Modified GOSLON yardstick (GOSLON+) for patients with UCLP. A similar table apply to patients with BCLP.
\r\n\tAtherosclerosis is a systemic disease. Some 60% of patients with peripheral artery disease will have ischaemic heart disease, and 30% have cerebrovascular disease. Within five years of diagnosis, 10-15% of patients with intermittent claudication will die from cardiovascular disease. Therefore, management begins with the identification and modification of risk factors that are common to peripheral artery disease, heart disease, and stroke. Treatment goals include reducing cardiovascular risk and improving functional capacity. Revascularization is indicated for persistent symptoms.
\r\n\tThe main objective of the book is to deal with peripheral arterial disease in the most diverse aspects. Addressing issues such as pathophysiology, signs and symptoms, clinical aspects, treatment, and prognosis.
\r\n\t
Genetic diversity is usually defined as the number of genetic characteristics (alleles and genotypes) in a species [1]. In this context, analyzing the genetic diversity in populations is essential to understand evolutionary and adaptative process for most species [2]. The genetic diversity is also very useful to implement conservation strategies and crop management. This is also the source of disease resistance of natural populations, as it is the font of drug resistance by many pathogens.
Genes are DNA fragments that encodes some biological information, usually coding a protein or a RNA. Genes can be represented as a sequence of nucleotides that can be expressed in a living organism. Most genes have small nucleotide sequence differences among individuals. These differences are called genetic polymorphism [3]. Some of these polymorphisms may affects how proteins works and how the proteins interacts with subtracts and other proteins. The different gene forms caused by genetic polymorphisms are called alleles.
The genetic diversity has three different sources: mutation, recombination and immigration of genes. Mutation is the driving force of genetic variation and evolution. There are three types of DNA mutations: base substitutions (also called point mutations), deletions and insertions (Figure 1) [4].
Illustrative scheme of DNA mutations types. Source: Google Images.
The point mutations are also subdivided in three groups: (1) Silent mutations: when the nucleotide substitution does not change the aminoacid in the polypeptide sequence; (2) Missense mutations: when occurs aminoacid change, that can be classified in conservative (when the change results in an amino acid from the same physical–chemical group) and non-conservative (when the change results in a different physicochemical aminoacid group); (3) Non-sense mutations: when the nucleotide modification results in a stop codon (Figure 2).
Types of point mutations (nucleotide substitution) in DNA molecule. Source: Google Images.
Single mutations are very important in population genetics and evolution. They are the mainly source of DNA polymorphic sites, which provides information for many inferences and analysis such as nucleotide and haplotype diversity, allelic diversity, genetic distance, heterozygosity, etc. These parameters are very important to elucidate evolutionary process in populations across time and space. Genes with high levels of polymorphism can be applied to genetic population studies, while genes with moderate and low polymorphic levels can be used for phylogeographic and phylogenetic inferences [5].
Single mutations are also important for health: many missense mutations can be deleterious and resulting in a disease or metabolic disorder. Another thing to be considered is that single mutations can also provide adaptative vantages such as pathogen resistance, xenobiotic tolerance and fitness improvement [6]. So, detecting point mutations in the organisms can be very useful to implement many strategies such as biodiversity conservation, crop management and infectious disease monitoring.
In eukaryotes, genetic recombination is the aleatory change of genetic material resulting from the meiosis process, also called crossing-over or permutation. This type of recombination consists in break and rejoining homologous regions of pared chromosomes between the Prophase I and Metaphase I from meiosis division (Figure 3). Many combinations can be performed among gene exchange between two individuals [7]. Although prokaryotic species does not have chromosomes conjugation is performed by these beings by one of these three process: (a) Conjugation: when the DNA is transferred by tube after cells contact; (b) transduction: the DNA is inserted accidentally from one bacterium to another by a virus; and (c) transformation: when the bacterium receives exogenous DNA from the environment [8].
Crossing-over scheme in homologous chromosomes. Source: Google Images.
Recombination is very important because it makes new combinations of the existent alleles. Many effects of the DNA rearrangement can be good for species and populations, once it can improve adaptation. However, some recombination events can be unfavorable if it breaks apart important and beneficial alleles in the sisters chromatids [9]. The recombination rate is positively correlated with nucleotide diversity, which increases genetic variation and resulting in purifying deleterious mutations.
Nucleotide deletions and insertions are types of mutation that changes the number of DNA base in genome. Deletions changes the base number by removing pieces of DNA and insertions alters the base number by adding pieces of DNA [10]. Often, these kind of mutations results in a gene that encodes a protein that does not function properly (Figure 4). When the deletions/insertions change the gene’s reading frame they are called
Illustrative example of a DNA insertion modifying all the subsequent codons. Source: Google Images.
Insertions and deletions can be particularly hazardous when occurs in an exon region, which is the coding segment of a gene. Due to multiple new aminoacid after translation, the protein function may be affected [11]. Knowing the rate of insertion–deletion mutations are crucial to understanding evolutionary process, such as natural selection, especially in coding regions due to the protein disruption that is usually caused.
Gene immigration, or gene flow, is the transfer of genetic material from one population to another by migration of individuals or gametes. This can alter genetic diversity by changing allelic frequencies in populations [12]. Gene flow is essential to prevent population diverging. When gene flow is interrupted by physical (geographical) barriers, allopatric speciation tends to occur. Population gene flow can be measured by the formula:
Where
When
Genetic diversity is a very important feature of living organisms. It serves for population adapting to environment, once that how higher is the allelic variation, it is more likely that individuals display adaptative characteristics that suits to the environment. So, genetic diversity is essential for species survival.
Molecular markers, amplification and DNA sequencing technologies are improving an incredible advance in access genetic variation. The number of sequences and genomes deposited in the databases grows exponentially, generating an enormous amount of information to be studied and analyzed. The knowledge resulting from this information has innumerous applications and has been promoting a huge revolution in several areas of the biological, agrarian and health sciences. The way we understand, analyze and deal with biodiversity has been intensely modified and deepened by the advancement of genetics. In this context, knowledge about the genetic diversity of organisms will bring solutions to various problems and issues involving living beings.
The correct management of craniofacial differences (CFD’s) -including cleft lip with/without cleft palate (CL ± CP)- is still a challenge for clinicians treating such conditions, due to its treatment length and the different aspects that have to be holistically addressed in accordance with overall and craniofacial growth and development, speech and hearing, facial esthetics, and psychological self-perception of patients with such characteristics.
Although a universal treatment protocol has not been agreed among craniofacial teams worldwide [1], several parameters of evaluation and treatment have been set and reviewed periodically, following the recommended practices for the care of patients with craniofacial differences made by the ACPA (American Cleft-Palate Craniofacial Association) [2] (revised in 2018), based on the call of the Surgeon General of the United States on the needs for children with special health care [3]. A summary of such parameters appears below:
(a) The interdisciplinary team management of patients with craniofacial differences is essential; (b) Clinical expertise in diagnosis and treatment and optimal care for these patients is provided by teams with enough exposure to these patients each year; (c) The first evaluation is within the first few days or weeks of life (ideal), but referral for team evaluation and management is appropriate at any age; (d) Since the beginning, the family of a child with a craniofacial difference must be assisted in adjusting to the birth and consequent demands and stress of having a child with CFD; (e) Responsible adults must receive information about treatment procedures, options, risk factors, benefits, and costs to take informed decisions on the child’s behalf, and to prepare the whole family for all recommended procedures. The family (and patient, when is mature enough) participation and collaboration in treatment planning should be actively asked; (f) Team recommendations are basic to develop and implement treatment plans; (g) Complex diagnostic and surgical procedures should be restricted to centers with experienced health professionals; (h) Each team must be sensitive to linguistic, cultural, ethnic, psychosocial, economic, and physical factors affecting the relationships among the team, the patient and family; (i) Longitudinal follow-up of patients, including appropriate documentation and record-keeping is essential to monitor both short-term and long-term outcomes and falls under the responsibility of each team; (j) The effects on growth, function, appearance satisfaction and psychosocial well-being of the patient should be considered when performing evaluation of treatment outcomes.
Following these parameters, this chapter explain in detail our craniofacial orthodontics treatment algorithms for the patient with unilateral cleft lip and palate (UCLP) from mixed dentition onwards, which addressed all topics related with diagnosis and treatment planning for adolescents and young adults affected with this craniofacial difference.
Mars et al. in 1987 introduced the GOSLON yardstick [4], which has become the standard diagnostic tool for patients with UCLP worldwide. Ozawa et al. in 2011 expanded the same classification for bilateral clefts [5]. This classification, based on dental casts, has proven to be a good and simple option to grade the malocclusion present and to give some hints on the level of difficulty in its correction. Other broader approaches -such as the original Huddart-Bodenham classification (used in deciduous dentition only) [6], or its modification used in both deciduous and permanent dentitions (proposed by Mossey et al. [7])-, are also other interesting approaches to classify all dental components present in UCLP and BCLP malocclusions. However, those indexes missed a common aspect that cannot be forgotten in a craniofacial orthodontic evaluation: the facial pattern in three dimensions that could worsen (or improve) the existing CL ± CP condition. The GOSLON does not consider frontal and lateral facial photographs or cephalometric radiographs, which are regular diagnostic records in orthodontics (taken digitally for these patients in the XXI century). These records are important to detect left-to-right bone vertical discrepancies that could make some UCLP cases more difficult to correct properly than previously thought. This is the reason why the orthodontic diagnosis (and its indicated treatment) cannot be established solely from study dental models. The GOSLON yardstick can be used as a classification system, but not as a determiner of treatment complexity without considering the 3D facial aspects of a complex malocclusion.
Having as a start point the GOSLON yardstick, our unit has developed a modified GOSLON yardstick (named GOSLON+), based not only on dental casts but also on frontal and facial digital photographs and radiographs. These records can be used to accurately determine the involvement of craniofacial orthodontics and craniofacial surgery in the resolution of unilateral (and bilateral) cases, depending on the degree of asymmetry associated with the cleft, following all aspects involved in a complete orthodontic diagnosis. The following diagram and the accompanying patients’ photographs (with full records) demonstrate our current diagnosis categories and changes in the treatment of patients with UCLP (modified from the original GOSLON) (Table 1, Figure 1), [4] Our modified classification considers the influence of facial and occlusal 3D aspects in the craniofacial overall diagnosis and the need for additional treatment created by the existing frontal asymmetry.
Group | Characteristics | Treatment | Prognosis |
---|---|---|---|
1± |
| Surgical orthodontics and surgical treatment for class II malocclusion. | Good/Fair (Depending of Degree of Facial Asymmetry [+]) |
2± |
| Surgical orthodontics and surgical treatment for moderate or complex class I malocclusion. | Excellent (None [−] to some Degree of Facial Asymmetry [+]) |
3± |
| Surgical orthodontics and surgical treatment for mild class III malocclusion. | Good/Fair (Depending of Degree of Facial Asymmetry [+]) |
4± |
| Surgical orthodontics and surgical treatment for severe class III malocclusion. | Fair (Depending of Degree of Facial Asymmetry [+]) |
5± |
| Surgical orthodontics and step-wise surgical treatment for extreme class III malocclusion. (Maxillary Osteogenic Distraction and Orthognathic Surgery). | Fair (Depending of Degree of Facial Asymmetry [+]) |
Modified GOSLON yardstick (GOSLON+) for patients with UCLP. A similar table apply to patients with BCLP.
Facial and intraoral characteristics of patients presenting the five different degrees of GOSLON+ yardstick. Observe that treatment prognosis further decreases when frontal and lateral facial photographs are included in the treatment algorithm to manage successfully the existing alveolar clefts.
It is well known that not all clefts are similar [6, 8, 9, 10, 11]. Moreover, patients affected by UCLP have some degree of facial asymmetry that affects the prognosis (Figure 1). This fact must be considered within the orthodontic-surgical diagnosis. Accordingly, their ortho-surgical treatment plan should not be the same either, due to the type and extension of cleft, the timing for the initiation of those treatments, and the individual needs for surgical treatment influencing the selection of surgical techniques. In addition to these factors that have a negative influence on facial growth, the expertise of the ortho-surgical team and the interdisciplinary management given to the patient is the last -but not the least- item to be considered for obtaining a satisfactory treatment outcome [12].
Based on this improved GOSLON classification, a description of the surgical orthodontic management for average and wide clefts will be addressed. After that, two different surgical orthodontics algorithms will be presented, with clinical cases to summarize the decision-making process applied in the surgical orthodontic care of patients with UCLP with different degrees of sagittal and transversal maxillary-mandibular involvement in the Clínica Noel Foundation at Medellin, Colombia, S.A.
The alveolar cleft -the space between the maxillary segments anterior to the incisor foramen- represents a lack of continuity of both maxillary dental arch and basal bone. Spatially, it can be represented as a pyramid placed on its side, with its base towards the labial side and its apex located in a posterior and superior position inside the cleft maxilla [13]. This gap should be ideally filled by a cancellous bone graft to restore its basal and alveolar normal architecture. This defect gives origin to a particular kind of critical-size segmental defect that creates a significant challenge for craniofacial surgeons, maxillofacial surgeons and craniofacial orthodontists [14].
From all the alternatives to fill completely the maxillary cleft, the secondary (intermediate or late) alveolar bone grafting (SABG) is still the gold standard treatment to restore the alveolar anatomy, either in mixed dentition or early permanent dentition [15]. The objectives of SABG include (1) to restore and stabilize the normal architecture of the maxilla; (2) to allow eruption of permanent lateral incisor and canine; (3) to provide support and elevation of the affected wing base; (4) to close present oronasal fistulas and (5) to provide “adequate” bone support to be restored later with prostodontics with/without dental implants, in case that a closure of the gap with dental eruption cannot be achieved [16, 17]. It has been our approach to limit its objectives to the first three in mixed dentition patients, due to the uncertain nature in time of this type of autografts and the impediment for free dental movement created by cortical grafts at early ages. However, two controversies proposed by Vig still remained valid today: which is the best bone graft type and the best donor site for harvesting? and what is the best timing for maxillary (dento-alveolar) expansion in patients requiring SABG [17]? A third controversy refers to whether the alveolar cleft can be repaired by a combination of bio-engineering alternatives currently available nowadays. Our treatment rationale tries to solve the first two questions as follows:
Several aspects have to be considered for obtaining a successful bone graft in such patients:
During mixed dentition stage, orthodontic treatment can be used previous to surgical treatment to increase maxillary dental arch width and length using the Quad-Helix [18, 19, 20, 21] (Figure 2). This appliance -developed by Ricketts while he was part of the Cleft Palate Clinic at UIC (currently the UIC Craniofacial Center) [22] and improved by Wilson and Wilson in the 80’s [20] and others- is currently applied to correct the collapse of the lateral maxillary segment behind the protruding premaxillary process [23]. In patients with UCLP, the bony palate anatomy presents a primary unilateral deficiency worsen by contraction of scar tissue, as a result of the neonatal surgical palatal closure [19, 23]. In addition to the dento-alveolar effect obtained in patients without clefts, the main bony effect of the Quad-Helix in UCLP cases is the expansion of the lateral maxillary shelves when the de-rotation of the maxillary molars is achieved [19, 23]. In such cases, dento-alveolar expansion before surgery results in similar treatment outcomes than in patients with maxillary expansion [24], with the benefit of working with minimum risk of creating secondary maxillary fistulas. Dento-alveolar expansion could also be obtained by other orthodontic appliances such as the reverse Quad-Helix (with poor correction of the molar rotation) [25], conventional or modified jointed fan (or butterfly) expander [26, 27, 28], NiTi palatal expander [29], or self-ligation appliances [30].
Recovery of normal transversal maxillary width with correct maxillary alignment after the use of Quad-Helix. a. Before Quad-Helix, b. At removal time. Notice the change in the cleft architecture and the creation of alveolar spacing for the alignment of the right maxillary canine.
Dento-alveolar maxillary expansion is usually followed by maxillary dentition segmental leveling and alignment (using an anterior [3*2] utility arch) [21, 31, 32, 33, 34]. In order to obtain similar results than those achieved using an inverse treatment protocol (alveolar grafting followed by orthodontics with maxillary expansion) [24], an orthodontic approximation of maxillary segments using a sectional arch approach -after obtaining proper maxillary width but before surgery- should be considered. In older patients, a mini-screws based molar distalization plus orthodontic dental retraction -by controlling the mesial inclination of the canine for greater bone approximation- is often required to create an alveolar defect with parallel walls to minimize the alveolar gap size when a segmental surgery is planned (Figure 3) [35, 36].
Modified First-Phase Orthodontic Strategies. In addition to the a. maxillary utility arch, two other strategies have been useful in the correct alignment of the maxilla prior to surgery: b. sectional approximation of maxillary segments; and c. mini-screw based distalization.
The suggested order of orthopedic-orthodontic procedures would be as follows: 1. Dento-alveolar maxillary expansion; 2. Maxillary segmental dental leveling and alignment; 3. Mini-screw based molar distalization (if needed in patients that have passed the appropriate timing for grafting) and 4. Orthodontic approximation of maxillary segments.
At the time of bone grafting, many craniofacial centers around the world use SABG during mixed dentition (5 to 12 years of age) before or during permanent canine eruption, taking advantage of the growth potential of the maxilla at this stage [37]. In our center, we use Intermediate or late SABG during mixed or early permanent dentition for GOSLON1–3 patients only. We usually perform such procedure in agreement with dental age characteristics of teeth around the cleft (permanent canine and lateral incisor when present). The ideal age range for surgical procedure should be when the canine on the cleft side is from less than 5 mm of its eruption place to a partially erupted canine (1/3 to ½ of crown visible). Late SABG cases with narrow alveolar clefts at the right age allows to work with bone graft stimulation (either with compression osteogenesis or RPE) to obtain excellent results in both cases (Figure 4) [24, 37]. Using SABG as an alveolar bone matrix, we achieve high degree of success in correcting the canine eruption and migration pathway [38]. The bone graft would give temporary bone support for the eruption of lateral incisor and/or canine without affecting the growth of the midface, with good outcomes similar to other centers in the world when compared with gingivoperiosteoplasty [21, 39]. Ideally, a complete closure of the space with no need for lateral incisor prosthesis is achieved when the migration of the canine occurs.
Intraoral Results of Iliac Crest Late Secondary Alveolar Bone performed at the Correct Time. a. Despite the fact that all teeth around the cleft were erupted at the initial evaluation, the patient still had intermediate mixed dentition and remaining eruption potential in the lateral incisor adjacent to the alveolar cleft; b. After late SABG and finishing restorative dentistry procedures. Note the closure of the alveolar cleft and the normal gingival architecture obtained by the application of orthodontic compression osteogenesis after cancellous iliac bone grafting.
In chosen candidates, cancellous iliac crest bone from the inner anterior portion of the crest is usually required to close mild-to-moderate type of fistulas (patients with UCLP GOSLON1 to 3 at the appropriate age) (Figure 4). This approach is used to restore momentarily alveolar bone continuity needed for dental movement [40, 41]. Figure 4 shows a case with such approach, with an excellent outcome. However, other harvesting sites such as tibia, mandibular symphysis or retromolar area can be successfully used for this purpose [23, 42, 43].
Of all types of bone graft (cortical, cancellous, or mixed), the fresh autogenous cancellous bone is the “ideal” source for reconstruction of bone integrity, due to the fact that it provides living bone cells and is immune-compatible enough to allow osteogenesis and full integration with the maxilla [40]. Autografts have as its main characteristic osteoproduction [44] -bone growth obtained from combined properties of osteoinduction (recruitment, proliferation, and transformation of osteoprogenitor MSC’s into osteoblasts) [45], osteopromotion (process of secondary support of bone healing and tissue regeneration, without capability of initiate bone formation) [46], osteoconduction (process of osseous and vascular cell ingrowth inside the 3D matrix scaffolding) [47], and “relative” osteogenesis (process of deposition of newly formed bone by osteoblasts at the fracture site)- that enhance osteoprogenitor MSC’s response according with autologous graft type. Allografts also share other advantages such as biocompatibility, and mechanical resistance vs. orthodontic remodeling depending on the graft source [48]. Iliac crest site morbidity, accessibility, and availability of areas of graft harvesting of other donor places create a supposedly difficulty that could be overcome with sufficient surgeon’s exposure to this approach [49] in a capabilities-based curriculum [50]. When a successful incorporation (or modeling) of a graft is achieved, the term osseointegration can be used under this definition (Figure 4) [51]. An optional surgical procedure for treating wide alveolar clefts will be described later.
At the Pre-surgical Planning Time of Post-Surgical Procedures. In cases where lateral incisor in the cleft area is partially missing, split in two by the cleft (creating two “real” supernumerary teeth), or absent, all options involved in the dental restoration of the patient must be considered:
When the lateral (and central incisor or canine, depending on the location of the cleft) present a missing portion, a composite restoration could be required either during or once the orthodontic treatment is finished to improve esthetic appearance (Figure 4).
Lateral incisor supernumeraries present additional difficulties to be addressed: their crowns usually are of decreased size, and the roots are short and with many irregularities and dehiscenses along the root length. Performing restorative procedures, such as extensive composite restauration on the wider tooth, are in order if the chosen supernumerary has its root firmly embedded in bone and the final orthodontic placement of the tooth leaves the root with enough alveolar bone on both sides.
If the lateral incisor is missing, an option would be to take advantage of performing an intermediate SABG followed by the mesial eruption of the canine. Later on, restorative procedures in conjunction with orthodontics will convert the canine anatomy in lateral anatomy, although some differences between normal and converted teeth remain regarding color and crown emergent profile from gingiva (Figure 5).
Intraoral Results of Guided Migration of Permanent Canine through SABG performed at the Correct Time. After successful SABG, the left maxillary canine was directed to erupt in a mesial position from its initial site. Note the hypertrophic gingiva surrounding the teeth on the repaired cleft site. The patient will require cosmetic dentistry procedures in addition to the correct bucco-lingual root torques delivered by the use of lower first bicuspid brackets on the maxillary canine (to act as lateral incisor) and first bicuspid (to act as canine). Protraction of the upper first molar to obtain a well-established class II relationship is under way.
Orthodontic procedures (regarding bracket type and bracket positioning -proper height and buccal-lingual crown inclination of canine and first bicuspid on the cleft side), periodontal procedures (to maintain or recover -partial or totally- the periodontal anatomy affected by decreased gingival thickness as a consequence of mesenchymal deficiency in patients GOSLON3+, 4, 4+, 5 and 5+) (Figure 6) and/or additional cosmetic dentistry/prosthodontic procedures (to transform with such strategies the maxillary canine in lateral incisor and the maxillary bicuspid in canine, and perform additional restorative work if needed) are necessary after SABG surgical procedure for an adequate dental characterization with good-to-fair periodontal condition (Figures 7 and 8). Optional plastic surgery procedures could be needed as well.
Periodontal Results of Connective Tissue Graft and Enamel Matrix Protein Application after Ortho-Surgical Procedures. This experimental procedure in cleft patients allow the clinicians working in poor anatomic conditions -due to the negative influence of a mesenchymal deficiency- to partially recover gingival architecture at the short-term follow-up. Long-term follow-up will give us answers regarding the success of the obtained periodontal stabilization. a. Initial intraoral left close-up photo. The patient has a wide left alveolar cleft with dental inclination of left permanent central incisor (moderate), and left permanent canine (severe); b. Intermediate intraoral left close-up photo. After a segmental maxillary advancement, moderate loss of periodontal attachment and apical migration of gingival margins was observed; c. After connective tissue graft plus enamel matrix protein infiltration. Notice the gain on gingival margins and periodontal thickness as a result of this approach; Surgical sequence: d. Harvesting of palatal connective tissue graft; e. graft waiting to be inserted below gingiva; f. Graft placement under keratinized gingiva; g. Emdogain® syringe used in this case.
Patient with UCLP GOSLON2 treated at Mixed Dentition stage. Initial records: a. Frontal facial photograph; b. Periapical radiograph of the alveolar cleft; c. Intraoral frontal view; Final records: d. Frontal facial photograph; e. Periapical radiograph of the alveolar cleft; f. Intraoral frontal view. The application of the compression osteogenesis strategy was fundamental to obtain normal periodontal architecture in the grafted area of the alveolar cleft.
Patient with UCLP GOSLON2 treated at Permanent Dentition stage. Initial records: a. Frontal facial photograph; b. Intraoral frontal view; Final records: c. Frontal facial photograph; d. Intraoral frontal view. A relatively normal dental and gingival architecture was obtained after the surgical management of a Two-piece LeFort I.
Our retention protocol for patients with normal skeletal relationships (GOSLON2 and 2+) or with mild skeletal discrepancies (GOSLON1, 1+ and 3) use Essix-type retainers. As our treatment approach is directed to obtain a maxillary arch without dental spaces if possible, we seldom use wrap-around maxillary retainers with dental temporary replacements. Our countdown-to-retention includes periodontal evaluation and treatment in patients with GOSLON3+ and more, to address the thin and receding gingiva in cleft-adjacent teeth, associated with genetically-driven periodontal ligament loss described previously (Figure 6). In those cases (which have received correction of existing moderate to severe skeletal discrepancies previously), a periodontal connective tissue graft plus dentin matrix protein injections to increase gingival volume and tissue support, and a dual retention strategy with an additional bonded lingual retainer in the maxillary anterior teeth is used.
Young patients affected by UCLP who have severe restriction of maxillary growth and wide oronasal fistulas (GOSLON4, 4+, 5 and 5+), or adult patients with UCLP in all categories of the GOSLON+ yardstick, have been historically (and unsuccessfully) treated using alveolar bone grafting (secondary or tertiary). In addition, inadequate closure of primary incisions, post-operative wound dehiscence and infections could potentially make bone grafting healing worse [35]. Mars et al. recognized that unilateral alveolar bone grafting success was limited to young patients with “average” maxillary growth (patients GOSLON1, 1+, 2, 2+, and 3) and normal gingival thickness compared with an age-matched normal population [4]. What was the problem? They found out that with increased limitation in maxillary craniofacial growth in patients with UCLP, there was an important compromise in making the maxillary segments meet closely to complete a successful bone graft and a greater difficulty to obtain a fair maxillary dentition by subsequent orthodontic treatment [4].
In order to obtain a surgically-created one-piece maxilla [52], craniofacial centers worldwide use strategies based on segmental maxillary advancements (described by Schuchardt [53]). This surgical technique and its modifications were currently used to manage the surgical closure of open bite [54, 55], transverse maxillary deficiency [55, 56, 57], or excess [55, 58]. The last two findings are common in patients with UCLP. After proper soft tissue management of severe and longstanding oronasal fistulas [12], this approach favors the 3D maxillary architecture prior to secondary orthognathic surgery, reduces prosthodontic needs and creates a more cost-effective alternative than using either conventional LeFort I advancement plus extensive prosthodontic replacement or interdental osteogenic distraction [58].
A combination of surgical fistula closure followed by a combination of Le Fort I advancements in two segments [59] plus immediate or delayed alveolar bone graft, depending on the need and extension of additional distraction osteogenesis/orthognathic surgery has been used regularly at the Clínica Noel Foundation since 2015, modified from Stal et al. [12] (Figure 9). This maxillary procedure could be performed alone or in combination with BSSO during the same surgical procedure. This modified approach produce good bone blood flow [60], and stability [61], with fair gingival architecture due to pre-existing periodontal conditions that can be worsened in some cases by local tension on the flaps during gingival closure [59] (Figure 5). Good-to-fair results regarding non-tension flap closure, bone-to-bone contact, and secondary bone healing have been obtained, depending on the degree of cleft maxillary hypoplasia present. For these patients, these successive surgical steps (oronasal fistula treatment followed by segmental maxillary approximation) could be realized previous or simultaneously to the placement of a narrow tertiary alveolar bone grafting and the realization of additional surgical mandibular procedures during orthognathic surgery.
Application of Segmental Maxillary Advancement to reduce the Alveolar Cleft prior to Final Bone Grafting. Pre-surgical records. a. Close-up of alveolar cleft, b. Occlusal view, c. Periapical radiograph, d. CT close-up occlusal view: 10 mm gap between internal radicular surfaces, e. CT occlusal maxillary view; Post-surgical records. f. Close-up of alveolar cleft, g. Occlusal view, h. Periapical radiograph, i. CT close-up occlusal view: 5 mm gap between internal radicular surfaces, j. CT occlusal maxillary view. The left segmental advancement reduced in half the distance to be covered by a tertiary bone grafting and increased the chances of closure success.
Distraction osteogenesis is a treatment technique that deals with the genesis and growth of new bone in a specific body area, through the application of gradual tensile stress [62, 63, 64, 65, 66]. Distraction Osteogenesis can be applied to the surgical correction of hypoplasias of the craniofacial skeleton to replace extensive bone and soft tissue deficiencies without requiring the use of bone grafts [67]. This technique additionally provides the benefit of expanding the overlying soft tissues, which are frequently deficient in these patients.
After the introduction of gradual elastic maxillary distraction to advance a segmental Le Fort I osteotomy (an incipient form of Distraction Osteogenesis -DO) by Wassmund [68], maxillary DO using facemask and elastic traction was successfully reintroduced by Molina and coworkers 60 years later [69], after several animal studies corroborated its feasibility [70, 71]. After the arrival of the Rigid External Distraction (RED) technique for its use for upper and mid-face hypoplasia in 1997 [72], Polley and Figueroa applied their maxillary DO technique in cleft patients [73, 74] and Figueroa and co-workers reported their immediate and long results in this population [75, 76]. In patients with either UCLP or BCLP that present severe maxillary hypoplasia (GOSLON 5 and 5+), worsened by previous pharyngeal repairs that apply additional tension to an already deficient cleft maxillary development, this alternative surgical technique allows the progressive forward displacement of the maxillary complex, while exerts moderate but increasing tension in the pharyngeal musculature that favors their rearrangement in the final maxillary position [73, 74, 75, 76].
Patients prior to the surgical procedure received preferably a customized rigid labial-palatal arch with external vertical hooks adapted partially from a face-bow, or with detachable external hooks located distal to the lateral incisors (Figure 10). These orthodontic options facilitate further distraction modifications and appliance removal in dental settings. After this, the patient was submitted to a high LeFort I osteotomy (in segments according to cleft type), avoiding tooth germs and external halo frame positioning. After 5–7 days latency period, active distraction is performed at 1 mm/day at 0.5 mm each 12 hours, until an additional 20% of the planned DO is achieved. Orthodontic follow-up is highly recommended to control the amount of distraction remaining, to change the direction of distraction when needed, and to give additional instructions to the patient and relatives on how to adjust the distraction if any AP and transverse maxilla-mandible asymmetry is developing. The average amount of maxillary RED distraction in such cases was 9.6 mm [76]. A consolidation period of 3+ months with the distractor in place must be observed to allow maxillary bone to mature from the initially delayed woven bone and guaranteed the obtained results.
Intraoral Tooth-Supported Devices for RED system. a. Customized rigid labial-palatal arch with external vertical hooks adapted partially from a face-bow, b. Customized rigid labial-palatal with detachable external hooks located distal to the lateral incisors.
Despite the appearance of other maxillary DO external and internal devices, the RED system allows the application of important pulling forces to advance the receding maxillary complex without risking external frame integrity, permits to correct direction of distraction due to their flexibility in distractors’ positioning on vertical and horizontals bars [77], and manage a wider range of maxillary distraction than internal DO devices. A maxillary cleft case treated with this approach appears below (Figure 11).
Patient with Maxillary Cleft undergoing Maxillary RED. a. Before maxillary DO; b. During Distraction Osteogenesis; c. After DO. Notice the improvement on maxillary projection at the infraorbital level.
Adult patients affected by CL ± CP require reduced treatment times while obtaining optimal craniofacial results. After obtaining a one-piece maxilla (Except in patients GOSLON2, some GOSLON2+, and GOSLON3 that finished ortho-surgical treatment at the end of SABG) and at the end of maxillary DO in patients GOSLON5 and 5+, the Craniofacial Ortho-Surgical team has to properly plan and execute orthognathic surgery that address three-dimensionally all problems related with the surgical correction of an asymmetric patient. Could a combination of treatments according to the state of the art be used to reduce treatment times in an interdisciplinary scheme? There are several contemporary alternatives from the orthodontic-surgical treatment stand point that can be used in this scenario: First, the re-appearance of self-ligating systems (with passive -regular [e.g. Damon™ System, Ormco Corp., Orange, CA] or CAD-CAM individualized brackets [e.g. Insignia™ System, Ormco Corp., Orange, CA]-, or interactive brackets [e.g. CCO™ System, Dentsply Sirona Orthodontics, York, PA]), and second, the spreading use of Surgical Treatment Acceleration (Surgery-First and Surgery-Early surgical approaches).
Both alternatives are not new. Passive Self-Ligation is an old therapeutic alternative available for clinical use in the 70’s [78] and 80’s [79]. The concept was commercially reintroduced in the late 90’s by the Ormco™ Task Force, to give origin to the Damon™ System [80, 81]. One of its objectives is supposedly to reduce clinical activity time and treatment time -reduction in wire changes and face-to-face clinical activity-, and increase clinical efficiency by simplifying orthodontic mechanics and materials. The passive effect of friction reduction by bracket design is especially noticed during tooth leveling and alignment in severe dental crowding, dentoalveolar expansion, and in less extent during major tooth movements [80, 81]. The second objective is to take advantage of the active use of orthodontic archwires with variable activation temperature. This is the most important change from early self-ligating appliances. Buehler and coworkers were the first to explain the physical properties of the Variable Transformation Temperature concept [82], while Tien and collaborators in 1982 described its application in orthodontics [83]. Later, Burstone and others published on the alloy characteristics and clinical behavior in depth [84, 85, 86, 87]. Thermo-activated wires allow clinicians (1) to use a differential alloy sequence, that permit early cross-sectional form changes and wire gauge increments to fill entirely the bracket’s slot at early treatment stages with early effect of torque, and (2) to take advantage of wider archforms than in current straight-wire systems. This characteristic is potentiated with self-ligation to produce a “free” vestibular tooth movement by using wider arch shapes on unconventional alloys in a shorter period of time [88, 89, 90]. Total appointment time and treatment length could be shorter due to the fulfillment of both objectives in most cases. However, no differences in the positions of incisors and the transverse dimension changes of the maxillary arch were found when self-ligated appliances and conventional-ligated appliances plus Quad-Helix were compared [91]. There is insufficient evidence to justify or contraindicate its use in surgical orthodontics in patients with CL ± CP [30].
Surgical Treatment Acceleration is not a new technique either. During the 1960–1970’s, the early orthognathic surgery approaches were performed without orthodontist intervention (Surgery first -independent-), and subsequent orthodontic treatment was poorly encouraged by maxillofacial surgeons afterwards [92, 93, 94]. Several problems, including the lack of interrelation of orthodontic and surgical treatments, and difficulties for space generation needed for correct orthodontic decompensation, aroused from these early attempts. After the realization that occlusal relationships were a key component of orthognathic surgery results, the orthodontist gained a role in both craniofacial and maxillofacial teams with the objective to eliminate dental compensations before surgery and facilitate posterior orthodontic treatment [95]. The basic sequence of procedures is still applied today. However, creating a maxilla-mandibular decompensation, alignment, and correct maxilla-mandibular anterior and transversal relationships is a long process, even today. A different approach was proposed by Epker and Fish in [96]. They affirmed that it was best to perform surgical procedures as soon as possible to obtain immediate post-surgical benefits for orthodontic treatment (accelerated orthodontic movement after surgery following surgical correction), surgical improvement (early recovery of facial and dental function), and functional aspects (improvements on speech and deglution). Sugawara and Tohoku University/University of Connecticut group in 2009 proposed their Surgery First Approach (SFA) -also called Surgery-First/Early Orthognathic Approach (SFEA) [97]- combined with Skeletal Anchorage System (SAS) for the treatment of a skeletal Class III patient, obtaining excellent results based on the premises mentioned previously [98]. In 2019, the same group published its extensive follow-up on Temporo-Mandibular Symptoms and Function in Class III malocclusion using SFEA compared with Orthodontics-First Approach (OFA) patients, without significant differences between groups [99]. CES University, in conjunction with the mentioned consortium [100], and with the Universidad del Valle [101] have applied SFEA schemes in Latin-American patients. SFEA rely on performing orthognathic surgery at the beginning of treatment with minimal preoperative orthodontics [102]. This treatment protocol allows the reduction in time of pre-surgical treatment (obtaining one-year reduction in average), with the patient’s benefit of an early improvement in facial esthetics. It can be applied not only in patients with UCLP and Class III malocclusion (GOSLON3+ onwards), but also in patients with UCLP and Class II malocclusion (GOSLON 1 and 1+), with or without skeletal vertical discrepancies.
Chang Gung Memorial Hospital group general guidelines for such approach states the following advantages of the procedure as follows [103, 104]: (1) Shorter pre-surgical orthodontic treatment time; (2) Reduction in the difficulty of post-surgical treatment through Regional Acceleratory Phenomena (RAP) [104]; (3) Possibility of planning and computer-guided execution (CAD-CAM); (4) Same effect on ATM as with traditional scheme, in addition to the surgical and functional advantages already mentioned. The post-operative rapid (accelerated) orthodontic tooth movement after SFEA in both dental arches is significant and is due to the increase in odontoclasts activity and dentoalveolar metabolic changes [105]. However, some disadvantages of SFEA include: (1) The need of careful orthodontic-surgical planning; (2) The preparation of the orthodontic-surgical team; (3) The appearance of possible post-surgical orthodontic problems; (4) A poor post-operative stability [97], in opposition to favorable long-term stability reported previously [96].
Mahmood and coworkers suggested that implementing a modified Surgery-Early protocol to speed-up final orthodontic-surgical treatment for CL ± CP patients would be useful [102]. However, Seo and coworkers found smaller incisor overjet, maxillary intercanine and intermolar ratios, and ratio of intercanine and intermolar distance in a group of surgical patients with UCLP and Class III malocclusion prepared to be treated with SFEA, than in a non-cleft group with a dentofacial deformity. The same group had also smaller anterior teeth contact number and larger incisor overjet than patients with UCLP and Class III malocclusion treated with a conventional protocol [106]. These difficulties have to be weighed when planning surgical procedures under this approach.
As a summary of the SFEA application, this modified version of the steps for performing orthognathic surgery under this approach are [103]: (1) Short period (≤6 months) of AP and vertical maxilla-mandibular decompensating orthodontics before the operation; (2) Reduction of possible dental collisions and minimal decompensation of mandibular teeth, through segmental maxillary surgery planning, surgically assisted rapid palatal expansion, or post-operative orthodontic tooth movement; (3) First / Early Modified Surgery 3D Model; (4) First/Early surgery based on specific therapeutic planning. Total treatment time is shortened in around 1 year, depending of the complexity of the remaining orthodontic treatment [103]. Treatment results of a patient with UCLP GOSLON4+ are shown in Figure 12.
Patient with UCLP undergoing maxillo-mandibular asymmetry correction through Surgery-First/Early Approach and Passive Self-ligation. a. and b. Before treatment; c. and d. Previous to Surgery-Early Approach. Noticed the dental changes obtained in the maxillary dentition by the use of passive self-ligation appliances; e. and f. After Surgery-Early Approach; d. After the end of treatment. Treatment time before treatment-surgery: 6 months, 25 days; Total Treatment time: 20 months, 25 days.
The anterior information can be summarized to perform apparently different treatment choices in a rational order that will allow clinicians to identify the increasing difficulty of surgical orthodontic approaches used in the resolution of alveolar cleft with or without distraction osteogenesis and final orthognathic surgery (Figures 13 and 14).
Mixed dentition treatment algorithm for patients with UCLP. The final prognosis and outcome using this approach depends on severity of the cleft, the degree of mandibular deviation, and the surgical ability of the craniofacial team to obtain the desired goals.
Alternative treatment algorithm for adult patients with UCLP. A more expedite protocol following the same parameters (severity of the cleft, degree of mandibular deviation, and surgical ability of the craniofacial team) is performed in all patients with UCLP who have non-repaired clefts and require a definitive solution to their craniofacial difference.
Orthodontic treatment for patients with unilateral cleft lip and palate varies in the level of difficulty due to the increased involvement of orthodontic and surgical procedures involved, the correct timing of applying the complete treatment strategy, and the need of additional procedures to treat several dental anomalies present in teeth adjacent to the cleft, such as dental form and size anomalies, localized enamel hypoplasia, abnormal teeth number, and dental formation disturbances.
Our modified GOSLON+ yardstick allow us to categorize patients with UCLP in several discrete groups according to maxillary growth. Our treatment algorithms allow us to deliver appropriate treatment of the adolescent and young adult patients requiring effective orthodontic intervention for all surgical needs in our patient-based hospital settings in Colombia.
To CES University, who allowed me to experience all procedures described in this chapter.
To Universidad de Antioquia for their support.
To Clínica Noel Foundation to allow me access to all records used in this chapter.
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. 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His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Everyone must undergo this phase of life at his or her own time and pace. In the broader sense, ageing reflects all the changes taking place over the course of life. These changes start from birth—one grows, develops and attains maturity. To the young, ageing is exciting. Middle age is the time when people notice the age-related changes like greying of hair, wrinkled skin and a fair amount of physical decline. Even the healthiest, aesthetically fit cannot escape these changes. Slow and steady physical impairment and functional disability are noticed resulting in increased dependency in the period of old age. According to World Health Organization, ageing is a course of biological reality which starts at conception and ends with death. It has its own dynamics, much beyond human control. However, this process of ageing is also subject to the constructions by which each society makes sense of old age. In most of the developed countries, the age of 60 is considered equivalent to retirement age and it is said to be the beginning of old age. In this chapter, you understand the details of ageing processes and associated physiological changes.",book:{id:"6381",slug:"gerontology",title:"Gerontology",fullTitle:"Gerontology"},signatures:"Shilpa Amarya, Kalyani Singh and Manisha Sabharwal",authors:[{id:"226573",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Shilpa",middleName:null,surname:"Amarya",slug:"shilpa-amarya",fullName:"Shilpa Amarya"},{id:"226593",title:"Dr.",name:"Kalyani",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"kalyani-singh",fullName:"Kalyani Singh"},{id:"243264",title:"Dr.",name:"Manisha",middleName:null,surname:"Sabharwal",slug:"manisha-sabharwal",fullName:"Manisha Sabharwal"}]},{id:"27237",title:"Emotional Intelligence",slug:"emotional-intelligence",totalDownloads:5774,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"679",slug:"emotional-intelligence-new-perspectives-and-applications",title:"Emotional Intelligence",fullTitle:"Emotional Intelligence - New Perspectives and Applications"},signatures:"Adrian Furnham",authors:[{id:"85492",title:"Prof.",name:"Adrian",middleName:null,surname:"Furnham",slug:"adrian-furnham",fullName:"Adrian Furnham"}]},{id:"70731",title:"Theoretical Perspective of Traditional Counseling",slug:"theoretical-perspective-of-traditional-counseling",totalDownloads:1605,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This chapter discusses the theoretical perspective of traditional counseling from an African context. Traditional counseling involves a broad perspective that enhances learning for transformation and integration of sociocultural values that are peculiar to each human society. A cursory review of the literature suggests that the concept of traditional counseling is rooted in traditional systems of knowledge and sociocultural customs and practices, and it promotes a collective approach to problem identification, resolution, and management. The traditional counseling process centers on four aspects: traditional counselor, client, family, and community. The key elements that inform the theoretical framework of traditional counseling from an African perspective are: cultural context, collective belief system, and initiation rituals Traditional systems of knowledge deemed essential for each generation are passed on successively to the next generation by elderly people who do not only have the necessary wisdom and experience, but are also adorned with social competences and skills.",book:{id:"9136",slug:"counseling-and-therapy",title:"Counseling and Therapy",fullTitle:"Counseling and Therapy"},signatures:"Hector Chiboola",authors:[{id:"314172",title:"Prof.",name:"Hector",middleName:null,surname:"Chiboola",slug:"hector-chiboola",fullName:"Hector Chiboola"}]},{id:"55388",title:"Beauty, Body Image, and the Media",slug:"beauty-body-image-and-the-media",totalDownloads:7764,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"This chapter analyses the role of the mass media in people’s perceptions of beauty. We summarize the research literature on the mass media, both traditional media and online social media, and how they appear to interact with psychological factors to impact appearance concerns and body image disturbances. There is a strong support for the idea that traditional forms of media (e.g. magazines and music videos) affect perceptions of beauty and appearance concerns by leading women to internalize a very slender body type as ideal or beautiful. Rather than simply being passive recipients of unrealistic beauty ideals communicated to them via the media, a great number of individuals actually seek out idealized images in the media. Finally, we review what is known about the role of social media in impacting society’s perception of beauty and notions of idealized physical forms. Social media are more interactive than traditional media and the effects of self‐presentation strategies on perceptions of beauty have just begun to be studied. This is an emerging area of research that is of high relevance to researchers and clinicians interested in body image and appearance concerns.",book:{id:"5925",slug:"perception-of-beauty",title:"Perception of Beauty",fullTitle:"Perception of Beauty"},signatures:"Jennifer S. Mills, Amy Shannon and Jacqueline Hogue",authors:[{id:"202110",title:"Dr.",name:"Jennifer S.",middleName:null,surname:"Mills",slug:"jennifer-s.-mills",fullName:"Jennifer S. Mills"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"21",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"83027",title:"Coping Strategies and Meta-Worry in Adolescents’ Adjustment during COVID-19 Pandemic",slug:"coping-strategies-and-meta-worry-in-adolescents-adjustment-during-covid-19-pandemic",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106258",abstract:"With the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, several limitations and stressful changes have been introduced in adolescent’s daily life. Particularly, Italian teenagers were the first among western populations to experience fears of infection, home confinement, and social restrictions due to a long lockdown period (10 weeks). This study explores the role of coping strategies (task-oriented, emotion-oriented, and avoidance coping) and meta-beliefs about worry as vulnerability factors associated with adolescents’ anxiety. A community sample of adolescents (N = 284, aged 16–18 y.o.) answered questionnaires assessing anxiety symptoms (RCMAS-2), meta-cognitive beliefs and processes about worry (MCQ-C), and coping strategies (CISS). Results show that 37% of participants report clinically elevated anxiety. Emotion-centered coping predicted higher anxiety, whereas task-centered coping resulted associated with decreased anxiety. Cognitive monitoring about their own worry contributes, but to a lesser extent, to higher levels of anxiety. The implications for the intervention are discussed, especially the need to enhance the coping skills of adolescents and mitigate the stress of the COVID-19 pandemic, which could last for a long time.",book:{id:"10671",title:"Adolescences",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10671.jpg"},signatures:"Loredana Benedetto, Ilenia Schipilliti and Massimo Ingrassia"},{id:"83023",title:"Gestational Tryptophan Fluctuation Underlying Ontogenetic Origin of Neuropsychiatric Disorders",slug:"gestational-tryptophan-fluctuation-underlying-ontogenetic-origin-of-neuropsychiatric-disorders",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106421",abstract:"Neuropsychiatry underlies personality development and social functioning. Borderline personality disorder exhibits high trait aggression and is associated with tryptophan hydroxylase polymorphisms. The acute tryptophan depletion reduces plasma and cerebrospinal fluid tryptophan availability and brain serotonin concentrations, leading to alterations in personality and trait-related behaviors. Tryptophan is essential for fatal neurodevelopment and immunomodulation in pregnancy. Gestational tryptophan fluctuation induced by maternal metabolic disorders or drug administrations may account for the maternal-fetal transmission determining neurogenesis and microbial development, consequentially shaping the long-standing patterns of thinking and behavior. However, it is not possible to assess the gestational tryptophan exposure effects on fetal brain and gastrointestinal system in humans for ethical reasons. The maternal–fetal microbe transmission in rodents during gestation, vaginal delivery, and breastfeeding is inevitable. Chicken embryo may be an alternative and evidence from the chicken embryo model reveals that gestational tryptophan fluctuation, i.e., exposed to excessive tryptophan or its metabolite, serotonin, attenuates aggressiveness and affects peer sociometric status. This chapter discusses the gestational tryptophan fluctuation as a risk factor of personality disorders in offspring and the prevention of personality disorders by dietary tryptophan control and medication therapy management during pregnancy.",book:{id:"11782",title:"Personality Traits - The Role in Psychopathology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11782.jpg"},signatures:"Xiaohong Huang, Xiaohua Li and Heng-Wei Cheng"},{id:"82982",title:"The Well-Being in the Children and Adolescents with ADHD: Possible Influencing Factors and How to Improve It",slug:"the-well-being-in-the-children-and-adolescents-with-adhd-possible-influencing-factors-and-how-to-imp",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106596",abstract:"In recent years, academics have increasingly emphasized the importance of research into the well-being of children and adolescents. This is because well-being plays an important role in the development of children and adolescents. The literature reports that high levels of well-being facilitate positive functioning in children and adolescents. They contribute to the overall development of the individual and are a key factor in helping children and adolescents to integrate into society. ADHD, the most prevalent neurodevelopmental disorder, affects more than 5% of children and adolescents, and the distress caused by its symptom can seriously undermine the well-being of children and adolescents. Therefore, this chapter discusses this noticeable issue focusing on the following key parts: An understanding of the well-being in children and adolescents, the factors that affect the well-being of children and adolescents with ADHD, and how to improve the well-being of children and adolescents with ADHD.",book:{id:"11444",title:"Happiness - Biopsychosocial and Anthropological Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11444.jpg"},signatures:"Jenson Yin and Jie Luo"},{id:"82867",title:"Indigenous Cultural Expressions and Methodological Frameworks: Some Thoughts",slug:"indigenous-cultural-expressions-and-methodological-frameworks-some-thoughts",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106236",abstract:"Within the contemporary global world, there appears to be an inevitable lag between the changing factual reality and the concepts and categories scholars use to analyze it, i.e., “indigenous peoples,” “traditional oral expressions,” “ethnicity,” “cultural identity,” and “cultural heritage.” But are these discrepancies insurmountable? This article delves into such mismatches, examining the relentless search for heuristic instruments to deal with the diverse indigenous artistic expressions in their socio-historical and political contexts. It presents some thoughts about the methodological frameworks used to ponder indigenous cultural expressions. The main argument is based on ethnographic research among Zoque and Mayan peoples in the states of Oaxaca and Chiapas in Southern Mexico, while establishing a dialog with ethnographies by other authors on different indigenous regions.",book:{id:"11434",title:"Indigenous Populations - Perspectives From Scholars and Practitioners in Contemporary Times",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11434.jpg"},signatures:"Marina Alonso-Bolaños"},{id:"82930",title:"Psychosocial Factors Linked to Severe Mental Disorders in a Convenience Sample of Teenage Students",slug:"psychosocial-factors-linked-to-severe-mental-disorders-in-a-convenience-sample-of-teenage-students",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104936",abstract:"Students with severe mental disorders (SMDs) are a vulnerable population with higher risks of early school dropout than the general population. Our aim has been to define psychosocial factors of students aged 12–18 years who have been diagnosed with severe mental disorders. So, we have defined the psychosocial factors of a group of students aged 12 to 18 years who have been diagnosed with a SMD. We have made the selection of the sample through an intentional nonprobability sampling. One hundred and nine cases of students were analyzed. We have analyzed the evolution of the student throughout their academic history until the moment in which they are hospitalized in serious condition by means of an exploratory factor analysis, with the application of the KMO sample adequacy of 0.776 and the significance of Bartlett’s test of sphericity p < .001, we have obtained a high correlation between the variables. The factors obtained are study limitations, symptomatology representation, study facilitators, other limitations. The results show that it is necessary to take into account the conditions that prevent them from permanence, inclusion, coexistence, and educational achievement. Likewise, symptomatic expression and family support are key elements in improving the educational process of pupils with SMD. These factors allow us to infer pedagogical practices that are more appropriate to their needs.",book:{id:"10671",title:"Adolescences",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10671.jpg"},signatures:"Cristina Sánchez Romero and Francisco Crespo Molero"},{id:"82928",title:"Utilizing Environmental Analytical Chemistry to Establish Culturally Appropriate Community Partnerships",slug:"utilizing-environmental-analytical-chemistry-to-establish-culturally-appropriate-community-partnersh",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106237",abstract:"In the United States, minority communities are disproportionately exposed to environmental contaminants due to a combination of historically discriminatory based racial policies and a lack of social political capital. American Indian/Alaska Native (AI/AN) communities have additional factors that increase the likelihood of contaminant exposure. Some of these factors include the disparity of social, cultural, and political representation, differences in cultural understandings between AI/AN communities and western populations, and the unique history of tribal sovereignty in the US. Since the 1990s, research from both private and federal organizations have sought to increase research with AI/AN communities. However, although rooted in beneficence, the rift in cultural upbringing can lead to negative outcomes as well as further isolation and misrepresentation of AI/AN communities. Environmental analytical chemistry (EAC) is one approach that provides a means to establish productive and culturally appropriate collaborations with AI/AN populations. EAC is a more holistic approach that incorporates numerous elements and disciplines to understand underlying environmental questions, while allowing direct input from AI/AN communities. Additionally, EAC allows for a myriad of experimental approaches that can be designed for each unique tribal community, to maintain cultural respect and probe individual nuanced questions.",book:{id:"11434",title:"Indigenous Populations - Perspectives From Scholars and Practitioners in Contemporary Times",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11434.jpg"},signatures:"Jonathan Credo, Jani C. Ingram, Margaret Briehl and Francine C. Gachupin"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:64},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:33,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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from Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran. He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. 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