Comparing biomedical and bio-psychosocial models of health.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6533",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Trends in E-learning",title:"Trends in E-learning",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'This book presents a collection of different researches and results on "e-learning". The chapters cover the deficiencies, requirements, advantages and disadvantages of e-learning and distance learning. So, the authors reported their research and analysis results on "e-learning" according to their areas of expertise.',isbn:"978-1-78923-543-2",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-542-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-532-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71183",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"trends-in-e-learning",numberOfPages:162,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"726d662a0d3169eb6732feb5f0e0f47b",bookSignature:"Mahmut Sinecen",publishedDate:"August 1st 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6533.jpg",numberOfDownloads:16367,numberOfWosCitations:21,numberOfCrossrefCitations:40,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:67,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:128,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 28th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 19th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 18th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 8th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 7th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"178216",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmut",middleName:null,surname:"Sinecen",slug:"mahmut-sinecen",fullName:"Mahmut Sinecen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178216/images/4457_n.png",biography:"He was born Oosterhout, Holland. He worked Department of Computer Center as Instructor at Pamukkale University between 2005 and 2011. After that, He worked an Assistant Professor at Computer Engineering Department of Çanakkale 18 Mart University between 2011 and 2013. Now, he is an Assistant Professor at Computer Engineering Department of Adnan Menders University, Aydın, Turkey. He has received his BS from Fırat University, Elazığ, Turkey, MS from Pamukkale University, and the PhD from Dokuz Eylul University, İzmir, Turkey. His current research interests include industrial image processing, software development, fuzzy logic, artificial neural networks, and pattern recognition.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Adnan Menderes University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"286",title:"Educational Technology",slug:"technology-educational-technology"}],chapters:[{id:"60282",title:"New Trends in e-Learning",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75623",slug:"new-trends-in-e-learning",totalDownloads:1449,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Guidance work is needed to learn about the current state of e-learning and to guide future research. In recent studies, e-learning environments appear to be under different headings in recent years. These new topics are mainly aimed at providing an up-to-date explanation on e-learning in this section. New trends in e-learning will be covered under artificial intelligence (AI), micro credentials, big data, virtual and empowered reality, blended learning, cloud e-learning, gamification, mobile learning, Internet of things, and online video. With this study, it is aimed to shed light on the concept of e-learning. In addition, e-learning environments focus on new possibilities for learners. Everyday, e-learning environments bring out new antagonistic concepts. As these new concepts rapidly entered our lives, they began to become indispensable materials in the field of education. New e-learning environments are being used as platforms that are related to each other. They essentially support the concept of e-learning.",signatures:"Fatih Çağatay Baz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60282",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60282",authors:[{id:"241866",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatih Çağatay",surname:"Baz",slug:"fatih-cagatay-baz",fullName:"Fatih Çağatay Baz"}],corrections:null},{id:"60465",title:"The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly of Distance Learning in Higher Education",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75702",slug:"the-good-the-bad-and-the-ugly-of-distance-learning-in-higher-education",totalDownloads:5023,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:29,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The chapter deals with opportunities and challenges of distance learning in higher education. One challenge comes from the changing perceptions of what learning is all about. The second challenge comes from new learning opportunities that technology now affords. Constructivism, interpretivism, and computing technology, separately and often together, have redesigned the conception of the challenges and opportunities of learning, and brought about new learning possibilities for almost all teaching and learning situations, including traditional classroom teaching, distance learning, and self-learning. Computer-supported learning environments could have good problems that will stimulate students to explore and reflect on their knowledge construction. Students who cannot afford higher education are discouraged from seeking or completing a degree. Distance learning-based programs could increase access for students to higher education, whereas open and distance-learning programs may be difficult to implement in the laboratory sciences, but they have real potential to maximize the use of technology.",signatures:"Vimbi Petrus Mahlangu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60465",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60465",authors:[{id:"196797",title:"Prof.",name:"Vimbi",surname:"Mahlangu",slug:"vimbi-mahlangu",fullName:"Vimbi Mahlangu"}],corrections:null},{id:"60139",title:"Improving Student Success Rate in Open Distance Learning Settings through the Principle of Constructive Alignment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75637",slug:"improving-student-success-rate-in-open-distance-learning-settings-through-the-principle-of-construct",totalDownloads:1541,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Statistics indicate that participation and access to higher education (HE) improved drastically, particularly through distance education. Despite the generosity of the massification of HE, a sizeable number of students do not complete their programs on record time. The majority of some of these students drop out. A convincing body of knowledge demonstrates that a plethora of factors contributes toward low student success rates in open distance learning (ODL) contexts. The main purpose of this conceptual argument is that technology-mediated constructively aligned pedagogical practices in ODL contexts can leverage student success rates. This chapter is qualitative and constructivist in nature and largely draws from the theory of constructive alignment and extant scholarship analysis to provide insights and understanding in improving students’ graduation rates in ODL settings. Drawing from the theory of constructive alignment, in this conceptual argument, it can be concluded that aligning the activities of the pedagogical practices (teaching, assessment, and learning outcomes) and delivering them through information and communication technology promotes students’ graduation rates.",signatures:"Shuti Steph Khumalo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60139",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60139",authors:[{id:"224476",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuti Steph",surname:"Khumalo",slug:"shuti-steph-khumalo",fullName:"Shuti Steph Khumalo"}],corrections:null},{id:"59762",title:"Applying a Usability Technique in the Open Source Software Development Process: Experiences from the Trenches",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74862",slug:"applying-a-usability-technique-in-the-open-source-software-development-process-experiences-from-the-",totalDownloads:895,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The growth in the number of non-developer open source software (OSS) application users has drawn attention to usability in the OSS community. OSS communities do not generally know how to apply usability techniques and are unclear about which techniques to use in each activity of the development process. The aim of our research is to determine the feasibility of applying the focus groups technique in the OSS ERMaster project. To do this, we participated as project volunteers. We used the case study research method to investigate technique application and OSS community participation. As a result, we identified adverse conditions that were an obstacle to the application of the original technique. We then adapted the technique to make it applicable in an OSS project. We can conclude that was not easy to recruit OSS users and developers to participate in technique application.",signatures:"Lucrecia Llerena, Nancy Rodriguez, Mayra Llerena, John W. Castro\nand Silvia T. Acuña",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59762",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59762",authors:[{id:"231253",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Lucrecia",surname:"Llerena",slug:"lucrecia-llerena",fullName:"Lucrecia Llerena"},{id:"231767",title:"MSc.",name:"Nancy",surname:"Rodriguez",slug:"nancy-rodriguez",fullName:"Nancy Rodriguez"},{id:"231769",title:"Dr.",name:"John W.",surname:"Castro",slug:"john-w.-castro",fullName:"John W. Castro"},{id:"231770",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvia T.",surname:"Acuña",slug:"silvia-t.-acuna",fullName:"Silvia T. Acuña"},{id:"231771",title:"MSc.",name:"Rosa Mayra",surname:"Llerena",slug:"rosa-mayra-llerena",fullName:"Rosa Mayra Llerena"}],corrections:null},{id:"59392",title:"Fixing the ‘Ready’ in E-Learning Readiness",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74287",slug:"fixing-the-ready-in-e-learning-readiness",totalDownloads:1141,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Evaluating the effectiveness of e-learning systems (ELSs) for course delivery can be achieved by measuring the user’s level of readiness for the ELS. While e-learning readiness (e-readiness) is well researched using several models, studies generally provide recommendations for the institution or instructor. However, most students are typically not equipped for using the ELS. This chapter focuses on assisting students in online and face-to-face courses who have e-readiness challenges when accessing an ELS throughout a semester. A survey captures responses on their technological, lifestyle and learning preparedness for the ELS to produce an e-readiness score. A modified DeLone and McLean model evaluates the impact of their level of e-readiness during their use of the ELS. Identifying where and when students have difficulties, pinpointing their deficits or recommending the more appropriate modality could help students achieve a positive course outcome.",signatures:"Glenda H. E. Gay",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59392",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59392",authors:[{id:"225677",title:"Dr.",name:"Glenda",surname:"H.E. Gay",slug:"glenda-h.e.-gay",fullName:"Glenda H.E. Gay"}],corrections:null},{id:"60549",title:"Research Study on Significance of Gamification Learning and i- Campus Using Internet of Things Technology-Enabled Infrastructure",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75744",slug:"research-study-on-significance-of-gamification-learning-and-i-campus-using-internet-of-things-techno",totalDownloads:1299,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, we discusses the importance of smart i-campus in educational institutes and gamification-based learning to be an integral part of the Internet of Thing (IoT) enabled the smart campus to explain its significance in terms using modern technology in teaching and learning. This research study related to two dimensions different fields, one perspective on fully engaged and enthusiastic learners from gamification part and another perspective on enhanced technology accessibility for the dream i-campus will pretend to be realistic in the near future. Analytical study of smart campus architecture with all features includes classroom laboratories… etc… And the gamification significance in terms of knowledge transfer, assessments, microlearning, competition among learners, to engage maximum level, rewards on achievements. It’s emphasis on the need for both approaches in a single platform to the learners for efficient and smart learning environments to set up.",signatures:"Veeramanickam Murugappan, Debnath Bhattacharyya and Tai-\nhoon Kim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60549",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60549",authors:[{id:"223507",title:"Dr.",name:"Veeramanickam",surname:"Murugappan",slug:"veeramanickam-murugappan",fullName:"Veeramanickam Murugappan"},{id:"247038",title:"Dr.",name:"Debnath",surname:"Bhattacharyya",slug:"debnath-bhattacharyya",fullName:"Debnath Bhattacharyya"},{id:"247039",title:"Dr.",name:"Tai-hoon",surname:"Kim",slug:"tai-hoon-kim",fullName:"Tai-hoon Kim"}],corrections:null},{id:"60678",title:"Analysis Learners’ Preference in E-Learning System Using Kansei Approach",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75620",slug:"analysis-learners-preference-in-e-learning-system-using-kansei-approach",totalDownloads:1374,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Academic institutions have opportunity to provide better learning environment over the Internet using open source web-based e-Learning systems. One of the important issues is how to choose a suitable e-Learning system that can meet what learners need implicitly. It lacks guide to support academic institutions in determining a proper e-Learning system based on learners’ needs; it becomes the reason of the implementation of e-Learning that cannot work for long time. This chapter gives an information of result observation regarding learners’ psychological aspects toward e-Learning system using Kansei Engineering and its correlation with the e-Learning interface design. Analyzing learner’s preference related to e-Learning system, it can provide the kind of desired e-Learning system to enhance learners’ experience; finally, it can help the academic institutions to implement e-Learning system continually for a long time.",signatures:"Ana Hadiana",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60678",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60678",authors:[{id:"238277",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",surname:"Hadiana",slug:"ana-hadiana",fullName:"Ana Hadiana"}],corrections:null},{id:"59935",title:"The Challenges of E-learning in South Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74843",slug:"the-challenges-of-e-learning-in-south-africa",totalDownloads:2567,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:18,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The University of South Africa (UNISA) is the largest open distance e-learning (ODeL) university in the continent of Africa, with a student headcount more than 300,000. Over two decades after the transition from apartheid to democracy, vast inequalities across race, class, gender and socio-economic status persist in South Africa, with the majority of the African people being the most affected. Demographically, the African people constitute about 80.8% of the country’s total population, compared to whites, who constitute a meagre 8.8%, yet African households carry the highest burden of poverty, living way below the official poverty line of $1.90/day as determined by the World Bank and other international agencies. This chapter explores these inequalities and ponders on the role of e-learning for this poorest section of society in a country where modern technological devises in the form of information and communication technologies (ICTs) and access to the Internet are perceived to be ubiquitous. South Africa’s Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) commits to “an expansion of open and distance education and the establishment of more ‘satellite’ premises where universities or colleges provide classes at places and times convenient to students (including in rural areas)”. This chapter also explores the role of UNISA in the provision of distance learning through structured and sustainable e-learning.",signatures:"Moeketsi Letseka, Matsephe Martha Letseka and Victor Pitsoe",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59935",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59935",authors:[{id:"187812",title:"Prof.",name:"Victor",surname:"Pitsoe",slug:"victor-pitsoe",fullName:"Victor Pitsoe"},{id:"195883",title:"Dr.",name:"Matsephe M.",surname:"Letseka",slug:"matsephe-m.-letseka",fullName:"Matsephe M. 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In developing countries like Sierra Leone where resources are limited, effective corporate governance can be addressed by ensuring that people are conversant with their organisational compliance policies through access to Moodle managed learning environment (MLE). There is a myth concerning Moodle’s confined use in the academic environment, but this work will explore its relevance in an environment not so common in the working practices of staff professional engagement and learning in the corporate environment. 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As a speciality, health psychology examines how biological, psychological and social factors influence people’s behaviour about their health status. The aim of this chapter is to examine possible contributory connections between bio-psychosocial factors and health at the population level. The book explores bio-psychosocial model which can help individuals to develop and maintain healthy lifestyles so as to promote good health and prevent illness. Friedman and Adler [1] noted that the original bio-psychosocial model shaped not only research and theory on health but also the development of health psychology.
Kazarian and Evans [2] suggest that people commonly think about health in terms of an absence of (1) objective signs that the body is not functioning properly and (2) subjective symptoms of disease or injury, such as pain or nausea. World Health Organization defined health as ‘a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity’ (WHO, 1946 cited in [3]:4). Some health psychologists defined health as a positive state of physical, mental and social well-being not simply the absence of injury or disease that varies over time along a continuum [4]. At the wellness end of the continuum, health is the dominant state. At the other end of the continuum, the dominant state is illness or injury, in which destructive processes produce characteristic signs, symptoms or disabilities [4]. For further detail, see Figure 1.
Health (source: adopted from Sarafino [
Health psychology is a speciality within the discipline of psychology concerned with individual behaviours and lifestyles affecting physical health. The discipline strives to enhance health, prevent and treat disease, identify risk factors and improve the healthcare system public opinion regarding health issues [5]. Matarazzo in 1980 (as cited in [3]:4) offered a definition of health psychology which has become widely accepted:
Sarafino ([4]:11) mentioned the following goals of health psychology as to:
Promote and maintain health
Prevent and treat illness
Identify the causes and diagnosis correlates of health, illness and related dysfunction
Analyse and improve healthcare systems and health policy
The recognition of health psychology as a designated field is widely acknowledged. The relationship between mind and body and the effect of one upon the other has always been a controversial topic amongst philosophers, psychologists and physiologists. Within psychology, the development of the study of psychosomatic disorders owes much to Freud [3]. It has been observed in the recent studies that more deaths are caused now by heart disease, cancer and strokes which are by-product of changes in lifestyles in the twentieth century. Psychologists can be instrumental in investigating and influencing lifestyles and behaviours which are conducive or detrimental to good health [3].
Health behaviour is part of maintaining a healthy lifestyle and avoiding ill health. These are known as protective health behaviours. Health protective behaviours include the following categories:
Environmental hazard avoidance—avoiding areas of pollution or crime.
Harmful substance avoidance—not smoking or drinking alcohol.
Health practices—sleeping enough, eating sensibly and so forth.
Preventive health care—dental check-ups and smear tests.
Safety practices—repairing things, keeping first aid kits and emergency telephone numbers handy.
Although most of us are familiar with the need to engage in these health behaviours, only a few of us actually do so, and that is what we need to work on to remind people of adopting a better health lifestyles. Many other researchers such as Berg (1976 as cited in Pitts, 1998) asserted that most people are aware of which health behaviours should be engaged in; however, they frequently do not do so, and they instead do engage in activities which they know to be harmful to their health. It is this cantankerousness which psychologists have spent a great deal of time examining. The dilemma for health psychologists is to explain why some or many people do not do what they know is in their own best interest to do and why some people are more amenable to the adoption of healthy habits than others.
This chapter is therefore in support of a consistent focus on the role of knowledge in informing people of the risks to themselves that certain behaviours can engender. Pitts [3] reported studies that examining a range of issues relevant to health such as smoking, drug-taking, medical checks and adopting safer sex have fairly consistently shown that knowledge, by itself, does not lead to behaviour change. The only question left to ask is: So what is required, other than knowledge, to persuade people to look after their health? This question is the guiding principle to understand the role of health psychology in persuading people to look after their health informed by bio-psychosocial model.
It is generally recognized that there are two models of health, namely, biomedical and bio-psychosocial models. Biomedical model focuses on treatment and elimination of symptoms, while bio-psychosocial model focuses on individual’s perception of their symptoms and how they and their families respond to symptoms they are experiencing [6]. Also Deacon [7] asserts that under the biomedical model, illnesses were understood as having physiological aetiologies that were diagnosed through distinct biochemical markers and were to be treated through physical interventions. This chapter however is primarily focusing only on the bio-psychosocial models of health. Its founder, Engel [8], discovered that bio-psychosocial model represents the contribution of biological, psychological and social factors in determining health. Table 1 shows the differences between the two models.
Focal area | Biomedical model | Bio-psychosocial model |
---|---|---|
What causes illness? | Biological factors (chemical imbalances, bacteria, viruses and genetic predisposition) | Biological (virus), psychological (beliefs, behaviour) and social (unemployment) |
Who is responsible for illness? | Individuals are regarded as victims of some external force causing internal changes. Because illness is seen as a result of biological changes beyond their control, individuals are not seen as responsible for their illness | Individuals should be held responsible for his/her health and illness |
How should illness be treated? | Through vaccination, surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy, all of which aim to change the physical state of the body | The whole person should be treated, e.g. behaviour change, change in beliefs and coping strategies and compliance with medical recommendations |
Who is responsible for treatment? | The responsibility for treatment rests with the medical profession | The focus is the whole person to be treated not just their physical illness; the patient is therefore responsible for their treatment (e.g. taking the medication or changing their behaviour) |
What is the relationship between health and illness? | Health and illness are seen as qualitatively different—you are either healthy or ill—there is no continuum between the two | Health and illness exist on a continuum. Individuals progress along this continuum from health to illness and back again |
What is the relationship between the mind and the body? | The mind and body function independently of each other. In other words, the mind and body are separate entities | The focus is on an interaction between the mind and the body. The mind and body interact |
What is the role of psychology in health and illness? | Illness may have psychological consequences, but not psychological causes (e.g. cancer may cause unhappiness, but mood is not seen as related to either the onset or progression of the cancer) | Psychological factors not only as possible consequences of illness but as contributing to it at all stages along the continuum from healthy to being ill |
Comparing biomedical and bio-psychosocial models of health.
Within health psychology one model that has enjoyed considerable popularity is the ‘stress-diathesis’ model (Steptoe cited in [3]) which is currently called bio-psychosocial model. This model was first described by G.L. Engel in 1977. It emphasizes the interactive effect of environment and individual vulnerability (genetic and psychological characteristics) factors upon health [3]. According to bio-psychosocial model, psychological, physical and social threats present demands upon an individual’s resources and capacity for coping which give rise to physiological reactions involving the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and endocrine and immune system of the body.
The effects include both short-term and long-term components, and these may have consequences on health depending upon the individual’s predisposition or vulnerability to adverse effects. Vulnerable individuals develop chronic allostatic reactions such as reduced immunocompetence or exaggerated sympathetic activation of the ANS or increased secretion of adrenal hormones. Physiological reactions of these types have been implicated in the development of many disease states, including cancers, cardiovascular diseases and other non-communicable diseases susceptibility to infections [3]. The following section presents the strengths and critical views of bio-psychosocial model.
Bio-psychosocial model benefits the patients and healthcare system as revealed by research [8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14]:
Guiding application of medical knowledge to the needs of each patient.
Improved patient satisfaction, better adherence to prescriptions, more maintained behaviour change, better physical and psychological health and less of a tendency to initiate malpractice litigations.
Development and application of techniques to reduce health risk behaviour.
Reduce multiple visits and admission into hospitals.
Individuals with health challenges are acknowledged to be active participants in the recovery process and good health, rather than mere passive victims.
Increase efficiency of care by reducing unnecessary prescription of drugs (i.e. diabetes and other chronic conditions).
Development of psychological techniques in the strengthening of immune reaction to illness.
Bio-psychosocial model can be used as a predictor of pain and other psychosocial problems resulting into development appropriate prevention and intervention strategies.
Improvement of communication between health staff and the patients.
Development and introduction of programmes of life quality improvement for chronic patients, physically disabled individuals and the elderly patients.
A significant influence on contemporary understanding of mental health difficulties.
Development and application of psychosocial support for the terminally ill patients and their families.
A list of critical views of bio-psychosocial model has been noted in literature [9, 10, 12, 15, 16, 17, 18] as follows:
Time-consuming and expensive apply.
It requires more information be gathered during the assessment about an individual’s socioeconomic status, culture, religion, as well as psychological factors that might affect the individual’s condition.
There is a lack of theoretical basis of bio-psychosocial model and scientific evidence to support the model.
The complex relations between causes and effects of biological, psychological and social factors to influence the state of health and or occurrence of diseases.
The holistic nature of the bio-psychosocial model makes it a luxury many healthcare systems in resource-poor settings cannot afford.
Insufficient training opportunities or financial resources available to support the existence of multidisciplinary teams consisting of psychiatrists, clinical psychologists, mental health nurses and social welfare workers to allow for a full understanding of the biological, psychological and social factors involved in individual’s condition.
The model’s failure to provide straightforward guidelines for clinical treatment or rules for prioritization in clinical practice.
Medical students receive very limited amount of content in psychosocial subjects compared to biomedical-oriented courses.
The focus of this chapter was mainly on integrating bio-psychosocial model in public health discipline. Authors like Nadir et al. [12] found that bio-psychosocial model has been a mainstay in the ideal practice of modern medicine. It is attributed to improve patient care, compliance and satisfaction and to reduce physician-patient conflict. Both strengths and critical views of bio-psychosocial model were presented in the chapter. Even though it appears that patients and healthcare system are likely to benefit from the utilization of bio-psychosocial model, further research is still needed to determine whether or not bio-psychosocial model is a workable model in healthcare system to benefit all patients. In particular, more knowledge about how psychosocial factors can influence health and disease remain unclear to most public health professionals.
In the past four decades, various technologies have been developed and implemented to improve the production from shale gas formation as it is a commercially feasible source of energy. Hydraulic fracturing is a technique applied to enhance hydrocarbon extraction from subsurface geological formations by injecting a fluid at pressure higher than formation pressure to crack open the hydrocarbon formation rock. The hydraulic fracturing technology is not new; first experiment was conducted in 1947, and the first industrial implementation was in 1949 [1]. Hydraulic fracturing has, since then, been used for stimulating unconventional reservoirs and enhancing oil and natural gas recoveries. The first operation of fracturing treatment was performed by gelled crude, and later gelled kerosene was used. By the end of year 1952, many fracturing treatments were carried out by processed and live crude oils. This type of fluids is low-cost and permitting greater volumes at lower cost. In 1953 water-based fluids began to be utilized as a fracturing fluid, and a number of gelling agent additives such as surfactants were added, to the fracturing fluids, to reduce emulsion with formation fluid. Subsequently, additional clay stabilizing agents were improved and incorporated with water and used as a hydraulic fracturing fluid to fracture many reservoir formations. Alcohol and foam were also used to improve water-based fracturing fluids and utilized to fracture more formations. Currently aqueous fluids such as acid, brines, and water are utilized as base fluids with around 96% of all fracturing treatments using a propping agent. During the early years of the 1970s, the key advance in using fracturing fluids was in applying metal-based cross-linking agents to increase the viscosity of gelled water-based fracturing fluids designed for deeper wells at higher-temperature conditions [1].
The key factor of technological revolution is due to the fast evolution of drilling and completion techniques as well as the improvement of the fracturing technology. From the primary explosion technology of nitroglycerin to the newest fracturing technology of synchrotron, the developed fracturing technology has gradually improved the shale gas recovery efficiency.
The earliest nitroglycerin explosion technology was used in the 1970s in a vertical well with an open-hole completion. This technique affected wellbore stability and caused very limited penetrations. In 1981, a new fracturing fluid combined of nitrogen (N2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) foam was utilized in vertical wells in shale gas formations. This implementation led to gas recovery increase by 3–4 times and reduced formation damage. Subsequently, in 1992 the first horizontal well was drilled in shale gas formation in Hammett basin. Horizontal wells then steadily supplanted the practice of vertical wells. A cross-linked gel was applied as a thickening or cross-linking agent during the period from the 1980s to the 1990s. The fracturing technique of horizontal wells can effectively generate fractured networks and increase the hydrocarbon flow area. This method is favorable because it minimizes the cost and increases hydrocarbon recovery. Thus, the development of large-scale hydraulic fracturing using horizontal wells contributed to the economic development of shale gas resources [2].
A major development was made in 1998 in fracturing technology by introducing a water-based liquid fluid instead of gel. This new fracturing fluid has a low sand (proppants) ratio of approximately 90% less than that used in the gelled fracturing. Thus, fracturing fluid associated cost was minimized by more than 50%. This type of fracture fluid can provide better fracturing performance that may increase the recovery efficiency up to 30% [2].
After the year 2000, a new technology called the segmental fracturing technology has been developed and utilized in horizontal wells during shale gas exploitation. This technology has further been developed and improved to include more than 20 segments leading to improvements in both the recovery efficiency and drainage area. Horizontal segmental fracturing technology is broadly used in the United States in the development of shale gas wells over the standard method by 85% [2].
After the year 2005 using both techniques of segmental fracturing technology and microseismic crack monitoring in shale gas development using fracture horizontal wells has significantly enhanced shale gas recovery. A new brand of fracturing technology was subsequently introduced in the year 2006 which is synchronous fracturing technology that has been utilized in the Barnett shale gas basin. Table 1 summarizes the development of drilling and completion methods and the history of shale gas development in the Barnett basin, United States [3].
1979 | 5 | High-energy gas fracturing | |
1981 | 6 | N2 and CO2 foam fracturing | |
1984 | 17 | Cross-linked gel fracturing, liquid quantity 105 gal (378 m3) | |
1985 | 49 | Cross-linked gel fracturing, liquid quantity 5 × 105 gal (1892 m3) | |
1988 | 62 | Cross-linked gel fracturing | |
1991 | 96 | Horizontal well and cross-linked gel fracturing | |
1995 | 200 | Horizontal well fracturing and cross-linked gel fracturing | |
1997 | 300 | Riverfracing treatment, liquid quantity 5 × 105 gal (1892 m3) | |
1999 | 450 | Riverfracing treatment, inclinometer fracture monitor | |
2001 | 750 | Riverfracing treatment, microseismic fracture monitor | |
2002 | 1700 | Horizontal well fracturing, riverfracing treatment | |
2003 | 2600 | New well configuration with 719 vertical wells, 85 horizontal wells, and 117 directional wells | |
2004 | 3500 | 150 wells with horizontal well stage fracturing 2–4 stages | |
2005 | 4500 | 600 new horizontal wells where drilling time is greatly reduced | |
2006 | 5500 | Synchronous fracturing, lower development costs | |
2007 | 7000 | Horizontal well fracturing, synchronous fracturing | |
2008 | 9000 | Repeated fracturing | |
2009 | 13,000 | Maintain capacity, lower costs, enhancing oil recovery |
Stimulation development of Barnett shale gas formation [3].
The mechanism of fracturing stimulation of shale gas reservoirs is not the same as a conventional or sandstone gas reservoir. Shale gas reservoirs, in general, cannot be found as conventional traps, but they are self-generating and self-storage gas reservoirs. The natural fracturing network can particularly enhance shale tight formation permeability [4]. Shale gas capacity can be attained through microfractures in shale formation. These fractures involve both a percolation path and a storage space of shale gas. They create the necessary communication and connectivity for the shale gas to reach the wellbore. Furthermore, shale gas recovery factor can be achieved through the existence of reservoir fractures’ and its density and characteristic and opening degree in the reservoir. Shale reservoirs are usually well stimulated and completed with good natural fractures and bedding. High brittleness is one of the significant parameters, which relates to the share failure during shale reservoir hydraulic fracturing process. It is responsible for the formation of complex fracture networks and the connections between natural fractures. Hence, the main purpose of utilizing stimulation technology on shale gas formation is to generate effective fracture networks to improve the reconstruction volume and enhance the reservoir capacity [5].
Fracturing technology of shale reservoirs can be classified based on the type of well fracturing into three categories, vertical, deviated, and horizontal fracturing wells, as shown in Figure 1. Fracturing technology can also be divided based on the type of fracturing fluid used such as gas, foam, gel, etc. Target zone can be fractured into different sections as single section and multi-section fracturing. Moreover, various factors should be taken into account while choosing the choice of fracturing fluid and fracturing technology such as the shale gas reservoir depth, capacity and formation sensitivity, natural fractures, and the well completion technology [6].
Sketch map of vertical well and horizontal well fracturing [
The most commonly used fracture technologies now are the multi-section fracturing, riverfracing, hydra-jet fracturing, fracture network fracturing, re-fracturing, and simultaneous fracturing. However, more attention is being given to CO2 and N2 fracturing. This fracturing technology’s features and application conditions are different as shown in Table 2.
Stage fracturing |
|
|
Riverfracing treatment |
|
|
Hydra-jet fracturing |
|
|
Repeated fracturing |
|
|
Simultaneous fracturing |
|
|
Network fracturing |
|
|
CO2 and N2 foam fracturing |
|
|
Large hydraulic fracturing |
|
|
Technical characteristics and application of fracturing technologies [7].
Since it was proposed for the first time by Giger in 1985 [8], the concept of horizontal well fracturing has been widely practiced as a valuable technique to improve well production and increase the recovery of unconventional reservoirs. Horizontal well fracturing treatments in field generally create multi-fractures in selected intervals along the wellbore. Processes of fracture initiation and propagation in horizontal wells are different from those in vertical wells due to the larger contact surface area with the formations, thus resembling more complex reservoir situation. When multi-fractures are propagated, they often join or intersect with each other, forming patterns that are known as multi-fracture networks, which immensely increase the storage capacity and the fluid transmissibility of formations. Multi-fracture networks are not easy to be assessed or studied due to the complexity; however, they are evaluated using mathematical and statistical techniques and may be represented using fractals.
The classical hydraulic fracturing theory indicates that the main formed fracture is a symmetric bi-wing plane extending parallel to the direction of maximum principal stress. However, field hydraulic fracturing treatment is completely different as complex fracture networks take place where the main fracture and other smaller branch fractures simultaneously extend in the fracture propagation zone [9, 10, 11].
Microseismic mapping shows that hydraulic fracturing in shale forms a multi-fracture network system [12, 13, 14, 15] which consists of complex fractures as shown in Figure 2 [16]. It was concluded from the mapping that natural fractures’ direction was to the northwest and the propagation of the induced hydraulic fractures direction was to the northeast where they intersected with natural fractures. This led to many crosscutting linear features and formed a complex fracture. Based on fracture extension characteristic in shale reservoirs, hydraulic fractures are classified into four major types [16]: single plane bi-wing fracture, complex multiple fracture, complex multiple fracture with open natural fractures, and complex fracture network as shown in Figure 3.
Multi-fracture network extension in shale reservoirs during hydraulic fracturing (after Warpinski et al. 2008 [
The hydraulic fracture classification complexity (after Warpinski et al. 2008 [
Confirming field observation from seismic mapping, simulation experiments [17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22] show that induced hydraulic fracture presents three types of extensions when intersecting with natural fractures: crossing the natural fractures, extending along the natural fractures or crossing, and extending along at the same time. It was concluded that fracture network would highly form during fracturing process of naturally fractured formations [23]. Moreover, several laboratory experiments confirmed that fracture network exists [24, 25] and found that the fracture network would easily form under low fluid viscosity injection [26, 27]. Other observations proposed that multi-fracture networks in shale reservoirs area are key to increase stimulated reservoir volume (SRV) where treatment success relies on whether hydraulic fracture could extend to form multi-fracture network [28, 29, 30].
Understanding fracture initiation and propagation rules are the main issues faced when commencing hydraulic fracturing because several important geological and engineering factors affecting the multi-fracture network formation are to be considered [31].
Mineral composition. Brittleness is controlled by mineralogy as brittleness mineral concentration, the rock brittleness gets higher, and the development of natural fractures becomes better (mineral concentration increase/decrease).
Mechanical properties. Poisson’s ratio and Young’s modulus are combined to reflect the rock ability to fail under stress (Poisson’s ratio) and maintain a fracture (Young’s modulus) once the rock fractures. The lower Poisson’s ratio and higher Young’s modulus value, the more brittle the rock, and the fracture extends into fracture network.
Distribution of natural fractures. As natural fractures have great effect on hydraulic fracture extension, the more developed the natural fractures are, the more complex is the extension of hydraulic fracture.
Horizontal stress field. Multi-fracture network is controlled by intersecting intensity between induced fractures and natural fractures. Hydraulic fracture would propagate along natural fractures under low horizontal stress and cross natural fractures under high horizontal stress conditions.
Net fracturing pressure. Greater fracturing pressure would cause more complex fractures where it is possible to induce branches of hydraulic fracture to form a complex fracture network.
Fluid viscosity. The viscosity has an important influence on the complexity of fracture extension; from the laboratory experiments, it is obvious if the fluid viscosity gets higher; the complexity of fracture is significantly reduced. The injection of high viscosity fluid in field treating will reduce the complexity of fracture network [32, 33, 34, 35].
Fracturing scale. The impact of fracturing scale can be seen on the production scale, as large amounts of the fracturing fluid volume are pumped; the longer the total length of fracture network, the more complex the resulted fracture network, and the higher the corresponding well production. Using large fracturing scale is an important measure to increase the SRV, which is essential to improve stimulation effect in the shale fracturing, where the bigger the SRV is, the higher the production.
The essential goal for the treatment is to get the most out of each stage and each cluster in the fracturing network. The optimization of fracturing fluid and minding the aforementioned factors can help achieving even flow distribution and network efficiency, both of which can help contribute to increased production. The practices over have realized that, in most cases where it has been measured, only 30–60% of the fractured clusters in a wellbore are providing measurable production [36].
Unconventional reservoirs show significant decline rates after few months of production compromising the economics and imposing the need for increasing or stabilizing production. The decline in production from the unconventional reservoirs is attributed to the closure and damage of the fracture networks within the formations. Hence, re-fracturing as an emerging technology has become a viable option for sustaining production and increasing reserves. Re-fracturing is a preferred option over drilling and completing new horizontal wells as it can be carried at only a fractional cost of up to 25–40% [37], thus minimizing the related financial and safety risks.
Production decline rates from unconventional reservoirs are more rapid than those in conventional reservoirs because of the ultralow permeability, limited reservoir contact, and the original completion strategy. The ability of re-fracturing technology provides a potential to extend the productive life of the unconventional reservoirs beyond the normal and up to an additional 20–30 years [38]. Re-fracturing restores production from underperforming formations by increasing fracturing networks, replacing damaged proppant, bypassing skin zones, and connecting old and new fractures [39]. Successful re-fracturing can increase the estimated ultimate recovery (EUR), shorten the capital return time, and increase the net present value (NPV) of the unconventional reservoirs. Decline curve analysis (DCA) showed that re-fractured wells achieved an average of 60% increase in NPV [40]; therefore, re-fracturing application helps reduce the variability in the unconventional reservoir performance and considered the best option for tackling production declines.
Re-fracturing literally means a second hydraulic fracturing through same or new perforations to repair or recreate fracture networks within the same formation. If a re-fracturing treatment was carried out after a re-fracturing, then it would be considered a tri-fracturing [41].
Practically, re-fracturing is carried out when the initial hydraulic fracturing treatment was undersized or when suspected skin damage exists [42]. It is possible to use the existing fractures for the re-fracture and still generate a new fracture network sufficient to increase production. In a formation with its low in situ stress anisotropy, pressure can be created within the fracture itself to cause the reservoir to be fractured in new directions. Reusing the existed fractures helps control the cost of re-fracturing. Therefore, another approach for re-fracturing is to add perforations between the existing fractures to create additional fracturing networks as shown in Figure 4.
(left) a hydraulic fracturing stimulation created a fracture network (right) after re-fracturing, and additional complex fracture network has developed (Allison & Parker 2014 [
There are many ways available to perform re-fracturing; however, three most common re-fracturing methods are selected for consideration, namely, the diversion method, the coiled tubing fracturing method, and the mechanical isolation method [43]:
Diversion: This method uses diverting agents to plug the existed fractures or perforations, allowing re-fracturing reallocation to new areas. However, it is difficult to control which segment of the lateral would be stimulated that is why it’s also known as a “pump and pray method.” Yet, this method is the most widely used in the industry likely because it is the most cost-effective.
Coiled tubing: This method utilizes resettable packers where re-fracturing is targeted. However, at low rates through coiled tubing, this method is considered inadequate for open-hole environments.
Mechanical isolation: This method typically uses expandable liners and plugs. However, it requires new hardware for re-fracturing which increase costs substantially because it would often need to use a full new liner.
As re-fracturing technology gains popularity in unconventional reservoirs, the ability to isolate reservoir access points and redirect the fracturing fluids and proppant to different parts of the reservoir is crucial to achieving a successful treatment. All known methods have advantages and disadvantages; however, the often selected method is based on their ease of use, cost-effectiveness, and environmental impact.
Many wells are drilled with outdated completion designs; for that, they aren’t efficiently producing the reservoir formations. These wells are specifically targeted when engaging re-fracturing because it is an economical practice to mitigate the flow rate decline and maximize reservoir deliverability [44].
The process of choosing which well to re-fracture is known as “candidate selection” [45], and the following are criteria which are often considered [46]:
Logs or tracers indicating unproductive sections of wellbore
Initial completion used wrong fracture fluid or proppant type
Degree of production depletion
Degradation in fracture conductivity or propped half-length
Productivity of the reservoir
Performance of other nearby wells
The selection methodology must be customized to fit the particular needs of a given field where substantial incremental reserves can be added if the correct candidate selection process is followed [47].
After re-fracturing, a well may experience increase in production due to new fractures or extension of existing fracture networks. The success of re-fracturing can be determined by empirical parameters such as production rate 30 days before and following re-fracturing, EUR ratio based on DCA [48].
Computer programs can simulate re-fracturing scenarios at a considerable degree of accuracy despite the fact that all predictive methods lack robustness that accounts for the original production depletion and the conditions after re-fracturing. However, as technology advances, well performed computer models are able to generate trustworthy forecasts that allow decision-makers to confidently evaluate the economic success or failure of re-fracturing.
Simultaneous fracturing or multiple fracturing (simul-frac) technology is the hydraulic fracturing technique that fractures multiple wells simultaneously. Simultaneous fracturing applies a shortest well-to-well distance to allow both the proppants and fracturing fluid flow through the porous medium from well to well under high pressure as shown in Figure 5. The purpose of the multiple simultaneous process is to increase the recovery efficiency and productivity, of the wells, by increasing the surface area subject to flow through the newly created dense fractures. The typical practice of simultaneous fracturing initiates with two horizontal wells of the same depth; however, currently up to four wells can be simultaneously fractured [46].
An example of simultaneous fracturing [
Many researchers have performed different field experiments to examine the simultaneous fracture multiple adjacent horizontal wells to create complex fracture networks. Even though field attempts have shown significant improvement with simul-frac instead of stand-along wells [50], microseismic information [51], and numerical simulations [52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58] also demonstrate a complex fracture network made through simul-frac. However, the reasons behind its success are not yet well understood. Multiple hydraulic fracture technique is a complex method that requires considering not only the hydraulic fracturing procedure but also fracture interaction between multiple fractures. The hydraulic fracturing treatment is a typical hydromechanical fracture coupling problem, wherein the following three basic processes involve in [59]:
Rock deformation made by fluid pressure applied on fracture surface
Fluid flow into the fractures
Fracture growth
The fracture interaction between multiple fractures would significantly result in stress shadow effects that can cause stress field and fracture geometry alterations.
With the advance of computer processes, more numerical tools have been developed to become reliable and convenient techniques to investigate the treatment methods of hydraulic fracturing. Moreover, the numerical technique of finite element [60] is a well-established scheme to study rock engineering issues, and also it is frequently used in the last three decades to simulate hydraulic fracture propagation [61]. However, there are many scientific articles published on different finite element methods to numerically study the process of hydraulic fracturing [62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82].
Horizontal well fracturing technology is the main technology promptly utilized to low permeability reservoirs. However, in deep shale reservoirs, the use of traditional single stimulation cannot meet the production requirements. Thus, a new technology of horizontal well pressure cracking has been introduced. Zebo et al. [83] found that, based on the process and concerned parameters of horizontal well fracturing, increasing technical problems during reservoir exploration and development, horizontal section becomes popular where sub-fractured horizontal well technique has wide application potentials. Furthermore, the sub-fracturing technology is an important tool in the technology of staged fracturing. Packer as a completion tool does not consist of multicolumn zones, and supporting tools are necessary for safety and to increase the possibility of successful fracturing treatment.
The success of horizontal well fracture is mainly due to the mechanical properties of the rock, stress, shaft stress fracture initiation, and elongation mechanism. Moreover, the horizontal well sub-fracturing should be considered to obtain better fracturing design and to ensure treatment success and efficiency. To achieve the expected outcomes from well completion of a fracturing job, certain issues must be monitored such as the borehole or near wellbore area, permeability anisotropy, blocking natural cracks, and stimulation failure. Up to date, the horizontal well fracturing technique has become one of the preferred tools to solve these problems. Thus, the main applied technology of horizontal well fracturing consists of limited flow fracturing technique and sub-fracturing process. The following section will describe these techniques.
This technique limits the number of perforations and their diameter while injecting a large volume of fracturing fluid that causes increasing the bottom hole pressure on a large scale. Therefore, the fracturing fluid is forced to shunt into limited entries creating new fractures as shown in Figure 6 [85, 86]. The main advantages of this technique are a relatively simple operation, short operation time, the fact that multi-fractures are created in a single operation which is environmentally favorable for reservoir protection. However, this technique has some limitations including high perforation back pressure, difficult to control any single fracture, and fractures which may not form in perforations of long interval horizontal well.
Technique of the limited entry fracturing of a horizontal well [
An example where limited entry fracturing technology was applied in horizontal well is Zhao 57-Ping 35 of Daqing Oil Field [84]. The well was divided into 4 sections each containing 19 perforations, and an isolating packer was set above the kickoff point. Using two simultaneous pumping facilities, a total fracturing fluid volume of 374.3m3 with an average sand ratio of 35.6% was injected at a rate of 7.5 m3/min. The fracture initiation pressure was 30.5 MPa, four fractures were created, and the total fracture span was 400 m. The entire operation took 79 minutes. This treatment achieved success allowing the production after fracturing to increase 20–30 times and reach the production level of 4 vertical wells.
As limited entry fracturing cannot operate on all the target layers at one time, staged fracturing technique is used when the horizontal section is long and many layers are targeted for fracturing. Staged fracturing creates many fractures by utilizing packers and/or other segmenting materials. Operating a section by section at the time, one fracture is created in every section. The key points to achieve staged fracturing are tools and technique that fulfill the treatment requirements.
There are three types of staged fracturing techniques often used: the bridge plug fracturing, through coiled tubing fracturing with straddle packer and gel complex-slug fracturing as shown in Figure 7. Contrary to packer separation, the gel complex-slug fracturing avoids the risk of downhole tool stuck, but in the latter, the fracture initiation points are difficult to control.
Staged fracturing mechanism of horizontal wells [
An example where gel staged fracturing technology was applied in well Saiping-1 of Changqing Oil Field where four fractures were created. The process is briefly described as the following: perforating the end of horizontal well section, followed by first fracturing treatment, running a production test, and temporary plugging the first section by sand filling gel plug and, next, repeating the process in perforating the second, third, and fourth sections followed by a formation pressure and production tests.
The first hydraulic fracturing treatment was implemented in Hugoton Gas Field in Grand County, state of Kansas, during 1947. By the end of 1952, many fracturing treatments were performed with refined and crude oils. Thus oil-based fluids were the first fracturing fluid utilized for this purpose due to their benefits which are cheap and permitting greater volumes at a lower cost. But due to the safety and environmental issues, which are associated with their applications, it was encouraged that the industry move toward in developing an alternative fluid. At the beginning of 1953, for the first time, water fluid was used as a fracturing fluid; and a number of gelling agents were developed. However, water-based fluids with water-soluble polymers mixed to prepare a viscous solution are commonly used in the fracturing treatment. Since the late 1950s, more than 50% of the fracturing treatments were performed with fluids consisting of guar gums, high-molecular-weight polysaccharides composed of mannose and galactose sugars, or guar derivatives [87].
In 1964, surfactant agents were added to reduce the emulsion formation when in contact with the reservoir fluid; however, potassium chloride was added to decrease the effect on clays and other water-sensitive formation components. Later, additional clay stabilizing agents were developed to enhance the potassium chloride, allowing the use of water in different geological formations. In the early 1970s, a major revolution in fracturing fluids introduced the use of metal-based cross-linking agents to improve the viscosity of gelled water-based fracturing fluids for extreme reservoir condition (i.e., high temperature). Later a critical development was made on gelling agent to achieve a preferred viscosity. Also guar-based polymers are still used in fracturing jobs at reservoir temperatures below 150°C. Other fluid improvements, foams, and the addition of alcohol have enhanced the use of water in more geological reservoir formations. Moreover, various aqueous fluids, such as acid, gas, water, and brines, are currently used as the base fluid in approximately 96% of all fracturing treatments employing a propping agent [87].
As the hydrocarbon drilling and production have moved toward deeper reservoirs with high pressure and temperature condition, more fracturing treatments have been developed to be compatible with these conditions. Therefore, gel stabilizers and thermally stable polymers have been developed in which gel stabilizers can be utilized with around 5% methanol, but synthetic polymers have shown a sufficient viscosity at temperatures up to 230°C [88]. After that, chemical stabilizers have been developed and possibly used with or without a methanol. The improvements, which are made in cross-linkers and gelling agents, have led to systems that can permit the fluid to reach the well bottomhole in high-temperature condition before cross-linking, therefore, reducing the effects of high shear in the production tubing. Recently, nanotechnology has been introduced in the design of new, efficient hydraulic fracturing fluids [88]. For example, nanolatex silica is used to reduce the concentration of boron found in conventional cross-linkers. Recent advancement in nanotechnology is the use of small-sized silica particles [20 nm] suspended in guar gels to improve fracturing treatment [89]. Therefore, the following section will discuss the use of CO2 and N2 as fracturing fluid to enhance the hydrocarbon fluid production and to store CO2 into the geological formation to minimize the greenhouse emission. Also it will provide a brief information on hydra-jet fracturing.
In the ordinary fracturing, large amounts of freshwater, sand, and chemicals are injected into the ground at high pressure. It has been reported that up to 9.6 million gallons of water on average are used for a single well fracturing; this lead to the use of more than 28 times the water for wells before fracturing, putting farming, and drinking sources at risk in arid regions, especially during drought [90]. Some of the water used for fracking is brought back to the surface and recycled, but the most of it is lost deep into the formations. Thus, fracking can increase demand for water by up to 30 percent, and this can be a major increase for groundwater consumption.
To solve the water scarcity problem, the fracturing using water, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen is commonly referred to the process in where substantial quantities of both nitrogen and carbon dioxide are incorporated into the fracturing fluid. Amounts of nitrogen and carbon dioxide are incorporated separately into an aqueous-based fracturing fluid to provide a volume ratio of nitrogen to carbon dioxide within an estimated range between 0.2 and 1.0 at wellhead conditions. The volume ratio for the total of both carbon dioxide and nitrogen to the aqueous phase of the aqueous fracturing fluid ranges between 1 and 4. The aqueous fracturing fluid that contains the nitrogen and carbon dioxide is injected in the well under conditions in which the pressure required is high enough to implement hydraulic fracturing of the subterranean formation undergoing treatment. In order to provide a viscous aqueous-based fracturing fluid, a thickening agent may be added into water. Additionally, a propping agent is to be incorporated into a portion of the fracturing fluid. Only then can carbon dioxide and nitrogen be added to the fluid. Carbon dioxide is incorporated in its liquid phase and the nitrogen in its gaseous phase. The use of carbon dioxide and nitrogen as fracturing fluids is discussed briefly in this essay.
Currently, carbon dioxide fracturing is one of the most effective and cleanest approaches available in order to increase oil and gas production. To produce the viscous aqueous-based fracturing fluid, carbon dioxide is injected in its liquid state using conventional frac pumps. Injection rates for it can be improved by incorporating booster capacity. An upside of using carbon dioxide in this process is that it can carry high concentrations of proppant in foam form due to its density and is compatible with all treating fluids (including acids). Because of that density, it is also not susceptible to gravity separation. Additionally, carbon dioxide can be pumped with synthetic and natural polymers, lease crude, or diesel as a foam or microemulsion, increasing the hydrostatic head to or greater than that of fresh water and decreasing the viscosity of the system. This feature of carbon dioxide results in vastly reducing horsepower costs and a decrease in the applied treating pressures. Another benefit of carbon dioxide is that it dissolves in water which causes it to form carbonic acid that dissolves the matrix in carbonate rocks. It buffers water-based systems to a pH of 3.2 which can also control clay swelling and iron and aluminum hydroxide precipitation. Known to act as a surfactant to significantly reduce interfacial tension and resultant capillary forces, carbon dioxide thus removes fracturing fluid, connate water, and emulsion blocks. In regard to it being one of the cleanest approaches in increasing gas and oil productions, carbon dioxide provides the energy to remove formations fines, crushed proppant, reaction products, and mud that is lost during drilling. In addition to that, swabbing of treating fluids can be greatly reduced which will allow for saving in associated treatment costs. Lastly, unlike other agents a carbon dioxide treatment with a 70 quality foam job allows low amounts of the water to contact the formation, roughly 30 percent compared to a gelled water fracturing. This decrease chances of clay swelling and inhibited production. All these benefits of using carbon dioxide as a fracturing fluid in wells with low bottomhole pressure or sensitivity to certain fluids make it a strong alternative candidate.
Although containing different properties, nitrogen similar to carbon dioxide comes with many benefits for fracturing fluids. Nitrogen for the fracturing fluids can be supplied by air products and provides both performance and cost advantages over certain formations of water-based fluids. Although water-based fracturing fluids are commonly used for hydraulic fracturing due to their advanced proppant transport into the fracture, they do also come with disadvantages. Because they can cause water saturation around the fracture and clay swelling which can result in hindering the mass transport of hydrocarbons from the fracture to the wellbore, water-based fluids are often unsuitable for water-sensitive formations. Nitrogen fracking fluids are an excellent alternative to water-based fluids in water-sensitive formations, depleted reservoirs, and shallow formations as they do not result in any water saturation.
Four main types of nitrogen fracturing fluids are used commercially: pure gas, foam, energized, and ultrahigh quality (mists). Foam fracturing fluids typically consist of a water-based system and a gas phase of nitrogen volume in the range of 53 to 95%. Below 53% nitrogen, the fracturing fluid is considered energized. Above 95 percent nitrogen, the fracturing fluid is considered a mist. Cryogenic liquid nitrogen fracking fluid is considered to be the fifth type of nitrogen fracturing fluids used. However, it is rarely employed for commercial operations due to material restrictions and equipment requirements.
The process of hydra-jet fracturing combines hydra-jetting with hydraulic fracturing and involves running a specialized jetting tool on conventional or coiled tubing. Dynamic fluid energy jets form tunnels in the reservoir rock at precise locations to initiate the hydraulic fracture which is then extended from that point outwards. By repeating the process, one can create multiple hydraulic fractures along the horizontal wellbore [91, 92, 93]. The idea of hydra-jet fracturing is not a new one. In fact, it was used a century ago with low-pressure jets [94] where waterjets with erosive materials were used to cut rock and glass. Because erosion does not involve a backflow hindering the sand cutting process, cutting steel plates, wellheads during the Iraqi war, and rock quarries tend to be easily be done. Hydra-jet cutting may be mistakenly claimed as a result of a perforating process which can be seen when used on the rocks sandstone and limestone.
For these two rocks, assume that the jet is used to perforate formation rock. Also assume that the jetting process creates a perforation with a larger inside diameter than the jet nozzle. The velocity of the fluid flowing into the perforation tunnel would be incredibly elevated. Near the bottom of the perforation, the velocity of the flowing fluid would dramatically decrease. If the flow area is sustained and there is no presence of friction, the fluid pressure will be equal to the original jet pressure per the example. However, this tends to be an unlikely happening because pressure losses are typically high. To further explain this, jet boundary friction works to convert kinetic energy to heat loss causing jet flaring. This drastically reduces jet velocity, which in turn reduces the pressure per unit area of impact. This results in a low-pressure transformation efficiency. More importantly, rocks can still be fractured when enough pressure is applied to the jets even at this low of a pressure efficiency rate. An important note is that laboratory tests have shown that rock fracturing is commonplace when jet pressures are high. However, when high-pressure and low-energy transformation efficiencies are used hand in hand, they are technically and economically impractical.
The desired objective of fracturing is to develop and effectively produce from a shale reservoir. To ensure a successful fracturing treatment, a proper fracturing technology must be utilized based on the reservoir characteristics as the reservoir mineral content, physical properties, and geological condition. The utilized formation fracturing technique has a different desired environment to achieve the maximal recovery. During the process of fracturing treatment, the content of a fracturing fluid should be checked based on the formation mineral content and physical properties to improve reservoir permeability and reduce formation damage.
The forming of multi-fracture network is the key to obtain an effective hydraulic fracturing treatment in shale reservoirs. If higher treating net pressure is achieved, lower fluid viscosity is used, and larger fracturing scale attempt would be more helpful to form a fully fracture network. The reservoir geological factors also have high attributes, where brittleness index, elastic characteristic of rock mechanical properties, horizontal stress, and existence of natural fractures are useful to obtain better results of fractures developing into multi-fracture network.
Re-fracturing has the potential to re-energize natural fractures and extend and replace low conductivity existing fracture network. Utilizing re-fracture treatment successfully depends on technology that allows access to larger volumes of unconventional reservoirs. Monitoring the effectiveness of well completions helps guide technologies and methods to gain control of the wellbore to maximize EUR and NPV. Re-fracturing treatments have significant impact on production, and economics of unconventional reservoir development and consideration should be taken to determine the best way to achieve successful re-fracturing as production starts to decline.
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Contact angle is the main parameter that characterizes the drop shape on the solid surface and is also one of the directly measurable properties of the phase interface. In this chapter, the wettability and its related properties of pristine and modified polymer foils will be described. The wettability depends on surface roughness and chemical composition. Changes of these parameters can adjust the values of contact angle and, therefore, wettability. In the case of pristine polymer materials, their wettability is unsuitable for a wide range of applications (such as tissue engineering, printing, and coating). Polymer surfaces can easily be modified by, e.g., plasma discharge, whereas the bulk properties remain unchanged. This modification leads to oxidation of the treated layer and creation of new chemical groups that mainly contain oxygen. Immediately after plasma treatment, the values of the contact angles of the modified polymer significantly decrease. In the case of a specific polymer, the strongly hydrophilic surface is created and leads to total spreading of the water drop. Wettability is strongly dependent on time from modification.",book:{id:"5319",slug:"wetting-and-wettability",title:"Wetting and Wettability",fullTitle:"Wetting and Wettability"},signatures:"Nikola Slepickova Kasalkova, Petr Slepicka, Zdenka Kolska and\nVaclav Svorcik",authors:[{id:"144929",title:"Prof.",name:"Vaclav",middleName:null,surname:"Svorcik",slug:"vaclav-svorcik",fullName:"Vaclav Svorcik"},{id:"146297",title:"Dr.",name:"Petr",middleName:null,surname:"Slepicka",slug:"petr-slepicka",fullName:"Petr Slepicka"},{id:"147600",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nikola",middleName:null,surname:"Slepičková Kasálková",slug:"nikola-slepickova-kasalkova",fullName:"Nikola Slepičková Kasálková"},{id:"153983",title:"Dr.",name:"Zdeňka",middleName:null,surname:"Kolská",slug:"zdenka-kolska",fullName:"Zdeňka Kolská"}]},{id:"30975",doi:"10.5772/36619",title:"Solution Properties of κ-Carrageenan and Its Interaction with Other Polysaccharides in Aqueous Media",slug:"solution-properties-of-k-carrageenan-and-its-interaction-with-other-polysaccharides-in-aqueous-media",totalDownloads:7591,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:32,abstract:null,book:{id:"1601",slug:"rheology",title:"Rheology",fullTitle:"Rheology"},signatures:"Alberto Tecante and María del Carmen Núñez Santiago",authors:[{id:"109087",title:"Prof.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Tecante",slug:"alberto-tecante",fullName:"Alberto Tecante"},{id:"109098",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Del Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Nunez-Santiago",slug:"maria-del-carmen-nunez-santiago",fullName:"Maria Del Carmen Nunez-Santiago"}]},{id:"48822",doi:"10.5772/60808",title:"Wettability of Nanostructured Surfaces",slug:"wettability-of-nanostructured-surfaces",totalDownloads:3128,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:32,abstract:"There are many studies in literature concerning contact angle measurements on different materials/substrates. It is documented that textiles can be coated with multifunctional materials in form of thin films or nanoparticles to acquire characteristics that can improve the protection and comfort of the wearer. The capacity of oxide nanostructures to inhibit fungal development and neutralize bacteria is a direct consequence of their wetting behavior [1–6]. Moreover, the radical modification of wetting behavior of nanostructures from hydrophilic to hydrophobic when changing the pulsed laser deposition (PLD) ambient will be thoroughly discussed.",book:{id:"5319",slug:"wetting-and-wettability",title:"Wetting and Wettability",fullTitle:"Wetting and Wettability"},signatures:"L. Duta, A.C. Popescu, I. Zgura, N. Preda and I.N. Mihailescu",authors:[{id:"17636",title:"Prof.",name:"Ion N.",middleName:null,surname:"Mihailescu",slug:"ion-n.-mihailescu",fullName:"Ion N. 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Mineral acids like hydrochloric and sulfuric acids are most widely used in pickling baths to remove the metal oxides formed on the surface. The multidisciplinary aspect of corrosion problems combined with the distributed responsibilities associated with such problems only increase the complexity of the subject. Inhibitors are used in industrial and commercial processes to minimize both the metal loss and acid consumption.",book:{id:"7550",slug:"corrosion-inhibitors",title:"Corrosion Inhibitors",fullTitle:"Corrosion Inhibitors"},signatures:"Geethamani Palanisamy",authors:[{id:"253697",title:"Dr.",name:"Geethamani",middleName:null,surname:"Palanisamy",slug:"geethamani-palanisamy",fullName:"Geethamani Palanisamy"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"48768",title:"TiO2 -Based Surfaces with Special Wettability – From Nature to Biomimetic Application",slug:"tio2-based-surfaces-with-special-wettability-from-nature-to-biomimetic-application",totalDownloads:5010,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Super-wetting/antiwetting surfaces with extremely high contrast of surface energy and liquid adhesion have attracted a lot of interest in both fundamental research and industry. Various types of special wetting surfaces can be constructed by adjusting the topographical structure and chemical composition. In this chapter, recent advance of the super-wetting/antiwetting surfaces with special solid/liquid adhesion has been reviewed, with a focus on the biomimetic fabrication and applications of TiO2-based surfaces. Special super-wettability examples include lotus-leaf-inspired surfaces with low adhesion, rose-petal-inspired surfaces with high adhesion, spider silk bio-inspired surfaces with directional adhesion, fish-scale-inspired underwater superoleophobic surface, and artificial surfaces with controllable or stimuli-responsive liquid adhesion. In addition, we will review some potential applications related to artificial antiwetting surface with controllable adhesion, e.g., self-cleaning, antifogging/anti-icing, micro-droplet manipulation, fog/water collection, water/oil separation, anti-bioadhesion, micro-template for patterning, and friction reduction. Finally, the difficulty and prospects of this renascent and rapidly developing field are also briefly proposed and discussed.",book:{id:"5319",slug:"wetting-and-wettability",title:"Wetting and Wettability",fullTitle:"Wetting and Wettability"},signatures:"Jian-Ying Huang and Yue-Kun Lai",authors:[{id:"175512",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuekun",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"yuekun-lai",fullName:"Yuekun Lai"}]},{id:"64392",title:"Corrosion Inhibitors",slug:"corrosion-inhibitors",totalDownloads:3318,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:"Corrosion is a natural process driven by energy consideration. Inhibition is a preventive measure against corrosive attack on metallic materials. Corrosion inhibitors have been frequently studied, since they offer simple solution for protection of metals against corrosion in aqueous environment. Mineral acids like hydrochloric and sulfuric acids are most widely used in pickling baths to remove the metal oxides formed on the surface. The multidisciplinary aspect of corrosion problems combined with the distributed responsibilities associated with such problems only increase the complexity of the subject. Inhibitors are used in industrial and commercial processes to minimize both the metal loss and acid consumption.",book:{id:"7550",slug:"corrosion-inhibitors",title:"Corrosion Inhibitors",fullTitle:"Corrosion Inhibitors"},signatures:"Geethamani Palanisamy",authors:[{id:"253697",title:"Dr.",name:"Geethamani",middleName:null,surname:"Palanisamy",slug:"geethamani-palanisamy",fullName:"Geethamani Palanisamy"}]},{id:"68236",title:"The Arrhenius Acid and Base Theory",slug:"the-arrhenius-acid-and-base-theory",totalDownloads:1380,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Swedish Svante Arrhenius, in 1884 proposed the concept of acid and base based on the theory of ionization. According to Arrhenius, the acids are the hydrogen-containing compounds which give H+ ions or protons on dissociation in water and bases are the hydroxide compounds which give OH− ions on dissociation in water. This concept is only applicable to those compounds which dissolved in aqueous solution (or you can say where water is the solvent). It covers many common acids, bases and their chemical reactions, but there are also other compounds that have the characteristics of acids and bases but they do not fit into Arrhenius concept.",book:{id:"10050",slug:"corrosion",title:"Corrosion",fullTitle:"Corrosion"},signatures:"Shikha Munjal and Aakash Singh",authors:[{id:"290524",title:"Ms.",name:"Shikha",middleName:null,surname:"Munjal",slug:"shikha-munjal",fullName:"Shikha Munjal"}]},{id:"71924",title:"Technological Background and Properties of Thin Film Semiconductors",slug:"technological-background-and-properties-of-thin-film-semiconductors",totalDownloads:886,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Especially with the development of nanotechnology and polymer science, interest in research and production of both efficient and lower-cost semiconductor thin film materials is increasing day by day. The use of nano-structured thin films for efficient use of solar cells in production of n-type semiconductor materials is one of the most important sources of energy and new-generation energy. Considering the indicated trends and energy requirements, it has been important to transfer this technology in detail regarding the surface technologies related to the semiconductor materials produced with thin film technologies instead of bulk materials. With this aim, this book chapter “Technological Background and Properties of Thin Film Semiconductors” includes a brief story about semiconductors, band gap theory, thin film applications, and besides traditional thin film processing methods finally a new technology called aerosol deposition technique which allows room temperature processing of several materials for semiconductor applications, respectively. It is thought that it will make important contributions to the relevant field and bring a new perspective and direct scientific research in “process-structure–property-performance” relation.",book:{id:"10061",slug:"21st-century-surface-science-a-handbook",title:"21st Century Surface Science",fullTitle:"21st Century Surface Science - a Handbook"},signatures:"Orkut Sancakoglu",authors:[{id:"177188",title:"Dr.",name:"Orkut",middleName:null,surname:"Sancakoğlu",slug:"orkut-sancakoglu",fullName:"Orkut Sancakoğlu"}]},{id:"60426",title:"Applications of Viscoelastic Fluids Involving Hydrodynamic Stability and Heat Transfer",slug:"applications-of-viscoelastic-fluids-involving-hydrodynamic-stability-and-heat-transfer",totalDownloads:1331,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Rayleigh and Marangoni convection and rheology are linked in the thermal convection of viscoelastic fluids to some recent technological applications. Such technology developments as the ones presented here undoubtedly shall be based on interdisciplinary projects involving not only rheology or fluid mechanics but several other disciplines. Three practical applications which use Rayleigh or Marangoni convection in their working principle are presented along with some technical details. This contribution focus mainly on the physical mechanism and the involved hydrodynamics of some lab and industrial applications. Finally, a short discussion on the role play by the convective mechanisms is given in order to provide integration of the exposed ideas.",book:{id:"6702",slug:"polymer-rheology",title:"Polymer Rheology",fullTitle:"Polymer Rheology"},signatures:"Ildebrando Pérez-Reyes, René Osvaldo Vargas-Aguilar, Samuel\nBernardo Pérez-Vega and Alejandro Sebastián Ortiz-Pérez",authors:[{id:"183938",title:"Dr.",name:"Samuel",middleName:null,surname:"Perez-Vega",slug:"samuel-perez-vega",fullName:"Samuel Perez-Vega"},{id:"186659",title:"Prof.",name:"Ildebrando",middleName:null,surname:"Pérez-Reyes",slug:"ildebrando-perez-reyes",fullName:"Ildebrando Pérez-Reyes"},{id:"242858",title:"Prof.",name:"Rene Osvaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Vargas-Aguilar",slug:"rene-osvaldo-vargas-aguilar",fullName:"Rene Osvaldo Vargas-Aguilar"},{id:"242859",title:"Prof.",name:"Alejandro Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ortiz-Perez",slug:"alejandro-sebastian-ortiz-perez",fullName:"Alejandro Sebastian Ortiz-Perez"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"160",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. 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