\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"},{slug:"intechopen-identified-as-one-of-the-most-significant-contributor-to-oa-book-growth-in-doab-20210809",title:"IntechOpen Identified as One of the Most Significant Contributors to OA Book Growth in DOAB"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"2229",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Fuzzy Controllers - Recent Advances in Theory and Applications",title:"Fuzzy Controllers",subtitle:"Recent Advances in Theory and Applications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Fuzzy control theory is an emerging area of research. At the core of many engineering problems is the problem of control of different systems. These systems range all the way from classical inverted pendulum to auto-focusing system of a digital camera. Fuzzy control systems have demonstrated their enhanced performance in all these areas. Progress in this domain is very fast and there was critical need of a book that captures all the recent advances both in theory and in applications. Serving this purpose, this book is conceived. This book will provide you a very clear picture of current status of fuzzy control research. This book is intended for researchers, engineers, and postgraduate students specializing in fuzzy systems, control engineering, and robotics.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0759-0",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5679-6",doi:"10.5772/2622",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"fuzzy-controllers-recent-advances-in-theory-and-applications",numberOfPages:592,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"d7cef0be5890dfeaf6ac102006f1e804",bookSignature:"Sohail Iqbal, Nora Boumella and Juan Carlos Figueroa Garcia",publishedDate:"September 27th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2229.jpg",numberOfDownloads:79275,numberOfWosCitations:38,numberOfCrossrefCitations:36,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:7,numberOfDimensionsCitations:54,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:8,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:128,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"December 7th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"January 11th 2012",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 16th 2012",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 15th 2012",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 14th 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"138350",title:"Dr.",name:"Sohail",middleName:null,surname:"Iqbal",slug:"sohail-iqbal",fullName:"Sohail Iqbal",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/138350/images/2733_n.jpg",biography:"Sohail Iqbal received the M.Sc. and M.Phil degrees in mathematics from Quaid-i-Azam University, Pakistan in 2002 and 2004, respectively, and Ph.D. degree in surgical robotics from University of Paris-Est, France in 2010. He was a scientific advisor under French ministry of higher education from 2008 to 2010. He is currently an assistant professor at National University of Science and Technology, Pakistan. His main research interest is to apply mathematical techniques to different areas of computer science and engineering with special focus on surgical robotics. His research interest includes robot modeling and control, interval analysis, and fuzzy controllers.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"National University of Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"165173",title:"Dr.",name:"Nora",middleName:null,surname:"Boumela",slug:"nora-boumela",fullName:"Nora Boumela",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165173/images/system/165173.jpg",biography:"Nora Boumella received a B.S. and M S. in electronics in 1997 and 2002 from Institute of Electronics, Batna University, Algeria. She is Ph.D. student at Batna University and at the University of Paris Est-UPEC, France. Actually, she is assistant professor at Batna University and research assistant at ETRHB, Algeria. She is with the research team of the LSSI laboratory, Algeria and also with SCTIC team of the LISSI laboratory, France. Her research interests include fuzzy logic and its application to control and networks. She is student member of IEEE society and the National Research task Group (GDR-MACS).",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1297",title:"Machine Learning",slug:"robot-control-machine-learning"}],chapters:[{id:"39445",title:"Fuzzy Logic Control of a Smart Actuation System in a Morphing Wing",doi:"10.5772/48778",slug:"fuzzy-logic-control-of-a-smart-actuation-system-in-a-morphing-wing",totalDownloads:3609,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Teodor Lucian Grigorie, Ruxandra Mihaela Botez and Andrei Vladimir Popov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/39445",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/39445",authors:[{id:"17568",title:"Dr.",name:"Ruxandra",surname:"Botez",slug:"ruxandra-botez",fullName:"Ruxandra Botez"}],corrections:null},{id:"39439",title:"Embedded Fuzzy Logic Controllers in Electric Railway Transportation Systems",doi:"10.5772/48588",slug:"embedded-fuzzy-logic-controllers-in-electric-railway-transportation-systems",totalDownloads:4694,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Stela Rusu-Anghel and Lucian Gherman",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/39439",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/39439",authors:[{id:"142006",title:"Dr.",name:"Stela",surname:"Rusu-Anghel",slug:"stela-rusu-anghel",fullName:"Stela Rusu-Anghel"},{id:"146321",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcel",surname:"Topor",slug:"marcel-topor",fullName:"Marcel Topor"}],corrections:null},{id:"39427",title:"Design of a Real Coded GA Based Fuzzy Controller for Speed Control of a Brushless DC Motor",doi:"10.5772/49972",slug:"design-of-a-real-coded-ga-based-fuzzy-controller-for-speed-control-of-a-brushless-dc-motor",totalDownloads:3619,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Omer Aydogdu and Ramazan Akkaya",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/39427",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/39427",authors:[{id:"143234",title:"Dr.",name:"Omer",surname:"Aydogdu",slug:"omer-aydogdu",fullName:"Omer Aydogdu"}],corrections:null},{id:"39429",title:"A Type-2 Fuzzy Model Based on Three Dimensional Membership Functions for Smart Thresholding in Control Systems",doi:"10.5772/47798",slug:"a-type-2-fuzzy-model-based-on-three-dimensional-membership-functions-for-smart-thresholding-in-contr",totalDownloads:3326,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"M.H. 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The wearable device market is currently having a worldwide profit of around $34 billion and is expected to reach above $50 billion by 2022 owing to wearables’ ease of use, flexibility, and convenience [4]. Real-time monitoring, operational efficiency, and fitness tracking are reported as main factors supporting the market growth of health wearable devices such as smart watches, smart glasses, and other wellness gadgets, with expected $12.1 billion world market by 2021 [5].
\nIn the past decade, the recent progress in developing wearable devices was more focused on monitoring physical parameters, such as motion, respiration rate, etc. [3, 6, 7]. Today, there is a great interest in evolving wearable sensors capable of detecting chemical markers relevant to the status of health. Different approaches have been applied by researchers to design and fabricate wearable biosensors for remote monitoring of metabolites and electrolytes in body fluids including tear, sweat, and saliva [3, 8, 9, 10]. A great example would be the development of small and reliable sensors that would allow continuous glucose monitoring in diabetic patients [11, 12]. Diabetes is a chronic disease that can significantly impact on quality of life and reduce life expectancy. However, diabetics can stay one step ahead of the disease by monitoring their blood glucose level to minimize the complication of the disease by proper administration of insulin. Currently, blood analysis is the gold standard method for measuring the level of glucose in patient’s blood. However, this technique cannot be applied without penetrating the skin, which can be painful and inconvenient, and requires user obedience. Therefore, current research focuses on the development of portable and wearable devices capable of continuous glucose sensing through noninvasive detection techniques.
\nA majority of the recent studies in this field have targeted the area of personalized medicine, endeavoring to develop miniaturized wearable devices featuring real-time glucose monitoring in diabetic patients [12, 13, 14, 15]. One great example is contact lens which is an ideal wearable device that can be worn for hours without any pain or discomfort [16]. Integration of glucose biosensors into contact lenses has recently been demonstrated by several research groups [9, 17, 18]. However, the level of glucose in tear fluid is very low (0.1–0.6 mM), requiring a high sensitivity of the sensor for picking up the signal from expected chemical reaction [3, 19]. Yao et al. [16] have fabricated a contact lens with integrated sensor for continuous tear glucose monitoring with wireless communication system over a distance of several centimeters. The sensor demonstrated a fast response of 20 s with a minimum detection of less than 0.01 mM glucose, which is 10–60 times lower than glucose level in human tear [16].
\nIn addition to glucose, lactate is an important metabolite in the human body, which gets converted into l-lactate under hypoxic condition [20]. l-Lactate levels in tear fluid is about 1–5 mmol L−1, which might increase significantly due to some heath conditions including ischemia, inadequate tissue oxygenation, stroke, and different types of cancer [21]. Thomas et al. [22] demonstrated an invasive detection of lactate in human tear by integrating an amperometric lactate sensor with Pt working (WE) and reference (RE) electrodes as well as a counter electrode (CE) as current drain, on a polymer-based contact lens, measuring lactate in situ in human tears without any need for physical sampling [22].
\nVery recently, Park et al. [17] reported a novel approach for fabricating fully transparent and stretchable smart contact lens capable of wirelessly monitoring the level of glucose in the tears of diabetic patients. Figure 1 shows the layout of fabricated devices made of glucose sensors, wireless circuit, and display pixel on soft and transparent contact lens substrate (Figure 1a and b). The circuit diagram of the device is illustrated in Figure 1a, with radio frequency antenna receiving signals from a transmitter and a rectifier converting the signals to DC (Figure 1a and c). A continuous network of ultralong Ag nanofibers was used as stretchable electrodes for the antenna and interconnects (Figure 1d). In the case of any change in the concentration of glucose in tear, the sensor resistance changes resulting in the light-emitting diode (LED) pixel turning on or off. The device was tested in vitro using a live rabbit, providing substantial finding for smart contact lenses as one of the promising wearable devices in healthcare system [17].
\n(a) (i) Schematic illustration and (ii) operation of the soft, smart contact lens and (iii) the circuit diagram of the smart contact lens system. The soft, smart contact lens is composed of (b) a hybrid substrate; (c) functional devices including rectifier, LED, and glucose sensor; and (d) a transparent, stretchable conductor for antenna and interconnects [
In addition to tear, sweat electrolyte concentrations and blood serum are related [2, 8]. As one of the most readily accessible human biofluids, a great deal of information about the human body and its physical performance could be obtained via monitoring sweat electrolyte concentrations [23, 24]. Several groups have reported the key biomarkers in human sweat (e.g., sodium level, pH change, lactate concentration) relevant to human health and well-being, for monitoring athletic performance during sporting activities [25]. Jia et al. fabricated a skin-worn tattoo-based sensor for real-time monitoring of lactate in human sweat, offering substantial benefits for biomedical as well as sport applications [25]. In another approach, Curto et al. [26] fabricated a wearable and flexible microfluidic platform capable of monitoring changes in the sweat pH in real time. Anastasova et al. [27] developed a flexible microfluidic device for real-time monitoring of metabolite such as lactate as well as electrolytes such as pH and sodium in human sweat. Recently, Gao et al. [28] developed a flexible and wearable device (Figure 2) made of arrays of sensors for real-time monitoring of heavy metals, such as Zn, Cu, and Hg in human sweat. The device fabrication method is presented in Figure 2a, showing the deposition and stripping steps on microelectrodes. The sensing mechanism was based on an electrochemical detection of targeted heavy metals through four microelectrodes, including Au and Bi working electrodes, Ag reference electrode, and an Au counter electrode (Figure 2b and c). The fabricated device demonstrated high stability and selectivity toward heavy metals, providing a great platform to advancing the field of wearable biosensors for healthcare application, via monitoring the level of some heavy metals in human sweat [28]. A balanced level of Zn is necessary in the human body as a low and high Zn concentration can lead to pneumonia and liver damages, respectively [29, 30]. High level of Cu in the human body can lead to several diseases including Wilson’s disease and heart, kidney, and liver failures as well as brain diseases [31, 32]. The fabricated device demonstrated high stability and selectivity toward heavy metals, providing a great platform to advancing the field of wearable biosensors for healthcare application [28].
\n(a) A schematic showing the concept of deposition and stripping on microelectrodes. (b) A schematic showing the composition of the microsensor array. (c) Optical image of a flexible sensor array interfacing with a flexible printed circuit connector [
Saliva, as a great diagnostic fluid, can be used in personal health devices for real-time monitoring of chemical markers including salivary lactate analysis [33]. Chai et al. developed a saliva nanosensor with a radio-frequency identification tag, integrated into dental implants for detecting cardiac biomarkers in saliva and predicting close heart attack in patients suffering from cardiovascular diseases [34]. In another approach, an instrumented mouthguard was designed and fabricated by Kim et al. [35] for measuring salivary uric acid levels which could be a biomarker for several diseases including hyperuricemia, gout, physical stress, and renal syndrome. The fabricated device showed high selectivity and sensitivity to low level of uric acid as well as great stability during a 4-h operation period [35]. Mannoor et al. [36] developed a hybrid biosensor made of graphene layers printed onto water-soluble silk, for noninvasive detection of bacteria through body fluids including sweat and saliva. This graphene/silk hybrid device illustrated an extremely high sensitivity to bacteria in body fluid with detection limits down to a single bacterium [36]. In addition, the fabricated device provided the potential users with battery-free operation and wireless communication system via radio frequency [36]. Arakawa et al. [37] designed and fabricated a salivary sensor equipped with a wireless measurement system, embedded onto a mouthguard support, featuring a high sensitivity toward detection of glucose over a range of 5–1000 μmol L−1. The device demonstrated a great stability during a 5-h real-time glucose monitoring period in an artificial saliva with a phantom jaw [37]. In a similar approach, de Castro et al. [38] developed a microfluidic paper-based device integrated into a mouthguard, for continues monitoring of glucose and nitrite in human saliva. The saliva samples were collected from periodontitis and/or diabetes patients as well as healthy individuals. The fabricated device featured a low detection limit of 27 and 7 μmol L−1 for glucose and nitrite, respectively [38].
\nIn summary, there is a great potential for micro- and nanosensors’ integration into healthcare monitoring devices, developing new technologies for noninvasive detection of diseases in the human body. Flexible wearable devices offer promising capabilities in real-time monitoring of body fluids including tear, sweat, and saliva. However, more research is required to expand the use of wearable platforms in continuous analysis of body fluids, providing reliable real-time detection of targeting ions and proteins, among other complex analytes.
\nThe most common sexually transmitted infectious conditions across the globe are Human papillomavirus (HPV) infections which is responsible for the development of cervical cancer. The infection of HPV does not always lead towards the neoplastic disease which suggests that the clearance or acquisition of HPV infections may depend on the interpersonal variations in the immune system as well as environmental or viral factors. For example, a well-established cervical cancer risk factor is parity. However, the influence of pregnancy in the natural history of HPV infection and thus the development of cervical neoplasia and its exact mechanism is not known [1].
At the beginning of the pregnancy, immune modulation and induction of tolerance are required for successful implantation allowance but as the pregnancy progresses a responsive immune system is responsible for a successful pregnancy which can protect both the fetus and the mother against environmental insults whenever there is a necessity arises. Indeed the maternal immune system reinforces networks that can respond according to the recognized danger signals and eliminate them appropriately promoting repair when needed. Not only the maternal immune system but also the actively developing immune system in the fetal-placental unit can modify further the maternal immune response and the reaction of the maternal immune system to the environment. So, the immunity during pregnancy is dynamic and unique which can be modulated as per the requirement and definitely not suppressed [2].
Several studies have proven the idea incorrect that constant immunosuppression is crucial for a successful pregnancy which demonstrates that inhibition of key signaling pathways such as pathways mediated by FAS; FAS ligand and deletion of immune cells at the implantation site are detrimental to pregnancy which may lead to pregnancy loss [3, 4]. The deletion of specific decidual NK cells leads to poor endometrial vascularity and obstruct the invasion of the trophoblast [5]. Thus, for a successful pregnancy the presence of immune infiltrates is required which suggests that the immune cells are not recruited to the decidua as a response to a ‘non-self’ or ‘foreign’ fetus but recruited actively to facilitate proper implantation and promote successful pregnancy.
During pregnancy and postpartum, different levels of hormonal changes and changes in the immunity may be responsible for the modulation of the natural history of the HPV infection. There are differences in the status of HPV infection during pregnancy and reduction in the number of HPV positive cases during postpartum period have been reported by various authors [6]. Though the dynamics of HPV infection during pregnancy is not well understood and the information remains controversial. The clearance and persistence of HPV during and after pregnancy have been studied by very few authors [7].
HPV infection in most cases naturally disappears in a short relative time period and risk of disease development in that case is very less. As pregnancy affects the host immune system, it is believed that pregnancy reduces the seroreactivity against infection of HPV. The upstream regulatory region of HPV18 has been reported to be activated by estrogen and progesterone which alters the clearance rate of HPV compared to non-pregnant women [8]. HPV genotypes and viral characteristics such as population distribution and evasive ability play an important role during persistent infection. However, how the HPV genotype specific reaction of the host immune system and the sexual behavior of pregnant women affect the rates of infection in case of persistent cases and how it is related to the host in not clear [9].
In pregnancy, the pregnant mother which is an adult organism is exposed to the fetus which is partly an extremely young organism and this phenomenon can be viewed similar to a natural state known as parabiosis in which organisms share partly blood systems. However, the fetus may have restoring effect on the maternal system. It has been reported that the regenerative capacity of the aged liver and other organs in mice model is restored by pregnancy [10].
There are controversial results on the risk of HPV infection in pregnant women. A higher HPV prevalence has been reported in few studies in pregnant women, whereas, some claimed there are no statistical difference among the age matched non-pregnant women [9]. Moreover, there are no studies on estimating the trimester, age and type specific prevalence of cervical HPV DNA in pregnant women.
This chapter will focus on the incidence of HPV infection in pregnant women population, the reason behind higher incidence rates in early pregnancy, the possible mechanisms responsible for self-clearance and non-clearance of HPV in pregnant women, immune mechanisms playing role in pregnancy, feto-maternal cell trafficking and how HPV affects the pregnancy outcomes. Furthermore, we will also discuss the potential of HPV infection during pregnancy can lead to the development of cervical cancer and therapeutic strategies.
Highest incidence rates have been reported in young adults just after the onset of their sexual activity [11]. In young women between the age group of 17 and 24 years, longitudinal studies reported incidence rates of HPV infection ranging from 15.7 to 29.4 of all types per 1000 women-months [12]. Women in their thirties showed a lower incidence rate in cohort studies which is between 5.2 and 13.4 any type HPV infection per 1000 women-months [12]. The prevalence is likewise higher in younger age groups than older. The global HPV prevalence estimated by a multi-country meta-analysis is 11.7% (with confidence interval 95% 11.6–11.7%) with normal cytology in women with an important variation within and between geographic regions. At round 25 years the prevalence peaks and decreases thereafter. It has been reported that at around 45 years a smaller second peak is observed [13, 14]. It has also been reported in various studies that within 1–2 years of HPV infection almost 80% of them resolve spontaneously [15]. Various studies suggested that during pregnancy it is more likely to acquire and progress HPV infection [16] which regresses after delivery [6, 7, 17, 18].
Whereas, Liu et al. [16] reported that in pregnant women the HPV prevalence varies from 9.58 to 46.67% and in age-matched non-pregnant women the prevalence varies from 8.9 to 23.5%, with a summary estimate of 16.82 and 12.25% respectively and there are significant differences between the summary estimates. In Asia, North America and Europe, it has been reported that the HPV prevalence rates are significantly higher in pregnant women as compared to those in non-pregnant women and the pregnant women in North America as compared to those in Europe and Asia are more susceptible to HPV infection [16]. As per the meta-analytical data showed by Liu et al. [16], the prevalence rates of HPV infection in pregnant women in North America, Australia, Europe and Asia were 30.37, 36.60, 13.19 and 15.72% respectively which showed a worldwide significant difference. In pregnant women aged 25, 25–29 and ≥ 30 years the prevalence rates of HPV infection were 23.94, 13.34 and 14.79% respectively and in non-pregnant women the prevalence rates were 18, 12.08 and 11.43% in respective three age groups [16]. The most frequently identified HPV types in pregnant women have been reported are HPV-16 with 3.86% prevalence rate, HPV-6 with 2.45% prevalence rate, HPV-18 with 1.80% prevalence rate and HPV-11 with 1.76% prevalence rate which is as same as the prevalence rates in non-pregnant women of these HPV types. In the three trimesters the HPV prevalence rates reported are 18.20, 14.38 and 19.32% and the odd ratios are 1.59, 1.20 and 1.71 respectively as compared to the non-pregnant women population.
Studies conducted in Hong Kong and Hungary showed that in asymptomatic pregnant women HPV-16 is the most common type and HPV-6,-18,-11,-58,-31 and − 33 are the other common HPV types [19]. Whereas, in non-pregnant women the sequence is bit different such as HPV-16, -6, -11, -18, -58, -33 and -31 and in women with normal cytology worldwide the sequence reported is HPV-16, -18, -31, -58 and -52 [16].
Specific to genital tract infections, HPV types are classified into three risk categories based on their relative malignant potential such as HPV-6, -11, -40, -42, -43, -44 are low risk; HPV-31, -33, -35, -51, -52 are intermediate and HPV-16, -18, -45, -56 are high risk types. Young women between the ages of 10 and 35 years are reported to be at the maximum risk of HPV infection which are asymptomatic in majority of the cases and spontaneously get cleared may be due to the strong immune system. The reason being this is the age when women are sexually more active. A major cohort of the pregnant population is formed by this age group in the developing nations. The changed immune response and hormonal
Starting at the conception and towards the course of completion with labor and birth enormous transformations the uterus has to undergo in pregnancy. In order to achieve blastocyst stage embryo development for a newly fertilized egg and successful invasion into the uterine tissue, there is a requirement of finely balanced subsets of immune cells and their soluble mediators. Mainly genetics determine the developmental potential of the blastocyst. However, the optimal environment of the uterus determines the viability and competence of the blastocyst to become a fully developed fetus and on-time delivery achievements which in turn reflects the maternal immune response quality.
It has been claimed that pregnancy is a state of mild immunosuppression due to the reduction in the helper T-cell type 1 cell mediated response or decrease in natural killer cells. Sillman and Sedlis in the year 1987 reported that a higher incidence of cervical neoplasia is found in immunosuppressed women [15]. A steroidal hormone receptor binding element present on the transcriptional promotor of HPV-16 as reported by Gloss et al. is responsible for promotion of HPV transcription which suggests an involvement of hormonal activation of replication of HPV [21]. Observation from various studies indicated that the temporary altered immunity state and the increased steroidal hormonal levels during pregnancy might have an influence of the subsequence progression of the disease development effecting on HPV replication [16].
Fetus inherits 50% genome from the father that leads to the expressing of antigens which are acknowledged as foreign by the maternal immune system. To accommodate the semi-allogeneic fetus within the immunocompetent mother’s body a range of complex processes take place [22]. The physiological and immunological changes during pregnancy marks it a unique condition that makes the mother and the fetus more susceptible to certain infectious diseases, risk of congenital anomalies and the risk of more serious outcomes in other diseases. These changes are mainly driven by the cytokines, hormones and immune cells that lead to the modification of the immune system as well as the structural changes by remodeling of the endometrium [23]. In the 1950s, it was initially proposed that the induction of general immunosuppression during pregnancy allows the tolerance of the semi-allogeneic fetus and since then several hypotheses has been proposed explaining the reason why the fetus is not rejected by the maternal immune system (Figure 1).
Accommodation of the semi-allogenic fetus in the maternal system.
On the contrary, after the natural infection pregnant women are capable of inducing immune responses and immune memory which is similar to non-pregnant women which proves the above hypothesis wrong [24]. Various studies have reported that the modulation of the immune system rather than active suppression is observed during pregnancy. Over the course of pregnancy, the progressive increase of the concentrations of steroidal hormones such as progesterone and estrogens induce a shift in the balance of pro and anti-inflammatory responses. During the first trimester of pregnancy which is called “open wound phase” the pro-inflammatory responses are prominent and in the second and the third trimester phases where the body prepared for deliver the anti-inflammatory responses are prominent [22]. Thus, it is clear that why the severity of certain diseases such as multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis induced by the inflammatory responses are often gets reduced during the third trimester of pregnancy and diseases which are controlled by the inflammatory responses such as malaria, influenza and lupus are increased during this phase [25]. There is a shift from Th1, which is oriented towards cell-mediated immunity, towards Th2, which is oriented towards the hormonal immunity, responses is observed which is associated with an alteration of the balance between type1 and type 2T helper cells and this transition is needed for the development of a healthy fetus. The suppression of cytotoxic T lymphocytes and stimulation of B lymphocytes to further increase the production of antibodies that are potential to be transferred to the fetus is controlled by these Th2-skewed responses. The findings of Mor et al. [22] and Chaouat et al. [24] suggested that the placenta is capable of interaction and response to pathogens which makes it an active immunological site. At the feto-maternal interphase, the immune mechanisms contribute to protect the fetus from rejection providing required cytokines and growth factors for implantation of the fetus in the placenta. The placenta can generate signals which may modulate the responses of the maternal immune system to pathogens which leads to a new paradigm that there is a combination of signals and responses originating both from the feto-placental unit and the maternal immune system which decides the overall immunological responses during pregnancy (Figure 2) [26].
HPV clearance and non-clearance during pregnancy and postpartum.
The increased susceptibility to infection of pregnant women during pregnancy may be due to the immunological and anatomical changes of the uterine canal. Like other human viruses, the placenta or the cells of the fetal origin may get infected by HPV. The presence of HPV has been reported in the polymorphonuclear cells which suggest that the passage of virus through feto-maternal barrier may be allowed by the transfer of the maternal cells [27]. It has also been reported that the trophoblast cells are broadly permissive
In the uterine mucosa, especially in the postovulatory phase there is an increase in the circulating progesterone levels which initiates a cascade of molecular and cellular events that allows the initial anchor of the embryo to the epithelial layer of the endometrial surface further leading to the coordination of the invasion of the extra-embryonic trophoblast lineages. The proliferative activity of estrogen-primed endometrium is inhibited by progesterone which induces the secretory activity in the glandular compartment followed by triggering the influx of specialized uterine natural killer cells such as uNK; CD16/CD56bright in response to the production of local chemokines such as CXCL9, CCL4 and CXCL10. The Uterine natural killer (uNK) cells which are a rich source of angiogenic and growth factors, has been reported to have critical role in remodeling of the endometrial spiral arteries during and prior to pregnancy [5, 30]. The contractile activity of the myocytes of the junctional zone is strongly reduced by the progesterone which is a crucial process for the apposition of the blastocyst to the luminal epithelium. The most outstanding aspect of the maternal response during pregnancy is the transformation of the endometrial stromal fibroblasts into epithelioid-like, secretory decidual cells.
Upon implantation of a blastocyst, decidualization of the stromal compartment is observed in most species. On the other hand, in humans decidualization is initiated without the involvement of a pregnancy in the midsecretory phase of the cycle. It is progressive process which is at first initiated around the terminal spiral arteries of the superficial endometrial layer which continues in pregnancy involving the entire endometrium as the pregnancy progresses [23]. The invasive or extravillous trophoblastic cells mediate the attachment of the placenta to the maternal uterine wall and they are responsible for the establishment of a low-resistance, high-flow supply of the maternal circulation to the fetus and the placenta. The placental dysfunction occurs due to the failed invasion of the extravillous trophoblast cells leading to the adverse obstetric outcomes such as spontaneous preterm delivery and pre-eclampsia. There are controversial reports on the HPV infection of the invasive trophoblast cells and their effects. There are reports showing the evidence of detection of HPV in trophoblast tissue from early pregnancy losses where HPV was more prominently found in spontaneous abortion cases than in cases of elective terminations of pregnancy. The genomes of the four different HPV types such as 11, 18, 16 and 31 are reported to undergo complete life cycle in 3A trophoblast cell lines and the HPV-31 in an in vitro system are shown to decrease cell number of the trophoblast cell and their adhesion [31].
Impaired placental function is associated with pregnancy loss or complications such as abruption, fetal growth restriction and pre-eclampsia. In this case we have to consider that the uterine remodeling during pregnancy is required to accommodate deep trophoblast invasion and the decidual process is not primary under the embryonic control which makes the implantation process more vulnerable to perturbations in the mother [23].
Between the maternal decidua and the blastocyst the first point of contact is represented by the trophoblast. It has been reported by current studies that the trophoblast plays an active role during implantation and early placentation in shaping the immunological milieu by educating and attracting immune cells at the implantation site and thus modeling the subsequent response of the immune cells to external stimuli. Cytokines such as transforming growth factor-β (TGF β), CXCL12 which is also known as SDF1, CXCL8 which is also known as IL-8 and CCL2 which is also known as MCP1 are constitutively secreted by trophoblast cells. The secretion of these cytokines by trophoblast cells upon establishment at the implantation site, promotes the recruitment of neutrophils, peripheral monocytes, T cells, NK cells and Treg cells [32]. After decidualization although immune infiltrates are already present, studies have shown that for successful pregnancy, immune cell trafficking is crucial and any disruption in these chemokines signaling pathways leads to reduced infiltration of the immune cells and adverse pregnancy outcomes. Cytokines are also secreted by trophoblast cells that can act on immune cells after their recruitment. These secreted cytokines have been reported to stimulate the unique differentiation of the earlier recruited immune cells in such as a way that they acquire phenotypes which are collectively essential for the successful pregnancy [33].
Decidual NK cells are less cytotoxic, thus they are different from peripheral NK cells and TGFβ12 and trophoblast-derived IL-15 induces this type of phenotypes. Decidual vascular remodeling which is crucial for development of the placenta targeted by these specialized NK cells [34]. CD14+ monocytes upon recruitment to the maternal-fetal interface acquire a unique phenotype that is M2-like macrophage which might be induced by the trophoblast-derived macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF) and IL-10 [2118]. These M2-like macrophages participate in clearance of apoptotic cells and phagocytosis of degraded extracellular matrix and play a crucial role in tissue remodeling [35]. Trophoblast-educated M2 like macrophages on the contrary to other tissue-resident macrophages, maintain their CD14 expression and capable of immunomodulatory cytokine secretions such as type I interferons and TGFβ [35]. Trophoblast-derived TGFβ furthermore is able to induce the naive CD4+ cell differentiation into FOXP3+ Treg cells [36]. In addition to the trophoblast cells, a substantial amount of data have shown that the decidual cells also have vital role in regulation of the immune cell trafficking which is mostly T cells towards the site of implantation (Figure 3) [37, 38].
Immune modulation during pregnancy at the feto-maternal interface.
In addition to chemokines and cytokines secretion which attract and educate immune cells, numerous studies have shown that the trophoblast cells have the ability to sense and respond according to the microenvironment. Cell-surface receptors expressed by the trophoblast cells such as NOD-like receptors (NLRs) and TLRs can recognize specific molecular patterns within the microenvironment. These receptors have also the ability to recognize DAMPs which are basically released from damaged tissues and dying cells as well as PAMPs (Pathogen-associated molecular patterns) from viruses, bacteria and other microorganisms and thus permit the trophoblast cells to sense and response to these signals [39, 40]. Thus, the placental and fetal development is supported by the trophoblast cells attracting and educating immune cells and responding to the signals within the microenvironment in a unique way such as decidual differentiation followed by trophoblast migration and invasion, angiogenesis and finally spiral artery remodeling [41].
During pregnancy the consequences of viral infection can vary being a benign asymptomatic event which is undetected mostly and it can either cause the occurrence of fetal congenital malformations or pregnancy loss [42]. Like bacteria, the TLRs and NLRs expressed by the immune cells as well as those expressed by the trophoblast cells can be engaged by the viruses. Viral replication as well as vertical transmission of a virus to the developing fetus from the mother can also controlled by the trophoblast cells [43, 44]. Commensal bacteria which are present at the feto-maternal interface can induce the secretion of IFNβ by trophoblast cells which supports the decidual receptivity by exerting immunomodulatory effects. It has been reported that the antiviral responses can be exerted by the IFNβ [45] and thus one of the molecular pathways that is type I IFN pathway is actively inhibited by the viruses as they establish as infection. Various studies in mouse model have demonstrated that by inhibiting IRF3 phosphorylating in the placenta, viral infection can decrease IFNβ expression which leads to the decreased antiviral responses [46]. TLR4 induced responses are modified by viral infections to commensal bacteria leading to the conversion of pro-inflammatory from anti-inflammatory in nature [47]. The receptivity and tolerance at the feto-maternal interface is promoted by the IFNβ which suggests that blunted response of IFNβ secondary to viral infection is responsible for the detrimental pregnancy consequences. The reduced receptivity of the immune cells at the feto-maternal interface due to the loss of IFNβ also reduces their capacity to control and respond to other microorganisms. Thus, the association of the overwhelming inflammation with pregnancy complications suggests that there may be an involvement of an undetected viral infection which can change the response pattern of the feto-maternal interface to commensal bacteria. This hypothesis has been supported by the study results of Cardenas et al. [48] using an animal model. In that study, pregnant C57BL/6 mice was infected with MHV68 on 8.5 embryonic day and a low dose of LPS subsequent administration on E15.5 day leads to a cytokine storm which was characterized by high levels of G-CSF, CXCL1, IL-8 and TNF which is associated with parturition, a reduced production of IFNβ followed by preterm birth. These changes in the cytokine profile leading to preterm birth is not induced alone either by LPS treatment or MHV68 infection but by a ‘double-hit hypothesis’ proposed by Mor et al. [41] which suggests that how trophoblast cells respond to bacterial products are changed by a viral infection which abolishes the normal microbiota immunomodulatory effects. In response of the commensal microbiota, the trophoblastic cells in the absence of a viral infection secret IFNβ, whereas IFNβ signaling is abolished in the presence of a viral infection leading to eradicate its immunomodulatory effects which in turn changes the response of the trophoblastic cells to commensal bacteria shifting IFNβ response to a cytokine storm which promotes preterm birth. However, it has been reported that the inflammation and preterm labour is also promoted either by an increased response of IFNβ or inhibition of the IFNβ regulators [49]. Thus, the original milieu which has a setting of immune-tolerance, during viral infection, is shifted into a state of pro-inflammatory condition [41].
During pregnancy there is a bidirectional cell passage exists between fetus and mother which is called feto-maternal cell trafficking. It is known as fetal microchimerism when there is a presence of fetal cells in the maternal circulation and maternal microchimerism when the maternal cells are present in the fetal circulation. Georg Schmorl in the year 1893 first reported about fetal microchimerism after identifying the placental trophoblast cells in a mother who died due to eclampsia [50]. The persistence of fetal cells in the maternal circulation [51, 52] and other maternal organs such as liver, heart, kidney [52] and bone marrow [53] has been reported decades after pregnancy. In 1963, with the identification of the maternal platelets and leukocytes in the cord blood the maternal microchimerism was described for the first time [54]. In healthy, immunocompetent individuals these maternal cells have been found to circulate into adult life [55].
At 7 weeks of pregnancy the bidirectional trafficking of the cells begins and increases throughout the gestation steadily and peaks at parturition [56]. In normal pregnancies, maternal microchimerism and fetal microchimerism has been reported to be 42 and 51% respectively at the time of delivery [57]. In human blood and tissues the detection of maternal-fetal microchimerism is done by in situ hybridization for identification of whole cells and the identification of the origin of the DNA whether it is from mother or the fetus is done by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to identify Y-chromosome DNA sequences in mother [58]. As the Y chromosome is easier to distinguish it is used as a biomarker to detect microchimerism and it does not require the fetus to be male. However, male microchimerism has been reported to be found in a fifth of women with no birth of a male child. The possible reason of the phenomenon can be a vanished male twin; early miscarriage of a male embryo; transfer of male cell through the maternal circulation from an older sibling to a later pregnancy; or due to an unexplored possibility of transfer of male DNA into the maternal circulation during sexual intercourse [59]. In females, male fetal cells have reported to show increased antigenicity. As the fetus carries paternal genes among which some are expressed on the cell surface that may induce potent allogeneic responses the mother confronts an immunological challenge during pregnancy. However, in spite of the immunologic differences of the cells, the fetus does not get rejected frequently (Figure 4) [60].
Feto-maternal cell trafficking during pregnancy.
In pregnancy, the maternal and fetal cell exchange is common. During gestation, placenta allows the fetal and maternal reciprocal transport of cells in a state of mutual tolerance which proves placenta is not an immunologically inert barrier. It is not necessary to continue a pregnancy and deliver a child to develop mirochimerism. Up to 500,000 nucleated fetal cells can be delivered into the maternal circulation even early terminations from surgical abortion [61, 62]. The cellular movement across the placental barrier is controlled by the maternal, fetal, or/and placental signals rather than nonspecific leakiness. The involvements of integrin-dependent and VEGF pathways are associated with the trans-placental cell trafficking mechanism but the initiation of the processes by the exact molecular signals are yet unknown [63]. In case of preeclampsia, fetal surgery and pregnancy termination where there is a disruption of the feto-maternal interface, association of altered feto-maternal cell trafficking has been reported which suggests that the placenta has a role in the cell migration regulation. The altered microchimerism levels are also associated with histocompatibility differences which suggests that the cell trafficking and the survival of the trafficked cells is either promoted or hindered by the immune response between the fetus and the mother [64, 65]. During pregnancy, the biological role of the bidirectional movement of cells is unknown, although it has implications in the fetal immune system development [66]; repair of tissue in autoimmune disease [67, 68, 69, 70] tolerance mechanisms during pregnancy [71]; immune surveillance [72] and cancer [73]. It is also involved in the maintenance of balance between the tolerance [74] and immunologic priming [75] which can influence the occurrence of autoimmune disease and transplantation outcomes. The utility of the feto-maternal cell trafficking has been identified clinically in the prediction of pregnancy complications [76, 77] and in prenatal testing for aneuploidies [78].
The research on microchimerism is still in its infancy, more specifically on the fetomaternal microchimerism. In women with autoimmune diseases, the long-term existence of the fetal cells and its speculative role has not yet been studied well. It has been reported by some of the researchers that the microchimeric cell populations occur due to pregnancy may have stem cell like properties which have the potential to home in damaged tissues and organs and further differentiate as part of the maternal repair response [62].
Merckx et al. [79] reported that children born to HPV-positive mothers are at a significantly higher risk of becoming HPV positive which further results in infantile genital and anal condyloma acuminatum and juvenile laryngeal papillomatosis. However, by the age of 6 months some HPV infections are almost cleared. Hence, the question regarding susceptibility of pregnant women to HPV infection and its prevalence as compared to non-pregnant women population are crucial to answer [16].
Various studies reported that spontaneous abortion occurs in up to 30% of all pregnancies and it constitutes one of the most frequently occurring adverse pregnancy outcomes worldwide. In 5–13% of deliveries, spontaneous preterm birth is also observed [80]. As per the reports of recent investigations, the human papillomavirus infection of the placenta may be involved with placental abnormalities, spontaneous preterm delivery and spontaneous abortion.
Trophoblast cells as discussed earlier constitute the prime target for HPV in placenta which is responsible for placentation abnormality. Various studies showed that in pregnant women the prevalence of HPV infection ranges widely from 6 to 65% and the HPV DNA has been detected in amniotic fluid, placenta, fetal membranes and umbilical cord blood [81].
Delivery before 37 weeks of gestation is defined as preterm birth and it is an important complication worldwide for both multifetal and singleton pregnancies. As compared to children born at term, the preterm children are more likely to develop log-term neurological and developmental disorders and are at an increased risk of mortality. The highest rates of preterm delivery have been reported to be found in South-eastern and South Asia with a percentage of 13.4%. Especially in low-income countries, the morbidity and mortality are highest among these preterm children [80].
As per the fetal origin of adult disease (FOAD) hypothesis, the specific changes in the fetus are caused by the intrauterine environmental exposures which lead to the risk of developing diseases in adult life. Depending on the environmental interaction, these risks may lead to adult diseases. Coronary heart disease was documented earlier to support this hypothesis [82] but a range of chronic conditions has also now been included to expand the framework [83]. While, the ‘thrifty phenotype’ hypothesis states that low birth weight babies should not be at high risk of non-insulin dependent diabetes development when they grow with a scarcity of food [84, 85] but growing up in an area of affluence of the same babies would increase the risk and hence the intrauterine exposure plays an important role in inheriting the harmful potential in interaction with exposures later. Thus, the reformulated FOAD hypothesis included epigenetics and the life –course epidemiology as an important factor which includes social and physical exposures during gestation, adolescence, childhood, young adulthood and adult life. To understand the development of chronic diseases, history specific and inter-generational elements of individual’s life is also important [86]. The timing of exposure variables and how the outcome of interest is related to each other is the basis of life-course perspective. Hence, the effects of intrauterine exposures can be modified by the entire lifespan of an individual through the life-events, behavioral, biological and socioeconomic processes [87].
Infection with HPV (Human papillomavirus) is generally regarded as sexually transmitted disease. However, the detection of HPV in the oral mucosa of newborn babies who are sexually inexperienced has been reported in various studies which suggests plausible non-sexual alternative route of HPV infection. Detection of HPV genotypes and their similarities in the offspring’s oral sample and in mother’s genital tract suggests that the probable source of HPV infection in the newborn is the HPV infected mother. In the mother-baby pair, the reported vertical transmission rates are between 18.2 and 53.3% [88].
The possible mode of vertical transmission of HPV to infant from a mother is still under debate. However, during fertilization, or pregnancy or delivery the possible mode of transmission has been implicated. Evidence of prenatal transmission of HPV has been provided by Koskimaa et al. [89] and the presence of HPV in cord blood and placenta has been shown to increase the risk of carrying HPV DNA in the oral mucosa which suggests that in the transmission of HPV, unlike several other human viruses, placenta may play an important role [27]. Recent studies reported that the placenta and the maternal microbiomes have role in regulating the neonatal microbiomes which suggests during pregnancy the fetal exposure of microbiota has long-term outcomes in their health [90]. The translocated maternal oral microbes are presented to the fetal immune system at the placenta which acts as a site leading to the development of prenatal tolerance to the maternal microbiome [91].
The encounter with HPV and its significance in pre or perinatal period is not clear. Early exposure of HPV might have a significant impact in the HPV-specific immunity development, subsequent HPV infection and progression due to the immaturity of the immune system of the fetus and infant [92]. However, practically in children the HPV-specific immunity has remained an unknown area. As reported by Koskimaa et al. [88] and Koskimaa et al. [93], children aged 12–14 years had immunoreactivity specific to HPV 16 E2-, E6-, and E7. Whereas, various studies reported that the HPV-16 specific cell mediated immunity is much lower in adults [94, 95]. Between HPV positive and negative subjects, differences have been found in the memory Th cell (T Helper) reactivity against HPV16 E2, E7 and E6 oncoproteins in adults. Against HPV16 E2 and E6, the Th responsiveness is accompanied by the type 1 and type 2 cytokine secretions in a mixed pattern and seems to be more common in healthy individuals as compared to individuals with HPV16 induced disease.
Koskimaa et al. [89] reported that children those are exposed to HPV via cord blood or Oral HPV or placenta might have HPV16 specific T helper cell responses similar to the adults having HPV induced lesions which are highly different from negative HPV controls.
Though some studies have reported HPV infection to be associated with spontaneous preterm delivery and spontaneous abortion, controversy continues in this field due to the reason that some studies were unable to confirm this association.
Cervical cancer ranks as the 3rd most frequently diagnosed cancer with an estimated 569,847 incident cases and 311,365 deaths reported in the year 2018 (GLOBOCAN) worldwide and in women it is the fourth leading cause of death due to cancer. After breast cancer it ranks second in incidence and mortality rates in lower HDI settings. Worldwide in 28 countries it is the mostly diagnosed cancer and leading cause of cancer death in 42 countries which includes vast majority in South-Eastern Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa [96]. It has been reported that around 530,000 women get affected every year by cervical cancer and the HPV related cancer burden in women worldwide add up to 6% of total cancer cases.
In India, the diagnosis of new cervical cancer is about 96,922 cases annually making it the 2nd leading cause of female cancer. Women aged between 15 and 44 years, cervical cancer is the second most common female cancer in India [97].
The development of cervical cancer and its precursor lesions are reported through several epidemiological and biological studies to be associated with high-risk Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection. The development of high grade cervical lesions is reported to be associated with positive high-risk HPV test results in women with or without abnormal cervical smears [66, 98, 99, 100]. It has been reported in various studies on immunocompromised patients such as transplant recipients and AIDs patients that the increased persistence of high-risk HPV and HPV-mediated carcinogenesis is associated with compromised immunosurveillance [101, 102]. In pregnancy, the immune-response is altered in women and some studies concluded that there is no effect of pregnancy on CIN [103], whereas few reported high relapse rates of cervical dysplasia in the postpartum period [104]. Likewise, few studies reported high-risk HPV prevalence rate to be higher in pregnant women and others reported there is no difference of HPV prevalence between non-pregnant and pregnant women. However, on the natural course of high-risk HPV types infection the influence of pregnancy is not yet known. There are few questions need to be answered in this area: (1) what is the difference between the clearance of HPV in pregnant and non-pregnant women? (2) During pregnancy how does the high-risk HPV rate change? [6].
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved three vaccines such as the first-generation Human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccines, Gardasil (Merck, Kenilworth, NJ, USA) which is a quadri valent vaccine; Cervarix (GlaxoSmithKline, London, UK) which is a bivalent vaccine, have the potential to prevent about 70 and 84% of the cervical cancer cases respectively. Gardasil 9 (Merck), which is a next-generation nonavalent HPV vaccine, can prevent cervical cancer approximately 90%. However, pre-existing infections and their related cervical abnormalities cannot be treated by these vaccines. The American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) in the year 2016 released cervical screening guidelines which recommend the screening for women aged between 30 and 49 years, one to three times in a lifetime in lower resource settings [105]. The screening should be done with primary HPV testing via the use of self-collected specimens as it has been reported to be more effective, adaptable and reliable method of screening as compared to traditional cytological methods and thus the effective cervical cancer screening can be done in several generations of women [106].
In terms of HPV vaccination and coverage rates of cervical screening, considerable inconsistencies exist worldwide between countries and within countries. In low-income and middle-income countries (LMICs), in the year 2008 the reported overall screening uptake was 19%, while in high-income regions it was 63% [107]. As compared to high-income countries, in low-income and middle-income countries the HPV vaccination coverage is much lower. In the high-income countries an estimated 33.6% of girls and women aged between 10 and 20 years had received the full course of HPV vaccine by the year 2014 as compared to low-income and middle-income countries which was 2.7% of the same age group of females [108]. Though studies are still in progress on the long-term vaccine efficacies to understand the total duration of protection, it has been reported that with Gardasil the protection against targeted HPV types last for at least 10 years [109], with Cervarix at least 9 years [110] and with Gardasil 9 a least 6 years [111]. But these vaccines have not sufficiently been tested during pregnancy and hence it is not used in pregnant women.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends HPV vaccination for women having either an HPV infection or an abnormal Pap test or both if they are in the appropriate age group as that may protect them against the high-risk HPV types which have not been acquired by them. However, the vaccination has not the potential to treat the abnormal results of the Pap test or cure the current HPV infections [112]. Though, the vaccines have been reported to be safe when given to people with pre-existing HPV infection, it gives maximum benefit if given to people before being sexually active [113, 114]. However, some residual benefit from the vaccination will still be there for people already exposed to HPV even though infections with one or more HPV types which are included in the vaccines. Currently, there is no specific test available to detect past exposure of HPV in individuals and the approved HPV tests detect only current infection with high-risk HPV types at the cervix region without any information on past infection.
Even after the vaccination, the screening for cervical cancer need to be done as all HPV types which has the potential to cause cancer are not covered by the HPV vaccines. Therefore, in cervical cells to detect precancerous changes before the development of cancer, screening is essential. Additionally, women with existing HPV infection or who are not vaccinated the cervical screening is critically important. However, the screening recommendations may be changed in future for women given HPV vaccination.
Research works are in progress to develop therapeutic HPV vaccines which would prevent cancer development among women with previous history of HPV infection. The immune system will be stimulated by these vaccines which will result in specifically targeting and killing infected cells. The safety and efficacy of a therapeutic DNA vaccine are being tested by ongoing clinical trials to treat HPV related cervical and vulvar lesions [115, 116, 117]. A combination of preventive and therapeutic vaccine would be an ideal strategy in this case.
Topical microbicides is another preventive strategy which is being explored. In various studies, carrageenan which is an extracted compound from seaweed widely used in foods and other products has been reported to inhibit infection with HPV. Clinical trial in healthy individuals with a gel containing carrageenan is underway to test its efficacy to prevent genital HPV infections.
The response of the adaptive immune system of the infants cannot be protective to many pathogens in the first months of life. The T cells of both fetal and neonatal origin are shewed towards Th2 responses which are ineffective against intracellular pathogens. Ineffectiveness has also been reported for bacterial polysaccharides by antibody responses. Infants rely on additional protection during this period which is acquired from maternal antibodies during gestation passively transported through the placenta. At the time of birth, the antibody levels present in the infants are correlated with the maternal antibody levels and the therefore, there is an interconnection between the antibody levels present in the maternal circulation and the degree of transfer of antibodies. However, the suboptimal maternal specific antibodies may not be sufficient to provide full protective immunity or can provide protection only for a limited period of time to the infants. Moreover, the maternal antibody levels decrease over a periods of approximately 6 months after birth. Therefore, the aim of the maternal immunization is to increase the concentration of maternal specific antibody and their passive transport to the fetus which will reduce the window of vulnerability for infants. IgG (Immunoglobulin G) is the only isotype among the five antibody classes that has the ability to efficiently cross the human placenta. Syncytiotrophoblast cells of the placenta, are responsible for the transfer of the IgG antibodies from mother to the fetus, which are located in contact with the maternal blood. In the circulation maternal IgG are internalized in endosomes and bind to Fc receptors (FcRn) of the neonatal cells which are expressed on the surface of the internal endosomes. On membrane of the fetal side of the syncytiotrophoblasts, the endosomes fuse and the IgG are released from FcRn. Passing through the villous stroma and fetal capillary endothelium, IgG enters the fetal circulation through an unknown mechanism. With the largest transferred proportion during the third trimester of pregnancy, the transfer of IgG through placenta increases over time especially within the last 4 weeks. Consistent with an active transport process, the IgG concentration in the fetal circulation are generally greater than the maternal circulation at full term of pregnancy [118, 119]. This transfer is influenced by several factors such as maternal non-infectious diseases, placental integrity, total maternal IgG concentration, FcRn availability, IgG subtype, timing of infection or vaccination and nature of the antigen [120]. IgG4, IgG3 and IgG2 are the least efficiently transferred to the fetus as compared to IgG1 which is the most efficiently transferred antibody subtype to the fetus.
Approximately after 2 weeks of maternal immunization, the concentration of specific antibodies starts increasing which suggests that if the vaccination is provided between 28 and 32 weeks of pregnancy, the optimal amount of specific IgG may be achieved in full-term infants at birth, but may not be the same for preterm infants. Diphtheria toxoid-acellular pertussis vaccine (Tdap) in the second trimester is reported to be reduced by the vaccination with tetanus toxoid which results in higher neonatal anti-pertussis antibody titers as compared to vaccination in the third trimester both in preterm and term neonates [121, 122]. The total longer transfer time may be a reason for the accumulation of antibodies in the fetal circulation. In addition to the maternal IgG antibodies which is transferred through placenta and known for providing protection, lesser concentration of IgG, IgM and high concentration of maternal IgA are also excreted in the breast milk and colostrum [123]. Immediately after delivery or in the second or third trimester of pregnancy, vaccination with Tdap reported to increase the pertussis-specific IgA antibody levels in the breast milk [124]. Therefore, another mode of transferring antibodies to the new born is breastfeeding. The maternal IgA transferred through the breast milk helps protecting the infants against enteric infections and respiratory illness with fever in infants born to influenza-vaccinated mothers for at least 6 months after birth [42, 123]. Though, there are evidences highlighting the maternal immunization benefits, few studies have also shown controversial interferences between the maternal IgG antibodies and the infant antibody responses [125].
The “immunological blunting”, a phenomenon is observed after the primary vaccination series in early infancy when the maternal IgG antibodies can inhibit the immune responses against the same or related antigens. While after the booster dose, this blunting effect dissipates [119, 126]. Blunting has been reported to be observed with polio and measles vaccines after natural infection or maternal immunization for maternal antibodies [119, 127]. Though, the clinical importance of this blunting effect is unknown, the epidemiological data of implemented maternal immunization from various countries have not shown any negative impact on the protection against the diseases targeted [26, 128].
Gardasil and Cervarix both HPV vaccines are recombinant which contains virus-like particles (VLP’s) and enhanced by an adjuvant which is responsible for triggering an immune response higher than a natural infection [129]. Gardasil 9, a 9-valent HPV vaccine was only licensed for use in the USA in December 2014.
Depending on age, full coverage by the HPV vaccine is obtained by 2 or 3 doses with the first dose administered at time o, followed by the second dose after 1–2 months and the third dose after 6 months [130]. While, all doses are not received by many girls [131]. In order to achieve long-term duration of immunity, the repeat doses of vaccine are given which boost the immune system.
Worldwide, millions of doses of HPV vaccine since its introduction have been administered and involuntary administration also occurs during pregnancy as the young fertile women are the main recipients of the vaccines. Potentially harmful adverse effects (AE) to the unborn child such as preterm birth, miscarriage, congenital malformations, fetal death or fears of teratogenicity raise concern among both the health care providers and recipients. The development of sensitive organs such as the heart, the central nervous system takes place in the first trimester of pregnancy and in this period the environmental factors like medications and drugs theoretically might cause damage the developing fetus which is the main reason of concern. The vaccine manufacturers (Merck and GlaxoSmithKline) and the World Health Organization recommend avoiding HPV vaccination during pregnancy [36]. However, in case of accidental vaccination of pregnant women there are no interventions and no mandatory pregnancy testing before vaccination recommended so far. Moreover, conducting studies to investigate the pregnancy outcomes by administering HPV vaccines to pregnant women are not ethically feasible. In pregnancy, the true safety of the HPV vaccination has not yet been established through randomized controlled trial. Hence, the HPV vaccine administration to the pregnant women has not yet been approved [132].
In pregnant women, many observational studies reported the HPV infection risk but there are controversial results too. Higher HPV prevalence has been reported in few studies, whereas several studies reported lower prevalence in pregnant women or there is no statistical difference between pregnant and age matched non-pregnant controls [16].
For a successful pregnancy, a modulated, dynamic and responsive immune system is required but definitely not a suppressive one and this has been supported by an increasing number of studies. At the feto-maternal interface, the trophoblastic cells are important for the receptive immune system establishment which is achieved as a part of response mechanism to the normal microbiota which highlights the complexity of the regulatory pathways involved during pregnancy. Moreover, there are evidences on the effects that changed the modulated immune system and the receptive feto-maternal interface by a clinically silent viral infection emphasizes the necessity of better detection, treatment and prevention of the viral infections during pregnancy. This will further lead not only to the better outcomes of pregnancy but also the postnatal development can be affected in a better way as these viral infections and the subsequent inflammations reported to be associated with mental health issues and diseases of the immune system such as asthma and allergies. The effects of viral infections on fetal development during pregnancy can more be exemplified by the recent Zika virus outbreak and its teratogenic effect on the development of brain [22]. Therefore, it is important to understand the complex immune responses during pregnancy, with the continued risk of pandemics and the emergence of newer diseases associated as secondary to the viral infection, which will lead to the development of appropriate approaches and tools to protect both the fetus and the mother [41].
Moreover, there are very limited data is available due to the very limited number of investigations have been performed on materials from spontaneous abortions and spontaneous preterm deliveries due to HPV infection and the heterogeneous study groups making it difficult to come to a reliable conclusion. A proper study design, selection of proper controls is very essential in this case and a strict control of the similarity in patients/samples is needed for a valuable comparison between studies. Furthermore, the simple detection of a virus cannot be a real causative role for diseases in general or adverse pregnancy outcomes. Therefore, for this particular situation it is important to study the cellular localization and the viral activity to come to a realistic conclusion.
Therefore, we recommend more investigations on materials of adverse pregnancy outcomes including spontaneous abortion and spontaneous preterm delivery and the molecular mechanism of HPV infections on it which is the need of the hour and researchers need to conduct new studies to clarify the exact molecular mechanisms involved on the HPV infection in early pregnancy and how the self-clearance takes place during the course of pregnancy.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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\\n\\n\\n\\nAt IntechOpen we realize that exceptional circumstances can occur, resulting in a request for a refund. We will honor all justified requests in the specific instances outlined in our Refund Policy.
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All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
\n\n\n\nWith the purpose of protecting our Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of Open Access content, IntechOpen has developed an Attribution Policy for works published under Creative Commons licenses.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen is committed to disseminating high-quality scientific research in a manner that exemplifies the best practice in scholarly publishing. IntechOpen is an official member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), which advocates the maintenance of the highest ethical standards for all parties involved in the act of publishing, including Authors, Academic Editors of the book, Peer Reviewers, the publisher and Societies, where applicable.
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\n\n\n\nThe Internet has changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing which is why we find it necessary to clearly indicate our stance on what we consider to be a published scientific work. A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar works in progress are shared openly online between members of the scientific community. It has become common practice for researchers to announce their work on a personal website or a blog in order to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are ‘published’ in the sense that they are made publicly available, but this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\n\n\n\nTo identify instances of fraud and misconduct during the publishing process, IntechOpen implements a robust policy governing such occurrences. In line with our general commitment to openness, and in order to maintain the highest scientific standards, we are committed to transparency about our editorial policy regarding retractions and corrections.
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\n\nIntechOpen publishes books in the English language. If you are interested in the translation of Book Chapters, please check IntechOpen's Translation Policy.
\n\n\n\nIn line with the Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing, you can access a more detailed description of IntechOpen's Advertising Policy.
\n\n\n\nAt IntechOpen we realize that exceptional circumstances can occur, resulting in a request for a refund. We will honor all justified requests in the specific instances outlined in our Refund Policy.
\n\n\n\nAll chapters will be published via IntechOpen's 'Online First' service meaning chapters will be published individually, immediately after review and before the entire book is ready for publication, allowing content to be shared, searched and cited straightaway, thereby generating early stage interest and momentum for your research
\n\nOnline First Chapters are considered published on the day they are posted and are citable from that date.
\n\nChapters will remain listed as Online First until the final versions of the books are published online. Following publication of the full monograph, Chapters will be redirected from the Online First version and will be available only through the final link of the official published page.
\n\nYou are invited to download, use, reproduce, make derivative works of, display, distribute and cite the Online First works. You can find "How to Cite and Reference" by following the link at the end of each online book chapter. Please be aware that it is possible that further editing and changes might be made before the final release of the book.
\n\nIf there are supplemental materials to the chapter, these will be published at the time the final book is published online.
\n\nReaders and Authors can notify us if they find any errors in the works published under Online First. All major errors will be accompanied by a separate correction notice, erratum or corrigendum (Retraction and Correction Policy.)
\n\nIntechOpen books are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter level.
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The Gram-positive pathogen is armed with battery of virulence factors that facilitate to establish infections in the hosts. The organism is well known for its ability to acquire resistance to various antibiotic classes. The emergence and spread of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) strains which are often multi-drug resistant in hospitals and subsequently in community resulted in significant mortality and morbidity. The epidemiology of MRSA has been evolving since its initial outbreak which necessitates a comprehensive medical approach to tackle this pathogen. Vancomycin has been the drug of choice for years but its utility was challenged by the emergence of resistance. In the last 10 years or so, newer anti-MRSA antibiotics were approved for clinical use. 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Particular attention is paid to the purification of mesophilic SRB since they can be in close interaction with other microorganisms (Clostridium, Bacteroides, Pseudomonas, etc.), which are their frequent satellites. Moreover, the main methods of mesophilic SRB identification based on their morphological, physiological, biochemical, and genetical characteristics are presented.",book:{id:"8997",slug:"microorganisms",title:"Microorganisms",fullTitle:"Microorganisms"},signatures:"Ivan Kushkevych",authors:[{id:"252191",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Kushkevych",slug:"ivan-kushkevych",fullName:"Ivan Kushkevych"}]},{id:"65773",title:"Life Cycle of Trypanosoma cruzi in the Invertebrate and the Vertebrate Hosts",slug:"life-cycle-of-em-trypanosoma-cruzi-em-in-the-invertebrate-and-the-vertebrate-hosts",totalDownloads:1381,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi) is a protozoan parasite that causes Chagas disease, a zoonotic disease that can be transmitted to humans by blood-sucking triatomine bugs. T. cruzi is a single-celled eukaryote with a complex life cycle alternating between reduviid bug invertebrate vectors and vertebrate hosts. This article will look at the developmental stages of T. cruzi in the invertebrate vector and the vertebrate hosts, the different surface membrane proteins involved in different life cycle stages of T. cruzi, roles of different amino acids in the life cycle, carbon and energy sources and gene expression in the life cycle of T. cruzi. The author will also look at extracellular vesicles (EV) and its role in the dissemination and survival of T. cruzi in mammalian host.",book:{id:"8806",slug:"biology-of-em-trypanosoma-cruzi-em-",title:"Biology of Trypanosoma cruzi",fullTitle:"Biology of Trypanosoma cruzi"},signatures:"Kenechukwu C. Onyekwelu",authors:[{id:"245368",title:"Dr.",name:"Kenechukwu C.",middleName:null,surname:"Onyekwelu",slug:"kenechukwu-c.-onyekwelu",fullName:"Kenechukwu C. Onyekwelu"}]},{id:"54154",title:"Staphylococcus aureus: Overview of Bacteriology, Clinical Diseases, Epidemiology, Antibiotic Resistance and Therapeutic Approach",slug:"staphylococcus-aureus-overview-of-bacteriology-clinical-diseases-epidemiology-antibiotic-resistance-",totalDownloads:7074,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Staphylococcus aureus is an important human pathogen that causes wide range of infectious conditions both in nosocomial and community settings. The Gram-positive pathogen is armed with battery of virulence factors that facilitate to establish infections in the hosts. The organism is well known for its ability to acquire resistance to various antibiotic classes. The emergence and spread of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) strains which are often multi-drug resistant in hospitals and subsequently in community resulted in significant mortality and morbidity. The epidemiology of MRSA has been evolving since its initial outbreak which necessitates a comprehensive medical approach to tackle this pathogen. Vancomycin has been the drug of choice for years but its utility was challenged by the emergence of resistance. In the last 10 years or so, newer anti-MRSA antibiotics were approved for clinical use. However, being notorious for developing antibiotic resistance, there is a continuous need for exploring novel anti-MRSA agents from various sources including plants and evaluation of non-antibiotic approaches.",book:{id:"5471",slug:"frontiers-in-i-staphylococcus-aureus-i-",title:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus",fullTitle:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus"},signatures:"Arumugam Gnanamani, Periasamy Hariharan and Maneesh Paul-\nSatyaseela",authors:[{id:"192829",title:"Dr.",name:"Arumugam",middleName:null,surname:"Gnanamani",slug:"arumugam-gnanamani",fullName:"Arumugam Gnanamani"},{id:"204388",title:"Dr.",name:"Periasamy",middleName:null,surname:"Hariharan",slug:"periasamy-hariharan",fullName:"Periasamy Hariharan"},{id:"204389",title:"Dr.",name:"Maneesh",middleName:null,surname:"Paul-Satyaseela",slug:"maneesh-paul-satyaseela",fullName:"Maneesh Paul-Satyaseela"}]},{id:"55437",title:"Biological Control of Parasites",slug:"biological-control-of-parasites-2017-07",totalDownloads:4223,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Parasites (ectoparasites or endoparasites) are a major cause of diseases in man, his livestock and crops, leading to poor yield and great economic loss. To overcome some of the major limitations of chemical control methods such as rising resistance, environmental and health risks, and the adverse effect on non‐target organisms, biological control (biocontrol) is now at the forefront of parasite (pests) control. Biocontrol is now a core component of the integrated pest management. Biocontrol is defined as “the study and uses of parasites, predators and pathogens for the regulation of host (pest) densities”. Considerable successes have been achieved in the implementation of biocontrol strategies in the past. This chapter presents a review of the history of biocontrol, its advantages and disadvantages; the different types of biological control agents (BCAs) including predators, parasites (parasitoids) and pathogens (fungi, bacteria, viruses and virus‐like particles, protozoa and nematodes); the effect of biocontrol on native biodiversity; a few case studies of the successful implementation of biocontrol methods and the challenges encountered with the implementation of biocontrol and future perspectives.",book:{id:"5527",slug:"natural-remedies-in-the-fight-against-parasites",title:"Natural Remedies in the Fight Against Parasites",fullTitle:"Natural Remedies in the Fight Against Parasites"},signatures:"Tebit Emmanuel Kwenti",authors:[{id:"191763",title:"Dr.",name:"Tebit Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Kwenti",slug:"tebit-emmanuel-kwenti",fullName:"Tebit Emmanuel Kwenti"}]},{id:"70336",title:"Plastics Polymers Degradation by Fungi",slug:"plastics-polymers-degradation-by-fungi",totalDownloads:1371,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"The studies on plastic degradation are very important for the development of biodegradable plastics, and for reduction of pollution, since plastic waste can remain in the environment for decades or centuries. We have showed the degradation of oxo-biodegradable plastic bags and green polyethylene by Pleurotus ostreatus. This fungus can also produce mushrooms using these plastics. The plastic degradation was possibly by three reasons: (a) presence of pro-oxidant ions or plant polymer, (b) low specificity of the lignocellulolytic enzymes, and (c) the presence of endomycotic nitrogen-fixing microorganisms. In this chapter, the plastic bags’ degradation by abiotic and microbial process using the exposure to sunlight and the use of a white-rot fungus will described. The physical, chemical, and biological alterations of plastic were analyzed after each process of degradation. The degradation of plastic bags was more effective when the abiotic and biotic degradations were combined.",book:{id:"8997",slug:"microorganisms",title:"Microorganisms",fullTitle:"Microorganisms"},signatures:"José Maria Rodrigues da Luz, Marliane de Cássia Soares da Silva, Leonardo Ferreira dos Santos and Maria Catarina Megumi Kasuya",authors:[{id:"217699",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Da Luz",slug:"jose-maria-da-luz",fullName:"Jose Maria Da Luz"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"151",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81404",title:"Abiotic and Biotic Factors: Effecting the Growth of Keratinophilic Fungi",slug:"abiotic-and-biotic-factors-effecting-the-growth-of-keratinophilic-fungi",totalDownloads:9,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103716",abstract:"Fungi portray an important role in decomposition of keratin, as their activity is tough to measure. According to an estimation, a quantity of cellulose is synthesized by primary producers over photosynthesis and then reinstated to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide and through the activity of fungi, which decompose the complex and inflexible polymer. Without this activity, the world would soon be submerged by plant residues, and this would probably exclude most living organisms from their natural habitat. This chapter deals with several abiotic and biotic factors, which effect the growth of keratinophilic fungus and the substrates, which can serve as potential growth promoters for them.",book:{id:"10906",title:"Fungal Reproduction and Growth",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10906.jpg"},signatures:"Manish Mathur and Neha Mathur"},{id:"81224",title:"Glomalin Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungal Reproduction, Lifestyle and Dynamic Role in Global Sustainable Agriculture for Future Generation",slug:"glomalin-arbuscular-mycorrhizal-fungal-reproduction-lifestyle-and-dynamic-role-in-global-sustainable",totalDownloads:17,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103092",abstract:"Glomalin, a type of glycoprotein produced by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in the phylum Glomeromycota, contributes to the mitigation of soil degradation. Moreover, AM fungi and glomalin are highly correlated with other soil physico-chemical parameters and are sensitive to changes in the environment; also, they have been recommended for monitoring the recovery of degraded soil or stages of soil degradation. AM fungi are commonly known as bio-fertilisers. Moreover, it is widely believed that the inoculation of AM fungi provides tolerance to host plants against various stressful situations like heat, salinity, drought, metals and extreme temperatures. AM fungi, being natural root symbionts, provide essential plant inorganic nutrients to host plants, thereby improving growth and yield under unstressed and stressed regimes. The role of AM fungi as a bio-fertiliser can potentially strengthen plants’ adaptability to changing environment. They also improve plant resilience to plant diseases and root system development, allowing for better nutrient absorption from the soil. As a result, they can be utilised as both a biofertilizer and a biocontrol agent. Present manuscript represents the potential of AM fungi as biostimulants can probably strengthen plants’ ability to change the agriculture system for green technology.",book:{id:"10906",title:"Fungal Reproduction and Growth",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10906.jpg"},signatures:"Kamal Prasad, Agam Khare and Prateek Rawat"},{id:"80758",title:"Fungal Growth and Pathology",slug:"fungal-growth-and-pathology",totalDownloads:37,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103109",abstract:"Fungi, an important group with a wide variety of species, shows spectacular development with their unique cell structures. Fungi survive in many different ecosystems with their reproductive abilities and metabolic features. Thanks to wide temperature and pH tolerances, fungi develop on organic and inorganic materials in all ecosystems they are in and maintain the existence of ecosystems by taking part in many cycles. However, examples of pathogens are also available. They are a group of organisms that are environmentally important, such as saprophytes and mutualists, but are pathogens for animals, especially plants. Fungi basically have two different cell structures: yeast, and molds. But some fungi have both of these structures. Depending on the temperature of the environment they are in, they can be found in yeast or mold structures, and fungi with this feature are called dimorphic fungi. Whether it is yeast, mold, or dimorphic fungi, they use their enzymes with high activity to benefit from the nutrients in the environment. Fungi can be easily grown in natural and synthetic media. Yeast can reproduce rapidly with their single-celled structure, while molds and mushrooms are very successful with their hyphae structures.",book:{id:"10906",title:"Fungal Reproduction and Growth",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10906.jpg"},signatures:"Ozlem Gulmez and Ozlem Baris"},{id:"79683",title:"Fusarium Wilt: A Destructive Disease of Banana and Their Sustainable Management",slug:"fusarium-wilt-a-destructive-disease-of-banana-and-their-sustainable-management",totalDownloads:50,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101496",abstract:"Banana is one of the most important fruit crops. The major losses in banana mainly due to the fungal wilt disease which is caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense. The pathogen is mainly soil bone and saprotrophic in nature that’s why its management is very difficult. The yearly losses of banana by this disease in the world is ranging from 60 to 90% and in India 30–40%. Sustainable management of panama wilt is must to overcome these losses occur in banana. The management strategies for longer duration through crop rotation, organic amendment, application of micronutrient like silicon (Si), borax, host-pathogen interaction, hormonal induction of defence response, biological control, transgenic approach, disease resistance developed by somaclonal variation. These approaches are mainly emphasized for long term management of the panama wilt disease.",book:{id:"10904",title:"Fusarium - An Overview of the Genus",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10904.jpg"},signatures:"Ram Niwas, Gireesh Chand and Ramesh Nath Gupta"},{id:"79987",title:"Fungal Immunology: Mechanisms of Host Innate Immune Recognition and Evasion by Pathogenic Fungi",slug:"fungal-immunology-mechanisms-of-host-innate-immune-recognition-and-evasion-by-pathogenic-fungi",totalDownloads:66,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101415",abstract:"For a fungal pathogen to successfully infect, colonize and spread inside a susceptible host, it must have overcome the host immune responses. The early recognition of the fungal pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPS) by the host’s pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) results in the establishment of anti-fungal immunity. Although, our immune system has evolved several processes to combat these pathogens both at the innate and adaptive immune levels. These organisms have developed various escape strategies to evade the recognition by the host\\'s innate immune components and thus interfering with host immune mechanisms. In this chapter, we will summarize the major PRRs involved in sensing fungal PAMPS and most importantly the fungal tactics to escape the host\\'s innate immune surveillance and protective mechanisms.",book:{id:"10906",title:"Fungal Reproduction and Growth",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10906.jpg"},signatures:"Faisal Rasheed Anjum, Sidra Anam, Muhammad Luqman, Ameena A. AL-surhanee, Abdullah F. Shater, Muhammad Wasim Usmani, Sajjad ur Rahman, Muhammad Sohail Sajid, Farzana Rizvi and Muhammad Zulqarnain Shakir"},{id:"79720",title:"Importance of the Natural Incidence of the Fusarium Genus in Food Crops Established in Northern México",slug:"importance-of-the-natural-incidence-of-the-em-fusarium-em-genus-in-food-crops-established-in-norther",totalDownloads:85,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100595",abstract:"The incidence of the Fusarium genus causing root rot is reviewed in crops showing high importance for food supply and to obtain regular income by farmers in the highlands of Northern México. Pathogen incidence was evaluated under field conditions in multiple sampling locations for common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and several chili peppers (Capsicum annuum) local cultivars (landraces and bred cultivars). Five commercial plots for registered and certified seed were also evaluated in common beans to be used in the ‘seed refreshing program’ implemented for the cultivar Pinto Saltillo, considered as the main variety sown in the highlands of México. High Fusarium genus incidence and its interactions with other fungi species, such as Rhizoctonia solani and Pythium spp., cause high losses in plant population, commercial yield and seed quality in food crops grown in Northern México. The natural incidence of plant disease caused by the Fusarium genus and its negative effect on crop survival and the reduction of commercial yield and seed quality is fully reviewed. Plant disease resistance, crop breeding and the influence of the environmental conditions were also considered.",book:{id:"10904",title:"Fusarium - An Overview of the Genus",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10904.jpg"},signatures:"Julio César Ríos Saucedo, María Gabriela Ramírez-Valadez, Saúl Santana Espinoza, Maihualy Martínez-Fernández and Rigoberto Rosales-Serna"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:11},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:101,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 15th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment"},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 15th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRqB9QAK/Profile_Picture_1626163237970",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/184775",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"184775"},fullPath:"/profiles/184775",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()