NEP and chemical OTV design parameters.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"},{slug:"intechopen-identified-as-one-of-the-most-significant-contributor-to-oa-book-growth-in-doab-20210809",title:"IntechOpen Identified as One of the Most Significant Contributors to OA Book Growth in DOAB"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8509",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Carbon Capture",title:"Carbon Capture",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book differs from others on the subject of pollution and carbon emissions by focusing on environmental issues at domestic levels. It presents important information on the far-ranging effects of greenhouse gases on the environment and examines potential solutions to controlling carbon emissions.",isbn:"978-1-78985-853-2",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-725-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-854-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78885",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"carbon-capture",numberOfPages:108,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"9ac29e9a53760413c4f7a288c7d7755d",bookSignature:"Syed Abdul Rehman Khan",publishedDate:"March 17th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8509.jpg",numberOfDownloads:2522,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:9,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:12,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 1st 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 22nd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 20th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 9th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 7th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"254664",title:"Prof.",name:"Syed Abdul Rehman",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"syed-abdul-rehman-khan",fullName:"Syed Abdul Rehman Khan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254664/images/system/254664.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Xuzhou University of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"Nanjing University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"783",title:"Environmental Sustainability",slug:"engineering-environmental-engineering-environmental-sustainability"}],chapters:[{id:"74340",title:"Introductory Chapter: Carbon Capture",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95088",slug:"introductory-chapter-carbon-capture",totalDownloads:301,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Syed Abdul Rehman Khan and Zhang Yu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74340",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74340",authors:[{id:"254664",title:"Prof.",name:"Syed Abdul Rehman",surname:"Khan",slug:"syed-abdul-rehman-khan",fullName:"Syed Abdul Rehman Khan"},{id:"300373",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhang",surname:"Yu",slug:"zhang-yu",fullName:"Zhang Yu"}],corrections:null},{id:"74349",title:"Phase Equilibria for Carbon Capture and Storage",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95136",slug:"phase-equilibria-for-carbon-capture-and-storage",totalDownloads:443,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Carbon dioxide (CO2) is an important material in many industries but is also representing more than 80% of greenhouse gases (GHGs). Anthropogenic carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere through burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) in power plants and energy production facilities, and solid waste, trees, and other biological materials. It is also the result of certain chemical reactions in different industry (e.g., cement and steel industries). Carbon capture and storage (CCS), among other options, is an essential technology for the cost-effective mitigation of anthropogenic CO2 emissions and could contribute approximately 20% to CO2 emission reductions by 2050, as recommended by International Energy Agency (IEA). Although CCS has enormous potential in numerous industries and petroleum refineries due their large CO2 emissions, a significant impediment to its utilization on a large scale remains both operating and capital costs. It is possible to reduce the costs of CCS for the cases where industrial processes generate pure or rich CO2 gas streams, but they are still an obstacle to its implementation. Therefore, significant interest was dedicated to the development of improved sorbents with increased CO2 capacity and/or reduced heat of regeneration. However, recent results show that phase equilibria, transport properties (e.g., viscosity, diffusion coefficients, etc.) and other thermophysical properties (e.g., heat capacity, density, etc.) could have a significant effect on the price of the carbon. In this context, we focused our research on the phase behavior of physical solvents for carbon dioxide capture. We studied the phase behavior of carbon dioxide and different classes of organic substances, to illustrate the functional group effect on the solvent ability to dissolve CO2. In this chapter, we explain the role of phase equilibria in carbon capture and storage. We describe an experimental setup to measure phase equilibria at high-pressures and working procedures for both phase equilibria and critical points. As experiments are usually expensive and very time consuming, we present briefly basic modeling of phase behavior using cubic equations of state. Phase diagrams for binary systems at high-pressures and their construction are explained. Several examples of phase behavior of carbon dioxide + different classes of organic substances binary systems at high-pressures with potential role in CCS are shown. Predictions of the global phase diagrams with different models are compared with experimental literature data.",signatures:"Catinca Secuianu and Sergiu Sima",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74349",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74349",authors:[{id:"293562",title:"Prof.",name:"Catinca",surname:"Secuianu",slug:"catinca-secuianu",fullName:"Catinca Secuianu"},{id:"339084",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergiu",surname:"Sima",slug:"sergiu-sima",fullName:"Sergiu Sima"}],corrections:null},{id:"74436",title:"Microwave Caustic Slurry Carbonation of Flue Gas of Coal Power Plants in Double Hot Tube Bed for CO2 Sequestration",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94976",slug:"microwave-caustic-slurry-carbonation-of-flue-gas-of-coal-power-plants-in-double-hot-tube-bed-for-co2",totalDownloads:309,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"There have been very few transport studies of caustic alkali slurry (metal fines-caustic alkali salt mixture). Bath serpentinite particle size changed the heat conductivity to salt bath. A major reason is that the retention time in fixed film processes is longer than in solid–gas processes. This allows more time to the heat absorption for cracking to the desorbed persistent compounds. Furthermore, heavy serpantinite allows an sufficient intimate contact between coal and biomass surface pores and gas atmosphere in the furnace due to more pyrolysis gas desorption. For seeing the sustainability sequestration and environmental concerns in feasibility sight, the microwave heating technologies encompassing natural carbonation, precipitates for soil remediation and toxic gas sorption was offered to be adopted in Şırnak Asphaltite/Batman Oil Fields cases. In many places, amine sequestration techniques can work synergistically for better results. This study determines to a great extent both the high rate and degree of carbonation under pressurized sludge at 5–10 bar so it was found that, a porous sludge bath over 45% sludge was more efficiently conducted even at a low amount serpantinite slime weight rate, below weight rate of 15%.",signatures:"Yıldırım İsmail Tosun",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74436",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74436",authors:[{id:"200229",title:"Dr.",name:"Yıldırım",surname:"İsmail Tosun",slug:"yildirim-ismail-tosun",fullName:"Yıldırım İsmail Tosun"}],corrections:null},{id:"73496",title:"COVID-19: A Learning Opportunity to Improve Environmental Sustainability",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93893",slug:"covid-19-a-learning-opportunity-to-improve-environmental-sustainability",totalDownloads:635,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In just a few months, COVID-19 transformed from a dangerous regional health threat into a widespread global pandemic and economic disaster. Thus the world is expecting a great recession once again. The rapid spread of COVID-19 has had far-reaching consequences for people’s daily lives in almost all parts of the world. Climate change and biodiversity depletion have now reached global boundaries; thus, human activity has surpassed Earth’s capacities. Earth capacities can be explained in terms of extreme climate change. This chapter is intended to investigate the link between the outbreak of Covid-19 and its effect on environmental and society. The discussion reveals that environmental pollution is minimized as a result of global lockdown. Furthermore, our review also shows that in terms of environment, Covid-19 provide an opportunity to transform our polluted economy toward the green economy through adoption of renewable energy sources and green practices in our businesses.",signatures:"Syed Abdul Rehman Khan, Laeeq Razzak Janjua and Zhang Yu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73496",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73496",authors:[{id:"254664",title:"Prof.",name:"Syed Abdul Rehman",surname:"Khan",slug:"syed-abdul-rehman-khan",fullName:"Syed Abdul Rehman Khan"},{id:"300373",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhang",surname:"Yu",slug:"zhang-yu",fullName:"Zhang Yu"},{id:"328959",title:"Dr.",name:"Laeeq Razzak",surname:"Janjua",slug:"laeeq-razzak-janjua",fullName:"Laeeq Razzak Janjua"}],corrections:null},{id:"73707",title:"Impact of Hybrid-Enabling Technology on Bertrand-Nash Equilibrium Subject to Energy Sources",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94016",slug:"impact-of-hybrid-enabling-technology-on-bertrand-nash-equilibrium-subject-to-energy-sources",totalDownloads:338,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, we quantify an optimal level of subsidy for the sharing of hybrid-enabling technology innovation in an energy market while examining its Bertrand-Nash equilibrium. We formulate this as a Stochastic Differential Game (SDG) and analyze the stability of the Stuckenberg, Nash and cooperative equilibria via a feedback control strategy. We then adopt limit expectation and variance of the improvement degree to identify the influence of the external environment on the decision maker. We show that the game depends on its parameters and the equilibria chosen. Ultimately, our use of short-run price competition characterized by strategic supplies for renewable and fossil resources provides a more robust model than that presented by Bertrand-Edgworth with endogenous capacity. As a result, we highlight that R&D investments in hybrid-enabling technology can ensure immediate reliability and affordability within energy production and implementation of policy instruments.",signatures:"Ryle S. Perera",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73707",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73707",authors:[{id:"327117",title:"Dr.",name:"Ryle S.",surname:"Perera",slug:"ryle-s.-perera",fullName:"Ryle S. Perera"}],corrections:null},{id:"73297",title:"Eggshell and Seashells Biomaterials Sorbent for Carbon Dioxide Capture",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93870",slug:"eggshell-and-seashells-biomaterials-sorbent-for-carbon-dioxide-capture",totalDownloads:499,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This review aims to explore the application of natural and renewable bioceramics such as eggshell and seashells in carbon dioxide (CO2) capture from power plant flue gas. CO2 capture, utilisation and storage (CCUS) is considered a means to deliver low carbon energy, decarbonising industries, power plants and facilitates the net removal of CO2 from the atmosphere. The stages involved include CO2 capture, transport of the captured CO2, utilisation and secure storage of the captured CO2. This chapter reports the use of eggshell and seashells biomaterials as an adsorbent to separate CO2 from other gases generated by power plants and industrial processes. The capture of carbon dioxide by adsorption is based on the ability of a material to preferentially adsorb or carbonate CO2 over other gases. In light of this, calcined eggshell and seashells biomaterial rich in calcium carbonate from which calcium oxide (94%) can be obtained have demonstrated a strong affinity for CO2. These biomaterials are abundant and low-cost alternative to zeolite, activated carbon and molecular sieve carbon. The mechanism of CO2 capture by eggshell and seashells derived CaO adsorbent comprises of a series of carbonation-calcination reactions (CCR): calcium oxide (CaO) reacts with CO2 resulting in calcium carbonate (CaCO3), which releases pure CO2 stream upon calcinations for sequestration or utilisation, and as a consequence, the biomaterial is regenerated. Findings reveal that these biomaterials can hold up to eight times its own weight of CO2 from flue gas stream. It was also found that the combination of 2 M acetic acid and water pretreatment improved the reactivity and capture capacity of the biomaterial for successive regeneration over four cycle’s usage. Unlike activated carbon, these biomaterials are considered stable for high-temperature adsorption through carbonation.",signatures:"Abarasi Hart and Helen Onyeaka",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73297",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73297",authors:[{id:"326770",title:"Dr.",name:"Helen",surname:"Onyeaka",slug:"helen-onyeaka",fullName:"Helen Onyeaka"},{id:"327022",title:"Dr.",name:"Abarasi",surname:"Hart",slug:"abarasi-hart",fullName:"Abarasi Hart"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10382",title:"Environmental Sustainability",subtitle:"Preparing for Tomorrow",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"41d5f4b4c00369ac28883a49f1d2ef0d",slug:"environmental-sustainability-preparing-for-tomorrow",bookSignature:"Syed Abdul Rehman Khan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10382.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"254664",title:"Prof.",name:"Syed Abdul Rehman",surname:"Khan",slug:"syed-abdul-rehman-khan",fullName:"Syed Abdul Rehman Khan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8603",title:"Green Practices and Strategies in Supply Chain Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cfd8838aeddebe04b84b2fbc553b6887",slug:"green-practices-and-strategies-in-supply-chain-management",bookSignature:"Syed Abdul Rehman Khan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8603.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"254664",title:"Prof.",name:"Syed Abdul Rehman",surname:"Khan",slug:"syed-abdul-rehman-khan",fullName:"Syed Abdul Rehman Khan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8970",title:"Tourism",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4b086129cadc323ba152b00c6386c2c8",slug:"tourism",bookSignature:"Syed Abdul Rehman Khan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8970.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"254664",title:"Prof.",name:"Syed Abdul Rehman",surname:"Khan",slug:"syed-abdul-rehman-khan",fullName:"Syed Abdul Rehman Khan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8924",title:"Modern Perspectives in Business Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1a26a282af7629bc3269a9c219bdb204",slug:"modern-perspectives-in-business-applications",bookSignature:"Syed Abdul Rehman Khan and Selay Ilgaz Sümer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8924.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"254664",title:"Prof.",name:"Syed Abdul Rehman",surname:"Khan",slug:"syed-abdul-rehman-khan",fullName:"Syed Abdul Rehman Khan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6939",title:"Terrorism and Developing Countries",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ad19b1ce8023e63b593a1835e0ec744e",slug:"terrorism-and-developing-countries",bookSignature:"Syed Abdul Rehman Khan and Zhang Yu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6939.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"254664",title:"Prof.",name:"Syed Abdul Rehman",surname:"Khan",slug:"syed-abdul-rehman-khan",fullName:"Syed Abdul Rehman Khan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"896",title:"Sustainable Development",subtitle:"Energy, Engineering and Technologies - 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Willcox, A.E. Luloff, James C. Finley and Donald G. Hodges",dateSubmitted:"June 21st 2018",dateReviewed:"October 22nd 2018",datePrePublished:"December 31st 2018",datePublished:"February 19th 2020",book:{id:"8295",title:"Landscape Reclamation",subtitle:"Rising From What's Left",fullTitle:"Landscape Reclamation - Rising From What's Left",slug:"landscape-reclamation-rising-from-what-s-left",publishedDate:"February 19th 2020",bookSignature:"Luis Loures",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8295.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"108118",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Loures",slug:"luis-loures",fullName:"Luis Loures"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"264298",title:"Dr.",name:"Jason",middleName:null,surname:"Gordon",fullName:"Jason Gordon",slug:"jason-gordon",email:"jason.gordon@uga.edu",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Georgia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},book:{id:"8295",title:"Landscape Reclamation",subtitle:"Rising From What's Left",fullTitle:"Landscape Reclamation - Rising From What's Left",slug:"landscape-reclamation-rising-from-what-s-left",publishedDate:"February 19th 2020",bookSignature:"Luis Loures",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8295.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"108118",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Loures",slug:"luis-loures",fullName:"Luis Loures"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"10845",leadTitle:null,title:"Marine Ecosystems - Biodiversity, Ecosystem Services and Human Impacts",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"\r\n\tMarine Ecosystems are very productive and include the open ocean, the deep-sea ocean, and coastal marine ecosystems, each of which has different physical and biological characteristics. The biodiversity of some of these ecosystems is very rich and abundant offering unique opportunities for high-yield production of proteinaceous material, being a source of high-quality foods. Biodiversity is fundamental to sustaining marine ecosystem services, such as food, maintenance of water quality, and recovery from perturbations, being threatened worldwide. The main threats to marine biodiversity are habitat loss, eutrophication, overexploitation, pollution by hazardous substances, the introduction of non-native species, and other human activities. Efforts to reduce these pressures are essential for coastal water quality, recovery of ecosystem services, global food security, and ecosystem stability. Bioindicators to assess the presence of stressors are important tools to be used as early warning signals to early detect their presence, monitor and management of these ecosystems, and thus promote ecosystem health.
\r\n\r\n\t
\r\n\tThe protection of biodiversity is a major target of the European Union Marine Strategy Framework Directive, requiring an assessment of the status of biodiversity on the level of species, habitats, and ecosystems including genetic diversity and the role of biodiversity in food web structure and functioning. The restoration of marine ecosystems can support the productivity and reliability of goods and services that the ocean provides to humankind, to maintain ecosystem integrity and stability. Some of the goods produced by the marine ecosystem services are fish harvests, wild plant and animal resources, water, some of the services provided recreation, tourism, breeding and nursery habitats, water transport, carbon sequestration, erosion control, and habitat provision.
Wearable technologies are becoming increasingly popular as personal health system, enabling continuous real-time monitoring of human health on a daily basis and outside clinical environments [1, 2, 3]. The wearable device market is currently having a worldwide profit of around $34 billion and is expected to reach above $50 billion by 2022 owing to wearables’ ease of use, flexibility, and convenience [4]. Real-time monitoring, operational efficiency, and fitness tracking are reported as main factors supporting the market growth of health wearable devices such as smart watches, smart glasses, and other wellness gadgets, with expected $12.1 billion world market by 2021 [5].
\nIn the past decade, the recent progress in developing wearable devices was more focused on monitoring physical parameters, such as motion, respiration rate, etc. [3, 6, 7]. Today, there is a great interest in evolving wearable sensors capable of detecting chemical markers relevant to the status of health. Different approaches have been applied by researchers to design and fabricate wearable biosensors for remote monitoring of metabolites and electrolytes in body fluids including tear, sweat, and saliva [3, 8, 9, 10]. A great example would be the development of small and reliable sensors that would allow continuous glucose monitoring in diabetic patients [11, 12]. Diabetes is a chronic disease that can significantly impact on quality of life and reduce life expectancy. However, diabetics can stay one step ahead of the disease by monitoring their blood glucose level to minimize the complication of the disease by proper administration of insulin. Currently, blood analysis is the gold standard method for measuring the level of glucose in patient’s blood. However, this technique cannot be applied without penetrating the skin, which can be painful and inconvenient, and requires user obedience. Therefore, current research focuses on the development of portable and wearable devices capable of continuous glucose sensing through noninvasive detection techniques.
\nA majority of the recent studies in this field have targeted the area of personalized medicine, endeavoring to develop miniaturized wearable devices featuring real-time glucose monitoring in diabetic patients [12, 13, 14, 15]. One great example is contact lens which is an ideal wearable device that can be worn for hours without any pain or discomfort [16]. Integration of glucose biosensors into contact lenses has recently been demonstrated by several research groups [9, 17, 18]. However, the level of glucose in tear fluid is very low (0.1–0.6 mM), requiring a high sensitivity of the sensor for picking up the signal from expected chemical reaction [3, 19]. Yao et al. [16] have fabricated a contact lens with integrated sensor for continuous tear glucose monitoring with wireless communication system over a distance of several centimeters. The sensor demonstrated a fast response of 20 s with a minimum detection of less than 0.01 mM glucose, which is 10–60 times lower than glucose level in human tear [16].
\nIn addition to glucose, lactate is an important metabolite in the human body, which gets converted into l-lactate under hypoxic condition [20]. l-Lactate levels in tear fluid is about 1–5 mmol L−1, which might increase significantly due to some heath conditions including ischemia, inadequate tissue oxygenation, stroke, and different types of cancer [21]. Thomas et al. [22] demonstrated an invasive detection of lactate in human tear by integrating an amperometric lactate sensor with Pt working (WE) and reference (RE) electrodes as well as a counter electrode (CE) as current drain, on a polymer-based contact lens, measuring lactate in situ in human tears without any need for physical sampling [22].
\nVery recently, Park et al. [17] reported a novel approach for fabricating fully transparent and stretchable smart contact lens capable of wirelessly monitoring the level of glucose in the tears of diabetic patients. Figure 1 shows the layout of fabricated devices made of glucose sensors, wireless circuit, and display pixel on soft and transparent contact lens substrate (Figure 1a and b). The circuit diagram of the device is illustrated in Figure 1a, with radio frequency antenna receiving signals from a transmitter and a rectifier converting the signals to DC (Figure 1a and c). A continuous network of ultralong Ag nanofibers was used as stretchable electrodes for the antenna and interconnects (Figure 1d). In the case of any change in the concentration of glucose in tear, the sensor resistance changes resulting in the light-emitting diode (LED) pixel turning on or off. The device was tested in vitro using a live rabbit, providing substantial finding for smart contact lenses as one of the promising wearable devices in healthcare system [17].
\n(a) (i) Schematic illustration and (ii) operation of the soft, smart contact lens and (iii) the circuit diagram of the smart contact lens system. The soft, smart contact lens is composed of (b) a hybrid substrate; (c) functional devices including rectifier, LED, and glucose sensor; and (d) a transparent, stretchable conductor for antenna and interconnects [
In addition to tear, sweat electrolyte concentrations and blood serum are related [2, 8]. As one of the most readily accessible human biofluids, a great deal of information about the human body and its physical performance could be obtained via monitoring sweat electrolyte concentrations [23, 24]. Several groups have reported the key biomarkers in human sweat (e.g., sodium level, pH change, lactate concentration) relevant to human health and well-being, for monitoring athletic performance during sporting activities [25]. Jia et al. fabricated a skin-worn tattoo-based sensor for real-time monitoring of lactate in human sweat, offering substantial benefits for biomedical as well as sport applications [25]. In another approach, Curto et al. [26] fabricated a wearable and flexible microfluidic platform capable of monitoring changes in the sweat pH in real time. Anastasova et al. [27] developed a flexible microfluidic device for real-time monitoring of metabolite such as lactate as well as electrolytes such as pH and sodium in human sweat. Recently, Gao et al. [28] developed a flexible and wearable device (Figure 2) made of arrays of sensors for real-time monitoring of heavy metals, such as Zn, Cu, and Hg in human sweat. The device fabrication method is presented in Figure 2a, showing the deposition and stripping steps on microelectrodes. The sensing mechanism was based on an electrochemical detection of targeted heavy metals through four microelectrodes, including Au and Bi working electrodes, Ag reference electrode, and an Au counter electrode (Figure 2b and c). The fabricated device demonstrated high stability and selectivity toward heavy metals, providing a great platform to advancing the field of wearable biosensors for healthcare application, via monitoring the level of some heavy metals in human sweat [28]. A balanced level of Zn is necessary in the human body as a low and high Zn concentration can lead to pneumonia and liver damages, respectively [29, 30]. High level of Cu in the human body can lead to several diseases including Wilson’s disease and heart, kidney, and liver failures as well as brain diseases [31, 32]. The fabricated device demonstrated high stability and selectivity toward heavy metals, providing a great platform to advancing the field of wearable biosensors for healthcare application [28].
\n(a) A schematic showing the concept of deposition and stripping on microelectrodes. (b) A schematic showing the composition of the microsensor array. (c) Optical image of a flexible sensor array interfacing with a flexible printed circuit connector [
Saliva, as a great diagnostic fluid, can be used in personal health devices for real-time monitoring of chemical markers including salivary lactate analysis [33]. Chai et al. developed a saliva nanosensor with a radio-frequency identification tag, integrated into dental implants for detecting cardiac biomarkers in saliva and predicting close heart attack in patients suffering from cardiovascular diseases [34]. In another approach, an instrumented mouthguard was designed and fabricated by Kim et al. [35] for measuring salivary uric acid levels which could be a biomarker for several diseases including hyperuricemia, gout, physical stress, and renal syndrome. The fabricated device showed high selectivity and sensitivity to low level of uric acid as well as great stability during a 4-h operation period [35]. Mannoor et al. [36] developed a hybrid biosensor made of graphene layers printed onto water-soluble silk, for noninvasive detection of bacteria through body fluids including sweat and saliva. This graphene/silk hybrid device illustrated an extremely high sensitivity to bacteria in body fluid with detection limits down to a single bacterium [36]. In addition, the fabricated device provided the potential users with battery-free operation and wireless communication system via radio frequency [36]. Arakawa et al. [37] designed and fabricated a salivary sensor equipped with a wireless measurement system, embedded onto a mouthguard support, featuring a high sensitivity toward detection of glucose over a range of 5–1000 μmol L−1. The device demonstrated a great stability during a 5-h real-time glucose monitoring period in an artificial saliva with a phantom jaw [37]. In a similar approach, de Castro et al. [38] developed a microfluidic paper-based device integrated into a mouthguard, for continues monitoring of glucose and nitrite in human saliva. The saliva samples were collected from periodontitis and/or diabetes patients as well as healthy individuals. The fabricated device featured a low detection limit of 27 and 7 μmol L−1 for glucose and nitrite, respectively [38].
\nIn summary, there is a great potential for micro- and nanosensors’ integration into healthcare monitoring devices, developing new technologies for noninvasive detection of diseases in the human body. Flexible wearable devices offer promising capabilities in real-time monitoring of body fluids including tear, sweat, and saliva. However, more research is required to expand the use of wearable platforms in continuous analysis of body fluids, providing reliable real-time detection of targeting ions and proteins, among other complex analytes.
\nHuman and robotic missions have helped humankind see and understand the many resources of the solar system. The resources have been analyzed, and numerous lunar benefits and industries have been suggested [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]. The lunar regolith contains many oxides from which oxygen can be extracted. Water ice in permanently shadowed regions (PSRs) and craters may provide the critical resources for a successful lunar base and lunar cities. The new abilities developed on the Moon can be applied to future human and robotic missions to inner planets, the asteroids, and the outer planets. Mission design studies have shown the great benefits of ISRU in increasing the sample return capability of future planetary missions and vastly extending the reach of exploration. For future large-scale human missions, the possibilities of ISRU for of human exploration and finally settlement offer the best opportunities for sustainability and success.
\nSince the 1950s, numerous mission studies have identified many effective methods of planetary exploration [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15]. Robotic exploration has employed the methods of orbital mechanics, systems engineering, and propulsion. Human exploration of the Moon has been conducted, but humans have not yet ventured to Mercury, Mars, and the outer planets. While future human lunar and Mars missions are in the planning stages, the costs of these missions have prevented their implementation. Extensive mission analyses have identified new strategies for human planetary exploration [16, 17, 18, 19, 20]. Cost reductions using advanced propulsion are very critical. In almost every propulsion scenario, ISRU will allow more effective robotic missions and human visits to these planetary targets.
\nThe Moon is the first stepping stone to the rest of the solar system. Since the 1950s, lunar mission planning has yielded many scenarios for exploration, base development, resource mining and use, and industrialization. Many visions of human lunar exploration have been developed, and they all address different possibilities for using in situ resources. A few of the past mission scenarios are summarized here for technology comparisons and insights into new technology infusions.
\nMany recent studies of the Moon and the use of its resources have been completed [21, 22, 23, 24, 25]. While lunar oxygen has been the focus of many of the study teams, water ice in permanently shadowed regions (PSRs) has been analyzed in great detail [26, 27]. Both the oxygen and water ice are critical resources for a more self-sustaining lunar base and a lunar economy. In addition, metals from the oxides in the lunar regolith can provide for construction materials, and lunar regolith can be used for effective radiation shielding from galactic cosmic rays and solar flares.
\nLarge-scale and aggressive lunar base construction was studied by Koelle and his teams [18]. With the advent of the Apollo program, it was deemed reasonable to plan for large lunar operations. His teams at NASA created lunar base construction scenarios using Saturn V class rockets. (Figures 1 and 2) illustrates the potential cost per person and the number of base personnel [18]. Since the time of its publication, many of the model cost assumptions are no longer valid. However, the example is illustrative of the elements that must be included in future cost estimates. While chemical propulsion was used for the flights from low lunar orbit (LLO) to the surface (called the shuttles), nuclear thermal propulsion (NTP) ferries were used for the round trips from Earth to LLO. Also, the assumption of ten flights for either the NTP ferry or the chemical propulsion shuttle was included. The NTP ferries carried 20 people with 36.3 metric tons (MT) (80,000 pounds mass (lbm)) of cargo for 6 months of base operations [18].
\nLunar base cost assumption [
Lunar base cost and personnel [
Later studies by Koelle [19] made more detailed estimates of the lunar base mass and ISRU lunar oxygen production capabilities (Figure 3). Over a 10-year period, the lunar base was to be constructed and required approximately 794 MT on the lunar surface. After 10 years, the base would accommodate 52 people and be producing 370 MT of lunar propellants in the tenth year.
\nLunar base mass, personnel, and propellant produced (derived from [
In 1984, a study was conducted of lunar base construction and the additional accommodation that might be needed at the planned Earth-orbiting space station [20]. Large masses for the lunar base buildup were transported by oxygen/hydrogen orbital transfer vehicle (OTVs) and landers. The OTVs were two-stage vehicles, while the landers were both one-way cargo landers and two-stage human return landers. In this study, 1645 metric tons (MT) of payload was delivered to LLO low lunar orbit. The base would be constructed over a 19-year period. All of the launch vehicles from Earth were space shuttle or space shuttle-derived vehicles.
\nA more modest lunar base scenario has been proposed [26, 27]. In their studies, a more sustainable lunar base was planned. Also, public-private partnerships (PPP) were essential for the success of the lunar base and its ISRU activities. Lunar water ice mining in permanently shadowed regions (PSRs) has been suggested [22]. Mining in the permanently shadowed craters (PSCs) will be challenging. [27] (Commercial Lunar Propellant study, 2018) suggests several solutions to these challenges, which include heliostats to provide lighting in the dark shadowed craters.
\nMany techniques have been suggested for reducing the cost of space transportation [28, 29, 30, 31]. A recent development is the propulsive landing and reuse of launch vehicle booster stages [28, 29]. While reuse of these launch vehicle stages is a relatively new development, future designs are planned for larger-scale lunar flights [28]. Additional options for lunar exploration and exploitation include a lunar orbital platform or gateway [30, 31]. A gateway may become a central point for propellant storage and distribution to several markets in the Earth-Moon system. These markets included LEO, GEO, LLO, and Earth-Moon libration points [27]. Many study results have identified the potential benefits of these markets, in which the commercial revenue may be many billions of dollars [27].
\nSeveral advanced propulsion options for lunar base construction and industrialization were investigated. They include nuclear electric propulsion options, lunar base design options, propellant industrialization, and outer planet mining with associated outer planet moon bases. Chemical propulsion and nuclear electric propulsion (NEP) for Earth-Moon orbital transfer vehicles (OTVs) were assessed. Design parameters, vehicle mass scaling equations, and summaries of these analyses are presented.
\nIn sizing the chemical propulsion OTVs, a vehicle mass scaling equation is used [16, 32]:
\nMdry,stage (kg) = Mdry,coefficient • Mp (kg).
\nwhere.
\nMdry,stage = the stage dry mass, including residual propellant (kg).
\nMdry,coefficient = the B mass coefficient (kg of tank mass/kg of usable propellant mass).
\nMp = usable propellant mass (kg).
\nThe chemical propulsion OTVs had a B coefficient of 0.2. The Earth-Moon OTVs were two-stage vehicles (Table 1).
\nNEP and chemical OTV design parameters.
The NEP OTV mass and trip time were estimated based on the power system and the propulsion system design [32]. The following dry mass scaling equation was used [32]:
\nMdry,stage (kg) = reactor specific mass (kg/kW) • P (kWe) + 0.05 • Mp (kg) + fixed mass (kg).
\nThe OTV sizing was conducted for a wide range of power levels: 0.5 MWe to 30 MWe. Three nuclear reactor specific masses were used: 10, 20, and 40 kg/kWe (kilograms per kilowatt, electric). The OTV propulsion fixed mass, apart from and in addition to the reactor mass, was 20 MT, and the propellant tankage mass was 5% of the mass of the required propellant.
\nThe Isp and efficiency of the electric propulsion systems were 5000 seconds with thruster efficiencies of 50% for each design. These design points are typical of advanced designs of either magnetoplasmadynamic (MPD) or pulse inductive thrusters (PIT). While hydrogen is suggested for both propulsion system thrusters, the possibilities of the higher Isp option using inert gases (xenon, krypton, etc.) are also viable. The low thrust OTV delta-V value was 16 km/s for the round trip Earth-Moon missions.
\nFigure 4 shows the propellant masses needed a lunar base scenario; four different propulsion technologies are compared. There is the all-chemical propulsion option and three NEP options with 1, 2, and 5 MWe (megawatts, electric) power levels.
\nChemical propulsion and NEP option comparison (for 1645 MT delivered to LLO).
The all-chemical option includes 47 flights of a 35 MT round trip payloads. Each of these OTVs has an initial mass of 155.44 MT. The initial mass of the smaller 6 MT cargo OTV is 26.7 MT. The total propellant loading for the two-stage vehicle is 17.2 MT. To accommodate the 47 human crew flights in each of the NEP options, an 808 MT O2/H2 propellant mass is included.
\nIn all of the NEP options, there are 47 flights of 29 MT payloads. The payloads are carried on the full round trip missions. Once a 29 MT payload is delivered to lunar orbit, it is reasonable to say that a 29 MT payload will be returned to Earth orbit. This payload may be lunar ISRU propellants; lunar landers that may require recycling, updates, or repair; and other finished materials from the Moon.
\nWith advanced nuclear electric propulsion systems, the effectiveness of the lunar base development is enhanced. Using NEP at a reactor alpha of 20 kg/kWe and a 1 MWe power level, over a 19-year assembly period, the propellant mass needed for base transportation can be reduced from 4700 MT to less than 2100 MT. Using NEP at a reactor alpha of 20 kg/kWe and a 1 MWe power level, over a 19-year assembly period, the propellant mass needed for base transportation can be reduced from 4700 MT to less than 2100 MT. Lunar ISRU may allow even further propellant mass reductions. While the NEP trip times are longer for the lower power levels, the overall mass savings is quite significant (Figure 4).
\nFigures 5
NEP OTV initial mass versus power level: 0.5–30 MWe.
NEP OTV propellant mass versus power level: 0.5–30 MWe.
NEP OTV trip time versus power level: 0.5–30 MWe.
NEP OTV trip time versus power level: 0.5–5 MWe.
The lander’s mission is to deliver lunar propellants or crew or both to the lunar OTV and return to the Moon with cargo from Earth. The round trip delta-V values are provided in Table 2. The lander was designed with an oxygen /hydrogen main propulsion system. Lunar lander sizing was conducted for a variety of payload delivery missions, rocket engine-specific impulses (Isp), and mission delta-V values. The payload masses were 10, 20, and 50 MT. The rocket engine Isp values ranged from 450 to 480 seconds. Three overall mission delta-V values were selected: 2, 4, and 6 km/s. The 2 km/s delta-V represents a one-way mission from the LLO to the lunar surface. The 6 km/s delta-V represents a lander that can attain near escape velocity conditions about the Moon. Thus, nearly any mission in a wide range of lunar orbits is possible.
\nLunar lander mission parameters.
Figures 9
Two-way lander flight profile with no ISRU.
Two-way lander flight profile with ISRU on the surface.
One-way lander flight profile with ISRU-produced propellants stored on orbit.
Once a significant ISRU propellant capability is available, a combination of two-way and one-way landers can be used. The one-way lander would have only the propellant capacity to perform a one-way trip, either from orbit to the surface or from the surface to orbit. Figure 11 illustrates the one-way lander flights. Additionally, a two-way lander can be used to depart from the surface, deliver a payload to orbit, and then return to the surface. A new ISRU-produced propellant load would be available for a subsequent two-way flight.
\nThe lunar landers are sized with the same mass scaling equations used for the chemical propulsion OTVs. All of the landers were single-stage vehicles. For the lunar landers with 2 and 4 km/s delta-V values, the B coefficient was 0.4; in the high delta-V cases for 6 km/s, the B coefficient was 0.2. A 0.2 B coefficient was used as the lander design will not close with a 0.4 B coefficient. As the propellant load is quite high with the 6 km/s lander, and based on historical designs, the 0.2 B coefficient is justified.
\nFigures 12
Lunar lander masses versus specific impulse: 2 km/s delta-V capability.
Lunar lander masses versus specific impulse: 4 km/s delta-V capability.
Lunar lander masses versus specific impulse: 6 km/s delta-V capability.
The 4 km/s delta-V lander is sized for a round trip with its full payload mass of 10–50 MT. The 4 km/s lander, with a 470-s Isp, and a 10 MT payload, has a mass of 53.2 MT. This delta-V capability offers a propellant load for an abort scenario. If the lander were descending to the Moon, and it were to experience issues during the descent, it would have the full delta-V capability to descend to the surface and then immediately return to orbit without refueling (Table 2).
\nUsing nuclear thermal propulsion for lunar missions was proposed in the 1960s. Investments and programs to prove the technical feasibility were successful, but these propulsion systems were never flown in space. Since the 1990s, many extensive analyses and experiments have been conducted for nuclear thermal propulsion for lunar and interplanetary missions and demonstrated important payload and trip time benefits [33, 34, 35].
\nA lunar NTP architecture can be refueled with lunar hydrogen, and a specialized design using a liquid oxygen afterburner can increase the thrust level of the lunar NTP shuttle, allowing a shortened 24 hour lunar flight [33].
\nThe lunar surface has a wide range of elements available for extraction and use. Lunar water would be most important in sustaining the base. While the Moon has many potential resources available in the regolith, the potential for mining water ice at the lunar poles is strong but challenging. Mining the water will require vehicles that can operate at cryogenic temperatures in the craters. Not only will the robots or other vehicle have to operate in the craters, the light levels will be very low, perhaps requiring operation with light sources fixed at the crater’s rim. Onboard power for the robots may have to be provided with nuclear reactors or remotely from a central power recharging station.
\nBase locations or sites for gathering the water ice must be addressed. The bases in the PSC will be located near the edge of the ice deposit. Locating the base or mining sites at the top (near the crater lip but in the shadow) or the left and right sides of the water ice deposit (and not at the bottom of the crater) were suggested [27]. These sites would provide access to the water ice and remain in the permanently shadowed part of the crater. Potential methods for extracting the water ice are discussed in Refs. [21, 22]. A tent for capturing the water would have a heat source to melt the frozen water ice. A layout for a lunar base is presented in Figure 15 [36]. The photovoltaic array would be placed outside of the shadowed area, allowing for solar power to support the base and ISRU operations.
\nLunar base site for mining water ice from a PSC [
Based on recent measurements and simulations of the lunar radiation environment, long-term occupancy of the lunar surface may be detrimental to human beings. In addition to the long-term exposure to natural radiation sources (galactic cosmic rays, solar flares, etc.), there is additional scattered radiation on the lunar surface [28]. Therefore, living and working underground on the Moon may be necessary. Using small of large nuclear devices on the Moon may provide an option for creating large habitable underground spaces. Project Plowshare [37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45] addressed issues with using nuclear devices to complete large-scale civil engineering projects.
\nPast Earth-based nuclear testing was done underground due to the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty of 1963. The tests often left sizable craters on the surface. When a nuclear device is sufficiently deeply buried, the explosive force can be completely contained underground [39, 40, 41, 42]. The blast vaporizes some of the surrounding rocky material which then expands and creates an underground cavity [39, 40, 41, 42]. The rocky debris in the cavity undergoes compaction after the explosion, but the initial amount of void space created by the blast just after detonation is distributed in broken rocky debris. Small robotic mining systems would be used for debris removal. Based on historical data, such a space can also be spherical if the blast size is sufficiently small. After the radiation has fallen to acceptable levels, people could potentially create comfortable living spaces.
\nIn Ref. [7], this technique was proposed for not only living spaces but for large-scale ISRU. Ref. [7] illustrates four different ISRU processes using nuclear detonations. There are two chambers: one for the nuclear explosion and one for the reaction product capturing. This processing would essentially chemically reacting oxygen, hydrogen, or other species. The processes range from creating oxygen and metal oxides to producing water and metal carbides.
\nIn an attempt to reduce the propellant mass needed for lunar landing, the lunar slide lander was conceived. The lander uses friction between a descending tubular spacecraft and a prepared runway of lunar regolith. The operations of the slide lander are in eight phases Ref. [8]:
Elliptical orbital descent
Perilune pre-landing retro-maneuver
Approach to touchdown (begin (vertical) thrust at the end of Phase 3)
Touchdown of tail brake
Touchdown of side brakes
Main drag slide phase with support thrust
Main drag slide phase without support thrust
Final braking with brief retro-thrust
The slide lander was an attempt to reduce the total propellant load required for lunar landings. While the approach velocity of the lander is over 1.5 km/s, the long slide process may reduce the total delta-V required to 0.2–0.45 km/s; this is a significant delta-V reduction over the 2.0 km/s used for a traditional lunar landing [46]. Using this technique has several drawbacks. The length of the landing strip area is approximately 80 km. Also, the dust from the initial phase of the slide landing may attain an attitude of 1300 of km [8]. Thus, while the landing methods may save landing propellant, the implications of the dust on other orbital operations may be unwieldy.
\nUsing nuclear devices for propulsion is another option provided by engineering and physics community [47, 48, 49, 50]. The nuclear pulse propulsion (NPP) systems were considered for fast transportation throughout the solar system. Small nuclear devices (physics packages, or PPacks) would be detonated behind a large piloted spacecraft, and the detonation would provide the primary vehicle propulsion. Thousands of nuclear pulses were required for Mars and outer planet missions. The predicted specific impulse for these vehicles is between 1800 and 6000 seconds [47]. The NPP vehicles were considered a logical precursor to the pulsed fusion propulsion systems, noted in many of the atmospheric mining in the outer solar system (AMOSS, [51, 52] studies.
\nAtmospheric mining of the outer solar system (AMOSS) is one of the options for creating nuclear fusion fuels, such as 3He and deuterium [32, 51, 52]. Uranus’ and Neptune’s atmospheres would be the primary mining sites. While preliminary estimates of the masses of the mining vehicles have been created [32, 51, 52], supporting OTV and lander vehicles are needed to complete the mining scenarios. Storing the mined gases at automated bases on cryogenic outer planet moons is needed, and lunar base designs for operation in cryogenic environments will be critically important for these outer planet moon base designs.
\nAerospacecraft cruisers have been identified as a “best” solution for atmospheric mining [32, 51, 52]. The main cruiser propellant is atmospheric hydrogen gas, which would be liquefied and used as rocket propellant for the cruise phase and the ascent to orbit. A nuclear gas core rocket is a likely candidate. Deuterium and helium 3 (3He) would be separated from the atmospheric hydrogen, and helium (4He) captured, liquefied, and stored is the primary payload that would be returned to orbit. On each cruiser round trip, a 500 kg payload of deuterium or 3He is captured during the mining time. Table 3 provides the amount of 3He in the outer planet atmospheres.
\nFraction of helium 3 in outer planet atmospheres.
Several steps are needed to store the nuclear fuels. An aerospacecraft (ASC) must mine the gases from the planet’s atmosphere. After mining, the ASC ascends to low orbit and then rendezvous with an orbital transfer vehicle. The OTV and ASC rendezvous at an altitude of at 800 km. After the rendezvous, the OTV accepts the mined cryogenic gases from the ASC, and, the OTV begins a low thrust spiral trajectory to the storage point, an outer planet moon. However, an alternative storage point is an in-space base with artificial gravity; the in-space base would be in orbit about the target Moon. At the Moon, the OTV and outer planet moon lander will rendezvous in high orbit about the outer planet moon. The OTV will deliver the mined fluids to the lander. The lander will refuel the OTV from hydrogen mined on the Moon. The OTV will return to low orbit about Uranus or Neptune to await the next ASC delivery. The lander will return to the Moon with the mined fluids. On the Moon, the lander propulsion system will be refueled with oxygen and hydrogen from the water ice from the Moon. Refs. [23, 42, 43] provide many options for nuclear power and nuclear propulsion to support these mining operations.
\nKrafft Ehricke envisioned a poly-global civilization, with branches of humanity in many far-flung places in our solar system [1]. His vision was uniquely expressed in Ref. [48]. Here is a short excerpt from that work:
\nThese helionaut flights would be the precursors of human outposts and then colonies all through the solar system. Multiple systems employing planetary ISRU could enable all of these ideas and concepts. The poly-global civilization was considered a natural expansion of the human experience, pioneering new frontiers and using technology in the best interests of all humanity.
\nThe Moon represents a critical location for the expansion of humanity into the solar system. In an optimistic future, lunar exploration will lead to a base and perhaps extensive lunar industries. The industries include raw material processing, oxygen and other propellant production, nuclear and solar power, and the creation of completely new space vehicles. For protection against radiation, lunar bases may include underground habitats. Using explosive forming of underground cavities may lead to an attractive lunar base or colony. In addition, large-scale mining of lunar raw materials and gas production and capture from underground nuclear processing have been suggested.
\nWith advanced propulsion systems, the effectiveness of the lunar base development is enhanced. Using NEP at a reactor alpha of 20 kg/kWe and a 1 MWe power level, over a 17-year assembly period, the propellant mass needed for base transportation can be reduced from 4700 MT to less than 2100 MT. Lunar ISRU can allow even further propellant mass reductions. With NTP, the payload mass delivered to lunar orbit can be doubled over oxygen/hydrogen chemical propulsion. Further benefits of water mining ISRU can allow refueling of the NTP from lunar hydrogen. Using the option of the liquid oxygen afterburner, the NTP system can allow a 24 hour lunar flight. The added liquid oxygen reduces the NTP Isp but allows a higher thrust level and therefore a shorter flight time. Both the NTP hydrogen and oxygen can be derived from lunar water ice.
\nAtmospheric mining in the outer solar system can produce nuclear fusion fuels such as 3He which are rare on Earth. In addition, while extracting the small fraction of 3He in the gas giant atmospheres, each day enormous amounts of hydrogen and helium are produced. These amounts can far outstrip the need for propellants to return the mining aerospacecraft (ASC) to orbit. These added propellants may be captured and used for other chemical or nuclear propulsion applications.
\nSolar system exploration using in situ resource utilization can allow larger and more effective research and sample return missions. Faster missions are possible by using the local planetary resources to return to Earth. Truly impressive interplanetary missions can be within our reach with focused lunar base investments.
\n\n Helium 3 Helium (or helium 4) atmospheric mining in the outer solar system aerospacecraft closed cycle change in velocity (km/s) Earth-Moon libration point 1, 2 gas core rocket gross takeoff weight Hydrogen Helium 4 in situ resource utilization Specific impulse (s) Kelvin Kilowatts of electric power low earth orbit low lunar orbit lunar surface metric tons Megawatt electric (power level) nuclear electric propulsion nuclear pulse propulsion nuclear thermal propulsion nuclear thermal rocket open cycle Oxygen parts per billion permanently shadowed craters permanently shadowed regions
IntechOpen books and journals are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter/article level.
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Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:120,paginationItems:[{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356823",title:"MSc.",name:"Seonghee",middleName:null,surname:"Min",slug:"seonghee-min",fullName:"Seonghee Min",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu University",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"353307",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoosoo",middleName:null,surname:"Oh",slug:"yoosoo-oh",fullName:"Yoosoo Oh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Yoosoo Oh received his Bachelor's degree in the Department of Electronics and Engineering from Kyungpook National University in 2002. He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}},{id:"351158",title:"Prof.",name:"David W.",middleName:null,surname:"Anderson",slug:"david-w.-anderson",fullName:"David W. Anderson",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Calgary",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"351159",title:"BSc.",name:"Kalum J.",middleName:null,surname:"Ost",slug:"kalum-j.-ost",fullName:"Kalum J. Ost",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Calgary",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"325029",title:"Dr.",name:"Prem Chand",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"prem-chand-jain",fullName:"Prem Chand Jain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Shiv Nadar University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357275",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Mih",slug:"thomas-mih",fullName:"Thomas Mih",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Buea",country:{name:"Cameroon"}}},{id:"305305",title:"Dr.",name:"Arturo Yosimar",middleName:null,surname:"Jaen-Cuellar",slug:"arturo-yosimar-jaen-cuellar",fullName:"Arturo Yosimar Jaen-Cuellar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"305315",title:"Dr.",name:"David Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Elvira-Ortiz",slug:"david-alejandro-elvira-ortiz",fullName:"David Alejandro Elvira-Ortiz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"344374",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Toledano-Ayala",slug:"manuel-toledano-ayala",fullName:"Manuel Toledano-Ayala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"8",type:"subseries",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11404,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. 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The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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