Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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In particular, investments in Research and Development represent an important tool for promoting innovation and for enhancing the capital invested in the market. By now, innovation is linked with different concepts, from entrepreneurship to sustainability, from economics to management. The analysis of the innovation process involves different skills to overcome the high degree of competitiveness and allow higher levels of profits. In the text, the interactions among innovation, entrepreneurship, and ecosystems are investigated. It is an attempt to prepare the theoretical bases to face in an appropriate way the transformations of modern economic and organizational systems and to suggest adequate support policies.",isbn:"978-1-80355-505-8",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-504-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-506-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98055",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"innovation-research-and-development-and-capital-evaluation",numberOfPages:146,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"a644b267db0cddd8a16f0dfadf03bad6",bookSignature:"Luigi Aldieri",publishedDate:"June 8th 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11258.jpg",numberOfDownloads:535,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 15th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 13th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 12th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 2nd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 1st 2022",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"246585",title:"Prof.",name:"Luigi",middleName:null,surname:"Aldieri",slug:"luigi-aldieri",fullName:"Luigi Aldieri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246585/images/system/246585.jpg",biography:'Luigi Aldieri is a Full Professor of Economics at the Department of Economic and Statistical Sciences of the University of Salerno. He holds a Ph.D. in Sciences Economiques et de gestion at the Solvay Business School of Economics and Management (SBS-EM) of Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB). His Ph.D. thesis \\"Three Essays on Knowledge Diffusion and Firms\\\' Economic Performance\\" is supervised by Prof. Michele Cincera. 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High uncertainty can compel the organization to change the business plan according to the market demand. In the current era of digitalization, organizations are needed to modify the existing business plan and innovate it through technologies. Modifying existing resources according to the market demand is challenging for the organization; employers face many challenges and obstacles. Businesses plan to develop a long-term business model to validate the attractiveness, reduce the avoidable investment of scarce resources, and structure the business process. In the current era of digitalization, businesses, specifically, SMEs cannot compete with the competitors who can adopt digitalization systems. Therefore, the current chapter is trying to find out the challenges faced by SMEs in developing economies during the adoption of the digital business model. 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This article aims to analyze the role of formality on product, process, organizational and commercial innovations in Cameroon and Senegal. The results obtained using a sample of 1369 firms from data collected by the International Development Research Centre (IDRC) and logistic regression show that formal firms have a better innovation capacity. But the role of formality on innovation tends to be less important for Cameroonian firms. These results show that the Cameroonian authorities must intensify measures in favor of the formalization of enterprises to boost the potential for innovation within enterprises.",signatures:"Martin Ndzana and Gregory Mvogo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81010",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81010",authors:[{id:"437463",title:"Dr.",name:"Martin",surname:"Ndzana",slug:"martin-ndzana",fullName:"Martin Ndzana"},{id:"437466",title:"Dr.",name:"Gregory",surname:"Mvogo",slug:"gregory-mvogo",fullName:"Gregory Mvogo"}],corrections:null},{id:"79896",title:"The Influence of Foreign Investors on the Development of Polish Enterprises: A Case Study of Bank Polska Kasa Opieki Spółka Akcyjna",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101453",slug:"the-influence-of-foreign-investors-on-the-development-of-polish-enterprises-a-case-study-of-bank-pol",totalDownloads:109,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Pursuant to the definition proposed by Eurostat, foreign direct investment takes place when a resident entity in one economy seeks to obtain a lasting interest in an enterprise resident in another economy. A lasting interest implies the existence of a long-term relationship between the direct investor and the enterprise, and an investor’s significant influence on the management of the enterprise. Foreign investors do not only exert impact on a given company’s board of directors but, importantly, provide production capital in privatized companies. Additionally, they equip them with both know-how on the performed economic activity and technical know-how. They send their specialists, who introduce international standards in daughter companies smoothly. In this paper, the author deals with the impact of a foreign investor on the development of Bank Pekao. A literature review is applied for this aim. It covers a detailed analysis of transaction documentation and post-audit statements of the Supreme Audit Office and delegations of the Ministry of State Treasury. Thanks to research, it can be assessed how UniCredito Italiano has positively influenced the operation of Polish bank after the acquisition of shares. Thereby, the results of this study contest popular opinion about exploitation of domestic employees by foreign companies.",signatures:"Waldemar Milewicz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79896",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79896",authors:[{id:"439873",title:"Dr.",name:"Waldemar",surname:"Milewicz",slug:"waldemar-milewicz",fullName:"Waldemar Milewicz"}],corrections:null},{id:"80382",title:"Innovation and Entrepreneurial Ecosystems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102344",slug:"innovation-and-entrepreneurial-ecosystems",totalDownloads:162,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nowadays special attention is paid to ecosystem conditions that encourage innovation and entrepreneurship. This chapter provides a critical review and expands the understanding of the concepts of the innovation ecosystem and entrepreneurial ecosystem. The entrepreneurial ecosystem represents a collection of actors that interact within a geographically bound entrepreneurial environment and factors, which contribute to the development of productive entrepreneurship. Innovation ecosystems represent communities of interacting actors that support innovation processes and create technologies and innovations. The focus of the innovation ecosystem is on value creation through the creation of innovations, while the focus of the entrepreneurship ecosystem is on the development of entrepreneurship. There are differences between the two concepts, but also the relationships and interactions, which are revealed in the chapter. 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\n
1. Introduction
\n
The Japanese Islands are mainly composed of the Eurasian (EUR) and the North American (NA) plates, and a number of small islands are on the Philippine Sea (PHS) and the Pacific (PAC) plates (Figure 1). The PHS and PAC oceanic plates are subducting beneath the EUR and the NA plates. A number of earthquakes occurred both at the plate interfaces and within the plates.
\n
Figure 1.
Name of plates and location.
\n
After the Kobe earthquake in January 1995, the Japanese government enacted the Special Measure Law on Earthquake Disaster Prevention in July 1995. This was to promote a comprehensive national policy on earthquake disaster prevention. Based on this goal, the National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Resilience (NIED) contracted the deployment of the nationwide high-sensitivity seismograph network (Hi-net) [1] since NIED had already accumulated the experience for the Tokyo metropolitan deep borehole array and operated the Kanto-Tokai seismic network since 1979. NIED operates the Hi-net with approximately 800 stations since 2000 [2] and the full range seismograph network (F-net) [3] with approximately 70 stations composed of broadband seismographs since 1994 [4]. The Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), the national universities, and other institutes operate other seismic networks with a total of approximately 600 stations for the detection of microseismicity. NIED operates ocean-bottom seismic stations beneath the Sagami Bay, while the JMA operates offshore the Tokai and Boso regions. The Earthquake Research Institute, University of Tokyo, operates the network offshore Sanriku, and the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC) operates offshore Kushiro and Muroto networks. JAMSTEC started the construction of the Dense Oceanfloor Network System for Earthquakes and Tsunamis (DONET) [5] off Kii and Muroto Peninsulas near the Nankai Trough in 2010, and they started operation networks offshore Kii (in 2014) and Muroto (in 2016) Peninsulas. NIED deployed the Seafloor Observation Network for Earthquakes and Tsunamis along the Japan Trench (S-net) [6] after the 2011 offshore Tohoku Earthquake (the Tohoku-oki event), which began operating in 2016 [7, 8]. DONET was transferred to NIED from April 2016. NIED started the operation of Monitoring of Waves on Land and Seafloor (MOWLAS) composed of Hi-net, F-net, S-net, DONET, strong-motion seismograph networks (K-NET and KiK-net) [9], and Volcano Observation Network (V-net) [10].
\n
NIED S-net and DONET teams manually pick the arrival time data at the oceanic seismic stations after NIED Hi-net team has determined the hypocenters using the land stations. We confirm the difference of shallow hypocenters between the determination by only NIED Hi-net and that by NIED Hi-net and NIED S-net. Stars in Figure 2 show the hypocenters at depths shallower than 20 km beneath the PAC plate determined by NIED Hi-net from September 11, 2017, to the end of 2018. The shallow hypocenters near the main island tend to remain shallow; however, hypocenters more than 200 km off the coast shifted significantly deeper to 40–80 km depth when including the S-net arrival time data (Figure 2). Deep events determined by NIED Hi-net on the east side of a longitude of 144°E are also shifted shallower. This suggests that it is important to include the S-net data for reliable hypocenter locations of offshore events.
\n
Figure 2.
Comparison of hypocenters determined by the NIED (a) Hi-net and (b) Hi-net and S-net. Stars denote hypocenters determined at depths shallower than 20 km by only Hi-net in (a) and redetermined by Hi-net and S-net in (b).
\n
Three-dimensional (3D) seismic velocity structure beneath the whole Japanese Islands has been studied using the vast data of seismic stations within the Japanese Islands maintained by NIED, JMA, national universities, and the other national and local governmental institutes (e.g., [11, 12, 13, 14]). These studies used data obtained mainly at land-based seismic stations with a very few seismic stations on the sea floor such as Sagami Bay, off Kushiro, Sanriku, Boso, and Tokai regions. Reference [14] investigated the structure beneath the PAC plate at depths of 30–50 km using events that occurred under the Pacific Ocean (PO) with focal depths determined by NIED F-net. However, that study was not able to clarify the shallow structure beneath the PO at depths of 0–20 km because of the lack of seismic stations on the seafloor of the PO. The seismic ray takeoff angles proceed downward from the events to the seismic stations on land, and they do not pass through the shallow zone beneath the ocean since the distance from the hypocenter to the seismic stations is usually over 150 km. We investigated the 3D seismic velocity structure of and around Japanese Islands including the Sea of Japan and PO by the seismic tomographic method. We added the arrival time data detected in the S-net, the DONET, and the Hi-net datasets, operated by NIED, as well as other datasets, operated by multiple organizations, after 2016 in addition to the data used in [14]. Then we applied the seismic tomography to these datasets.
\n
\n
\n
2. Data and method
\n
The target region, 20–48°N and 120–148°E, covers the whole Japanese Islands from Hokkaido to Okinawa and the seismic stations both Hi-net on land and S-net and DONET beneath the ocean. In addition to the arrival time data used by [14], 1,782,425 P- and 1,528,733 S-wave arrival times from 32,952 earthquakes recorded at approximately 2000 stations including NIED S-net and DONET from April 2016 to June 2018 were selected. A total of 7,853,757 P-wave arrival data and 4,604,780 S-wave arrival data from 112,631 events are available after merging the new datasets (Figure 3).
\n
Figure 3.
Distribution of hypocenters and seismic stations used for seismic tomography.
\n
We used the seismic tomographic method [15, 16] with spatial velocity correlation and station corrections to the original code by [11]. Grid nodes were placed with half of the spatial resolution. We performed smoothing in order to stabilize the solution for the inverse problem with the LSQR algorithm [17] since arbitrary damping matrix with combination of diagonal and smoothing matrices could be assumed.
\n
We placed 3D grid nodes to construct the velocity (slowness) structure with the grid spacing shown in Table 1 and adopted the 1D structure used in the routine determination of hypocenters at the Hi-net and S-net [18] as the initial velocity model (Figure 4). No velocity discontinuities such as Moho discontinuities or the plate boundary between the EUR and PAC or PHS plates were assumed in this study. This is because there were enough data to estimate the steep velocity gradient to represent plate boundaries so that velocity discontinues in the model were not necessary [13, 16, 19]. The total number of unknowns, 4,417,505, for P-wave slowness is the same as those for S-wave slowness. We solved the P- and S-wave slowness at each grid node from more than 10 associated rays.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Depth
\n
Grid interval
\n
Resolution/checkerboard pattern
\n
\n
\n
Horizontal
\n
Vertical (km)
\n
Horizontal
\n
Vertical (km)
\n
\n\n\n
\n
0–10
\n
0.1°
\n
2.5
\n
0.2°
\n
5
\n
\n
\n
10–40
\n
5
\n
10
\n
\n
\n
40–60
\n
10
\n
20
\n
\n
\n
60–180
\n
15
\n
30
\n
\n
\n
180–300
\n
20
\n
40
\n
\n
\n
300−
\n
25
\n
50
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Grid interval and resolution size.
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Figure 4.
Seismic velocity structures of the initial model and the average of the final 3D model.
\n
First, we inverted the P- and S-wave seismic velocities using the initial hypocenter location. Second, both hypocenters and 3D seismic velocity structure were inverted simultaneously. We included the arrival times from the events beneath the ocean before 2015 in addition to the data used by [14]. Focal depths of offshore events were determined by NIED F-net or [20] since offshore events determined by only NIED Hi-net are not reliable. For these offshore events, only epicenters are inverted by the 3D seismic velocity structure, while hypocenter depths are fixed. We do not fix any condition for the events after 2016 detected by NIED S-net and DONET and the events within 50 km of the onshore seismic networks before 2015 during the inversion.
\n
Residuals are improved to within 0.5 s for P-wave and 0.6 s for S-wave in the travel time inversion. In the final iteration, we used 6,356,481 P-wave arrival data and 3,534,482 S-wave arrival data to solve for the P-wave slowness at 1,135,165 grid nodes and the S-wave slowness at 1,103,525 grid nodes. The inversion reduces RMS of the P-wave travel time residual from 0.561 to 0.192 s and that of the S-wave data from 0.812 to 0.239 s after 11 iterations.
\n
We conducted a checkerboard resolution test to evaluate the reliability of our solution [21]. We assumed a ± 5% checkerboard pattern and calculated synthetic travel times with random noise of 0 mean and standard deviations of 0.13 and 0.24 s for P- and S-waves, respectively. The standard deviations for random noise were derived from the average of the estimated uncertainty of the manually picked arrival times. The weight of data is inversely proportional to each width of picking error. The damping factors for the P-wave inversion are twice those for the S-wave inversion, since the average standard deviation of P-wave picking errors is almost half of that of S-wave.
\n
\n
\n
3. Results
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\n
3.1 Results of checkerboard resolution test
\n
Figure 5 shows the results of checkerboard resolution test. We calculate the recovery rate and stability with surrounding grid nodes in order to confirm well-resolved area [15]. The resolutions of Vp and Vs at depths of 5–30 km beneath main four islands are good. At depths of 40–60 km, resolutions are not good along the Sea of Japan coast because there are few deep earthquakes that can be used for inversion.
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Figure 5.
Map views of checkerboard resolution test for Vp and Vs. green line surrounds the well-resolved area.
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NIED S-net data increase the resolution at depths of 10–60 km from Honshu to the Japan Trench (Figure 5). Reference [14] used the offshore events such as aftershocks of the Tohoku-oki earthquake. The presence of a seismic station above the events is extremely important for the estimation of velocity structure as well as the determination of hypocenters. The resolutions at depths of 0 and 5 km are still not good in spite of the use of S-net data because the incident angle to the S-net stations are mainly steep and ray paths do not run horizontally because of the lack of shallow earthquakes. Resolutions near the triple junction of Japan Trench and Sagami Trough where three plates, PAC, PHS, and EUR, meet are good at depths of 20–30 km. This is an advantage of using NIED S-net.
\n
Beneath the DONET area, the resolution at depths of 10–60 km is good for Vp, and those at depths of 5–40 km are good for Vs. The resolved zone extends to the Nankai Trough since there is sufficient seismicity in this area.
\n
\n
\n
3.2 Map views at depths
\n
We calculated the average 1D model from the final 3D velocity structure (Figure 4). We also showed the perturbation from these average velocities (Figure 6).
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Figure 6.
Map views of Vp and Vs perturbation and Vp/Vs. Colored area is the resolved area. Broken white lines at depths of 10 and 20 km denote the median tectonic line.
\n
At a depth of 5 km, low-Vp and low-Vs regions are located along the PAC coast beneath southeastern Hokkaido, northeastern Honshu, most of Kanto, Sagami Bay, southern Kinki, and southern Shikoku regions. A low-Vs region extends beneath the entire Shikoku and southern Chugoku regions. A low-Vp/Vs region runs along the Ou backbone range in northeastern Japan and central Japan. Other regions have high Vp/Vs.
\n
At a depth of 10 km, low-Vp regions extend beneath the active volcanoes in the northeastern and central Honshu and Kyushu regions. Low-Vs regions are almost the same as those at a depth of 5 km. High-Vp/Vs regions are distributed at central Hokkaido and coastal area in northeastern Japan. Low-Vp/Vs covers the other regions.
\n
At a depth of 20 km, low-Vp regions lie beneath volcanoes in Hokkaido, central Honshu, and Kyushu. Low-Vs regions extend beneath the volcanoes and back-arc side of Honshu. Both low-Vp and low-Vs regions extend from central Kinki to Kyushu region across central Shikoku. This low-V zone remains the same as at a depth of 5 km. High-Vp/Vs regions cover the Ou backbone range and back-arc side of northeastern Honshu.
\n
At a depth of 30 km, low-Vp extends beneath the northeastern Honshu, central and southwestern Honshu, and northern Kyushu regions. Low-Vs regions extend beneath most of Honshu, Kyushu, and northern Shikoku regions. High-Vp/Vs regions cover almost all Japanese Islands except the central Hokkaido.
\n
At a depth of 40 km, low-Vp regions exist beneath the volcanoes in southeastern Hokkaido and northeastern and central Honshu regions. The low-Vp regions beneath the volcanoes in the northeastern Japan extend to back-arc side. Low-Vs regions are clarified beneath the volcanoes in southeastern Hokkaido and central Honshu regions. Low-Vs regions beneath the northeastern Honshu can be found east of the volcanic front as are low-Vp regions. Low-Vp/Vs regions cover the central mountains across Hokkaido and northeastern and central Honshu.
\n
At a depth of 60 km, low-Vp and low-Vs regions extend beneath the volcanoes in Honshu and central Honshu. High-Vp and Vs regions extend beneath the Kinki, Shikoku, and eastern Kyushu regions where the PHS plates subduct. High-Vp/Vs regions are distributed across western Hokkaido, central Honshu, and central Shikoku regions.
\n
At a depth of 90 km, low-Vp and low-Vs regions exist beneath the volcanoes beneath Hokkaido and Honshu. High-Vp and Vs regions extend to the east of northeastern Japan where the PAC plate subducts. High-Vp/Vs regions cover northern and southwestern Hokkaido, central Honshu, and central Kyushu regions.
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\n
\n
3.3 Velocity structure beneath the Pacific Ocean off northeastern Japan beneath the S-net
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At a depth of 10 km, a low-Vp and low-Vs zone extends along the coast of the PO in the northeastern Honshu. A high-Vp and high-Vs zone exists between the longitudes of 142 and 143°. East of longitude of 143° (Figure 6A and B), low-Vp, and low-Vs zone shows again. Vp/Vs is generally low except in some small regions.
\n
At a depth of 20 km, a high-Vp and high-Vs zone extends along the coast of the PO in the northeastern Honshu, in contrast to the structure at a depth of 10 km. Low-V zones extend to the east of the high-Vp zone; however, some high-Vp zones exist among the low-Vp zones (Figure 6C). High-Vs zones are mixed with minor low-Vs zone off the east of northeastern Honshu, extending to a longitude of 143.5° (Figure 6D). This pattern can be seen with Vp at a depth of 10 km. Vp/Vs is also broadly low, and this pattern of Vp/Vs can be seen when the depth is 10 km except in some regions.
\n
At a depth of 30 km, low-Vp zone extends off the east of northeastern Honshu between longitudes of 142 and 143.5 and to the region off the southeast of Hokkaido. High-Vp zone can be seen along the Japan Trench. Two patches of low-Vs zones exist in the east of northeastern Honshu at latitude of 37–40° and longitude of 142–143° and at latitude of 35–36° and longitude of 141–142°. High-Vp/Vs region is bounded by the low-Vp/Vs region, a north–south “stripe” pattern.
\n
At a depth of 40 km, low-Vp and low-Vs zones extend between longitude of 142–143° and latitudes of 37–41°. These low-Vp and low-Vs zones extend to the west of the Hidaka Mountains. High-Vp and high-Vs zones can be seen on the east of the low-V zone and reach the east of the Japan Trench. Vp/Vs in this area is moderate except for some low-Vp/Vs regions with north–south trend.
\n
At a depth of 60 km, low-Vp and low-Vs zones extend just off the coast of the PAC in the northeastern Honshu. High-Vp and high-Vs zones extend broadly on the east of the narrow low-V zone. Vp/Vs in this area is high.
\n
\n
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3.4 Velocity structure beneath the Pacific Ocean off Kii and Muroto peninsula beneath the DONET
\n
At depths of 20 and 30 km, low-Vp zones extend around the hypocenters of the large events with magnitude 6.9 and 7.4 that occurred on September 5, 2004. Low-Vs zones partly exist within the low-Vp zone. We cannot resolve the continuous structure from Honshu at depths of 5–10 km since the number of events for seismic tomography beneath the DONET stations is small. This is because the DONET picked data are basically added after the Hi-net manual picking. The seismic tomography will be recalculated when the microearthquake data triggered at DONET stations become available.
\n
\n
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3.5 Station corrections
\n
The station corrections for the final model are shown in Figure 7. Red stations denote positive O-C travel times. It means that the modeled velocity is too high due to thick sediment or low-V materials since the calculated travel time is too small. It also depends on the depth of borehole of Hi-net stations. The seismometers of the Hi-net stations are typically deployed at depths of around 100–200 m, and low-Vp sediment materials are estimated beneath the backbone range and back-arc side of Japan. Large station corrections are estimated along the Sea of Japan coast in northeastern Honshu since there are thick sediments, while borehole stations are relatively shallow. For Vs, there are many blue-colored stations meaning that the velocity model is too slow. Large station corrections are also estimated on the Sea of Japan side of northeastern Honshu.
\n
Figure 7.
Station corrections for (a) Vp and (b) Vs.
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For S-net stations, blue stations can be seen near the coast and the Japan Trench. Red stations are shown between them for both Vp and Vs. It suggests that the seismic velocity model is too slow near the coast and the Japan Trench and too fast between them.
\n
For DONET stations, red stations are shown near the coast and blue stations reside off the coast. It means that the modeled seismic velocity is too high near the coast.
\n
\n
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3.6 Movement of hypocenters
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Figure 8 shows the histogram of the epicentral movement during the iterations. Epicenters determined by NIED F-net and [20] are shifted over 50 km after the inversion. Epicenters determined by NIED Hi-net or by NIED Hi-net, S-net, and DONET are mainly less than 10 km in spite of 11 iterations of inversion.
\n
Figure 8.
Histogram of the earthquake epicentral movements during the inversion. The initial epicenters are determined by (a) NIED Hi-net; (b) NIED Hi-net, S-net, and DONET; (c) NIED F-net; and (d) Ref. [20]. The Hi-net system also uses the seismic stations operated by the other organizations.
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4. Discussion
\n
\n
4.1 Expanded resolved zone from the previous studies
\n
Ref. [14] also clarified the seismic velocity structure beneath the PO at depths of 30–50 km; however, that study could not resolve the shallow structure at depths of 0–20 km since the ray paths, such as head waves, from the oceanic event to the land seismic stations pass through the deep zone. The ray paths from the events to NIED S-net stations run through the shallow part of the PO. In this study, we can clarify the structure at depths of 10–60 km and even east of the Japan Trench at depths of 20–30 km (Figures 5 and 6). This is a major improvement enabled by including NIED S-net data
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4.2 Characteristic structure of the NS trending high-V and low-V zone off the northeastern Japan
\n
One important feature is the probable Mesozoic rift structure trending NS from the coast of Tohoku to the west of Hidaka Collision Zone. The recent 2018 Hokkaido Eastern Iburi earthquake (M6.7) (Iburi earthquake) occurred at a depth of around 32 km, which is much deeper than the usual inland crustal earthquake. Unfortunately, the structure beneath the PO between the Honshu and Hokkaido islands at a depth of 20 km is not clear; however, a low-Vp zone at a depth of 30 km in north–south direction between 142 and 143° (Figure 9) is resolved. Low-Vp zones also exist west of the Hidaka Mountains and between the Honshu and Hokkaido at the northern extension of this low-V zone, although the high-Vp zone parallel to the Japan Trench along the coast of Honshu and Hokkaido invades the low-Vp zone. The high-Vp zone is consistent with the large positive Bouguer gravity anomaly [22] and large positive aeromagnetic anomaly zones [23]. It implies that high-V mantle mafic material is located in the shallow zone. The depth of the Moho is also shallow near the coast of northern Honshu [24]. The Iburi earthquake may be related to the reactivation of the rift related to the structure in the upper mantle to the lower crust, where it is marked by high-Vp.
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Figure 9.
Map views of (a) Moho depth, (b) aeromagnetism, (c) Bouguer gravity anomaly, Vp perturbation at depths of (d) 20 km and (e) 30 km beneath northern Japan.
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4.3 Characteristic structure along the sea of Japan
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We clarified the seismic velocity structure beneath the Sea of Japan at depths of 10–20 km from offshore Hokkaido to Wakasa Bay (Figure 6). The Vp beneath the Okushiri and Sado Islands is low at a depth of 10 km; however, Vp beneath the Sea of Japan is high at depths of 10–35 km. Vp along the coast of Sea of Japan in western Japan gives moderate value. The lithospheric velocity structure in this region is strongly affected by the Mid-Tertiary breakup and formation of the Sea of Japan. Through the reactivation of the younger compressed tectonic terrain, tsunamigenic source faults have been developed. The lithospheric structure provides essential information to infer the structure of faults.
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4.4 Comparison with the structure obtained by the offshore experiments
\n
Ref. [25] imaged the bending-shaped low-Vp oceanic crust of PAC plate subducting from the Japan Trench at latitudes of 38–38.5° offshore Miyagi where the rupture of large interplate earthquakes propagated. In this study, low-Vp material is imaged at depths of 40–50 km bounded by the high-Vp materials with a number of earthquakes surrounded with red ellipse in Figure 10. It indicates the subducting oceanic crust of the PAC plate
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Figure 10.
Vertical cross section beneath the Pacific Ocean off Miyagi in WNW-ESE direction. Black circle shows the relocated hypocenters used for seismic tomography in this study.
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The isovelocity contour of Vp = 7.0 km/s lies around depths of 25–40 km. Active-source seismic experiments off Sanriku region imaged the same contour lying at depths of 20–35 km [25] on the west side of Japan Trench, at depths of 15–30 km at the Japan Trench [26], and at depths of 15–25 km in NS direction between Honshu and Japan Trench [27]. The seismic velocity model of this study is relatively slower than those models derived from seismic experiments. The difference may depend on the initial velocity model of the oceanic region being set as the same as the land area in this study. The Moho depth becomes shallower with the EUR crust toward the Japan Trench. The oceanic crust of the PAC plate has also thinner crust than the EUR island arc crust.
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4.5 Comparison of velocity structure on the coseismic slip plane of the Tohoku-oki event
\n
Figure 11 shows the Vp perturbation just above the upper boundary of the PAC plate within the overriding EUR plate. The plane with the upper side at surface has a dip angle of 15°. Reference [28] also showed the Vp perturbation [29] above the upper boundary of the subducting PAC slab and three low-V zone offshore Sanriku, Miyagi, and Ibaraki. In our results, we obtain velocity structure in fine scale; however, we do not estimate the shallow structure along the Japan Trench. We obtain the broad low-Vp and low-Vp/Vs zone within the overriding EUR plate between the Japan Trench and Honshu. A high-Vp and slightly high-Vp/Vs zone exists on the west side of the low-Vp and low-Vp/Vs zone. There are some small high-V zones within the low-V zone near the hypocenter of the Tohoku-oki event.
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Figure 11.
Vp perturbation on the plane just above the upper boundary of the PAC plate within the overriding EUR plate. The plane has strike with S17degW from the point with a longitude of 144.5 and a latitude of 41.0 with dip angle of 12 deg. The depth of the upper edge of the plane is 10 km.
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Figure 12 also shows the Vp perturbation and Vp/Vs on the coseismic plane of the Tohoku-oki event [30]. We do not obtain the shallow structure along the Japan Trench although the extremely large slip of the Tohoku-oki event is estimated near the Japan Trench. The western edge of the large slip zone is consistent with the high-Vp zone; however, the surrounding region has low-Vp and low-Vp/Vs. Low-Vp/Vs material is difficult to deform so that it can generate large elastic waves if it fails. Low-Vp/Vs on the coseismic slip region may be one of the reasons for the extreme size of the Tohoku-oki event.
\n
Figure 12.
(a) Vp perturbation and (b) Vp/Vs on the coseismic slip plane [30].
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5. Conclusion
\n
We conducted the seismic tomography for entire Japanese Islands including oceanic area. This is the first tomographic study to use the data from NIED S-net. The hypocenters of oceanic events are greatly improved using the S-net data. We also obtain the detailed seismic velocity structure beneath the PO at depths of 10–60 km. Low-Vp and low-Vs zones are revealed between 142 and 143° at a depth of 30 km and in western Hokkaido where the Eastern Iburi Earthquake in 2018 occurred. The lithospheric velocity structure on the coast of Sea of Japan on Honshu is strongly affected by the Mid-Tertiary breakup and formation of the Sea of Japan. Tsunamigenic source faults have been developed through the reactivation of the younger compression. Subducting low-V oceanic crust is imaged within the mantle of overriding EUR and subducting oceanic PAC plate. The coseismic slip plane of the Tohoku-oki event has low-Vp/Vs; however, the shallow structure along the Japan Trench will be improved in the future with increased data. Previous seismic reflection and refraction studies found the oceanic crust at the uppermost part of the PAC plate with Vp of approximately 6–7 km/s; however, the seismic tomography with NIED S-net clarified the 6–7 km/s Vp zone at depths of 25–40 km. The result may depend on the initial velocity model beneath the PO, which was the same initial model as the land area in this study. Applying the initial velocity model derived from the refraction or reflection seismology would improve the results beneath the ocean in the future.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
We used the seismic data provided by the National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Resilience, the Japan Meteorological Agency, Hokkaido University, Hirosaki University, Tohoku University, the University of Tokyo, Nagoya University, Kyoto University, Kochi University, Kyushu University, Kagoshima University, the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, the Geographical Survey Institute, Tokyo Metropolis, Shizuoka Prefecture, Hot Springs Research Institute of Kanagawa Prefecture, Yokohama City, and Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology. This study was supported by the project on the Operation of Seismograph Networks for NIED. We thank academic editor Masaki Kanao for checking and commenting on our manuscript. We also thank David Shelly and Tomoko E. Yano for their helpful comments and improvement of our manuscript. Some of the figures were drawn using Generic Mapping Tools software [31] and the software for viewing 3D velocity structures beneath whole Japan Islands [32]. This work was financially supported in part by Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) and by the Council for Science, Technology and Innovation (CSTI) through the Cross-ministerial Strategic Innovation Promotion Program (SIP), entitled “Enhancement of societal resiliency against natural disasters” (Funding agency: Japan Science Technology Agency).
\n
\n',keywords:"seismic tomography, failed rift, offshore event, NIED S-net, DONET, NIED Hi-net",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/67965.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/67965.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67965",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67965",totalDownloads:1680,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:19,totalAltmetricsMentions:1,introChapter:null,impactScore:7,impactScorePercentile:96,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"February 8th 2019",dateReviewed:"May 20th 2019",datePrePublished:"July 3rd 2019",datePublished:"November 20th 2019",dateFinished:"July 3rd 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Japanese Islands are composed of four plates, with two oceanic plates subducting beneath the two continental plates. In 2016 the National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Resilience (NIED) Seafloor Observation Network for Earthquakes and Tsunamis along the Japan Trench (S-net) started seismic observation of the offshore Hokkaido to Boso region in the Pacific Ocean, and Dense Oceanfloor Network System for Earthquakes and Tsunamis (DONET) was transferred to NIED. We add the NIED S-net and DONET datasets to NIED high-sensitivity seismograph network (Hi-net) and full range seismograph network (F-net) datasets used in the previous study and obtain the three-dimensional seismic velocity structure beneath the Pacific Ocean as well as Japanese Islands. NIED S-net data dramatically improve the resolution beneath the Pacific Ocean at depths of 10–20 km because the seismic stations are located above the earthquakes and on the east side of the Japan Trench. We find a NS high-Vp zone at depths of 20–30 km. The 2018 Eastern Iburi earthquake occurred below the northern part of this high-V zone. The coseismic slip plane of the 2011 Tohoku-oki earthquake has low Vp/Vs, but its large slip region has high Vp. The broad low-Vp/Vs region may play a role in large earthquake occurrence.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/67965",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/67965",book:{id:"8257",slug:"seismic-waves-probing-earth-system"},signatures:"Makoto Matsubara, Hiroshi Sato, Kenji Uehira, Masashi Mochizuki, Toshihiko Kanazawa, Narumi Takahashi, Kensuke Suzuki and Shin’ichiro Kamiya",authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Data and method",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Results of checkerboard resolution test",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Map views at depths",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3 Velocity structure beneath the Pacific Ocean off northeastern Japan beneath the S-net",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.4 Velocity structure beneath the Pacific Ocean off Kii and Muroto peninsula beneath the DONET",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.5 Station corrections",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.6 Movement of hypocenters",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"4. Discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.1 Expanded resolved zone from the previous studies",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.2 Characteristic structure of the NS trending high-V and low-V zone off the northeastern Japan",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.3 Characteristic structure along the sea of Japan",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"4.4 Comparison with the structure obtained by the offshore experiments",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"4.5 Comparison of velocity structure on the coseismic slip plane of the Tohoku-oki event",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Resilience, NIED Hi-net, National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Resilience. DOI: 10.17598/NIED.0003'},{id:"B2",body:'Obara K, Kasahara K, Hori S, Okada Y. A densely distributed high-sensitivity seismograph network in Japan: Hi-net by National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention. Review of Scientific Instruments. 2005;76:021301. DOI: 10.1063/1.1854197'},{id:"B3",body:'National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Resilience, NIED F-net, National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Resilience. DOI: 10.17598/NIED.0005'},{id:"B4",body:'Okada Y, Kasahara K, Hori S, Obara K, Sekiguchi S, Fujiwara H, et al. Recent progress of seismic observation networks in Japan-Hi-net, F-net, K-NET and KiK-NET. Research News Earth Planets Space. 2004;56:xv-xxviii'},{id:"B5",body:'National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Resilience, NIED DONET, National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Resilience. DOI: 10.17598/NIED.0008'},{id:"B6",body:'National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Resilience, NIED S-net, National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Resilience. DOI: 10.17598/NIED.0007'},{id:"B7",body:'Kanazawa T. Japan trench earthquake and tsunami monitoring network of cable-linked 150 ocean bottom observatories and its impact to earth disaster science. In: IEEE International Underwater Technology Symposium (UT). IEEE; 2013. pp. 1, 2013-5'},{id:"B8",body:'Uehira K, Kanazawa T, Mochizuki M, Fujimoto H, Noguchi S, Shinbo T, et al. Outline of seafloor observation network for earthquakes and tsunamis along the Japna trench (S-net). EGU General Assembly. 2016;2016:EGU2016-EG13832'},{id:"B9",body:'National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Resilience, NIED K-NET, KiK-net, National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Resilience. 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Three-dimensional seismic velocity structure beneath Japanese Islands and surroundings based on NIED seismic networks using both inland and offshore events. Journal of Disaster Research. 2017;12:844-857. DOI: 10.20965/jdr.2017.p0844'},{id:"B15",body:'Matsubara M, Hirata N, Sato H, Sakai S. Lower crustal fluid distribution in the northeastern Japan arc revealed by high resolution 3D seismic tomography. Tectonophysics. 2004;388:33-45. DOI: 10.1016/j.tecto.2004.07.046'},{id:"B16",body:'Matsubara M, Hayashi H, Obara K, Kasahara K. Low-velocity oceanic crust at the top of the Philippine Sea and Pacific plates beneath the Kanto region, Central Japan, imaged by seismic tomography. Journal of Geophysical Research. 2005;110:B12304. DOI: 10.1029/2005JB003673'},{id:"B17",body:'Nolet G. Seismic Tomography. D. Reidel Publishing Company; 1987. p. 386'},{id:"B18",body:'Ukawa M, Ishida M, Matsumura S, Kasahara K. Hypocenter determination method of the Kanto-Tokai observational network for microearthquakes (in Japanese with English abstract). Research Notes National Research Center Disaster Prevention. 1984;53:1-88'},{id:"B19",body:'Matsubara M, Obara K, Kasahara K. High-Vp/vs zone accompanying non-volcanic tremors and slow slip events beneath southwestern Japan. Tectonophysics. 2009;472:6-17. DOI: 10.1016/j.tecto.2008.06.013'},{id:"B20",body:'Asano Y, Saito T, Ito Y, Shiomi K, Hirose H, Matsumoto T, et al. Spatial distribution and focal mechanisms of aftershocks of the 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku earthquake. Earth, Planets and Space. 2011;63:669-673. DOI: 10.5047/eps.2011.05.018'},{id:"B21",body:'Inoue H, Fukao Y, Tanabe K, Ogata Y. Whole mantle P-wave travel time tomography. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors. 1990;59:294-328'},{id:"B22",body:'Geological Survey of Japan. Gravity Database of Japan. DVD edition, Digital Geoscience Map P-2. 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DOI: 10.1029/2011GL049136'},{id:"B31",body:'Wessel P, WHF S. New version of generic mapping tools released. EOS Transactions. 1995;79:329'},{id:"B32",body:'Matsubara M. Software for viewing 3D velocity structures beneath whole Japan Islands. Report of the National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention. 2010;76:1-9'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Makoto Matsubara",address:"mkmatsu@bosai.go.jp",affiliation:'
National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Resilience, Japan
National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Resilience, Japan
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1. Introduction
The incipient motion of sediment is one of the most important topics in sediment transport. Generally, two methods are available in the literature to express quantitatively it, the shear stress approach and velocity approach [1]. The latter assumes that if the mean velocity excesses its critical velocity, then the sediment motion can be observed. The former used by researchers represents the force acting on a particle. Shields [2] is the earliest one who used the shear stress approach, or Shields number τ/(ρs-ρ)gd50 versus the Reynolds number, and he obtained a famous Shields curve to express sediment initiation. Francalanci et al. [3] interpreted the Shields number as the ratio of streamwise/vertical forces using the following form:
τ∗c=τcρs−ρgd50=43τcπ2d5022ρs−ρg4π3d5023E1
where τc (=ρu*c2) is the critical shear stress for the median grain size of sediment, d50; g is the gravitational acceleration; u∗c is critical shear velocity; ρs and ρ are the sediment and fluid densities, respectively. The shear stress exerted by the fluid must be higher than the critical shear stress τc to initiate sediment motion at the bed. Based on available experimental data, Shields in 1936 found that the Shields number τ∗ depends on the particle Reynolds number (R∗), i.e.,
R∗=u∗cd50νE2
where ν is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid.
The original Shields diagram has been reproduced and modified by many researchers. A comprehensive review has been done by many researchers [4, 5], in which some significant deviations of the observed critical shear stress from the standard Shields curve were observed. This has attracted extensive research by notable investigators, and some factors leading to the data scatter have been identified and discussed.
Some researchers believe that the definition of the incipient motion may cause the invalidity of Shields diagram, as the incipient motion depends more or less on the experimental observers’ subjective judgment. To address this, criteria like “individual initial motion”, “several grains moving” and “weak movement” has been introduced to express the incipient motion [6]. Subsequently, an error band has been included in the modified Shields diagram [7].
Other researchers attribute the large discrepancy to the stochastic nature of turbulence and sediment shape, its orientation, or exposure, protrusion [8, 9, 10, 11]. It is natural to expect that when sediment is non-uniform, the critical condition is very difficult to determine, as the larger particles could move relatively easily than the finer one that is sheltered [12].
Over the past eight decades, the incipient motion has been extensively studied again and again [4], because the Shields diagram has been found invalid to predict the critical shear stress of sediment transport in some circumstances. The invalidity is not fully explained, some researchers ascribe it to sediment’s characteristics, the other believe these deviations are caused by the flow conditions i.e., non-uniformity of flow [13].
Iwagaki [14] firstly linked the wide scatter in Shields diagram with flow’s non-uniformity based on his observation: for the same sediment by the same experimenter, the observed critical shear stress in non-uniform flows largely deviates from that in uniform flows. Afzalimhr et al. [13] confirmed Iwagaki’s results, they found experimentally that in decelerating flows, the critical shear stress is considerably below the Shields’ prediction, and their experimental data are in complete disagreement with the Shields diagram. Other experimental researchers [15, 16] obtain similar results as Afzalimhr et al.’s [13] who claimed “…there is no universal value for τ∗”. Likewise, Buffington and Montgomery [4] also agreed “less emphasis should be given on choosing a universal τ∗”.
Some researchers try to explain the large discrepancy between predicted and measured critical shear stress by considering channel’s characteristics, such as the channel shape and channel slope [17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 16]. “the well-known Shields criterion is insufficient for large slope” was observed by Graf and Suszka [23], while Lamb et al. [24] comprehensively re-visited and examined almost all published datasets, and concluded that the critical shear increases with channel slope, this is totally different from the common sense that predicts increased mobility with increasing channel slope due to the added gravitational force in the downstream direction. But Chiew and Parker’s experiments [17] in very steep channels show that the critical shear stress is decreased, contrary to Lamb et al.’s [24] conclusion.
Therefore, the brief literature review shows that Shields diagram cannot predict the critical shear stress well and there are many different potential causes for the deviation, among them, it is necessary to clarify how the channel-bed slope and non-uniformity of flow affect the critical shear stress for sediment motion. The primary objectives of the present study are to
investigate the mechanism that causes the invalidity of the Shields curve for the incipient motion of sediment transport;
examine why the Shields number depends on the water depth’s variation or channel slope;
establish a universal Shields diagram that is valid for all data available in the literature; and
verify the newly established equations using data from the literature.
2. Theoretical considerations of influence of vertical velocity on the critical shear stress
The author has been systematically investigating the role of vertical velocity on the mass and momentum transfer and has obtained a series of important and interesting conclusions [25, 26, 27]. It is found that omission of vertical velocity in our existing theorem of sediment transport makes many phenomena unexplainable. For example the presence of vertical velocity in non-uniform flows leads to the deviation of measured Reynolds shear stress from the linear distribution from the free surface to the bottom, consequently the upward velocity causes the positive deviation of velocity from the log-law or the wake-law is needed to express the velocity distribution, and the downward velocity results in the dip-phenomenon, or the maximum velocity is submerged and does not occur at the free surface as the log-law predicts. As the momentum and mass transfers are closely related to each other, it is interesting to investigate how the vertical motion affects sediment transport.
As a continuous effort, this study investigates the influence of upward/downward velocity on sediment incipient motion and the validity of Shields’ diagram. Figure 1 shows how a river flow interchanges with groundwater and the Darcy law tells that vertical velocity is proportional to the hydraulic gradient, i.e., the suctions and injections inside groundwater can be expected in flood/dry seasons alternatively. The upward flow or injection flow may increase the sediment particles’ mobility, or the required critical shear stress is reduced due to the “buoyant effect”, which reduces the net settling velocity, mathematically
Figure 1.
The upward and downward vertical velocity generating from seepage face injection seepage.
ω\'=ω−VbE3
where ω = particle’s settling velocity in still water and ω\' = the net settling velocity subject to the vertical velocity of groundwater, Vb. The submerged weight in Eq. 1 can be represented by a drag force with the falling velocity ω in still water (Vb=0) as:
Cdπd24ρω22=π43d23gρs−ρE4
where d is the particle diameter, Cd is the drag coefficient.
If the upward velocity Vb of groundwater is so high and Vb = ω, the net settling velocity of the particle becomes zero, thus the particle is neutrally suspended, i.e., liquefaction state. This is often observed during earthquakes. In such case, saturated soil loses its strength and stiffness, it is natural that the Shields diagram cannot predict the particle’s critical shear stress. Similarly, if the groundwater in Figure 2 is downward, then the net falling velocity ω\' should be higher than ω, the threshold critical shear stress should be unpredictable using the existing Shields diagram.
Figure 2.
Schematic diagrams showing interaction of streamwise and vertical motions after Ladson (2008), p99.
The above discussion clearly demonstrates that velocity Vb in a sediment layer may cause the invalidity of Shields diagram, which is supported experimentally by many researchers [28] who conducted experiments by observing the critical shear stress subject to injection and suction flows. Lu et al. [29] has reviewed these experimental results comprehensively. The influence of vertical motion on the critical shear stress has been discussed by many researchers, the parameters used to express the vertical motion include (i) the hydraulic gradient of seepage, e.g., Cheng and Chiew [30]; (ii) the pressure variation in flows [3]. But, there is no research available to investigate the role of time-averaged vertical velocity on the incipient motion of sediment transport.
The introduction of apparent sediment density is similar to Francalanci et al.’s treatment [3]. Instead of modifying the sediment density, they modified the water’s density to eliminate the effect of pressure variation over time and space (like pressure induced by waves or bridge piers) on sediment’s critical shear stress. Their results show that higher pressure yields higher “apparent water density”, and lower pressure corresponds to lower “apparent water density”. They found that the Shields number shown in Eq. 1 is actually the ratio of friction force in the streamwise direction (i.e., τcπd2/2) to the net force in the vertical direction, i.e., downward gravitational force (=ρsgπd3/6) minus the upward buoyant force (=ρgπd3/6), so that the effective density of the particle is reduced from ρs to ρs-ρ. When a particle is experienced in the environment with upward velocity Vb, additional upward force will be generated, and the problem is how to determine the additional upward force Fvb induced by the upward velocity.
Eq. 4 shows that the denominator of Shields number, i.e., (ρs-ρ)gd can be replaced by 3Cdρω2/4, this is why the parameter of settling velocity ω can be used in the study of sediment incipient motion. Some researchers believe that ω is a parameter for suspended load and it should not be used to express the sediment initial motion. The first one who uses ω to discuss the critical velocity is Yang [1], and this treatment significantly simplifies the problem. But this treatment has been blamed by many researchers who believe that the initiation problem does not involve any settling process. Now, Eq. 4 clearly shows that it is logical to express the incipient motion with sediment settling velocity.
For the case shown in Figure 2, if the upward velocity is zero, this is a static problem and the net force balance in vertical direction is expressed in Eq. 4. When the upward velocity is non-zero, this becomes a dynamic problem where the lift force Fvb should be included, i.e., submerged weight minus Fvb must be balanced by the drag force with settling velocity ω’.
Cd\'πd24ρω\'22=πd36gρs−ρ−FvbE5
where Fvb = Cd,liftπd2ρVb2/8. Let ρs\'=ρs−Fvb/πd3g/6 and inserting the apparent density of sediment into Eq. 5, then the net force in the vertical direction can be alternatively expressed as:
Cd\'πd24ρω\'22=πd36gρs\'−ρE6
In this study, apparent sediment density is introduced, and it depends on the vertical velocity of groundwater. Therefore, it is expected to have a relationship between the apparent sediment density and the settling velocity, similar to Einstein’s relativity theory that the length/time depends on velocity if the light’s speed is assumed to be constant. Therefore, the effect of vertical motion caused by pressure variation or seepage on sediment transport is eliminated after the introduction of apparent density. In other words, real lightweight particles motion must be the same as those with reduced settling velocity ω\' in terms of mobility when both have the same settling velocity. Hence, the apparent density can greatly simplify the mathematical treatment for the complex Fvb induced by vertical motions. From Eqs. (4) and (5), the relationship between the modified settling velocity and the apparent density can be expressed by:
ρs\'−ρρs−ρ=αω−Vbω2E7
where α is a coefficient (= Cd′/Cd) and α = 1 is assumed in this study to simplify the mathematical treatment. Because the drag coefficient depends on Re, this assumption is approximately correct if the particle size is very coarse or the Re does not change significantly with/without Vb. Eq. 7 tells that if Vb is equal to zero, then ρs\' is the same as the natural sediment; if Vb is positive or upwards then ρs\' is less than the density of natural sediment ρs, and the particles behave like “lightweight sand” or plastic sands; if Vb = ω, then ρs\' is same as the density of water or similar to neutrally buoyant milk; if Vb is negative or downward, the higher apparent density of sediment behaves like heavy metals.
The vertical velocity Vb in Figure 2 has the similar effect for the particles’ stability as the buoyancy effect, i.e., the submerged weight of the particles is no longer ρs−ρ, but ρs\'−ρ, one may give the general expression of Shields number
Eq. 9 or 10 generally expresses the influence of vertical velocity Vb on the critical shear stress. It is clear that Vb can be induced by seepage in the sediment layer, it can be also inferred that Vb can be estimated by the Darcy Law using the hydraulic conductivity and hydraulic gradient. Obviously, Y = 1 means that the particles can be suspended in water, i.e., liquefaction. If Y > 1, it means that particles flow in the upward direction with a net velocity of Vb –ω, this may have a devastating impact on dikes in flood defense as it may cause piping failure. In the following section, the analysis shows that the vertical velocity, Vb is ubiquitous in open channel flows, which is induced by non-uniform flows.
3. Influence of non-uniform flow on the critical shields stress
Ideal uniform flow is very rare in natural conditions, flow rate and water depth/channel width keep always changing, i.e., non-uniform, as shown in Figure 3. It is interesting to discuss how accelerating or decelerating flows generate the vertical velocity. To simplify the discussion, it is assumed that the flow rate is constant, i.e., dh/dx (≠ 0). The 2-D continuity equation is:
Figure 3.
Non-uniform flows in open channel and the variation of water depth, in which u and v are mean velocities in x and y direction, respectively.
∂u¯∂x+∂v¯∂y=0E11
where u¯ and v¯ are the mean local velocity at any point in x and y directions, respectively. By integrating Eq. 11, one has
v¯=−∫0y∂u¯∂xdyE12
∂u¯/∂x > 0 means accelerating, thus Eq. 12 tells that accelerating flows yield a negative or downward vertical velocity; but decelerating flows generates the positive or upward vertical velocity, i.e., ∂u¯/∂x < 0. Hence, the vertical velocity can be generated by in non-uniform flows.
For a channel with a constant width, its discharge per unit width can be expressed by:
Q/b=UhE13
where Q = discharge; U is the depth-averaged velocity, b is the channel width and h is the water depth. If Q/b could be constant in x direction, one has:
dUhdx=ddx∫0hu¯dy=0E14
The vertical velocity v¯h at the free surface can be obtained from Eq. 12 using Leibniz’s rule, i.e.
v¯h=−∫0h∂u¯∂xdy=−ddx∫0hu¯dy+u¯hdhdxE15
where u¯h is the horizontal velocity at the surface in the x direction. By inserting Eq. 14 into 15, one obtains:
v¯h=u¯hdhdxE16
Eq. 16 shows that dh/dx > 0, i.e., a decelerating flow generates v¯h > 0, but dh/dx < 0 or an accelerating flow yields the negative v¯h. Therefore, the vertical velocity in the main flows can also generate vertical velocity. Its interaction with groundwater can be obtained as Vb = Vg + Vs, or the groundwater velocity at the bed is jointly caused by Darcy velocity Vg and the vertical velocity caused by the main flow, Vs. Even the velocity on the solid–liquid interface may be very small, its importance for sediment transport should not be underestimated [3], and Eq. 16 shows that the vertical velocity has similar amplitude like the secondary current, i.e., about 1% of mean velocity.
Julien [5] replaced the Reynolds number in Shields’ diagram by dimensionless particle diameter:
d∗=ρs−ρρgd503ν21/3E17
Similarly, d* needs modification by introducing the apparent density with the following form:
For the fall velocity, many empirical equations are available in the literature. Julien [5] related cd in Eq. 4 with the particle diameter d* and obtained the following empirical equation:
ωd50ν=81+0.0139d∗3−1E22
The incipient motion in uniform flows has been extensively investigated, but no one investigates the influence of vertical velocity on incipient motion, probably because this vertical flow may not large enough to induce discernible seepage, thus it is useful to estimate Vb using some measured parameters. The depth-average vertical velocity can be determined by,
V=UdhdxE23
where U, the average streamwise velocity, and both U and dh/dx are measurable parameters, thus Eq. 23 is convenient to use.
The vertical velocity is jointly induced by either the groundwater or the surface variation, the joint effect can be assumed as the proportional V and the nominal seepage velocity Vs, i.e., λV + λsVs, or:
Vb=λV+λsVs1−ε0E24
where λ and λs are the coefficients to relate Vb with the mean vertical velocity V and nominal seepage velocity (Vs) defined by Darcy (Vs = ki, k = hydraulic conductivity, i = hydraulic gradient), ε0 = porosity of granular materials.
Generally in laboratory flumes, the second term of Eq. 24 is negligible (i.e., Vs = 0), but in natural streams both the river flow and underground water flow can generate the velocity at the river bed, thus two terms co-exist in Eq. 24.
4. Re-analysis of data on the original shields diagram
To verify whether Eq. 21 is applicable to non-uniform flows, 329 data points are comprehensively compiled [32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 13, 17, 23, 29]. The hydraulic conditions of the used data are summarized in Table 1, and the experimental conditions are briefly outlined as follows:
Researchers
d50(mm)
S
h (m)
U (m/s)
u∗(m)
τc\'/τc
ω (m/s)
No. of data points
remark
Neil (1967)
5–29.1
0.01
0.03–0.192
0.28–0.35
0.029–0.165
0.685–1.18
0.13–0.62
59
uniform
Gaucher et al. (2010)
0.91–4.36
0.01
0.125–0.14
0.29–0.56
0.021–0.038
0.405–0.907
0.105–0.245
6
Uniform
Carling (1983)
62 77
0 0
0.213 0.226
0.163 0.124
0.141 0.315
—
0.94 1.05
2
uniform
Shvichenko & Pender (2000)
1.5–12
0.0019–0.0287
0.002–0.65
0.1–1.07
0.026–0.1157
—
0.14–0.41
21
uniform
White (1970)
0.016–2.2
0.02
0.02–0.07
0.0018–0.232
0.0062–0.045
—
0.00023–0.174
26
Non-uniform
Sarker & Hossain (2006)
0.64–1.02
0.00026–0.00063
0.089–0.214
0.3–0.59
0.019–0.024
—
0.084–0.1135
19
Non-uniform
Afzalimhr et al. (2007)
8
0.0075, 0.015
0.13–0.21
0.726–0.86
0.05–0.061
0.362–0.535
0.338
9
Non-uniform
Graf & Suszka (1987)
12.2,23.5
0.0075, 0.025
0.102–0.2
0.23–1.6
0.087–0.155
—
0.41–0.58
9
Non-uniform
Emadzadeh et al. (2010)
0.8, 1.3, 1.8
±0.7, ± 0.9, ± 1.25, ± 1.5
0.146–0.25
0.15–0.44
0.007–0.021
0.078–2.9
0.097–0.156
72
Non-uniform
Everts (1973)
0.09–1.79
0.005
0.0094–0.09
0.1312–0.38
0.018–0.043
0.39–1.79
0.007–0.156
35
Non-uniform
Liu & Chiew (2012)
0.9
0.01
0.12–0.14
0.28–0.35
0.0215
0.98–1.71
0.105
5
seepage
Cheng & Chiew (1999)
0.63–1.95
0.01
0.027–0.076
0.09–0.399
0.017–0.032
0.02–1.048
0.08–0.163
50
Seepage
Kavcar & Wright (2009)
0.16, 0.5, 1.2
0.01
0.23–0.29
0.23–0.412
0.013–0.022
0.67–1.84
0.019–0.124
16
seepage
Table 1.
Summary of experimental conditions by previous researchers.
Neil conducted his experiments in a flume 0.9 m wide and 5 m long by using sands with different particle sizes and densities [32]. Among the data sets, 11 data points are obviously above the Shields curve. White collected his data from a recirculating flume 6 m long and 0.3 m wide, uniform sediment was used with diameter between (0.016–2.2) mm [33]. The experimental datasets by Everts included 35 runs with size d50 from 0.127 to 1.79 mm and specific gravity of 2.65, and 11 runs having d50 from 0.09 to 0.18 and specific gravity of 4.7 [34]. Figure 4 shows that almost all his data points are located below the Shields’ prediction. Carling’s data [35] were collected from a narrow natural stream and in a broad stream. Graf and Suszka measured the critical shear stress in a flume 16.8 m long, 0.6 m wide and 0.8 m high, gravel sediment with uniform size was used [23]. Shvidchenko and Pender [36] used a flume to study the effect of relative depth on the incipient motion of coarse uniform sediments. Gaucher et al.’s [40] experiments were conducted in a horizontal, rectangular glass walled flume with dimensions of 6 m long, 0.5 m wide and 0.7 m deep, different types of non-cohesive materials were used ranged from d50 = 0.91 to 4.36 mm. Cheng and Chiew [30] investigated the influence of upward seepage on the critical conditions of incipient motion, the experiments were conducted in a horizontal flume 7.6 m long, 0.21 m wide and 0.4 m deep, with particle sizes of d50= 0.63, 1.02 and 1.95 mm, and the seepage velocity (injection) was measured with a range between (0–0.0138) m/s. They found that the upward seepage reduces significantly the critical shear stress required by Shields curve. Kavcar and Wright [38] conducted experiments in a 7.5 m long, 0.6 m wide flume with both injection and suction seepage using sediment particle of d50 =0.16, 0.5 and 1.2 mm and the observed value of seepage velocity, i.e. Vs is range between (−0.0026–0.00223) m/s. Liu and Chiew [29] examined the critical shear stress for sediment with d50 = 0.9 mm subject to downward seepage with velocity between (−0.00314–0) m/s. Their glass-sided flume was 30 m long, 0.7 m wide and 0.6 m deep, they observed that the upward seepage (injection) decreases the critical shear velocity while the downward seepage (suction) increases it.
Figure 4.
Measured critical shear stress versus d* and its comparison with shields curve or Eq. 21 at Y = 0 (i.e., uniform flow) and 100% error band.
Nineteen flume experiments from Sarker and Hossain [37] are also included in Figure 4. They investigated the initiation of sediment motion under non-uniform sediment mixtures. Afzalimhr et al. [13] conducted experiments to investigate the effect of non-uniformity of flow on the critical shear stress in a channel (14 m long, 0.6 m width and 0.5 m depth), the sediment size of d50=8 mm was used for their observation. Different from Lamb et al’s [24] prediction, their experimental data reveal that the value of critical shear stress is smaller than Shields’ prediction by at least 50%. Similarly, Emadzadeh et al. [39] conducted experiments in accelerating and decelerating flow conditions, his flume was 14 m long, 0.6 m wide and 0.6 m deep. The sediment size used were d50 = 0.8 and 1.3, 1.8 mm for a total of 72 data sets. The decelerating/accelerating flows were obtained by adjusting negative and positive bed slope (±0.7%, ±0.9%, ±1.25% and ± 1.5%). It is found that the critical shear stress and Shields parameter for incipient motion in accelerating flow are higher than those predicted by Shields in uniform flow while their values in decelerating flow are considerably lower than that in accelerating flow.
These data mentioned are plotted in Figure 4, where the observed critical shear stress highly deviates from the standard Shields curve. All has been noticed and commented by many researchers [4, 24]. The consensus is that this discrepancy cannot be simply attributed to measurement errors or methodological bias. In Figure 4, the three lines are the Eq. 21 (Y=0) ±100% error band.
5. Dependence of critical shields stress on channel slope
Many researchers have noticed that high channel’s slope can cause the deviation of data from the Shields curve. For example Chiew and Parker [17] proposed that
τ∗\'τ∗=cosφ1−tanφcosθE25
where ϕ = angle of streamwise bed slope, θ = angle of repose. Eq. 25 shows that the Shields number decreases with the increase of channel slope.
However, the formula given by Lamb et al. (2008) shows that the steep channel has a higher Shields number with the following form:
τ∗\'=exp0.0249X4+0.107X3+0.199X2+0.476X−3.57E26
where X = 0.407ln(142 S), and the slope S is in the regime 10−4< S <0.5.
Figure 5 demonstrates the comparison of the measured data from Table 1 and Eqs. 25 and 26. Obviously these equations do not agree the data points well. The measured τ* could be largely different even the same type of sediment and channel slope are used. Therefore, the invalidity of Shields prediction cannot be simply explained by the dependence of channel slope, and there are some physics inside for the discrepancy.
Figure 5.
Dependence of critical shear stress on the channel slope.
6. Seepage on critical shields stress
Figure 5 demonstrates that for the same particle size in the same channel slope, the data points behave largely different, which cannot be explained by any existing theory. Beyond other factors, Eq. 24 shows that the scatter could be induced by either groundwater or the main flow’s non-uniformity, or both of them. The effect of seepage on the critical shear stress is discussed first, the experimental data [29, 30, 38] are showed in Figure 6.
Figure 6.
Comparison of measured and predicted critical shear stress subject to seepage.
The modified Shields number in Eq. 8 (i.e., that with seepage) will be the same as that obtained from the Shields curve if one uses both the apparent sediment density and the apparent critical shear stress (that with seepage), i.e.
τ∗\'=τc\'ρs\'−ρgd50=τcρs−ρgd50E27
Using Eq. 7, one obtained the ratio of critical shear stresses with/without Vb in the following form:
τc\'τc=1−Y2E28
Figure 6 shows the critical shear stress predicted by Eq. 28 and the empirical factor λs is found to be 8.5, the experimenters determined the critical shear stress without seepage using the Shields curve. The good agreement between the measured and predicted critical shear stress indicates that the introduction of apparent sediment density is acceptable.
Similarly, local scour by large vortices (e.g., scour holes around bridge piers) is not caused by higher velocity or higher boundary shear stress, but the upward velocity Y. The mechanism is similar to the helicopter whose rotor blades generate the upward velocity by “vortices”. Consequently, low water pressure induces the seepage or upward velocity, large particles like stones/helicopter can be lift. One can easily infer the relationship between the upward velocity and “vortices” in front of an electricity fan. Likewise, by observing how tornadoes damages large particles like cars, houses on surface, one can easily concluded that the upward velocity or lift force is the cause, by no means the shear force.
7. Effect of non-uniformity of flow on the critical shear stress
Figure 4 shows that the Shields’ curve could be totally invalid sometimes, these noticeable deviations imply that the non-uniformity of flow could affect the predictability of Shields curve, for example, Afzalimhr et al.’s [13] data points locate below the curve when the flow was decelerating, Emadzadeh et al.’s data points [39] were far from the Shields’ prediction, and his data points were obtained from both decelerating and accelerating flows. Hence, the large deviations from Shields curve shown in Figure 4 can be used to verify Eq. 24, i.e., the vertical velocity induced by flow’s non-uniformity is responsible for the invalidity of Shields curve.
To confirm whether the invalidity of Shields curve is caused by the non-uniformity of flow, the data without seepage in Table 1 are used, and the water depth variation dh/dx is calculated using the following formula:
dhdx=S−Sf1−U2/ghE29
where dh/dx is the water depth’s variation, S and Sf are the bed and energy slopes, respectively. Manning coefficient (n) can be assessed using the Strickler’s formula:
n=d501/621.1E30
The energy slope Sf in Eq. 29 can be determined from the Manning equation using the hydraulic radius R, i.e.,
Sf=n2U2R4/3E31
In Table 1, the calculated dh/dx could be either negative or positive and the data points in Figure 4 are included and replotted in Figure 7, where the data point is represented by the sign “+” if the obtained dh/dx is positive, otherwise the data point is marked by “-” for all negative dh/dx cases. Figure 7 clearly shows that nearly all data points above the Shields curve have “-” signs, indicating the flows were accelerating, whilst almost all data points below the Shields curve have the sign of “+”, or decelerating. Therefore, the non-uniformity of flow can play an important role for the deviation of measured critical shear stress from the Shields curve. Figure 7 reveals that the presence of vertical velocity is one of the main causes responsible for the deviation of observed critical shear stress from the Shields curves for these data, the accelerating flow enhances particles’ stability, and decelerating flow enables sediment’s mobility. In Figure 7, the calculated positive dh/dx ranges from 0.000237 to 0.0526 and − 0.024 to −0.00073. It remains necessary to investigate whether the higher dh/dx has the higher deviation, and its analysis is shown below.
Figure 7.
The variation of water depth dh/dx has different values based on the influence of vertical velocity on the initial motion, where (−0.024< dh/dx <0.0526) for all data sets from Figure 3.
8. Modification of shields diagram
To examine whether data points without seepage shown in Figure 4 can be expressed by Eq. 21, we can analyze the datasets without artificial seepage or with negligible groundwater effects, only those data are analyzed in which Vb is caused by the non-uniformity of flow in the main flow. Therefore, Eqs. 23 and 24 can be simplified as follows:
Y=Vbω=λU1−ε0ωdhdxE32
Experiments [13, 34, 39, 40] are analyzed first. They reported that their measured critical shear stress is lower than Shields’ prediction. Besides, the datasets [32, 39] are examined; they claimed that higher values of critical shear stress were observed.
In these studies, the experimental data sets from non-uniform flows are plotted in Figure 8 where the empirical factor λ is found to be 8.5 for both decelerating and accelerating flows. The comparison of the predicted and measured critical shear stress in Figure 8 shows that the agreement is reasonably good. Better agreement can be obtained if λ is calibrated as a function of sediment gradation and shapes, turbulence. Here, the assumption is that sediment particle size is uniform and can be represented by d50.
Figure 8.
Comparison of experimental results on threshold condition without seepage with Eq. 32.
Figure 9 shows the comparison of measured and the predicted critical shear stress for the datasets [23, 33, 35, 36, 37]. Obviously, the observed critical shear stress largely deviates from the solid line, i.e., Shields curve (Y = Vs/ω = 0), all data points can be covered by Eq. 9 or 10 when the parameter Y is used. In other words, Figure 9 suggests that the scatter might be explained by variation of Y.
Figure 9.
Influence of vertical velocity on critical shear stress, the solid line is the original shields curve (or Y = 0) and other lines are calculated from Eq. 21 with different Y.
9. Discussion on slope’s influence
As mentioned, some researchers have found the dependence of the critical shear stress on the channel slope, but it is still an open question about the validity of Shields curve, especially when the bed slope is large, thus it is worthwhile to discuss this dependence.
This study reveals that the deviation from the Shields curve could be caused by the vertical velocity, the Shields curve is approximately valid only when the flow is uniform, when the vertical velocity is almost zero. As the true uniform is very rare in laboratory or nature, thus it is understandable why Shields curve is invalid to express most of observed critical shear stress. Hence, one needs to answer whether the dependence of τ* on the channel slope is also caused by the flow’s acceleration.
Eqs. 23 and 24 show that in almost all cases, there always exists the vertical velocity caused groundwater and flow’s non-uniformity. Therefore, the widely observed dependence by Lamb et al. [24] may be also caused by the parameter Y (≠ 0). Obviously, they assumed that the data used in their analysis were collected from uniform flows, thus these data can be used to compare the data with the Shields curve, and conclusion of the slope-dependence can be drawn. It is useful to examine this assumption by checking whether Lamb et al’s data [24] are observed from uniform flows. Their data are listed in Table 2, in which only the laboratory data are included as their field data were certainly collected from non-uniform conditions. The last column of Table 2 shows the length of flumes, and from it one can see that almost half of the flumes were less than 10 m. Kirkgöz and Ardiçlioğlu [41] measured the minimum length to form a uniform flow in a flume and found that a channel should be longer than 10 m as there is a transition zone from non-uniform flow to uniform flow. Even for those data from flumes longer than 10 m, the flow still could be non-uniform also when the parameter dh/dx is calculated using Eq. 6. Paola and Mohrig [42] suggest that uniform flow can only be assumed when the channel length is longer than h/S, if the water depth is 0.1 m, and slope is 1%0, this means that the channel length should be longer than 100 m. Therefore, one can conclude that it is likely that the data were generated in non-uniform conditions, this may lead to the different interpretation of the dependence of critical shear stress on the channel slope. Figure 3 shows the accelerating flows in steep channels, thus it is likely that the downward velocity increases particles’ stability.
Previously reported data selected from lamb et al. (2008):
Chiew and Parker’s data [17] is used as an example, their observation is opposite to Lamb et al’s prediction [24], they also found the dependence of critical shear stress on the channel slope based on their own data. In their experiments, the channel slope was specially adjusted from -10o to 31o, their channel lengths used were 4 m and 2 m only. Obviously, their experiments were conducted in the non-uniform flow conditions as the 2 ∼ 3 m length is too short to form a uniform flow. In other words, both conclusions drawn by Lamb et al. and Chiew and Parker [17, 24] are not very convincing as they did not check the parameter of dh/dx, and the data they used may be generated from non-uniform conditions.
10. Conclusions
This paper investigates why the observed critical shear stress widely deviates from the Shields curve, its discrepancy or validity could be caused by many factors like sediment shapes, gradation, measurement errors, turbulence and channel-bed slopes. However, this study reveals that the vertical motion also plays an important role, and the vertical velocity could be induced by non-uniformity of flow and seepage turbulence alike. After re-examining 329 data points from the literature, the following conclusions can be drawn:
The upward velocity increases sediment mobility and downward velocity increases sediment stability. The mobility or stability can be equivalently expressed by its apparent sediment density which is able to eliminate the effect of vertical velocity as shown in Eq. 7. This shifts a dynamic problem into a simplified static problem.
There exists vertical velocity on the channel bed and this vertical velocity could be induced by seepage or non-uniformity of flow, similar to the secondary currents, the small vertical velocity’s influence on sediment incipient should not be underestimated. The joint effect is expressed by Eq. 24. For non-uniform flow, the sediment tends to move in decelerating flows, but it becomes more difficult to move in accelerating flows.
The Shields curve is valid only when the flow is nearly uniform, but a general Shields curve can be obtained by introducing the apparent sediment density, thus the modified Shields curve could be extended to express complex flows, this modified relationship for critical shear stress has been established.
A new parameter Y can be used to express the influence of non-uniformity of flow or seepage, this parameter should be included in the models of sediment transport. According to available experimental data in the incipient motion in non-uniform flows or in the seepage cases, good agreements between the measured and predicted values can be achieved if Y is included in the existing model, but more research is needed to determine the coefficients λs and λ in Eq. 24, they could be a function of sediment gradation and shapes, and turbulence.
All in all, high horizontal motion can make a plane (a big particle) to fly, high vertical velocity can also make the same particle called helicopter to fly. Two mechanisms are totally different. It is wrong to ascribe all sediment transport phenomena to the horizontal motion only, without considering the vertical motion.
Notations
b
channel width
Cd
drag coefficient;
d50
median size of sediment particles;
Fvb
force induced by the vertical velocity;
g
gravitational acceleration;
h
water depth;
i
hydraulic gradient;
k
hydraulic conductivity;
n
Manning coefficient;
Q
discharge;
R*
Reynolds number;
Sf
energy slope.
U
mean velocity;
u*
shear velocity;
u*c
critical shear velocity (τc = ρu*c2);
u¯ and v¯
time-averaged velocity in the streamwise and vertical directions;
u¯h, v¯h
horizontal and vertical velocities at the surface;
V
vertical velocity;
Vb
vertical velocity at the bed;
Vs
nominal seepage velocity at the bed;
X
0.407ln(142S);
y
distance normal to the wall;
Y
Vb/ω
ε0
porosity of granular materials
θ
angle of repose.
λ and λs
coefficients;
ν
kinematic viscosity;
ρ
fluid density;
ρs
sediment density;
ρs’
apparent density of sediment;
τ
boundary shear stress;
τc
critical boundary shear stress;
τ*
Shields number;
τ*’
modified Shields number subject to vertical velocity;
ϕ
angle of streamwise bed slope,
ω
particle fall velocity;
ω’
net falling velocity subject to vertical velocity.
\n',keywords:"critical shear stress, non-uniform flows, shields diagram, vertical velocity, decelerating/accelerating flows",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/75763.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/75763.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75763",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75763",totalDownloads:234,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"October 13th 2020",dateReviewed:"February 18th 2021",datePrePublished:"March 17th 2021",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"March 17th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"This paper makes an attempt to answer why the observed critical shear stress for incipient sediment motion sometimes deviates from the Shields curve largely, and the influence of vertical velocity is analyzed as one of the reasons. The data with d50 = 0.016 ∼ 29.1 mm from natural streams and laboratory channels were analyzed. These measured data do not always agree with the Shields diagram’s prediction. The reasons responsible for the deviation have been re-examined and it is found that, among many factors, the vertical motion of sediment particles plays a leading role for the invalidity of Shield’s prediction. The positive/negative deviations are associated with the up/downward vertical velocity in decelerating/accelerating flows, and the Shields diagram is valid only when flow is uniform. A new theory for critical shear stress has been developed, a unified critical Shields stress for sediment transport has been established, which is valid to predict the critical shear stress of sediment with/without vertical motion.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/75763",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/75763",signatures:"Shu-Qing Yang and Ishraq AL-Fadhly",book:{id:"10407",type:"book",title:"Sediment Transport - Recent Advances",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Sediment Transport - Recent Advances",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Andrew James Manning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10407.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-83881-119-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-118-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-120-4",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"23008",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrew James",middleName:null,surname:"Manning",slug:"andrew-james-manning",fullName:"Andrew James Manning"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"75062",title:"Prof.",name:"Shu-Qing",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",fullName:"Shu-Qing Yang",slug:"shu-qing-yang",email:"shuqing@uow.edu.au",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Wollongong",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Theoretical considerations of influence of vertical velocity on the critical shear stress",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Influence of non-uniform flow on the critical shields stress",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Re-analysis of data on the original shields diagram",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Dependence of critical shields stress on channel slope",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Seepage on critical shields stress",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Effect of non-uniformity of flow on the critical shear stress",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. Modification of shields diagram",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"9. Discussion on slope’s influence",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"10. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"Notations",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Yang, C.T. (1996). Sediment transport: theory and practice. McGraw-Hill, Sydney'},{id:"B2",body:'Shields, A. (1936). Application of similarity principles, and turbulence research to bed-load movement, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena (translate from German)'},{id:"B3",body:'Francalanci, S., Parker, G. and Solari, L (2008). Effect of seepage – induced nonhydrostatic pressure distribution on bed-load transport and bed morphodynamic. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, vol. 134, no. 4, pp. 378–389'},{id:"B4",body:'Buffington, J.M. and Montgomery, D.R. (1997). A systematic study of eight decades of incipient motion studies with special reference to gravel-bedded rivers. Water Resources Research, vol.33, no.8, pp. 1993–2029'},{id:"B5",body:'Julien, P. Y. (1995). Erosion and Sedimentation. Cambridge University Press'},{id:"B6",body:'Kramer, H. (1935), Sand mixtures and sand movement in fluvial models, ASCE Transactions, 100(1909), 798–838'},{id:"B7",body:'Beheshti, A.A., B. Ataie-Ashtiani, (2008). Analysis of threshold and incipient conditions for sediment movement, Coastal Engineering, 55(5), Pages 423–430'},{id:"B8",body:'Wiberg, P.L., and Smith, J.D. (1987). Calculations of the critical shear stress for motion of uniform and heterogeneous sediments, Water Resource Research, vol.23, pp.1471–1480'},{id:"B9",body:'Wilcock, P.R. (1987). Bed-load transport in mixed-size sediment, PhD. Thesis, MIT, Cambridge'},{id:"B10",body:'Johnston, C.E., Andrews, E.D., and Pitlick, J. (1998). In situ determination of particle friction angles of fluvial gravels, Water Resource Research, vol.34, no. 8, pp. 2017–2030'},{id:"B11",body:'Kirchner, J.W., Dietrich, W.E., Iseya, F. and Ikeda, H. (1990). The variability of critical shear stress, friction angle, and grain protrusion in water worked sediments. Sedimentology, vol.37, pp.647–672'},{id:"B12",body:'Garde, R. J. and Ranga Raju, (1985). Mechanics of sediment transportation and alluvial stream problems. 2nd ed. (New York: Wiley)'},{id:"B13",body:'Afzalimhr, H., Dey, S. and Rasoulianfar, P. (2007). Influence of decelerating flow on incipient motion of a gravel-bed stream. Sadhana, vol.32, no.5, pp. 545–559'},{id:"B14",body:'Iwagaki, Y. (1956). Fundamental study on critical tractive force. Trans. Jan. Soc. Civil Engineering, no. 41, pp. 1–21'},{id:"B15",body:'Andrews, E.D. and Kuhnle, R.A. (1993). Incipient motion of sand-gravel sediment mixture. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, vol. 119, pp. 1400–1415'},{id:"B16",body:'Dey, S. and Raju, U. (2002), Incipient motion of gravel and coal beds. Sadhana, vol.27, pp.559–568'},{id:"B17",body:'Chiew, Y. M. and Parker, G. (1994). Incipient sediment motion on non-horizontal slopes. Journal of Hydraulic Research, vol. 32, pp. 649–660'},{id:"B18",body:'Andrews, E. D. (1994). Marginal bed load transport in a gravel-bed stream, Sagehen Creek, California. Water Resource Research, vol.30, pp. 2241–2250'},{id:"B19",body:'Church, M, Hassan, M. A., and Wolcott, J. F. (1998). Stabilizing self-organized structures in gravel-bed streams. Water Resource Research, vol.34, pp. 3169–3179'},{id:"B20",body:'Patel, P. L., and Ranga Raju, K. G. (1999). Critical tractive stress of non-uniform sediments. Journal of Hydraulic Research, vol.37, pp.39–58'},{id:"B21",body:'Dey, S., and Debnath, K. (2000). Influence of stream-wise bed slope on sediment threshold under stream flow. Journal of Irrigation Draining Engineering, vol.126, pp.255–263'},{id:"B22",body:'Mueller E R, Pitlick J and Nelson JM (2005). Variation in the reference Shields stress for bed load transport in gravel-bed streams and rivers. Water Resource Research. vol.41, W04006, (doi: 10·1029/2004WR003692)'},{id:"B23",body:'Graf, W.H. and Suszka, L. (1987). Sediment Transport in Steep Channels. Journal of Hydroscience and Hydraulic Engineering, vol.5, no. 1, pp.11–26'},{id:"B24",body:'Lamb, M.P., Dietrich, W.E. and Venditti, J.G. (2008). Is the critical Shields stress for incipient sediment motion dependent on channel-bed slope? Journal of Geophysical Research, vol.113, F02008'},{id:"B25",body:'Yang S.Q. and J. W. Lee (2007). “Reynolds shear stress distributions in a gradually varied flow”. Journal of Hydraulic Research, IAHR. 45(4), 462–471'},{id:"B26",body:'Yang S.Q. and A. T. Chow (2008). “Turbulence structures in non-uniform flows”, Advances in Water Resources, 31, 1344–1351'},{id:"B27",body:'Yang S.Q. (2009). “Velocity distribution and wake-law in gradually decelerating flows”. J. Hydr. Res., IAHR, 47(2), 177–184'},{id:"B28",body:'Rao, A. R., and Nagaraj, S. (1999). Stability and mobility of sand-bed channel affected by seepage. Journal of Irrigation Draining Engineering, vol.125, no.6, pp.370–379'},{id:"B29",body:'Liu, X.X. and Chiew, Y.M. (2012). Effect of seepage on initiation of cohesionless sediment transport. Acta Geophysica, vol. 60, no. 6, pp. 1778–1796, DOI: 10.2478/s11600-012-0043-7'},{id:"B30",body:'Cheng, N-S and Chiew, Y-M (1999). Incipient sediment motion with upward seepage. Journal of Hydraulic Research, vol.37, no.5, pp665–681'},{id:"B31",body:'Yalin, M.S. and Silva, A.M.F. (2001). Fluvial processes. IAHR, Delft, the Netherlands'},{id:"B32",body:'Neill, C. (1967). Mean-Velocity Criterion for Scour of Coarse Uniform Bed-Material. International Association for Hydraulic Research, pp. 46–54'},{id:"B33",body:'White, S J. (1970). Plane bed thresholds of fine grained sediment. Nature, vol.228, pp. 152–153'},{id:"B34",body:'Everts, C.H. (1973). Particle overpassing on flat granular boundaries. Journal of the Waterways Harbors and Coastal Engineering Division, vol. 99, pp. 425–439'},{id:"B35",body:'Carling, PA. (1983).Threshold of coarse sediment transports in broad and narrow natural streams. Erath Surface Processes and Landforms, vol.8, pp.1–18'},{id:"B36",body:'Shvidchenko, AB. and Pender, G. (2000). Flume study of the effect of relative depth on the incipient motion of coarse uniform sediments. Water Resources Research, vol. 36, no.2, pp. 619–628'},{id:"B37",body:'Sarker, LK and Hossain, MM (2006). Shear stress for initiation of motion of median sized sediment of no uniform sediment mixtures. Journal of Civil Engineering (IEB), vol.34, no. 2, pp. 103–114'},{id:"B38",body:'Kavcar, P.C., and Wright, S.J. (2009). Experimental results on the stability of non-cohesive sediment beds subject to vertical pore water flux. Proc. World Environmental and Water Resources Congress 2009: Great Rivers, vol. 342, pp. 3562–3571, DOI: 10.1061/41036'},{id:"B39",body:'Emadzadeh, A, Chiew, YM and Afzalimehr, H. (2010). Effect of accelerating and decelerating flows on incipient motion in sand bed streams. Advances in Water Resources, vol.33, pp. 1094–1104'},{id:"B40",body:'Gaucher, J, Marche, C and Mahdi, T-F. (2010). Experimental investigation of the hydraulic erosion of non - cohesive compacted soils. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, vol.136, no. 11, pp. 901–913'},{id:"B41",body:'Kirkgöz, M. S. and Ardiçlioğlu M. (1997). Velocity Profiles of Developing and Developed Open Channel Flow. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, vol.123, no. 12, pp. 1099–1105'},{id:"B42",body:'Paola, C., and D. Mohrig (1996), Paleohydraulics revisited: Paleoslope estimation in coarse-grained braided rivers, Basin Research, 8, 243–254'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Shu-Qing Yang",address:"shuqing@uow.edu.au",affiliation:'
School of Civil, Mining and Environmental Eng., University of Wollongong, NSW, Australia
School of Civil, Mining and Environmental Eng., University of Wollongong, NSW, Australia
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We believe financial barriers should not prevent researchers from publishing their findings. With the need to make scientific research more publicly available and support the benefits of Open Access, more and more institutions and funders are dedicating resources to assist faculty members and researchers cover Open Access Publishing Fees (OAPFs). In addition, IntechOpen provides several further options presented below, all of which are available to researchers, and could secure the financing of your Open Access publication.
",metaTitle:"Waiver Policy",metaDescription:"We feel that financial barriers should never prevent researchers from publishing their research. With the need to make scientific research more publically available and support the benefits of Open Access, more institutions and funders have dedicated funds to assist their faculty members and researchers cover the APCs associated with publishing in Open Access. Below we have outlined several options available to secure financing for your Open Access publication.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/waiver-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
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The application process is open after your submitted manuscript has been accepted for publication. To apply, please fill out a Waiver Request Form and send it to your Author Service Manager. If you have an official letter from your university or institution showing that funds for your OA publication are unavailable, please attach that as well. The Waiver Request will normally be addressed within one week from the application date. All chapters that receive waivers or partial waivers will be designated as such online.
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At IntechOpen, the majority of OAPFs are paid by an Author’s institution or funding agency - Institutions (73%) vs. Authors (23%).
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The first step in obtaining funds for your Open Access publication begins with your institution or library. IntechOpen’s publishing standards align with most institutional funding programs. Our advice is to petition your institution for help in financing your Open Access publication.
\n\n
However, as Open Access becomes a more commonly used publishing option for the dissemination of scientific and scholarly content, in addition to institutions, there are a growing number of funders who allow the use of grants for covering OA publication costs, or have established separate funds for the same purpose.
\n\n
Please consult our Open Access Funding page to explore some of these funding opportunities and learn more about how you could finance your IntechOpen publication. Keep in mind that this list is not definitive, and while we are constantly updating and informing our Authors of new funding opportunities, we recommend that you always check with your institution first.
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For Authors who are unable to obtain funding from their institution or research funding bodies and still need help in covering publication costs, IntechOpen offers the possibility of applying for a Waiver.
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Our mission is to support Authors in publishing their research and making an impact within the scientific community. Currently, 14% of Authors receive full waivers and 6% receive partial waivers.
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While providing support and advice to all our international Authors, waiver priority will be given to those Authors who reside in countries that are classified by the World Bank as low-income economies. In this way, we can help ensure that the scientific work being carried out can make an impact within the worldwide scientific community, no matter where an Author might live.
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The application process is open after your submitted manuscript has been accepted for publication. To apply, please fill out a Waiver Request Form and send it to your Author Service Manager. If you have an official letter from your university or institution showing that funds for your OA publication are unavailable, please attach that as well. The Waiver Request will normally be addressed within one week from the application date. All chapters that receive waivers or partial waivers will be designated as such online.
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This chapter documents some of the studies on antibiotic usage in poultry farming; with specific focus on some selected bacterial species, their economic importance to poultry farming and reports of resistances of isolated species from poultry settings (farms and poultry products) to essential antibiotics.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Christian Agyare, Vivian Etsiapa Boamah, Crystal Ngofi Zumbi and\nFrank Boateng Osei",authors:[{id:"182058",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Agyare",slug:"christian-agyare",fullName:"Christian Agyare"},{id:"261271",title:"MSc.",name:"Crystal Ngofi",middleName:null,surname:"Zumbi",slug:"crystal-ngofi-zumbi",fullName:"Crystal Ngofi Zumbi"},{id:"261272",title:"MSc.",name:"Frank Boateng",middleName:null,surname:"Osei",slug:"frank-boateng-osei",fullName:"Frank Boateng Osei"},{id:"261273",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivian Etsiapa",middleName:null,surname:"Boamah",slug:"vivian-etsiapa-boamah",fullName:"Vivian Etsiapa Boamah"}]},{id:"39599",doi:"10.5772/50046",title:"Encapsulation Technology to Protect Probiotic Bacteria",slug:"encapsulation-technology-to-protect-probiotic-bacteria",totalDownloads:12448,totalCrossrefCites:45,totalDimensionsCites:87,abstract:null,book:{id:"3145",slug:"probiotics",title:"Probiotics",fullTitle:"Probiotics"},signatures:"María Chávarri, Izaskun Marañón and María Carmen Villarán",authors:[{id:"150285",title:"Dr.",name:"María",middleName:null,surname:"Chávarri Hueda",slug:"maria-chavarri-hueda",fullName:"María Chávarri Hueda"},{id:"151613",title:"MSc.",name:"Izaskun",middleName:null,surname:"Marañon",slug:"izaskun-maranon",fullName:"Izaskun Marañon"},{id:"151621",title:"Dr.",name:"Mª Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Villarán",slug:"ma-carmen-villaran",fullName:"Mª Carmen Villarán"}]},{id:"39607",doi:"10.5772/50121",title:"Recent Application of Probiotics in Food and Agricultural Science",slug:"recent-application-of-probiotics-in-food-and-agricultural-science",totalDownloads:10168,totalCrossrefCites:32,totalDimensionsCites:77,abstract:null,book:{id:"3145",slug:"probiotics",title:"Probiotics",fullTitle:"Probiotics"},signatures:"Danfeng Song, Salam Ibrahim and Saeed Hayek",authors:[{id:"107905",title:"Prof.",name:"Salam",middleName:null,surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"salam-ibrahim",fullName:"Salam Ibrahim"},{id:"150202",title:"Dr.",name:"Danfeng",middleName:null,surname:"Song",slug:"danfeng-song",fullName:"Danfeng Song"},{id:"151025",title:"MSc.",name:"Saeed",middleName:null,surname:"Hayek",slug:"saeed-hayek",fullName:"Saeed Hayek"}]},{id:"49246",doi:"10.5772/61300",title:"Chitosan as a Biomaterial — Structure, Properties, and Electrospun Nanofibers",slug:"chitosan-as-a-biomaterial-structure-properties-and-electrospun-nanofibers",totalDownloads:4720,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:63,abstract:"Chitosan is a polysaccharide derived from chitin; chitin is the second most abundant polysaccharide in the world, after cellulose. Chitosan is biocompatible, biodegradable and non-toxic, so that it can be usedin medicalapplications such as antimicrobial and wound healing biomaterials. It also used as chelating agent due to its ability to bind with cholesterol, fats, proteins and metal ions.",book:{id:"4648",slug:"concepts-compounds-and-the-alternatives-of-antibacterials",title:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials",fullTitle:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials"},signatures:"H. M. Ibrahim and E.M.R. El- Zairy",authors:[{id:"90645",title:"Dr.",name:"Hassan",middleName:null,surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"hassan-ibrahim",fullName:"Hassan Ibrahim"},{id:"175694",title:"Dr.",name:"Enas",middleName:null,surname:"El- Zairy",slug:"enas-el-zairy",fullName:"Enas El- Zairy"}]},{id:"51065",doi:"10.5772/63499",title:"Role of the Biofilms in Wastewater Treatment",slug:"role-of-the-biofilms-in-wastewater-treatment",totalDownloads:6849,totalCrossrefCites:28,totalDimensionsCites:61,abstract:"Biological wastewater treatment systems play an important role in improving water quality and human health. This chapter thus briefly discusses different biological methods, specially biofilm technologies, the development of biofilms on different filter media, factors affecting their development as well as their structure and function. It also tackles various conventional and modern molecular techniques for detailed exploration of the composition, diversity and dynamics of biofilms. These data are crucial to improve the performance, robustness and stability of biofilm-based wastewater treatment technologies.",book:{id:"5197",slug:"microbial-biofilms-importance-and-applications",title:"Microbial Biofilms",fullTitle:"Microbial Biofilms - Importance and Applications"},signatures:"Shama Sehar and Iffat Naz",authors:[{id:"180364",title:"Dr.",name:"Iffat",middleName:null,surname:"Naz",slug:"iffat-naz",fullName:"Iffat Naz"},{id:"183345",title:"Dr.",name:"Shama",middleName:null,surname:"Sehar",slug:"shama-sehar",fullName:"Shama Sehar"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"65613",title:"The Methods for Detection of Biofilm and Screening Antibiofilm Activity of Agents",slug:"the-methods-for-detection-of-biofilm-and-screening-antibiofilm-activity-of-agents",totalDownloads:9277,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:"Biofilm producer microorganisms cause nosocomial and recurrent infections. Biofilm that is a sticky exopolysaccharide is the main virulence factor causing biofilm-related infections. Biofilm formation begins with attachment of bacteria to biotic surface such as host cell or abiotic surface such as prosthetic devices. After attachment, aggregation of bacteria is started by cell-cell adhesion. Aggregation continues with the maturation of biofilm. Dispersion is started by certain conditions such as phenol-soluble modulins (PSMs). By this way, sessile bacteria turn back into planktonic form. Bacteria embedded in biofilm (sessile form) are more resistant to antimicrobials than planktonic bacteria. So it is hard to treat biofilm-embedded bacteria than planktonic forms. For this reason, it is important to detect biofilm. There are a few biofilm detection and biofilm production methods on prosthetics, methods for screening antibacterial effect of agents against biofilm-embedded microorganism and antibiofilm effect of agents against biofilm production and mature biofilm. The aim of this chapter is to overview direct and indirect methods such as microscopy, fluorescent in situ hybridization, and Congo red agar, tube method, microtiter plate assay, checkerboard assay, plate counting, polymerase chain reaction, mass spectrometry, MALDI-TOF, and biological assays used by antibiofilm researches.",book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"}]},{id:"62553",title:"Antibiotic Use in Poultry Production and Its Effects on Bacterial Resistance",slug:"antibiotic-use-in-poultry-production-and-its-effects-on-bacterial-resistance",totalDownloads:7327,totalCrossrefCites:43,totalDimensionsCites:92,abstract:"A surge in the development and spread of antibiotic resistance has become a major cause for concern. Over the past few decades, no major new types of antibiotics have been produced and almost all known antibiotics are increasingly losing their activity against pathogenic microorganisms. The levels of multi-drug resistant bacteria have also increased. It is known that worldwide, more than 60% of all antibiotics that are produced find their use in animal production for both therapeutic and non-therapeutic purposes. The use of antimicrobial agents in animal husbandry has been linked to the development and spread of resistant bacteria. Poultry products are among the highest consumed products worldwide but a lot of essential antibiotics are employed during poultry production in several countries; threatening the safety of such products (through antimicrobial residues) and the increased possibility of development and spread of microbial resistance in poultry settings. This chapter documents some of the studies on antibiotic usage in poultry farming; with specific focus on some selected bacterial species, their economic importance to poultry farming and reports of resistances of isolated species from poultry settings (farms and poultry products) to essential antibiotics.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Christian Agyare, Vivian Etsiapa Boamah, Crystal Ngofi Zumbi and\nFrank Boateng Osei",authors:[{id:"182058",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Agyare",slug:"christian-agyare",fullName:"Christian Agyare"},{id:"261271",title:"MSc.",name:"Crystal Ngofi",middleName:null,surname:"Zumbi",slug:"crystal-ngofi-zumbi",fullName:"Crystal Ngofi Zumbi"},{id:"261272",title:"MSc.",name:"Frank Boateng",middleName:null,surname:"Osei",slug:"frank-boateng-osei",fullName:"Frank Boateng Osei"},{id:"261273",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivian Etsiapa",middleName:null,surname:"Boamah",slug:"vivian-etsiapa-boamah",fullName:"Vivian Etsiapa Boamah"}]},{id:"65914",title:"Introductory Chapter: The Action Mechanisms of Antibiotics and Antibiotic Resistance",slug:"introductory-chapter-the-action-mechanisms-of-antibiotics-and-antibiotic-resistance",totalDownloads:4428,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu, Nesrin Gareayaghi and Bekir S. Kocazeybek",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"},{id:"248288",title:"Prof.",name:"Bekir",middleName:null,surname:"Kocazeybek",slug:"bekir-kocazeybek",fullName:"Bekir Kocazeybek"},{id:"406463",title:"Dr.",name:"Nesrin",middleName:null,surname:"Gareayaghi",slug:"nesrin-gareayaghi",fullName:"Nesrin Gareayaghi"}]},{id:"50992",title:"Probiotics: A Comprehensive Review of Their Classification, Mode of Action and Role in Human Nutrition",slug:"probiotics-a-comprehensive-review-of-their-classification-mode-of-action-and-role-in-human-nutrition",totalDownloads:5429,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:"Probiotics are live microorganisms that live in gastrointestinal (GI) tract and are beneficial for their hosts and prevent certain diseases. In this chapter, after a complete introduction to probiotics, definition, mechanism of action, and their classification, currently used organisms will be discussed in detail. Moreover, different kinds of nutritional synthetic products of probiotics along with their safety and drug interaction will be noticed. This chapter mentions all clinical trial studies that have been done to evaluate probiotic efficacy with a focus on gastrointestinal diseases.",book:{id:"5193",slug:"probiotics-and-prebiotics-in-human-nutrition-and-health",title:"Probiotics and Prebiotics in Human Nutrition and Health",fullTitle:"Probiotics and Prebiotics in Human Nutrition and Health"},signatures:"Amirreza Khalighi, Reza Behdani and Shabnam Kouhestani",authors:[{id:"179560",title:"Dr.",name:"Amirreza",middleName:null,surname:"Khalighi",slug:"amirreza-khalighi",fullName:"Amirreza Khalighi"},{id:"185238",title:"Dr.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Behdani",slug:"reza-behdani",fullName:"Reza Behdani"},{id:"185239",title:"Dr.",name:"Shabnam",middleName:null,surname:"Kouhestani",slug:"shabnam-kouhestani",fullName:"Shabnam Kouhestani"}]},{id:"56849",title:"Physiology and Pathology of Innate Immune Response Against Pathogens",slug:"physiology-and-pathology-of-innate-immune-response-against-pathogens",totalDownloads:6226,totalCrossrefCites:21,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:"Pathogen infections are recognized by the immune system, which consists of two types of responses: an innate immune response and an antigen-specific adaptive immune response. The innate response is characterized by being the first line of defense that occurs rapidly in which leukocytes such as neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, eosinophils, mast cells, dendritic cells, etc., are involved. These cells recognize the pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), which have been evolutionarily conserved by the diversity of microorganisms that infect humans. Recognition of these pathogen-associated molecular patterns occurs through pattern recognition receptors such as Toll-like receptors and some other intracellular receptors such as nucleotide oligomerization domain (NOD), with the aim of amplifying the inflammation and activating the adaptive cellular immune response, through the antigenic presentation. In the present chapter, we will review the importance of the main components involved in the innate immune response, such as different cell types, inflammatory response, soluble immune mediators and effector mechanisms exerted by the immune response against bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites; all with the purpose of eliminating them and eradicating the infection of the host.",book:{id:"5975",slug:"physiology-and-pathology-of-immunology",title:"Physiology and Pathology of Immunology",fullTitle:"Physiology and Pathology of Immunology"},signatures:"José Luis Muñoz Carrillo, Flor Pamela Castro García, Oscar\nGutiérrez Coronado, María Alejandra Moreno García and Juan\nFrancisco Contreras Cordero",authors:[{id:"214236",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Muñoz-Carrillo",slug:"jose-luis-munoz-carrillo",fullName:"Jose Luis Muñoz-Carrillo"},{id:"216080",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandra",middleName:null,surname:"Moreno-García",slug:"alejandra-moreno-garcia",fullName:"Alejandra Moreno-García"},{id:"216081",title:"Dr.",name:"Oscar",middleName:null,surname:"Gutiérrez-Coronado",slug:"oscar-gutierrez-coronado",fullName:"Oscar Gutiérrez-Coronado"},{id:"216082",title:"Dr.",name:"Pamela",middleName:null,surname:"Castro-García",slug:"pamela-castro-garcia",fullName:"Pamela Castro-García"},{id:"220717",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Contreras Cordero",slug:"juan-francisco-contreras-cordero",fullName:"Juan Francisco Contreras Cordero"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"13",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82972",title:"Actinomycosis: Diagnosis, Clinical Features and Treatment",slug:"actinomycosis-diagnosis-clinical-features-and-treatment",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104698",abstract:"Actinomycosis is a filamentous bacterium that forms part of the normal human flora of the gastrointestinal, oropharynx and female genitalia. This indolent infection is characterized by abscess formation, widespread granulomatous disease, fibrosis, cavitary lung lesions and mass-like consolidations, simulating an active malignancy or systemic inflammatory diseases. It is subacute, chronic and variable presentation may delay diagnosis due to its capability to simulate other conditions. An accurate diagnostic timeline is relevant. Early diagnosis of pulmonary actinomycosis decreases the risk of indolent complications. Proper treatment reduces the need for invasive surgical methods. Actinomycosis can virtually involve any organ system, the infection spread without respecting anatomical variables as metastatic disease does, making malignancy an important part of the differential diagnosis. As it is normal gastrointestinal florae, it is difficult to cultivate, and share similar morphology to other organisms such as Nocardia and fungus. It is often difficult to be identified as the culprit of disease. Its true imitator capability makes this infectious agent a remarkable organism within the spectra of localized and disseminated disease. In this chapter, we will discuss different peculiarities of actinomycosis as an infectious agent, most common presentation in different organ systems, and challenging scenarios.",book:{id:"10893",title:"Actinobacteria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10893.jpg"},signatures:"Onix J. Cantres-Fonseca, Vanessa Vando-Rivera, Vanessa Fonseca-Ferrer, Christian Castillo Latorre and Francisco J. Del Olmo-Arroyo"},{id:"82412",title:"Potential of Native Microalgae from the Peruvian Amazon on the Removal of Pollutants",slug:"potential-of-native-microalgae-from-the-peruvian-amazon-on-the-removal-of-pollutants",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105686",abstract:"Environmental pollution is a severe and common problem in all the countries worldwide. Various physicochemical technologies and organisms (e.g., plants, microorganisms, etc.) are used to address these environmental issues, but low-cost, practical, efficient, and effective approaches have not been available yet. Microalgae offer an attractive, novel, and little-explored bioremediation alternative because these photosynthetic organisms can eliminate pathogenic microorganisms and remove heavy metals and toxic organic compounds through processes still under study. Our research team has conducted some experiments to determine the bioremediation potential of native microalgae on some pollutant sources (i.e., leachate and wastewater) and its ability to remove hazardous chemical compounds. Therefore, in this chapter, we provide the results of our research and updated information about this exciting topic. Experiments were conducted under controlled culture conditions using several native microalgae species, variable time periods, different pollutant sources, and hazardous chemicals such as ethidium bromide. The results indicated that native microalgae can remove pollutants (i.e., phosphorus, ammonia, etc.) of wastewater, leachate, and some hazardous chemical compounds such as ethidium bromide. In conclusion, native microalgae have an excellent potential for removing several pollutants and, consequently, could be used to develop bioremediation technologies based on native microalgae from the Peruvian Amazon.",book:{id:"11366",title:"Microalgae",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11366.jpg"},signatures:"Marianela Cobos, Segundo L. Estela, Carlos G. Castro, Miguel A. Grandez, Alvaro B. Tresierra, Corayma L. Cabezudo, Santiago Galindo, Sheyla L. Pérez, Angélica V. Rios, Jhon A. Vargas, Roger Ruiz, Pedro M. Adrianzén, Jorge L. Marapara and Juan C. Castro"},{id:"81859",title:"Respiratory Syncytial Virus",slug:"respiratory-syncytial-virus",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104771",abstract:"Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV)-driven bronchiolitis is one of the most common causes of pediatric hospitalization. Every year, we face 33.1 million episodes of RSV-driven lower respiratory tract infection without any available vaccine or cost-effective therapeutics since the discovery of RSV eighty years before. RSV is an enveloped RNA virus belonging to the pneumoviridae family of viruses. This chapter aims to elucidate the structure and functions of the RSV genome and proteins and the mechanism of RSV infection in host cells from entry to budding, which will provide current insight into the RSV-host relationship. In addition, this book chapter summarizes the recent research outcomes regarding the structure of RSV and the functions of all viral proteins along with the RSV life cycle and cell-to-cell spread.",book:{id:"11369",title:"RNA Viruses Infection",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11369.jpg"},signatures:"Sattya Narayan Talukdar and Masfique Mehedi"},{id:"82148",title:"Mosquito Population Modification for Malaria Control",slug:"mosquito-population-modification-for-malaria-control",totalDownloads:12,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104907",abstract:"Malaria is a mosquito-borne disease that kills millions of people every year. Existing control tools have been insufficient to eliminate the disease in many endemic regions and additional approaches are needed. Novel vector-control strategies using genetic engineering to create malaria-resistant mosquitoes (population modification) can potentially contribute a new set of tools for mosquito control. Here we review the current mosquito control strategies and the development of transgenic mosquitoes expressing anti-parasite effector genes, highlighting the recent improvements in mosquito genome editing with CRISPR-Cas9 as an efficient and adaptable tool for gene-drive systems to effectively spread these genes into mosquito populations.",book:{id:"11379",title:"Mosquito Research - Recent Advances in Pathogen Interactions, Immunity, and Vector Control Strategies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11379.jpg"},signatures:"Rebeca Carballar-Lejarazú, Taylor Tushar, Thai Binh Pham and Anthony James"},{id:"81934",title:"Lactobacillus Use for Plant Fermentation: New Ways for Plant-Based Product Valorization",slug:"lactobacillus-use-for-plant-fermentation-new-ways-for-plant-based-product-valorization",totalDownloads:15,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104958",abstract:"Today, plant production is increasing, but most industrial processes generate a lot of waste and by-products for which, in the current context, it is a priority to recycle or valorize them. One of the cheapest valorization routes is fermentation, in particular lactic fermentation by Lactobacillus species, which produces lactic acid and other molecules of industrial interest such as bioactive compounds such as anthocyanin, organic acid, peptides, or phenol, which are widely found in the plant matrix, mainly in cereals, grass, fruits, and vegetables. Bioactive compounds may exert beneficial health effects, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, or prebiotic activities. In addition, lactic acid fermentation can improve existing products and lead to new applications in food, livestock feeding and biotechnology, such as the production of lactic acid, protein, or silage. This chapter reviews the use of Lactobacillus strains in the fermentation process of many plant bioresources or by-products through their different bioactivities, active molecules, and applications.",book:{id:"11372",title:"Lactobacillus - A Multifunctional Genus",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11372.jpg"},signatures:"Morgan Le Rouzic, Pauline Bruniaux, Cyril Raveschot, François Krier, Vincent Phalip, Rozenn Ravallec, Benoit Cudennec and François Coutte"},{id:"82672",title:"Removal of Microcystins from Drinking Water by Electrocoagulation: Upscaling, Challenges, and Prospects",slug:"removal-of-microcystins-from-drinking-water-by-electrocoagulation-upscaling-challenges-and-prospects",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105751",abstract:"Microcystins (MCs) belong to a family of stable monocyclic heptapeptide compounds responsible for hazardous toxins in drinking water. Although several methods have been applied to remove MCs from drinking water (e.g., activated carbon filtration, ion exchange resins, high-pressure membranes, and electrochemistry), upscaling laboratory experiments to benefit municipal water treatment is still a major challenge. This chapter is a follow-up study designed to test three electrocoagulation (EC) techniques for decomposing MC by UV-ozone purification (laboratory), electrocoagulation (field unit), and coupled UV-ozone-electrocoagulation (municipal treatment). The chemistry and efficiency of the treatments were first examined followed by comparison with activated carbon filtration. Electrocoagulation outperformed activated carbon filtration by nearly 40%. When the laboratory treatments were evaluated at the municipal scale, effectiveness of the technique deteriorated by 10–20% because of UV pulse dissipation, vapor-ion plasma under-functioning, and limitations of polymer fiber filters. We confirmed previously published studies that pollutant coagulation and MC decomposition are affected by physicochemical factors such as radiation pulse density, electrical polarity, pH, and temperature dynamics. The results have relevant applications in wastewater treatment and chemical recycling.",book:{id:"11800",title:"Cyanobacteria - Recent Advances and New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11800.jpg"},signatures:"Stephen Opoku-Duah, Dennis Johnson, Dan Blair and Jeff Dimick"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:101},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:"2753-6580",scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
\r\n
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
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He has 19 publications in indexed international journals (ISIS), as well as over 60 publications and oral presentations in both Portuguese and international journals and congresses.",institutionString:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"350704",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Camila",middleName:"Silva Costa",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"camila-ferreira",fullName:"Camila Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/350704/images/17280_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Veterinary Medicine at the Fluminense Federal University, specialist in Equine Reproduction at the Brazilian Veterinary Institute (IBVET) and Master in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction at the Fluminense Federal University. She has experience in analyzing zootechnical indices in dairy cattle and organizing events related to Veterinary Medicine through extension grants. I have experience in the field of diagnostic imaging and animal reproduction in veterinary medicine through monitoring and scientific initiation scholarships. I worked at the Equus Central Reproduction Equine located in Santo Antônio de Jesus – BA in the 2016/2017 breeding season. I am currently a doctoral student with a scholarship from CAPES of the Postgraduate Program in Veterinary Medicine (Pathology and Clinical Sciences) at the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ) with a research project with an emphasis on equine endometritis.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain.Dr. Satué is accredited as a Private University Doctor Professor, Doctor Assistant, and Contracted Doctor by AVAP (Agència Valenciana d'Avaluació i Prospectiva) and currently, as a full professor by ANECA (since January 2022). To date, Katy has taught 22 years in the Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery at the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in undergraduate courses in Veterinary Medicine (General Pathology, integrated into the Applied Basis of Veterinary Medicine module of the 2nd year, Clinical Equine I of 3rd year, and Equine Clinic II of 4th year). Dr. Satué research activity is in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry, and Immunology in the Spanish Purebred mare. She has directed 5 Doctoral Theses and 5 Diplomas of Advanced Studies, and participated in 11 research projects as a collaborating researcher. She has written 2 books and 14 book chapters in international publishers related to the area, and 68 scientific publications in international journals. Dr. Satué has attended 63 congresses, participating with 132 communications in international congresses and 19 in national congresses related to the area. Dr. Satué is a scientific reviewer for various prestigious international journals such as Animals, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology, among others. Since 2014 she has been responsible for the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University Veterinary Clinical Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201721",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Funiciello",slug:"beatrice-funiciello",fullName:"Beatrice Funiciello",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201721/images/11089_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated from the University of Milan in 2011, my post-graduate education included CertAVP modules mainly on equines (dermatology and internal medicine) and a few on small animal (dermatology and anaesthesia) at the University of Liverpool. After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". PhD\\\'s degree in Science (Cell and Tissue Biology Area) \n at University of Sao Paulo with scholarship granted by FAPESP; Project \\"Development of morphofunctional changes in ovary of Astyanax altiparanae Garutti & Britski, 2000 (Teleostei, Characidae)\\". She has experience in Reproduction of vertebrates and Morphology, with emphasis in Cellular Biology and Histology. She is currently a teacher in the medium / technical level courses at IFMT-Alta Floresta, as well as in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Animal Science and in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Business.',institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442807",title:"Dr.",name:"Busani",middleName:null,surname:"Moyo",slug:"busani-moyo",fullName:"Busani Moyo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gwanda State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"439435",title:"Dr.",name:"Feda S.",middleName:null,surname:"Aljaser",slug:"feda-s.-aljaser",fullName:"Feda S. Aljaser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"423023",title:"Dr.",name:"Yosra",middleName:null,surname:"Soltan",slug:"yosra-soltan",fullName:"Yosra Soltan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"349788",title:"Dr.",name:"Florencia Nery",middleName:null,surname:"Sompie",slug:"florencia-nery-sompie",fullName:"Florencia Nery Sompie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sam Ratulangi University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"428600",title:"MSc.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"García-Alarcón",slug:"adriana-garcia-alarcon",fullName:"Adriana García-Alarcón",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428599",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabino",middleName:null,surname:"De La Rosa-Cruz",slug:"gabino-de-la-rosa-cruz",fullName:"Gabino De La Rosa-Cruz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428601",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Campuzano-Caballero",slug:"juan-carlos-campuzano-caballero",fullName:"Juan Carlos Campuzano-Caballero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"7",type:"subseries",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11403,editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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