Avoidance: Bureaucrats do not want to be in uncomfortable situations. In other words, they like to avoid situations or avoid anything that may create situations, putting them in trouble or discomfort. They want to be certain that any action committed by them will not bring them discomfort. According to Zafarullah ([9], p. 936), “The civil service in Bangladesh has shown an extraordinary predilection to hang on to the established rather than readily accepting change in its status, structure, functions, and norms of engagement with extra-bureaucratic instruments.” The bureaucrats are “more at ease operating in a familiar environment employing conventional practices than embracing anything new or different” ([9], p. 936).
Participation: Participation is allowing those in the decision-making process for whom decisions are being made. In other words, it refers to the quality, quantity, and diversity of input from the stakeholders in government decisions [29]. Organizations that are under stronger influence from external stakeholders are likely to exhibit a higher level of participation. In Jamil’s [6] language, this type of participation is guiding decisions, that is, how the decisions of the bureaucrats are guided. Do the frontline bureaucrats consult with their stakeholders, that is, politicians; citizens; and business and voluntary organizations? A bureaucrat’s attitude toward the level of interaction with its stakeholders regarding the decision-making process influences the practice of participation.
Team Orientation: Practice of teamwork increases productivity in organizations. A team is a group of individuals who share their responsibilities to accomplish their shared goals [30]. Group members have discretion in deciding how to carry out tasks and allocate tasks among themselves [31]. Team orientation is a dimension of organizational culture identified by Schein [15] and O’Reilly et al. [13] and has been used by Harrison and Baird [3] in their research. Hierarchical structures in public bureaucracies work as barriers to team building. A public sector organization is a “machine bureaucracy” that needs to change its hierarchically controlled managerial culture into “a coaching environment” where the individuals will appreciate “interpersonal needs and the benefits of intuition and creativity” (Lovell [32], p. 403).
The frontline public bureaucracy in Bangladesh represents the characteristics of the overall public service of the country. These characteristics descended from the British colonial administration and the post-colonial administration of Pakistan. Bangladesh was liberated from Pakistan through a liberation war in 1971. Considering the recruitment, training, and mobility of the bureaucrats, one characteristic of the public services in Bangladesh has been that they are divided into cadre and non-cadre services. The cadre services have distinct hierarchy and specified functions—specialized and generalized [33]. The members of these services belong to the Bangladesh Civil Service (BCS) who are recruited by the Public Service Commission (PSC) through highly competitive examinations. They are hired as Assistant Secretary or equivalent and can move to the Senior Secretary position through promotions. They can move from one department to another. On the other hand, members of the non-cadre services are recruited to particular departments and do not have a definite structure of mobility horizontally and vertically [34]. They need to serve within the department to which they are recruited. These bureaucrats have limited training opportunity throughout their service life. The frontline bureaucracy of Bangladesh has officials from both cadre and non-cadre services, but the size of the former category is smaller than the later.
Data for this study were collected from sub-district level frontline bureaucrats in Bangladesh using a survey questionnaire. Bangladesh had 488 sub-districts at the time of data collection. Twenty-nine sub-districts were chosen using a multistage sampling technique. From each of the selected sub-districts, 16 pre-decided office heads out of around 25 were given the questionnaire to fill out. The 16 office heads were chosen because they were perceived by practitioners as the frontline bureaucracies that had most interactions with citizens. Seven of these 16 offices are headed by cadre officials, and the rest nine offices are headed by non-cadre officials.
For data collection, the researcher traveled to the respondents. It was not possible to return with all filled-out questionnaires all the time. Therefore, questionnaires were left with the offices of those respondents where they were not available in their offices. It was not possible to contact each of these office heads before going to their offices. Instead, the chief executive officer (UNO) of the sub-district was contacted before going to that particular sub-district. The UNO office in a sub-district carries some importance because it plays a coordinating role among all the offices of the sub-district. After going to a sub-district, help from officials from the UNO office was obtained sometimes in distributing and collecting the questionnaires. Thus, the UNO office was used as the first contact point.
After going to a sub-district, this researcher went to each of the 16 selected offices in the sub-district. Where the office head was present, this researcher requested him or her to fill out the survey questionnaire. Where the office head was not present, his/her contact cell phone number was collected from the other officials of the office. Then the office head was contacted over the phone and requested to fill out the survey questionnaire when he/she was available in the office and was requested either to send the filled out questionnaire to the UNO office or the postal address of this researcher. In most cases, an envelope (with postage stamp) was left with the postal address of the researcher written on it.
Around 40% of the survey questionnaires, on average, were collected directly by the researcher. Some filled out questionnaires came directly from the respondents through the postal service. The remaining questionnaires were submitted to the UNO office, or the officials of the UNO office collected them from the other offices and then sent them together to the researcher through postal service. Altogether, 329 questionnaires were collected for the study out of the sample of 456. This constituted a response rate of 72.15%. However, three questionnaires were rejected because two of them had more than 50% items unanswered, and one was a duplicate. The duplication happened because one officer was in charge of two offices. That official filled out two questionnaires. Thus, one of these two questionnaires was rejected. Finally, data from 326 questionnaires were entered into the SPSS program. Demographic information of the respondents is presented in Table 2.
Demographic information of respondent (% in parenthesis).
The questionnaire had items taken from validated instruments to measure each of the cultural dimensions. Each item had a four-point scale which varied from “always” to “never” or “agree” to “disagree.” A five-item scale was constructed based on Jamil [6] to measure power distance. The items were: (1) I seek my subordinates’ opinions before making a decision; (2) My subordinates suggest me ideas about my office work; (3) Confident subordinates in my office disagree with my decisions; (4) I tell my subordinates what decisions are to be taken; and (5) When I am confident, I disagree with my higher authority. To measure uncertainty avoidance, a four-item scale was developed based on Jamil [6] which were: (1) I emphasize results more than following routines, procedures to the point; (2) I feel nervous about satisfying my higher authority with my work; (3) I look for the best alternative even if it goes beyond routines, and procedures; (4) I expect my higher authority to tell me if I am doing a good job. Participation was measured using a four-item scale developed following theoretical arguments. The items were: (1) My office should serve citizens according to their preferences; (2) Officers can learn nothing from service seekers; (3) My office should seek feedback from service recipients about their satisfaction; and (4) Service seekers should not advise us on what to do. Based on Harrison and Baird [3], a four-item scale was used to measure team orientation. The items were: (1) Working in teams can produce better results; (2) We should help each other in our office work; (3) Sometimes subordinates can give better opinions than superiors; (4) Subordinates should not disagree with the superior’s opinion.
Results of two independent samples t-tests and descriptive statistics of group differences in the means of the culture dimensions practiced by the cadre and non-cadre officials are presented in Table 3. Power distance in non-cadre officials is higher than in cadre officials. The difference is significant at 0.10 level of significance. Concerning uncertainty avoidance, the non-cadre officials again have a significantly higher tendency to avoid uncertainty compared to the cadre officials. The cadre officials’ mean score in the participation culture dimension is significantly higher than the mean score of the non-cadre officials. This finding is indicative of the cadre officials’ higher tendency to accommodate stakeholders in decision-making processes. With regard to team orientation, the mean score of cadre officials is also significantly higher than the non-cadre officials. Therefore, cadre officials possess a higher mentality of teamwork compared to non-cadre officials.
Results of t-test and descriptive statistics for culture dimensions by cadre.
The four culture dimensions influence the daily works of the frontline bureaucrats. Generally, power distance within an office context is an extension of the power distance that prevails in society. High power distance among the employees of an organization contributes to the fortification of its formal and rigid hierarchical structure. The cadre officials of the frontline bureaucracies inculcate this culture slightly less than the non-cadre officials and both scores are slightly lower than the average of the scale. Jamil [6] reported the existence of higher power distance in the cadre officials in general (central and frontline bureaucrats). Power distance in this study shows scores lower than the average (2.5 points on the scale of 4). Therefore, this culture has not changed much.
The culture of uncertainty avoidance tendency negatively affects the achievement of the targeted results of an organization. It bars officials from taking initiatives of innovation. Strict enforcement of bureaucratic procedures, in some contexts, may not fetch the desired results. Therefore, officials need to apply their discretion and take some risks, which might bring them some uncertainty. Generally, everyone wants to remain in his comfort zone. In public service delivery, when facing the complexity of local contexts, frontline bureaucrats need to come out of their comfort zones sometimes. This study found high uncertainty tendency in the frontline bureaucrats. The non-cadre officials have a greater tendency to avoid uncertainty than the cadre officials. High level of uncertainty avoidance tendency among the bureaucrats in Bangladesh was reported by Jamil [6], and the current scenario does not show any change.
Participation in this research was used to mean bureaucrats’ citizen-orientation, that is, their attitude toward feedback from citizens. The frontline bureaucrats directly deliver services to the citizens. Their understanding of the expectations of the citizens can equip them with appropriate services. The findings of this study show that the frontline bureaucrats have a very high tendency to get feedback from the citizens. Again the cadre officials are ahead of the non-cadre ones. This finding is also similar to that of Jamil [6].
The frontline bureaucrats show a positive attitude toward teamwork. The score of cadre officials is higher than the non-cadre officials. These frontline bureaucrats work in their offices with limited resources. They face huge workloads as well. These workloads happen because of two reasons. One reason is that the demand for services is very high. Bangladesh is a populous country. So these bureaucrats face more service seekers than the ideal size. The second reason is that many of the sanctioned positions in the frontline bureaucracies remain vacant. Therefore, the bureaucrats from within an organization need to cooperate among themselves through teamwork.
Organizational culture is difficult to change without a deliberate effort. In the public sector organizations, this change is even harder to bring. The bureaucrats are rule followers and change-resistant. They remain to be in their comfort zones. Bringing desired changes in the practice of culture will require conscious and deliberate efforts. These efforts may include education, training, and social campaign. The difference in the scores in the dimensions of culture practiced by the cadre and non-cadre bureaucrats can be attributed to the different outlook they develop through their participation in social events. Although both groups of bureaucrats come from the same social context, they become exposed to different social events. One obvious social event is training. The cadre bureaucrats take part in different long- and short-term training programs even at the very beginning of their services. The non-cadre bureaucrats hardly get any training. The second social factor is that the cadre bureaucrats, because of their mobility, attend various seminars and workshops on governance issues, which help them change their mindset. This scope is limited to the non-cadre bureaucrats.
This research had limitations. The items used to measure the culture dimensions in this research match the research context. The measurement tools might be different in other contexts. Future researchers can investigate why the cadre and non-cadre officials differ significantly in their organizational culture.
IntechOpen implements a robust policy to minimize and deal with instances of fraud or misconduct. As part of our general commitment to transparency and openness, and in order to maintain high scientific standards, we have a well-defined editorial policy regarding Retractions and Corrections.
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\\n\\n3.1. ERRATUM
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\\n\\nA published Erratum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\\n\\n3.2. CORRIGENDUM
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\\n\\n4. FINAL REMARKS
\\n\\nIntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
\\n\\nIn the case of Retraction or removal of the Work, the publisher will be under no obligation to refund the APC.
\\n\\nThe general principles set out above apply to Retractions and Corrections issued in all IntechOpen publications.
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen’s Retraction and Correction Policy has been developed in accordance with the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) publication guidelines relating to scientific misconduct and research ethics:
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\n\nA Retraction of a Chapter will be issued by the Academic Editor, either following an Author’s request to do so or when there is a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct. Upon receipt of a report by a 3rd party, the Academic Editor will investigate any allegations of scientific misconduct, working in cooperation with the Author(s) and their institution(s).
\n\nA formal Retraction will be issued when there is clear and conclusive evidence of any of the following:
\n\nPublishing of a Retraction Notice will adhere to the following guidelines:
\n\n1.2. REMOVALS AND CANCELLATIONS
\n\n2. STATEMENTS OF CONCERN
\n\nA Statement of Concern detailing alleged misconduct will be issued by the Academic Editor or publisher following a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct when:
\n\nIntechOpen believes that the number of occasions on which a Statement of Concern is issued will be very few in number. In all cases when such a decision has been taken by the Academic Editor the decision will be reviewed by another editor to whom the author can make representations.
\n\n3. CORRECTIONS
\n\nA Correction will be issued by the Academic Editor when:
\n\n3.1. ERRATUM
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\n\n3.2. CORRIGENDUM
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\n\n4. FINAL REMARKS
\n\nIntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
\n\nIn the case of Retraction or removal of the Work, the publisher will be under no obligation to refund the APC.
\n\nThe general principles set out above apply to Retractions and Corrections issued in all IntechOpen publications.
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