These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
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This collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
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To celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
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Initially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\n
This collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\n
To celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5836",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Bisphenol A Exposure and Health Risks",title:"Bisphenol A",subtitle:"Exposure and Health Risks",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Bisphenol A (BPA) is a synthetic compound for hardening and clearing polycarbonate plastics. BPA is mainly classified as an estrogen-like endocrine-disrupting chemical. In the last decade, attention has arisen in scientific communities that it is not safe to use this chemical in mainly polycarbonate plastics. Exposure to BPA starts in prenatal period, which is the critical period for its toxic effects on different organs. Throughout this book, the readers will obtain information on the effects of BPA on different systems. They will also get information on the prenatal and postnatal effects of BPA. We believe that readers will get qualified scientific knowledge and a general overview of the toxic effects of BPA exposure and its consequences from this book.",isbn:"978-953-51-3218-9",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3217-2",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4801-2",doi:"10.5772/65584",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"bisphenol-a-exposure-and-health-risks",numberOfPages:164,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"446599b9e5cf929537d445edc546c449",bookSignature:"Pinar Erkekoglu and Belma Kocer-Gumusel",publishedDate:"June 7th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5836.jpg",numberOfDownloads:12564,numberOfWosCitations:14,numberOfCrossrefCitations:13,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:22,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:49,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 10th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 31st 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 27th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 27th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 26th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoğlu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoğlu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109978/images/system/109978.jpg",biography:"Pınar Erkekoğlu graduated from the Faculty of Pharmacy, Hacettepe University, Turkey, where she received her MSci and Ph.D. in Toxicology. She completed her Ph.D. studies at the University of Joseph Fourier, France, and the French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission/Institute for Nanosciences and Cryogenics/Nucleic Acid Lesions (CEA/INAC/LAN). She worked as a post-doc and visiting associate in the Biological Engineering Department, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), USA. She is currently a full professor and head of the Department of Toxicology, Hacettepe University, and a faculty staff/board member at the Hacettepe University Vaccine Institute. Her main interests are endocrine-disrupting chemicals, neurotoxic chemicals, and the toxic effects of vaccines. Dr. Erkekoğlu has published more than 180 papers and 15 book chapters. She has edited seven international books and served as the translation editor for three others. She has been a European Registered Toxicologist (ERT) since 2014.",institutionString:"Hacettepe University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"7",institution:{name:"Hacettepe University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"195435",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Koçer-Gümüşel",slug:"belma-kocer-gumusel",fullName:"Belma Koçer-Gümüşel",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195435/images/5690_n.jpg",biography:"Belma Kocer Gumusel graduated from Hacettepe University, Faculty of Pharmacy. After receiving her PhD degree, she worked as a postdoctoral fellow at Joseph Fourier University and in CEA/INAC/LAN. She is currently working as a full professor and serves as the department head in Hacettepe University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Toxicology. Her main interests are the reproductive disorders and endocrine diseases. She has published more than 140 papers in national and international journals. She is a European Registered Toxicologist. She is a member of many international and national scientific societies.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"384",title:"Chemical Biology",slug:"chemical-biology"}],chapters:[{id:"55469",title:"Bisphenol A: Understanding Its Health Effects from the Studies Performed on Model Organisms",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68971",slug:"bisphenol-a-understanding-its-health-effects-from-the-studies-performed-on-model-organisms",totalDownloads:1504,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Bisphenol A [4,4′‐(propane‐2,2‐diyl)diphenol] (abbreviated as BPA) is a synthetic xenoestrogenic chemical and endocrine disruptor. It is a most common plasticizer that is used widely to produce epoxy resin and polycarbonate plastics, enters the living system through food and water contamination and generates health hazards. Researches are being conducted to explore the adversity that BPA exerts in living body, and for this reason, model organisms are of scientific choice. Rodents, zebrafish, Drosophila, nematodes, crustaceans and echinoderms are being used for monitoring the effect of BPA on their life history traits, nervous system, endocrine system, reproductive systems, behaviour, etc., which could help us to anticipate what kind of challenges BPA is putting in human life. This systematic review is focused on the latest research trend on BPA toxicity on different model organisms.",signatures:"Papiya Ghosh, Sohini Singha Roy, Morium Begum and Sujay Ghosh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55469",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55469",authors:[{id:"125697",title:"Prof.",name:"Sujoy",surname:"Ghosh",slug:"sujoy-ghosh",fullName:"Sujoy Ghosh"},{id:"202692",title:"Dr.",name:"Sujay",surname:"Ghosh",slug:"sujay-ghosh",fullName:"Sujay Ghosh"},{id:"205049",title:"Dr.",name:"Papiya",surname:"Ghosh",slug:"papiya-ghosh",fullName:"Papiya Ghosh"},{id:"205050",title:"Ms.",name:"Sohini",surname:"Singha Roy",slug:"sohini-singha-roy",fullName:"Sohini Singha Roy"}],corrections:null},{id:"55370",title:"Male Reproduction: One of the Primary Targets of Bisphenol",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68629",slug:"male-reproduction-one-of-the-primary-targets-of-bisphenol",totalDownloads:2009,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Infertility is a major health issue affecting human life. The most notable factors causing male infertility is exposure to environmental contaminants. Bisphenol A (BPA) is a common toxic environmental contaminant. Human population is exposed to bisphenol A through air, water, food and a variety of industrial products. Growing evidence from research on laboratory animals supports the hypothesis that bisphenol A is able to adversely affect male reproductive function. The specific mechanisms of action of bisphenol A are wide but not definite. Bisphenol A interferes with the hormonal metabolism and regulation, binding affinity or enzymatic activity, resulting in a deviation from a normal reproductive behaviour. Binding ability to androgen and oestrogen receptors, as well as other properties, is currently investigated. A decreased sperm count, inhibition of sperm motility and reduction of organ weights were observed and linked with oxidative stress after bisphenol A treatment. In addition, prenatal exposure to bisphenol A may lead to adverse effects in the offspring. In this review, we address the topic of BPA effects on male reproductive function and emphasize its effects on testicular steroidogenesis and spermatogenesis. A considerably more detailed and systematic research focusing on bisphenol A toxicology is required for a better understanding of risks associated with exposure to this endocrine disruptor.",signatures:"Tomáš Jambor, Bistáková Jana, Greifová Hana, Tvrdá Eva and Lukáč\nNorbert",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55370",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55370",authors:[{id:"199328",title:"Prof.",name:"Norbert",surname:"Lukáč",slug:"norbert-lukac",fullName:"Norbert Lukáč"},{id:"199382",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomáš",surname:"Jambor",slug:"tomas-jambor",fullName:"Tomáš Jambor"},{id:"199383",title:"MSc.",name:"Hana",surname:"Greifova",slug:"hana-greifova",fullName:"Hana Greifova"},{id:"204992",title:"Dr.",name:"Jana",surname:"Bistáková",slug:"jana-bistakova",fullName:"Jana Bistáková"},{id:"204993",title:"Dr.",name:"Eva",surname:"Tvrdá",slug:"eva-tvrda",fullName:"Eva Tvrdá"}],corrections:null},{id:"54760",title:"The Ovary as a Target Organ for Bisphenol A Toxicity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68241",slug:"the-ovary-as-a-target-organ-for-bisphenol-a-toxicity",totalDownloads:1876,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The ovary is a hormone-sensitive organ that produces steroid hormones. Recent studies show that bisphenol A (BPA) can affect female reproduction; thus, it is important to identify the possible toxic effects of BPA on the ovary because this organ is indispensable for fertility. This chapter summarises the effects of BPA on the ovary by describing how they directly affect folliculogenesis, steroidogenesis and receptor signalling and how they indirectly affect the expression of adipokines and/or their receptors, which exert endocrine or autocrine functions within the ovary.",signatures:"Anna Ptak, Marta Hoffmann and Agnieszka Rak",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54760",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54760",authors:[{id:"107080",title:"Dr.",name:"Agnieszka",surname:"Rak",slug:"agnieszka-rak",fullName:"Agnieszka Rak"},{id:"136134",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",surname:"Ptak",slug:"anna-ptak",fullName:"Anna Ptak"},{id:"198787",title:"MSc.",name:"Marta",surname:"Hoffmann",slug:"marta-hoffmann",fullName:"Marta Hoffmann"}],corrections:null},{id:"55463",title:"Bisphenol A in Chronic Kidney Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68681",slug:"bisphenol-a-in-chronic-kidney-disease",totalDownloads:2232,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Several types of medical devices are produced using polycarbonate (PC) polymer. Unfortunately, these medical devices produced using PC could contain and release Bisphenol A (BPA) residual in routinely use. Published evidence on BPA in dialysis or Chronic Kidney patients (CKD) is scarce and limited to the observation of increased blood BPA levels. Increased serum BPA with decreasing renal function was observed in a smaller study of 32 CKD patients, suggesting that BPA may accumulate. Recently a crossover study evaluated the impact of the choice of dialyzer (BPA-free versus BPA-containing) on serum and intracellular BPA levels and on inflammation and oxidative stress markers. Currently, BPA is still considered, from regulatory agencies, safe enough in the general population, despite several red flags, as it is readily excreted in the urine. However, patients in End Stage Renal Disease (ESRD) are unable to excrete BPA in their urine, leading to BPA accumulation. Repeated loading of BPA during hemodialysis with BPA-containing membranes may aggravate the problem due to migration of BPA from dialyzers to the blood of patients. In contrast, some recent studies on the chronic use of BPA-free dialyzers, results in decreased BPA levels.",signatures:"Giuseppe Palladino and Luisa Sereni",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55463",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55463",authors:[{id:"165440",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Giuseppe",surname:"Palladino",slug:"giuseppe-palladino",fullName:"Giuseppe Palladino"},{id:"165441",title:"Mrs.",name:"Luisa",surname:"Sereni",slug:"luisa-sereni",fullName:"Luisa Sereni"}],corrections:null},{id:"54971",title:"Toxicogenomics of Bisphenol A and Neurodevelopmental Disorders",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68415",slug:"toxicogenomics-of-bisphenol-a-and-neurodevelopmental-disorders",totalDownloads:1811,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Bisphenol A (BPA) has been widely used in many industrial and consumer products and is known as an endocrine‐disrupting chemical. To find the underlying genetic basis and molecular mechanisms of BPA‐associated neurodevelopmental disorders (NDs), this chapter addressed the toxicogenomics of BPA with publicly accessed Comparative Toxicogenomics Database. The present results indicated that the key cellular components (CC) of the nervous system such as neuron, synapse, dendrite and axon are common in CC annotation; the commonly found molecular functions are neurotransmitter receptor or transducer binding or activity; and the main common biological processes include synaptic signalling, cognition, learning or memory, behaviour, the development of nervous system and brain. Neuroactive ligand‐receptor interaction, dopaminergic, glutamatergic and serotonergic synapses, monoamine transport and synaptic vesicle pathway were the common pathways. Simultaneously, the BPA-disease may share the common pathways with drug addictions such as cocaine addiction. Unique pathways might also contribute to the BPA action in different NDs such as one carbon metabolism and detoxification of oxidative stress in Down syndrome. Although GO and pathway results indicate some common annotations, the predicted PPI molecular function clusters are quite different for each ND. In addition, some of the NDs share the same transcription factors (TFs) and miRNAs, which indicate these disorders have the similar expression profiles. Finally, chemicals having comparable interacting genes to BPA should be considered.",signatures:"Bingling Wang, Ruqin Gao and Da‐Hong Wang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54971",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54971",authors:[{id:"198728",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Bingling",surname:"Wang",slug:"bingling-wang",fullName:"Bingling Wang"},{id:"199831",title:"Prof.",name:"Ruqin",surname:"Gao",slug:"ruqin-gao",fullName:"Ruqin Gao"},{id:"199867",title:"Prof.",name:"Dahong",surname:"Wang",slug:"dahong-wang",fullName:"Dahong Wang"}],corrections:null},{id:"54936",title:"Low-Dose Exposure to Bisphenol A in Early Life",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68428",slug:"low-dose-exposure-to-bisphenol-a-in-early-life",totalDownloads:1518,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Bisphenol A (BPA) has lower estrogenic potency than 17b-estadiol. The reference dose of BPA is defined as 50 ug/kg bw/day by the Environmental Protection Agency. The lower doses of BPA than no observable effect level are considered safe. However, early life exposure to low-dose BPA may increase the risk of developing adult onset disease. The harmful effects caused by low-dose BPA in fetus and newborns can transmit to third or fourth generations. The suggested mechanism of transgeneration is epigenetic changes. In addition, simultaneous exposure to various chemicals can induce combined effects. Low-dose effects of BPA are ongoing controversy because the animal test results will be the same in humans. Epidemiologic evidences are needed to provide the human health effects from exposure to low dose of BPA.",signatures:"Yeon-Pyo Hong and Yun-Jung Yang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54936",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54936",authors:[{id:"198359",title:"Prof.",name:"Yeon-Pyo",surname:"Hong",slug:"yeon-pyo-hong",fullName:"Yeon-Pyo Hong"},{id:"205145",title:"Prof.",name:"Yun-Jung",surname:"Yang",slug:"yun-jung-yang",fullName:"Yun-Jung Yang"}],corrections:null},{id:"55468",title:"The Toxic Effects BPA on Fetuses, Infants, and Children",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68896",slug:"the-toxic-effects-bpa-on-fetuses-infants-and-children",totalDownloads:1614,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Bisphenol A (BPA) is an organic synthetic compound with the chemical formula (CH3)2C(C6H4OH)2 belonging to the group of diphenylmethane derivatives and bisphenols, with two hydroxyphenyl groups. BPA is the common name for 2,2-(4,4′-dihydroxydiphenyl) propane, IUPAC name 4,4′-(propane-2,2-diyl) diphenol, alternative name p,p′-isopropylidenebisphenol, with two phenol moieties. Its important properties include low vapor pressure, moderate water solubility, and low volatility. It is a colorless solid that is soluble in organic solvents, but poorly soluble in water. BPA is a plastic component produced in large quantities for use chiefly in the production of polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins. BPA epoxy has a good, broad range of chemical resistance, good physical properties, and is cured using a wide variety of curing agents at ambient temperatures. The present chapter focuses on different toxic effects and the influence of BPA on different stages of human life in fetuses, infants, and children. The chapter also concentrates on how to handle BPA, its treatment, and preventive measures against BPA exposure.",signatures:"Mujtaba Ellahi and Mamoon ur Rashid",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55468",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55468",authors:[{id:"197831",title:"Dr.",name:"Mujtaba",surname:"Ellahi",slug:"mujtaba-ellahi",fullName:"Mujtaba Ellahi"},{id:"205071",title:"Dr.",name:"Mamoon",surname:"Ur Rashid",slug:"mamoon-ur-rashid",fullName:"Mamoon Ur Rashid"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5176",title:"Nutritional Deficiency",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a2e20dabc8ed6fbaef3686be8c6fce99",slug:"nutritional-deficiency",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Belma Kocer-Gumusel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5176.jpg",editedByType:"Edited 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1. Introduction
Cancer immunotherapy is the use of the immune system to reject cancers. The main premise is to harness the patient\'s immune system to attack the malignant tumor cells. This area of research has made tremendous progresses, and the United States Food and Drug Administration recently approved a vaccine for prostate cancers as the first approval for vaccines against non-viral cancers (Kantoff et al., 2010). However, when it comes to central nervous system (CNS) tumors, while early phase immunotherapy trials showed encouraging outcomes, the immunological microenvironment of the CNS and tumors arising in the CNS is still believed to be suboptimal for sufficient antitumor immune responses to mediate clinically-meaningful changes in situ (Okada, H. et al., 2009; Walker, P. R. et al., 2003). In this chapter, we first discuss recent advances in the CNS and CNS tumor immunology. We address factors that may promote immune escape of gliomas. We also review advances in passive and active immunotherapy strategies for glioma, with an emphasis on lessons learned from recent early phase clinical trials. We also discuss novel immunotherapy strategies that have been recently tested in non-CNS tumors with great potential for application to CNS tumors. We will finally discuss how each of these promising strategies can be combined to achieve clinical benefit for patients with CNS tumors.
2. Immunology of gliomas
2.1. Immunology of CNS
For many decades, the brain has been considered an immune-privileged site due to the presence of a blood brain barrier (BBB) and the lack of lymphatics (Ransohoff et al., 2003). More recent studies have revealed crucial components involved in the process of leukocyte migration towards the CNS and the mechanisms of neuroinflammatory reactions in the CNS (Ransohoff et al., 2003). This section will focus on three key issues of CNS immunology: 1) factors limiting inflammation in the CNS, 2) antigen-specific immune response in the CNS, and 3) immune cell trafficking towards the CNS. In-depth understanding of these aspects will allow us to gain a framework to improve current treatment strategies harnessing the immune system to treat brain tumors.
2.1.1. Factors limiting inflammation in the CNS
Cells composing the CNS are extremely sensitive to the toxic effects of exogenous substances. Therefore, the CNS and the neurovasculature system therein have evolved specialized mechanisms to control both molecular and cellular migration into and out of the CNS parenchyma and cerebral spinal fluid (CSF). Capillary endothelial cells in the CNS are termed the BBB due to their ability to restrict passive diffusion and maintain low pinocytotic activity, and neuroimmunologists synonymously use the term BBB to describe both the capillary and post capillary vessels, the latter of which is the site of T-cell migration into the brain (Ransohoff et al., 2003). This "barrier" results from the selectivity of the tight junctions (TJs) between endothelial cells in the CNS vessels that restrict the passage of large hydrophilic molecules (i.e. peptides and proteins) and cells (Abbott et al., 2006).
Many extracellular proteins have been studied as TJ proteins: primarily the occludin, claudin, and junctional adhesion molecule (JAM) families. Experimental characterization of each has shown that mice carrying a null mutation in the occludin gene develop normal TJs whereas claudins have been shown to be independently sufficient for TJ formation (Engelhardt, 2008), suggesting the importance of claudins in TJ formation and regulation. Additionally, intravenous injection of monoclonal antibodies blocking JAM into mice inhibits leukocyte accumulation in CSF and brain parenchyma presumably through blocking leukocyte transmigration at the BBB (Engelhardt, 2008).
2.1.2. Induction of Immune responses to CNS antigens
The classic paradigm of specific immune activation is achieved through antigen uptake by antigen-presenting cells (APCs), which migrate to the lymph nodes via draining lymphatics where APCs subsequently activate T-cells. In the systemic immune system, dendritic cells (DCs) are considered to be the most potent APCs. In the CNS, a variety of cell populations have been postulated as primary CNS APCs, including vascular endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells, astrocytes, perivascular macrophages, choroid plexus epithelial cells, neurons, and DCs (Dunn et al., 2007). Among them, microglia has been proposed to be the primary resident APCs in the CNS (Aloisi, 2001).
Presentation of CNS antigens can occur through multiple mechanisms (Walker, P. R. et al., 2003): 1) APC uptake antigen within the CNS and migrate to lymph nodes to present antigens; 2) antigen drains to lymph nodes where APCs take them up to present, and 3) cells that express the antigen directly drain to lymph nodes and present their own antigen (direct presentation as opposed to cross presentation by DCs). Indeed, DCs injected in brain tumors have been shown to migrate to the cervical lymph nodes (CLNs) (Dunn et al., 2007). In addition, autoantigens from brain lesions have been shown to drain to CLNs in both primate models of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis and human multiple sclerosis (de Vos et al., 2002). Concurrently, it has been shown that tumor-specific T-cells can be primed in CLNs in murine glioma models (Fujita et al., 2009; Kuwashima et al., 2005; Okada, N. et al., 2005).
2.1.3. Migration of immune cells towards the CNS
Lymphocytes traffic to the CNS through the following 4 steps: 1) tethering/rolling, 2) activation, 3) adhesion, and 4) transmigration (Engelhardt, 2008). Interactions between carbohydrates on leukocytes and adhesion molecules (usually selectins) on endothelial cells slow down the leukocytes. Chemokines (e.g. CXCL10) are released from a site of inflammation and form a concentration gradient in endothelial membrane and attract responsible leukocytes such as activated T-cells (Fujita et al., 2009; Nishimura et al., 2006). At a reduced velocity, the leukocytes sense chemokines on the endothelial cells, become activated through G-protein signaling, and up-regulate integrins such as very late antigen 4 (VLA-4) (Sasaki et al., 2007; Sasaki et al., 2008a; Sasaki et al., 2008b; Sasaki et al., 2009). Lymphocyte function-associated molecules (LFAs) on lymphocytes allow for a stable interaction to their ligands vascular cell adhesion proteins (VCAMs) and inter-cellular adhesion molecules (ICAMs) on endothelial cells. Finally, with this tight interaction in place, the cells transmigrate into the parenchyma.
2.2. Immunosuppression by gliomas
Previously characterized immunological impairments in glioma patients have included low peripheral lymphocyte counts, reduced delayed-type hypersensitivity reactions to recall antigens, and impaired proliferating responses by peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). Gliomas are known to achieve these by producing imunosuppressive molecules and inducing immunosuppressive leukocytes.
2.2.1. Immunosuppressive factors
Transforming growth factor (TGF-)
TGF-β is the most potent immunosuppressive cytokine; its biological effects are multiple and complex (Gorelik et al., 2002). They include the inhibition of 1) APC maturation 2) antigen presentation of APCs, 3) T-cell activation, and 4) their differentiation towards effector cells. Recent studies have shown that TGF-β is up-regulated in glioma cell clones that are resistant to the cytotoxic effects of allogeneic cytotoxic T-cells (CTLs), suggesting the significance of TGF-β in glioma immune escape mechanisms (Gomez et al., 2007; Ueda et al., 2009).
Interleukin 10 (IL-10)
IL-10 is also known to be a strong immunosuppressive cytokine (Moore et al., 2001). Like TGF-β, this cytokine has pleiotropic effects in immunoregulation and inflammation. It down-regulates the expression of Th1 cytokines, MHC class II antigens, and costimulatory molecules on APCs. The expression levels of IL-10 in glioma tissue correlate with glioma grade as well as a degree of brain invasiveness (Huettner et al., 1997; Nitta et al., 1994).
Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2)
PGE2 is a product of arachadonic acid metabolism. It is produced at sites of inflammation or tissue damage where it exerts many effects including the enhancement of vascular permeability. As PGE2 has profound modulatory effects on T-cell activation and gliomas synthesize PGE2, it is associated with the suppressed T-cell function observed in patients with gliomas (Castelli et al., 1989). In addition, we recently demonstrated that PGE2 production from murine gliomas induces accumulation of tumor-associated myeloid cells that promote growth of gliomas (Fujita et al., 2011).
CCL2; macrophage chemoattractive protein 1 (MCP-1)
The Fas receptor is a death receptor on the surface of cells that leads to apoptosis. Malignant gliomas express Fas ligand, which induces apoptotic cell death of adjacent immune cells infiltrating into tumors sites (Walker, P. R. et al., 1997). In addition, Fas receptor expressed on glioma cells induces proinflammatory and angiogenic mediators, which in turn protect and support tumors growth (Shinohara et al., 2000).
B7-homologue 1 (B7-H1); programmed death ligand-1 (PD-L1)
The B7 family consists of co-stimulatory molecules that positively and negatively regulate immune responses. Among them, B7-H1, also known as PD-L1, exerts immunosuppressive functions when interacting with its receptor PD-1 (Chen, 2004). Glioma cells express B7-H1, which subsequently inhibits T-cell functions by decreasing cytokine production levels (IFN-, IL-2, and IL-10) and expression levels of the T-cell activation marker CD69 (Wintterle et al., 2003). Glioma cells often exhibit mutations in a tumor-suppressor gene phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN), and loss of functions in PTEN also leads to up-regulation of B7-H1 (Parsa et al., 2007).
2.2.2. Immunosuppressive leukocytes
A large number of observations suggest that certain types of immune cells in the tumor micrienvironment (TME) are not innocent bystanders at brain tumor sites, but they actively promote tumor development and progression. Inflammatory cells, primarily macrophage/microglia and regulatory T-cells, may affect these processes via their ability to express a large variety of factors, including immunoregulatory cytokines. These cytokines may be secreted not only by inflammatory cells, but also by the tumor cells and stroma cells, together establishing a network of factors that significantly affects brain tumor.
Macrophages/microglia
In the CNS, macrophage/microglial cells constitute the first line of cellular defense against a variety of stressors, participating in the regulation of innate and adaptive immune responses (Graeber et al., 2002). Resident microglias are CD11b+/CD45dim whereas macrophages are CD11b+/CD45high. Intratumoral macrophage/microglia density is higher than in normal brain and abundance of microglia correlates with the grade of malignancy (Badie et al., 2000).
In contrast, the defense functions of macrophage/microglia against glioma are compromised in the TME. Although these cells express Toll-like receptors (TLRs), critical components for APCs to mediate innate immune responses and activate adaptive immune responses, those in the TME are unable to activate T-cells properly (Hussain et al., 2006). Consistently, macrophages/microglia release many factors, including extracellular matrix proteases (MMPs) and cytokines, which may directly or indirectly influence tumor migration/invasiveness and proliferation (Watters et al., 2005). In addition, glioma cell migration is stimulated by the presence of macrophage/microglia (Bettinger et al., 2002). Taken together, macrophages/microglias in gliomas promote the invasive phenotype of these tumors.
Regulatory T-cells (Treg)
The suppressive activity of Tregs has been implicated as an important factor limiting immune-mediated destruction of tumor cells. The presence of CD4+FoxP3+ Tregs correlates with impairment of T-cell proliferation in peripheral blood specimens in GBM patients (Fecci et al., 2006). Moreover, tumor infiltration by Tregs correlates with tumor grade and prognosis (Heimberger et al., 2008).
CD4+FoxP3+ Tregs in gliomas have been shown to express CD25, CTLA-4, GITR, and CXCR4 at high levels (Grauer et al., 2007). Intratumoral accumulation and activation of CD4+FoxP3+ Treg act as a dominant immune escape mechanism of gliomas and underline the importance of controlling tumor-infiltrating Treg in glioma immunotherapy.
3. Immunotherapy for gliomas
In this section, we will first discuss molecular targets for gliomas. Then, we will discuss two modalities: adoptive T-cell therapy (passive immunotherapy) and glioma vaccine (active immunotherapy).
3.1. Target molecules for gliomas
It is essential to know about potent target molecules for glioma immunotherapy. The following section will discuss selected human glioma-associated antigen (GAA)-derived epitopes that appear to be promising based on relatively restricted expression (compared with the normal brain) as well as well-characterized immunogenicity.
IL-13R2
IL-13Rα2 is a membrane glycoprotein that is overexpressed by >80% of malignant gliomas but is not expressed in normal brain tissues or other normal organs except for testes (Debinski et al., 1999). Therefore, IL-13R2 has attracted significant attention as a target for glioma therapy (Kahlon et al., 2004). We recently found that an analogue peptide of natural IL-13R2345-353, in which the first and ninth amino-acid residues tryptophan and isoleucine have been replaced by valine and alanine, respectively, can elicit a greater CTL response against HLA-A2+ IL-13R2+ glioma cells compared with the natural peptide (IL-13R2345-353:1A9V) (Eguchi et al., 2006).
EphA2
EphA2 is a tyrosine kinase receptor that plays a role in carcinogenesis (Dodelet et al., 2000). We have reported that EphA2883-891 is expressed on gliomas and able to elicit an HLA-A2-restricted CTL response against glioma cell lines (Hatano et al., 2005). Furthermore, EphA2 mRNA overexpression was found to correlate inversely with survival in a panel of 21 GBMs (Liu et al., 2006). These findings support the idea that targeting of EphA2 by immunotherapy may provide a major impact in controlling tumor growth and prolonging patients’ survival.
Survivin
Survivin is an apoptosis inhibitor protein overexpressed in most human cancers including gliomas (Blanc-Brude et al., 2002; Uematsu et al., 2005). Therefore, induction of immune response against Survivin appears to be an attractive strategy. Of interest, high level expression of Survivin was correlated with poor prognosis in patients with grade II or III astrocytomas (Uematsu et al., 2005).
Wilm’s tumor 1 (WT1)
WT1 is a transcription factor oncogene that is overexpressed in various types of leukemia and solid tumor cells (Oka et al., 2002). Inhibition of WT1 in leukemic cell lines led to decrease in proliferation and increase in apoptosis of tumor cells (Glienke et al., 2007). Human gliomas also express WT1 at high levels (Izumoto et al., 2008; Rushing et al., 2010; Schittenhelm et al., 2008). These finding imply that elimination of tumor cells that overexpress WT1 may allow efficient control against glioma growth.
Sry-related high mobility group box (SOX)
SOX is a family of transcriptional cofactors implicated in the control of diverse developmental processes and exhibit highly dynamic expression patterns during development of diverse tissues and cell types, especially during embryogenesis (Wegner, 1999). Indeed, SOX2 (Gangemi et al., 2009), SOX5 (Ueda et al., 2007), SOX6 (Ueda et al., 2004), and SOX11 (Schmitz et al., 2007) are highly expressed in glioma cell lines and a majority of glioma tissues. Their preferential expression in glioma and immunogenicity indicate that SOX proteins are attractive targets for immunotherapy.
Type III variant of the EGFR mutation (EGFRvIII)
EGFRvIII is present in 30-50% of patients with GBM. Despite the limited frequency in gliomas, EGFRvIII and IL-13R2 are expressed most restrictedly in primary glioma tissues compared with normal tissues (Saikali et al., 2007). Therefore, this antigen also appears to be an attractive target for glioma immunotherapy.
Cytomegalovirus (CMV)
Recent reports have demonstrated the presence of the cytomegalovirus (CMV) proteins as well as CMV mRNA in a majority of human GBMs (Barami, 2010; Cobbs et al., 2002; Lucas et al., 2010; Mitchell et al., 2008; Scheurer et al., 2008). Therefore, CMV in gliomas could serve as an immunotherapeutic target for glioma. In addition, the facilitation of an immune response against viral antigens contrasts with the difficulty of immunization against self antigens. It will be intriguing to introduce the CMV-derived epitope to multiepitope-based vaccine for glioma.
3.2. Adoptive T-cell therapy (ACT) for gliomas
ACT involves passive infusion or transfer of autologous CTLs specific for tumor antigens to the host. Although ACT are currently evaluated as experimental therapy for limited types of cancers (Gattinoni et al., 2006; Morgan et al., 2006), this strategy may hold promise as an attractive future immunotherapeutic intervention against gliomas. In particular, based on strong findings that CTLs have the capacity to migrate into brain parenchyma (Ransohoff et al., 2003), the approach has been vastly improved by the use of recent advances in several areas of human T-cell biology including in vitro human T-cell culture and ex vivo genetic manipulation. This section will focus on recent technological advances in ACT as well as a current and future ACT for glioma with an emphasis on recent perspectives from human studies.
3.2.1. Source of glioma-reactive CTLs
Peripheral Bloods
PBMCs from glioma patients can be expanded in vitro through multiple cycles of antigenic stimulation. Subsequently, cells with a monoclonal specificity to the particular GAA will be generated. Although few numbers of GAA-reactive CTLs might be obtained this method may be feasible as, this strategy has demonstrated favorable anti-tumor responses in cancer patients (Gattinoni et al., 2006).
Glioma tissues
Another important source of the GAA-specific CTLs is a glioma tissue itself. A tumor nodule contains tumor-reactive CTLs that can be first polyclonally expanded ex vivo in the presence of IL-2 and later selected for antigen specificity (Rosenberg, 2008). These CTLs derived from tumor nodules have been used for ACT in melanoma patients (Dreno et al., 2002; Dudley et al., 2005).
3.2.2. Manipulation of glioma-reactive CTLs ex vivo
Choice of T-cell subtypes
In general, an effector T-cell subset (TE) is predominantly enriched during ex vivo expansion for ACT. TE are generally considered to be terminally differentiated CTLs that have the highest cytotoxic capacity but lack appreciable proliferating capacity (Wherry et al., 2003). These cells would not be able to establish a long-term persisting population of tumor-specific CTLs. There is a significant association between clinically favorable responses and the persistence of ex vivo expanded melanoma-specific CTL clones after infusion (Robbins et al., 2004). Therefore, efforts have been made to generate long-term persisting CTLs. In contrast to the TE subset, memory cells have enhanced proliferative potential and survival, and the potential to provide more robust and enduring protectin aganist tumors (Perret et al., 2008). In particular, recent studies have highlighted the potential of central memory T-cells (TCM) as a source of TE for ACT (Wang et al., 2011; Yang et al., 2011). Yang et al. have shown that a large parcentage of in vitro generated antitumor CTLs mimick a TCM-like phenotype and function (Yang et al., 2011). In addition, Wang et al. have demonstrated that TCM are less prone to apoptosis and able to establish a persistent reservoir of functional T-cells in mice (Wang et al., 2011). Furthermore, recent studies with human T-cell subsets have revealed that naïve CD8+ cells were not only the most abundant subset but also the population most capable of in vitro expansion and T-cell receptor (TCR) transgene expression. Despite increased expansion, naïve-derived cells displayed minimal effector differentiation, a quality associated with greater efficacy after cell infusion (Hinrichs et al., 2011).
Cloning of high-avidity T-cell receptors (TCRs)
Since the majority of GAAs are poorly immunogenic to raise CTLs that possess TCRs with low avidity, a number of modification have been made for ACT. One of attempts is to systematically search tumor-specific CD8+ T-cells for clone(s) with higher TCR avidity, clone TCRα and β genes, and exogenously induce the high-avidity TCR exogenously in bulk CD8+ T-cells. Li et al. used phage display to search for a high-avidity TCR against an HLA-A0201-restricted epitope in a NY-ESO-1 antigen (Li et al., 2005). Moreover, ACT using high-avidity TCR transgenic T-cells have been shown to sustain in blood circulation at high levels engineered cells were observed at 1 year after infusion in 2 of 15 patients who both demonstrated objective regression of metastatic melanoma lesions (Morgan et al., 2006). These data suggest the therapeutic potential of genetically engineered high-avidity TCR clones for glioma immunotherapy.
Establishment of chimeric antigen receptors (CARs)
An interesting alternative to expression of high-avidity TCRs on T-cells is to express a chimeric molecule that has antigen-binding domains of a monoclonal antibody fused with a signal transduction domain of CD3 (Gross et al., 1989), namely chimeric antigen receptors (CAR). A significant advantage of CARs over TCRs is that the antigen recognition is not restricted by expression of certain MHC class I molecules. Recently, CARs have been used to treat a number of cancers (Cartellieri et al., 2010). CAR-based approaches are currently being developed for gliomas as well (Kahlon et al., 2004; Ohno et al., 2010).
3.2.3. Current attempts of ACT for gliomas
There have been a number of clinical trials for malignant gliomas using ACT (Table1) (Vauleon et al., 2010). Among them, three Phase I trials (Holladay et al., 1996; Plautz et al., 1998; Wood et al., 2000) and two pilot studies (Plautz et al., 2000; Sloan et al., 2000) used CTLs obtained from lymph nodes or PBMCs after intradermal vaccination. Holladay et al. first conducted an ACT-based Phase I clinical trial and reported disease-free survival ≥ 8 months in 7 of 15 patients (Holladay et al., 1996). Later, Wood et al. demonstrated a correlation between clinical response and the predominance of CD8+ T-cells to CD4+ cells in the injected cells (Wood et al., 2000). In addition, DTH response to autologous tumors was shown to correlate with clinical response (Sloan et al., 2000; Wood et al., 2000). However, CTLs used in these studies were not specific for GAAs. Therefore, it is necessary to generate a library of human CTL clones against GAAs using advanced techniques described above. With such refinement of ex vivo T-cell manipulation, ACT may become a mainstream therapeutic intervention for malignant gliomas.
Study
Type of trials
Patients
Immune responses
Clinical responses
Holladay et al., 1996
Phase I
N = 15 recurrent HGG 12 GBM, 3 AA
DTH (15/15)
No PR or SD Median FPS: ≥8 mo
Plautz et al., 1998)
Phase I
N = 10 recurrent HGG 9 GBM, 1 AA
3 PR Median FPS: "/> 12 mo
Plautz et al., 2000
Pilot study
N =9 recurrent HGG 6 GBM, 3 Gr3
DTH (9/9)
3 PR
Wood et al., 2000
Phase I
N =12 newly diagnosed glioma 6 GBM, 2 Gr2, 4 Gr3
DTH (12/12)
4 PR, 2 SD Correlation between clinical response and CD4/CD8 composition of infused cells
Sloan et al.,2000
Pilot study
N =19 recurrent HGG 16 GBM, 2 AA, 1 gliosarcoma
DTH (17/19)
1 CR, 7 PR, 9 SD Median OS : 12 mo Correlation between survival and DTH response
Table 1.
ACT-based clinical trials for glioma*Abbreviations used in this table. AA: anaplastic astrocytoma; CR: complete response; DTH: delayed-type hypersensitivity; GBM: gliobrastoma; Gr2: WHO grade II glioma; Gr3: WHO grade III glioma; HGG: high-grade glioma; mo: month(s); OS: overall survival; PFS: progression-free survival; PR: partial response; SD: stable disease.
3.3. Glioma vaccines
In addition to the ACT strategy described above, we will discuss glioma vaccine strategies in this section. They include 1) whole glioma cell vaccines, 2) peptide-based vaccines targeting glioma-associated antigens, and 3) DC vaccines.
3.3.1. Whole glioma cell vaccines
Initial vaccination strategies for gliomas consisted of subcutaneous inoculations of irradiated, autologous (Wikstrand et al., 1980) or allogeneic (Zhang et al., 2007) glioma cells. This type of vaccine has the advantage of providing a panel of multiple potential GAAs that are naturally expressed by glioma cells. Especially, autologous glioma cells should allow immunizations against the most relevant GAAs expressed in the patient’s tumor (i.e. tailored medicine). Potential downsides of this approach, however, include: 1) cumbersome procedures and quality control (QC)/quality assurance (QA) issues associated with large scale cultures of autologous glioma cells and 2) theoretical risks of autoimmune encephalomyelitis (Wikstrand et al., 1980). Nevertheless, this type of vaccine strategy has been carefully examined (Table 2). Schneider et al. (Schneider et al., 2001) and Steiner et al.(Steiner et al., 2004) reported pilot clinical trials using autologous glioma cells modified
Study
Type of trials
Patients
Tumor cell modification
Immune responses
Clinical responses
Schneider et al., 2001
Pilot study
N =11 newly diagnosed GBM
infected with NDV, inactivated with cisplatinum
DTH (11/11) T cell infiltrate (4/4)
No survival benefit
Andrews et al., 2001
Pilot study
N =12 8 GBM, 4 AA
IGF-RA/AS ODN
T cell infiltrate (4/9)
2 CR, 4 PR, 2 SD
Steiner et al., 2004
Pilot study
N =23 GBM
infected with NDV
DTH (15/15) ELISPOT (3/3) T cell infiltrate (6/7)
1 CR Median OS: 100 wks
Parney et al., 2006
Pilot study
N =6 3 recurrent GBM 3 melanoma
transduced with B7-2 and GM-CSF
No CTL activity
Longer PFS (3/6 GBM)
Ishikawa et al., 2007
Pilot study
N =12 8 newly diagnosed GBM, 4 recurrent GBM
formalin-fixed
DTH (9/12)
1 CR, 1 PR,2 MR Median OS:10.7 mo
Clavreul et al., 2010
Phase I
N =5 recurrent HGG 4 GBM, 1 AOA
irradiated
DTH (2/5)
3 SD
Table 2.
Autologous whole glioma cell vaccine trials.*Abbreviations used in this table. AOA: anaplastic oligoastrocytoma; CTL: cytotoxic T-cells; ELISPOT: enzyme-linked immunosorbent spot; IGF-RA/AS ODN: insulin-like growth factoro type I receptor antisence oligodeoxynucleotide; MR: minor response; NDV: Newcastle-Disease-Virus; wk: week(s).
with Newcastle-Disease-Virus (NDV), which is known to serve as an vaccine adjuvant and therefore to improve the efficacy of glioma vaccines. Recently, Ishikawa et al. reported a Phase I clinical trial using formalin-fixed glioma tissues as a source of antigens (Ishikawa et al., 2007). The advantage of this strategy is that formalin fixation preserves the specific antigenicity of glioma cells. These studies reported no major adverse events.
In vaccines using synthetic peptides for shared GAA-epitopes, advantages and disadvantages are distinct from those in whole glioma cell approaches. While synthetic GAA peptide-based vaccines may not adequately target antigens in each patient’s tumor, these vaccines have less concern for autoimmunity and provide “off the shelf” feasibility. Indeed, a wide range of peptide-based vaccines have been clinically evaluated (Table 3). Yajima et al. reported a phase I study of peptide-based vaccinations in patients with recurrent malignant gliomas (Yajima et al., 2005). In this study, prior to the first vaccine, each patient’s PBMCs were evaluated in vitro for cellular and humoral responses against a panel of antigens, and peptides that induced positive response were used for vaccinations. The regimen was well tolerated and resulted in an 89-week median survival of treated patients. However, there is little evidence that the antigens used in this study are expressed in gliomas at high levels. More recently, as the extension of the approach, Terasaki et al. reported a Phase I trial using 14 HLA-A24-binding peptides (Terasaki et al., 2011). They evaluated immune responses with dose escalation of peptides and defined 3 mg/peptide as the Phase II-recommended dose. Izumoto et al. reported a Phase II clinical trial using a single WT1 peptide (Izumoto et al., 2008). In this study, they reported a median progression-free survival (PFS) of 20 weeks and a possible association between the WT1 expression levels and clinical responses. When single or oligo antigens are selected and targeted by vaccines, it also seems necessary to harness the concepts of epitope spreading to address the problems of tumor immune escape, while avoiding the augmentation of deleterious CNS autoimmune responses (Vanderlugt et al., 2002). Sampson et al. recently reported a Phase II study targeting the EGFRvIII epitope in newly diagnosed GBM patients who received gross total resection (Sampson et al., 2010). They reported a median PFS of 14.2 months and a median overall survival (OS) of 26.0 months. In addition, they identified that the development of specific antibody or delayed-type hypersensitivity responses to EGFRvIII significantly correlated with the OS.
Study
Type of trials
Patients
Peptide(s)
Immune responses
Clinical responses
Yajima et al., 2005
Phase I
N = 25 17 GBM, 8 Gr3
multiple
DTH (11/21) CTL activity (14/21)
5 PR, 8 SD Median OS: 89 wks
Izumoto et al., 2008
Phase II
N = 21 recurrent GBM
WT1
DTH (21/21)
2 PR, 10 SD Median PFS: 20 wks
Sampson et al., 2010
Phase II
N = 18 newly diagnosed GBM
EGFRvIII
DTH (5/9) CTL activity (10/12)
Median PFS: 14.2 months Median OS: 26.0 mo
Terasaki et al., 2011
Phase I
N = 12, recurrent GBM
multiple
CTL activity (8/12)
1 PR, 7 SD Median PFS: 2.3 mo Median OS: 18.9 mo
Table 3.
Peptide-based vaccine trials for glioma.
3.3.3. DC vaccines
DCs are the most potent antigen-presenting cells, driving the activation of T-cells in response to invading microorganisms (Banchereau et al., 2000). The availability to culture DCs from human peripheral blood monocytes has generated significant interest in using DCs in novel cancer vaccination strategies (Banchereau et al., 2000).
To induce tumor-specific immune reaction via DCs, antigen elusion from tumor cells has been performed (Table 4). Yu et al. reported a Phase I trial of vaccinations using DCs pulsed with peptides eluted from autologous glioma cells (Yu et al., 2001). Later, Liau et al. also reported a Phase I trial in patients with newly diagnosed GBM using DCs pulsed with acid-eluted glioma peptides (Liau et al., 2005). In this study, the authors reported the median OS of 23.4 months and that the benefit of the vaccine treatment was more evident in the subgroup of patients with slowly-progressing tumors and in those with tumors expressing low levels of TGF-β2.
Study
Type of trials
Patients
Immune responses
Clinical responses
Yu et al.,2001
Phase I
N = 9 newly diagnosed HGG 7 GBM, 2 AA
CTL activity (4/7) T cell infiltrate (2/4)
Median OS: 455 d
Wheeler et al., 2004
Phase I/II
N = 25 newly diagnosed GBM
CTL activity (8/24)
3 PR
Liau et al., 2005
Phase I
N = 12 GBM 5 recurrent 7 newly diagnosed
CTL activity (6/12) T cell infiltrate (4/8)
1 PR Median OS: 23.4 mo
Table 4.
DC-based vaccine trials using acid-eluted peptides.
However, pulsing DCs with eluted peptides requires a large culture of autologous glioma cells and time-consuming procedures, for which QC/QA is not always feasible. To overcome this issue, glioma cell lysate has been used to pulse DCs in a number of trials (Table 5). Yamanaka et al. reported a Phase I/II study using DC pulsed with glioma lysate. Patients received either DCs matured with OK-432 or DCs without OK-432-mediated maturation (Yamanaka et al., 2003; Yamanaka et al., 2005). GBM patients receiving mature DCs had longer survival than those receiving DCs without OK-432-mediated maturation. Furthermore, patients receiving both intratumoral and intradermal DC administrations demonstrated longer overall survival than those with intradermal administrations alone (Yamanaka et al., 2005). Wheeler et al. reported another Phase II clinical trial with lysate-pulsed DCs (Wheeler et al., 2008). IFN-γ production levels from post-vaccine PBMC correlated significantly with patients’ survival and time to progression. Prins et al. recently reported a Phase I clinical trial in glioma patients using lysate-pulsed DCs (Prins et al., 2011). Interestingly, their gene expression profiling in the participants’ GBM tissues demonstrated that the mesenchymal gene expression profile may represent a population of patients with favorable responses to their vaccines.
Study
Type of trials
Patients
Immune responses
Clinical responses
Yamanakaet al., 2003
Phase I/II
N = 10 7 GBM, 3 recurrent Gr3
DTH (3/6) ELISPOT (2/5) T cell infiltrate (2/2)
2 MR, 4 SD Median OS: "/> 200 wks
Yu et al.,2004
Phase I
N = 14 1 GBM, 1 AA, 9 recurrent GBM, 3 recurrent AA
CTL activity (4/9) T cell infiltrate (3/6)
Median OS: 133 wks
Rutkowskiet al., 2004
Phase I
N = 12 recurrent HGG 11 GBM, 1 others
DTH (7/8)
2 CR, 1 PR, 1 SD Median OS: 10.5 mo
Yamanakaet al., 2005
Phase I/II
N = 24 recurrent HGG 18 GBM, 6 Gr3
DTH (8/17) ELISPOT (7/16)
1PR, 3MR, 10 SD Median OS: 480 d Longer survival if DC maturation or IC injection
Okada, H.et al., 2007
Phase I
N = 5 newly diagnosed GBM
No response
No response
Wheeler et al., 2008
Phase II
N = 34 GBM 23 recurrent 11 newly diagnosed
ELISPOT (17/34)
3 CR, 1 PR Median OS: 642 d Correlation between survival and IFN-γ production
De Vleeschouwer et al., 2004
Phase I/II
N = 56 recurrent GBM
DTH (11/ 23)
Median OS: 9.6 mo
Walker, D. G. et al., 2008
Phase I
N = 13 9 GBM, 4 AA
T cell infiltrate (3/3)
2 CR, 3 PR
Ardon et al., 2010
Phase I/II
N = 8 newly diagnosed GBM
DTH (2/5) ELISPOT (5/8)
Median OS: 24 mo
Prins et al., 2011
Phase I
N = 23 GBM 8 recurrent 15 newly diagnosed
increase in systemic TNF-α and IL-6
Median OS: 31.4 mo Better imune response if mesenchymal gene expression presents
Table 5.
DC-based vaccine trials using autologous tumor cell lysates.
\\
While these studies demonstrate early success of DC-based vaccines in glioma patients, based on our preclinical data demonstrating that type-1 CTLs are capable of mediating effective anti-CNS tumor immunity (Fujita et al., 2008; Nishimura et al., 2006), we recently completed a Phase I/II study of vaccines evaluating safety and immunological activities of vaccines using -type-1-polarized DCs (DC1) that are able to produce high levels of IL-12 and induce long-lived type-1 T-cell responses (Okada, H. et al., 2011). In this study, patients with recurrent malignant glioma received intra-lymphnodal injection of αDC1 loaded with synthetic peptides for GAA epitopes and administration of polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid [poly(I:C)] stabilized by lysine and carboxymethylcellulose (poly-ICLC) in HLA-A2+ patients with recurrent malignant gliomas. GAAs for these peptides are EphA2, IL-13R-α2, YKL-40, and gp100. The regimen was well-tolerated and induced positive immune responses against at least one of the vaccination-targeted GAAs in peripheral blood mononuclear cells in 58% of patients. Peripheral blood samples demonstrated significant up-regulation of type 1 cytokines and chemokines, including interferon-α and CXCL10. For at least 12 months, nine patients achieved progression-free status. One patient with recurrent GBM demonstrated a sustained complete response. IL-12 production levels by αDC1 positively correlated with time to progression. These data support safety, immunogenicity, and preliminary clinical activity of poly-ICLC-boosted αDC1-based vaccines and warrant further development of this approach. Although these Phase I/II studies demonstrate preliminary clinical efficacy, the ultimate judgment for clinical activity has to be made by rigorous evaluation in randomized studies.
Study
Type of trials
Patients
Antigen Source
Immune responses
Clinical responses
Kikuchi et al., 2001
Phase I
N =8 5 GBM, 2 AA, 1 AO
Fused tumor cells
ELISPOT (6/6)
1 MR, 6 SD
Caruso et al., 2004
Phase I
N =7 recurrent tumors 2 GBM, 1 AA, 4 others
tumor RNA
No PBMC respnse
1 PR, 4 SD
Kikuchi et al., 2004
Phase I
N =15 recurrent HGG 6 GBM, 7 AA, 2 OAA
Fused tumor cells
DTH (15/15) CTL activity (2/8)
4 PR, 2 SD, 1 MR
Sampsonet al., 2009
Phase I
N =12 newly diagnosed GBM
EGFRvIII
DTH (5/9) CTL activity (10/12)
Median OS: 22.8 mo
Okada, H.et al., 2011
Phase I/II
N = 22 13 GBM, 5 AA, 3 AO, 1 AOA
EphA2, IL-13R-α2, YKL-40, gp100
ELISPOT (10/22) increase in systemic Th1 cytokines
Median PFS: 4 mo (GBM) 13 mo (AG) Correlation between survival and DC-derived IL-12 levels
Table 6.
Other DC-based vaccine trials for glioma.
4. Conclusion
We reviewed recent progress in the field of brain and brain tumor immunology. We also reported recent progress and current challenges in immunotherapeutic strategies for brain tumors. It is clear that the CNS and gliomas are equipped with numerous and layered immunosuppressive and immune escape mechanisms, perhaps including ones that we have not yet identified. These discoveries, however, allow us to develop strategies to overcome each of these mechanisms.
Remaining unique challenges against gliomas include relative difficulties in obtaining tumor tissues following immunotherapeutic treatments. Unlike other cancers, intracranial glioma tissues are not readily accessible following vaccine treatment. Designing neo-adjuvant settings with vaccines is not always feasible because recurrent malignant gliomas, for which surgical resection is clinically indicated, typically do not allow us to wait for weeks before surgery and often require treatment with high dose corticosteroids.
As reviewed in this article, the concept of immunotherapy has a diverse scope of strategies and target molecules. Extensive review of each field in this article has led us to identify the challenge for each strategy. Such challenges, however, may be overcome by appropriate combinations with other strategies. For example, ACT strategies may need to be combined with appropriate adjuvants and/or vaccinations to promote long lasting memory responses and anti-tumor immunosurveillance. However, when each of these agents is owned by separate industries with intellectual properties, such creative combinatorial strategies may not be implemented as efficiently as we would wish. Although several early phase clinical trials demonstrated promising therapeutic outcomes to date, clinical trials of immunotherapy for gliomas have not yet demonstrated objective proof of clinical efficacy in randomized studies. The eventual success of immunotherapies for brain tumors will be dependent upon not only an in-depth understanding of immunology behind the brain and brain tumors, but also the implementation of molecularly targeted trials that address multiple layers of challenges in brain tumors.
Acknowledgments
Financial Support: the National Institute of Health 2R01NS055140, 2P01NS40923, 1P01CA132714, P3CA047904.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/18152.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/18152.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/18152",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/18152",totalDownloads:2069,totalViews:91,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:39,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"November 10th 2010",dateReviewed:"April 18th 2011",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"August 23rd 2011",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/18152",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/18152",book:{id:"537",slug:"brain-tumors-current-and-emerging-therapeutic-strategies"},signatures:"Mitsugu Fujita and Hideho Okada",authors:[{id:"40902",title:"Dr.",name:"Hideho",middleName:null,surname:"Okada",fullName:"Hideho Okada",slug:"hideho-okada",email:"okadah@upmc.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Pittsburgh",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"91852",title:"Dr.",name:"Mitsugu",middleName:null,surname:"Fujita",fullName:"Mitsugu Fujita",slug:"mitsugu-fujita",email:"mfujita47@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Aichi Cancer Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Immunology of gliomas",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Immunology of CNS",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"2.1.1. Factors limiting inflammation in the CNS",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.1.2. Induction of Immune responses to CNS antigens",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.1.3. Migration of immune cells towards the CNS",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.2. Immunosuppression by gliomas",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.2.1. Immunosuppressive factors",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.2.2. Immunosuppressive leukocytes",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10",title:"3. Immunotherapy for gliomas",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.1. Target molecules for gliomas",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.2. Adoptive T-cell therapy (ACT) for gliomas",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"3.2.1. Source of glioma-reactive CTLs",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"3.2.2. Manipulation of glioma-reactive CTLs ex vivo",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"Table 1.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"3.3. Glioma vaccines",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"Table 2.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"Table 3.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"Table 4.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_20",title:"4. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'AbbottN. J.RonnbackL.HanssonE.2006Astrocyte-endothelial interactions at the blood-brain barrier, Nature Review Neuroscience, 71January 2006), 41530147-1003X'},{id:"B2",body:'AloisiF.2001Immune function of microglia, Glia, 362November 2001), 1651790894-1491'},{id:"B3",body:'AndrewsD. W.ResnicoffM.FlandersA. E.KenyonL.CurtisM.MerliG.BasergaR.IliakisG.AikenR. 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R.2007Antigenic profiling of glioma cells to generate allogeneic vaccines or dendritic cell-based therapeutics, Clinical Cancer Research, 132January 2007), 5665751078-0432'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Mitsugu Fujita1",address:"",affiliation:'
1Division of Immunology and Neurosurgery, Aichi Cancer Center Research Institute,, 1Japan
1Division of Immunology and Neurosurgery, Aichi Cancer Center Research Institute,, 1Japan
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1. Introduction
Recycling is the process of converting materials from all kinds of waste to produce new products. Textile recycling implies the reuse and reprocessing of clothing scraps or any fibrous textile material [1]. All types of consumer or industry discarded textile goods are used as textile wastes for recovery. It is obvious that recycling, which has evolved into sustainability over time and its importance has been understood even in ancient times. It can be applied in many fields of the textiles as textile-to-textile (closed-loop) recycling or textile-to-nontextile (open-loop) recycling [2].
The demand for textiles and clothing is increasing day by day as a result of the increasing population, rising living standards, and the fast changing fashion trends [3, 4, 5]. Consequently, the amount of textile waste increases, and there are accumulations in landfills [4]. In addition to the consumption of high amounts of textile products, the packaging of these products also causes an increase in waste piles [6].
Textile and clothing waste causes environmental problems and deterioration of ecological balance. Therefore, the reclaim and disposal of waste clothing and textiles are important issues. Unfittingly and uncontrolled disposal of waste cause major problems [5]. The importance of recycling is considered in three subjects by Ref. 7 as economic, social, and environmental subjects [7]. Recycling of textile waste and diversifying the content of recycled raw materials could be a way to support the country’s economy. The employment opportunities in the textile sector as in other sectors increase with well-run waste management. The recycling sector is an important supplier to many industries, and wastes are considered as cheap raw materials [8]. A wide variety of garment brand companies offer their products that contain recycled materials at certain rates, as a social responsibility issue in the market and to increase their prestige. It also adds profit to the company by paying less for recycled materials obtained from waste products.
Although there are several methods for the disposal of clothing waste, the most effective methods are recycling and reuse. Evaluation of waste clothing is very complex since clothes are made from different raw materials and may contain various accessories. Clothing may have many components such as labels, sewing threads, buttons, zippers, and interlining, and these components make the separation process difficult. Clothing recycling and textile recycling are two independent topics that are needed to be considered separately [5]. Textile wastes arise out of many production processes, such as fiber and filament manufacture, spinning, weaving, knitting, nonwoven, and clothing manufacturing [9]. In this context, textile wastes can be classified as pre-consumer and post-consumer wastes [10, 11]. Pre-consumer textile waste includes manufacturing waste from the processing of fibers, yarn, fabric, and nonwovens and clothing manufacturing [12]. Pre-consumer textile waste is generally seen as “clean waste” as it is released during the textile production process [13, 14].
When all these wastes are well managed, positive results emerge both in terms of providing economic gains via the recycling of materials and reducing the ecological damage to the world. Despite all advantages, there are recycling limits for all kinds of textile wastes. Not only for textile wastes but also for other solid wastes recyclability variates. Some types of wastes can be easily and well recycled, whereas some types cannot or can formidably be recycled [1]. These limits pave the way for the emergence of new recyclable fibers for the textile industry.
The purpose of this chapter is to present a systematic study for recycling of textiles mentioning the limits and alternative sustainable fibers. The content started with the history of recycling, continued with processes, standards, and certificates about textile recycling. Subsections of recyclable common textile fibers and new recyclable textile fibers are given in detail.
2. History of recycling
Recycling dates back to ancient times [15]. It is claimed that waste management and waste disposal processes date to BC in several references [16, 17]. Recycling is known as an efficient and effective solid waste management system [18]. In 4000 BC, silkworm wastes were used as protein source food in fish raising in China [19]. Scientifically, the foundations of recycling were laid in the 1980s [20].
When we consider textile recycling, it is known that it is as old as recycling in other fields. There are even references stating that it is one of the oldest fields, so textile recycling is called original recycling [21]. China hosted applications where recycled fibers from used clothing were obtained by hand carding and mixed with virgin fibers BC [14]. The textile recycling industry took its first steps in the thirteenth century [22]. In pre-modern societies, there were sustainability models based on the reuse and recycling of textiles [14]. For example, recycling has been done for years in India, both at the household and industrial level [23]. In the early and mid-1800s, reclaimed spin waste and rags were used for the manufacture of new products, and the invention of carbonization made it a unique technique to separate textile waste comprising of cellulose-based and wool fibers blend [22].
Environmental awareness concept had been newly introduced in the 1960s. The conscious interest of consumers and producers had just begun to turn to recycle at that time. Today, it is argued that this interest has evolved into sustainability [24].
Early academic studies conducted in the 1990s focused on presenting a model for the textile waste lifecycle [25]; detailing biological, physical, and chemical treatments of textile wastes [26]; determination of the number of sewn product manufacturers that support recycling in an American state [27]; the recyclability of post-consumer fibers, and market applications, while revealing the advantages of recycling [28]. After this decade, a positive acceleration was observed in the studies on both recycling and textile recycling. When “textile” and “recycling” terms are searched in a topic currently 1843 documents in WOS were encountered at all times. Moreover, 188,487 documents were encountered with the only term “recycling” at all times. The variation of the number of publications by years are given in Figure 1 and in the first quarter of 2022, 41 documents were published about the textile recycling topic. As can be seen from the graph, the number of research on textile recycling has increased in parallel with the number of research on recycling over the years.
Figure 1.
The number of publications encountered with search terms “recycling” and “recycling and textiles” in WOS.
3. Processes in textile recycling
3.1 Recyclability of textile materials
Recycled fibers are used to make a variety of products. By producing yarns from recycled fibers, knitted or woven fabrics can be produced, or non-woven surfaces are obtained directly from these fibers. Recycled pre-consumer textile wastes are utilized in the construction, automotive, furniture, paper, and clothing industries. However, fibers obtained from pre-consumer textiles are used especially in coarse yarn production [29]. Many researchers studied about using pre-consumer waste and its conversion into a valuable product in the literature. Jamshaid et al. [30] span open-end rotor yarns from fibers in different blends reclaimed from yarn and fabric wastes. They evaluated the impact of various textile wastes on fiber and yarn quality. They underlined that the length and uniformity values of the fibers recycled from yarn wastes are better than those of the fibers recycled from fabric wastes. However, in terms of yarn manufacturing costs, it has been stated that yarns produced from recycled fabric/rag wastes are more economical than yarns produced from yarn wastes. The impact of cotton waste and various spinning conditions on rotor yarn quality was investigated by Halimi et al. [31]. The results showed that the quality of the rotor yarn is not affected by the addition of 25% waste in the first passage of the draw frame. Yilmaz et al. [32] produced yarns by blending the fiber wastes taken from the blow room, the carding and sucked in the draw frame, roving, and conventional ring spinning machines with the virgin cotton fibers at 5 different amounts varying from 5% to 40%. They emphasized that by designing machinery and process steps based on waste fiber type, it can be possible to produce yarns that are in comparable quality values and low cost.
The post-consumer textile wastes consist of clothing and home textiles that consumers no longer need for various reasons, such as damage, pulling on, or going out of fashion [14]. Contrary to pre-consumer wastes, post-consumer wastes are known as dirty and household waste [33]. Post-consumer wastes are evaluated with reuse and recycling techniques or incineration. The options to be applied to post-consumer waste vary according to many criteria such as the wear condition of the clothing, fiber content, and the technology of the recycling facilities [34]. The progress in recycling technology supports the sustainable disposal of waste clothing, and recycling is far more environmentally friendly and socially beneficial than incineration. In addition to this, technological advancements are required to produce upcycle products from waste clothing. Improvements in the collection and disposal of post-consumer textiles can be made with the application of environmental protection policies [5].
Post-consumer waste of sufficient quality is utilized as second-hand clothing by other consumers or sold to third-world countries. The volume of consumer waste is quite high, and clothes that cannot be worn again are shredded into fibers and used in new products, similar to pre-consumer wastes [6, 14]. The process of producing new clothing from post-consumer waste includes collecting waste, obtaining fiber from waste, and producing yarn by using a certain amount of blend in the yarn production stage [34].
When compared to original fibers, recycled fibers have different properties. The processes that the fibers are exposed to during the recycling process damage them and shorten their length. Fiber length is important factor in converting recycled fibers into yarn or producing nonwovens from these fibers, and the fibers must be long enough. Due to the short length of recycled fibers and the presence of non-fiber remnants such as fabric and yarn fragments, defining some quality parameters of these fibers is difficult. Fiber length, material break down degree, and fiber length distribution are three of the most widely analyzed properties of recycled fibers [35].
There are four different approaches to recycling (Figure 2) [36, 37]:
Primary approach,
Secondary approach,
Tertiary approach, and
Quaternary approach
Figure 2.
Various recycling approaches.
Primary recycling is the most beneficial method, and in this approach, the product is recycled to its original form. This approach is also known as “original recycling.” It is aimed at synthetic fibers such as PET (polyethylene terephthalate) and PA (polyamide) [37]. In this method, which can also be blended with the similar original raw material in order to increase the product quality, cleaned and pure scraps from waste are collected and recycled. In addition to the important advantages of this process such as being cheap and easy, it also has the disadvantage that the type of recyclable material is limited [38].
Secondary recycling is the process of converting waste into a product with different physical or chemical properties than the original [39]. Secondary recycling, which converts post-consumer wastes into raw materials, includes the collection and recycling process [40]. The content of textile waste, the degree of purity of the end product, availability, cost, and processing techniques are important factors for secondary recycling.
In tertiary recycling, known as feedstock recycling, wastes are separated into chemicals through pyrolysis, gasification, hydrolysis, and condensation [41]. Tertiary recycling, which is preferred for converting plastic wastes into chemicals, monomers, or fuels, utilizes clean and well-sorted pre-and post-consumer wastes [40].
Quaternary recycling is the use of heat produced by the incineration of fibrous solid wastes [42]. In summary, primary and secondary recycling usually involve the mechanical processes of industrial by-products and waste, while tertiary and quaternary recycling includes the pyrolysis and incineration of textile wastes for energy generation [41].
3.2 Recycling processes in textile
3.2.1 Physical processes in textile recycling
3.2.1.1 Mechanical process in textile recycling
Mechanical recycling is a low-cost and easy method [11], which is the preferred method for recycling a diverse variety of textile waste [43]. The recycling of post-consumer textile waste is generally carried out by mechanical recycling [42]. In the mechanical recycling technique, the fabric is broken down into fibers by cutting, shredding, carding, and other mechanical processes [44, 45]. Mechanical recycling machines gradually break the fabric into small pieces and make it fibrous, and these obtained fibers are reused in the production of yarn or nonwovens. In the mechanical recycling process, initially, wastes are sorted. Foreign components, such as metals and labels, are eliminated. After the fabric is cut into small pieces with rotary blades, it is separated into fibers by tearing [40].
Since garments are usually made from different raw materials, it is better to use pre-consumer waste instead of post-consumer waste in mechanical recycling. Fibers obtained by mechanical recycling from pre-consumer wastes such as denim scraps can be used to make higher-quality yarns. The length of the fibers recycled by the mechanical recycling process is short, despite the use of clean pre-consumer wastes [40]. The fiber length is shortened by the shredding/tearing process. The main reason for this is the friction between the fibers. Friction causes wear of fibers and melting of synthetic fibers. Lubricants are used to reduce friction between fibers during shredding and thus longer fiber lengths can be obtained [46]. In addition to the lubrication process, product quality is increased by blending original fibers with recycled fibers [45].
Recycled fiber properties such as length, fineness, and strength indicate the field the fibers can be evaluated in [47]. Good quality recycled fibers can be spun into fabrics, while lower quality fibers are used as decoration materials, construction materials [48], automotive components, insulation materials, and nonwovens [45, 47].
3.2.1.2 Thermal process in textile recycling
In thermal recycling, synthetic fibers are melted to be reshaped. The thermal recycling method is preferred for recycling synthetic fibers [48, 49]. Chips and pellets obtained by mechanical process from synthetic wastes are turned into fibers by melt extrusion [50].
3.2.2 Chemical recycling in textile
Chemical recycling, which is another method used in the recycling of textile waste, is the depolymerization of polymers or the process of dissolving polymers [2]. Polymers are converted or broken down into their original monomeric building blocks by chemical and biological methods [51].
Monomer and polymer recycling are the two forms of chemical recycling. The polymer chain is frequently degraded during polymer recycling. As a result, the quality of the recycled fiber decreases. In monomer recycling, original quality fibers are obtained. While monomer recycling is only used for synthetic fibers, chemical recycling is applicable to many textile fibers [49]. In addition to the chemical recycling of synthetic fibers, such as polyesters, polyamides, and polyolefins, in cotton and polyester blend products, the fibers can be chemically separated and then converted into new fibers [47].
3.2.3 Downcycling
Downcycling occurs when the quality and economic value [40] of a product obtained from recycling processes is lower than that of the original product [2, 50]. The use of recycled clothing and home textile wastes in agriculture and gardening products, decoration materials [48], insulation materials, low-quality blankets, and upholstery fabrics are the examples of downcycling (Figure 3) [2, 50].
Figure 3.
Downcycling applications in textile.
3.2.4 Upcycling
When the quality of the recycled material is the same or higher than the original product, this process is called upcycling [2, 50]. Upcycling is a process in which existing resources are used and converted into more useful products. This environmental-friendly process is an important step for a zero-waste policy [52]. Within the scope of sustainability and circular economy, the production of raw materials such as cotton fibers and yarns from textile wastes with polymer and monomer recycling is an example of upcycling [2, 50].
3.2.5 Open-loop recycling in textile
Open-loop recycling is defined as the use of a product’s raw material in a different production area. Secondary products obtained through open-loop recycling are generally destroyed after their lifetime [40]. The use of fibers obtained by recycling PET bottles in the textile industry (Figure 4) [40] and the usage of recycled textile fibers as insulation material in the construction industry are examples of open-loop recycling.
Figure 4.
Open-loop recycling.
3.2.6 Closed-loop recycling in textile
The reuse of recycled textile waste in the textile industry is called closed-loop recycling [2]. The use of mechanically recycled pre-consumer or post-consumer textile waste in garment production is an example of a closed-loop recycling (Figure 5) [40].
Figure 5.
Closed-loop recycling.
4. Sustainable textile Fibers
4.1 Recyclable common textile fibers and limitations
The subject of recycling in textiles comes up with a lot of research based on the advantages created by the recycling process and with a limited number of studies based on recycling limits. In this subsection of the chapter, the limits of recycling in materials traditionally used in textiles are addressed.
Despite the approaches expressing that recycling is a process that only delays the conversion of waste to nature [53], several articles emphasized the importance of process development studies about the determination of recyclability limits [54]. Since it is impossible to apply a uniform recycling method for recycling all kinds of waste materials, different recycling techniques and their combinations have emerged over time [53]. For example, chemical recycling is raised in order to eliminate the limits in mechanical recycling [55]. As recycling can be classified as mechanical, chemical, thermal, and thermomechanical methods; each of them has numerous disadvantages in terms of the imperfections created on the recycled material. Considering these limits, alternatives purposed for the disposure of textile waste as anaerobic digestion, fermentation, composting, and acquisition of construction material [13].
An assessment can be made on the basis of fiber source for recycling limits. Based on the disadvantages, such as shortening or shredding the fibers created the fibers by each recycling cycle, it is stated in the literature that an average of 8 recycling cycles for synthetic fibers and an average of 5 cycles for natural fibers can be actualized [56, 57]. While the recyclability limits are more evident in natural fibers, the same rule is not valid for the fibers formed from thermoplastic polymers. This is the main reason why thermoplastic polymer-based textile waste is the most recycled waste [58].
To increase the quality of the recycled end product in cotton mechanical recycling, there is an obligation to use virgin fibers in addition to recycled fibers at a predetermined ratio. This can be attributed to the decrease in strength according to the recycling cycles as each cycle results in a lower degree of polymerization [59]. The upper usage limit of 30% for recycled cotton in fabrics is specified due to the shortened fibers. The amounts higher than this value causes decreases in fabric quality and performance [60]. Another study in the literature supported this result [61]. Since the fiber breakages are created in the mechanical recycling of cotton [59, 62], low-performance fabrics may be obtained not suitable for professional wear such as workwear, personal protective equipment, career wear, and uniforms [63].
Recycling is classified as primary and secondary recycling in several references. Secondary recycling can be handled as mechanical recycling and the limits mentioned above are also valid for this type of recycling. On the other hand, in primary recycling, the features of waste such as being from a single source and being pure are indisputable, while the low cycle number for each material and even the non-recyclability of some materials constitute these limits [64].
An important factor limiting the chemical recycling process of cotton is the use of harmful chemicals in the industry. While trying to minimize the damage to nature with waste disposal, the use of harmful chemicals which refers to the duality in this phenomenon creates greater harm to both nature and the consumer [59]. Moreover, the need for the separation of textile waste according to color and/or product type is inconvenient. One of the problems encountered in cotton recycling is that most of the cotton products are dyed ones and it is difficult to work with mixed-colored wastes [63]. Besides, there are studies proving that cotton fibers recycled from colored fabrics tended to possess lower quality values [65]. Thus, the demand for more environmentally friendly approaches continues [59].
Wool is a natural fiber that can only be mechanically recycled. The staple length of wool gets shorter with recycling, and it is used in blend ratios with virgin wool up to 70 recycled/30 virgin. The limited market of recycled wool is also a huge obstacle to the recycling of this fiber [63].
Nylon is a polymer with a wide variety of types that is stated as an infinitely recyclable polymer [66]. It is difficult to recycle nylon with mechanical recycling in the industry. In addition, the low number of nylon suppliers makes recycled nylon fibers more expensive [63]. Vidakis et al. studied the effects of multiple recycling cycles of PA12 on its properties. There was a decrease in mechanical properties above 5 recycling cycles. This weakening in mechanical properties is explained by the decrease in crystallinity and the beginning of degradation [67]. When the thermal recycling of polyamide 6 is evaluated, it was seen that a drying process is suggested before melting. It is revealed that the drying process prevents hydrolytic chain scission in wet materials and the intrinsic properties of PA6 polymer are remained [68].
Various studies were conducted in the literature in the last two decades for the determination of recycling cycle limits of polymers. PET which is a thermoplastic polymer widely used in the textile sector one of the polymers tested. Högg performed four recycling cycles on PET and characterized the basic polymer properties. He revealed that there was a considerable decrease in Young’s modulus according to the decrease in intrinsic viscosity [69].
The polyolefin fibers react with oxygen in remelting cycles. High temperature or UV light applied in remelting cycles result in molecular weight loss. The dissolution/reprecipitation process for the recycling of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) has been suggested to overcome this limit by Poulakis and Papaspyrides. It is remarked that both the polymer and the solvent has been recovered efficiently. According to this process applied as two recycling cycles to HDPE, no changes in molecular weight, distribution of grain sizes, crystallinity, and mechanical properties were observed [70]. The same researchers applied this technique to virgin PET in pellet form and PET in blow-molded bottle form in two cycles. It was observed that the properties of recycled PET did not change [71].
The effects of seven recycling cycles on PLA (polylactic acid) polymer which is also a polyester was evaluated by Pillin et al. They observed a notable decrease in the molecular weight of the polymer. They attributed the changes in stress and strain at break, modulus, and hardness via recycling cycles to the decrease in molecular weight [72]. Another group studied eight recycling cycles of PLA and concluded that there were no changes in the mechanical properties of the polymer due to the successive cycles [73].
PAN (polyacrylonitrile) is another polymer commonly used in the production of textile products as an alternative to wool. The most critical factors limiting the recycling of PAN are the easy accessibility of perfect virgin PAN and the harsh processing conditions. From this point of view, economic conditions come into play in the recycling of PAN. The high temperature applied during recycling is also shown as a disadvantage for acrylic, which is a polymer inclines to open-loop recycling [74].
Textile wastes consisting of blends of various fibers complicate the recycling process and sometimes even make it impossible. These fibers need to be separated, which should be done by expert workers to avoid problems with the recycled final product. In addition, when it is impossible to recycle these wastes, they reach their end-of-life by utilization in energy recycling [75].
From a different point of view, there are basically two main factors limiting the recycling of textile fibers. The first one is the technological limits of recycled fibers and their inability to be used within virgin fiber, yarn, or fabric production methods. The second is that the expected product quality value cannot be reached by using these recycled fibers [76].
There are two types of sustainable fashion drivers in a sustainable fashion as production and consumption drivers. Material, human and intellectual resources form the production drivers and purchasing decisions, usage, and post usage form the latter. While technical limits are considered in the first derivatives, unawareness of consumption causes a considerable increase in waste [77]. The fact that recycled materials are generally suitable for downcycling emphasizes an important point that should be evaluated economically. Another economic point is the low consumer demand for recycled products. The reason behind the low market demand is the use of dangerous chemicals in recycled products. In addition, waste sorting is a big problem and if it is not done properly, it negatively affects the recycling process from the beginning. Finally, the relevant standards are still in their infancy. All of these may be listed as examples of the limits of recycling [78].
4.2 Branded sustainable textile fibers
Cotton and polyester are the most recycled fibers as referred before. Cotton is the most used type of natural fiber in the textile and clothing industry global consumption is reported as 26.16 million tons and the production rate is 26.43 million tons by the year 2021. When we evaluate cotton cultivation in terms of environmental aspects, it requires a large quantity usage of land occupation, water, and also pesticides. Due to pesticides, it pollutes clean water resources. In the textile production process, cotton dyeing needs a high amount of energy consumption, water, steam, and chemicals, such as bleaching agents, soap, softeners, and salts for obtaining the desired color [55, 79, 80]. Polyester is a non-biodegradable fiber in the environment. Its production process is very similar to polyamide. But polyester is extensively recycled especially as plastic bottles made of polyethylene terephthalate to reduce the landfills. Polyamide is used especially in carpets as referred before. But its recycling process is difficult because of the used dyes and chemicals added to its polymer solution [10].
Besides these types of common fibers, there have also been come out brands with the increasing recycling trend. Renewcell® technology is the upcoming brand from Sweden since 2017. For this process, used garments and textile production waste with high cellulosic content such as viscose, lyocell, modal, acetate, and other types of regenerated fibers (also called man-made cellulosic fibers) are used. Their accessories, such as buttons, zips are removed from the textile material, then it is turned into a slurry. Contaminants and non-cellulosic contents are sorted out from this slurry. This blend, brand named as Circulose® that is consisted of dissolved pulp from 100% recycled textiles dried and packaged as bales for being involved in the textile production process [81, 82].
Repreve® is known as the r-PET staple and filament yarns which are made from post-consumer water bottles and pre-consumer waste, and their fibers are used in many types of industrial product categories. Accessories, apparel, automotive, bedding, flooring, footwear, furnishings, medical accessories, military, outdoor, socks, and hosiery are some of them. As they stated they eliminated the processes; crude oil wellhead, crude oil refinery, Naptha, Xylenes, Paraxylene, TA (Terephthalic Acid) & MEG (Mono Ethylene Glycol). They have chip production (polymerization), extrusion, and texturing for Repreve® polyester filament yarns and feed stock preparation (polymerization), extrusion, and staple processing for Repreve® staple polyester fibers [83, 84]. Moreover, there is a recycled Nylon brand that is Repreve® Nylon 6 fibers. In production, they have also eliminated the processes; crude oil wellhead, crude oil refinery, benzene, cyclohexane, HMD (Hexamethylenediamine), adipic acid, and nylon salt. They have only chip production (polymerization), extrusion, and texturing processes [85].
Trevira® Sinfineco is the brand used for textiles that contain sustainable Trevira® products. They worked together with Thailand-based parent company Indorama whose manufactures recycled chips from PET bottles. They have certificates for recycled chips, fibers, and filaments from GRS (Global Recycled Standard) and RCS-NL (Recycled Claim Standard). Their products are mainly used in the automotive and apparel sectors. Trevira® Sinfineco PLA fibers and filaments are produced from plant sugars (sugar beet, sugar cane, and maize). So, they are recyclable and 100% biodegradable (industrially compostable) fiber materials. The plant sugar is subjected to the fermentation process and it is transformed into lactic acid. Besides their advantageous properties such as UV stability, fastness to light resistance, good wicking properties, it has less environmental impacts. 70% less CO2 is emitted and 42% less energy is consumed in the raw material production process. They have ISEGA certification for PLA fiber types used in hot water filtration applications (tea and coffee filters) and packaging materials contacting with food [86].
rPET companies supply post-consumer materials in different ways. One of these interesting materials is Bionic®, which collects its source from the coastline of the oceans and waterways to produce rPET PES. Besides environmental benefits, they also get community support both for collecting and cleaning, building up waste management systems including sorting by material and color, compacting, grinding, and warehousing. Besides, they teach the system wherever their collecting point is. Then, they send them for pelletizing. Finally, the recycling process goes in the traditional way. They have three kinds of yarns; FLX® from marine plastics, DPX® from recycled plastics, and natural or synthetic fibers for gaining softer texture, HLX® from 3 layers; core, recovered with rPET and natural fibers in the outer sheath [87].
As technological sustainability process Lenzing™ introduced Refibra™ Technology which is called as reborn Tencel® Fiber Technology and they addressed that it is one of the circular economy solutions. It is a closed-loop technology in which cotton scraps and wood are used for pulping processes. For cotton scraps, they use a special and patented method for transforming colored cotton rags into the lyocell grade pulp by dye removal process and degree of polymerization adjustment. Recycling and upgrading of cotton scraps to new virgin lyocell fibers are free from water and solvent usage. It is certified according to Recycled Claim Standard (RCS) and Global Recycle Standard (GRS) [88, 89]. Lenzing™ EcoVero™ fibers are sustainable viscose fibers that are produced by the use of certified and controlled sustainable wood sources, ecological production process, and supply chain transparency as stated. It has 50% lower emissions and water impact than generic viscose. Lenzing™ EcoVero™ fibers are certified with the EU Ecolabel. It means that the production method has a lower impact on the environment compared with other products in the market [90]. Livaeco by Birla Cellulose™ is eco-enhanced viscose manufactured using a closed-loop process. As they declared, they make a series of changes in the process to be more environmental-friendly. They used a molecular tracer so that they can follow the product from fiber stage to garment form and they can verify the product easily. They emphasize that their source is from certified sustainable forests, they consumed lower water compared with other types of natural fibers, lower greenhouse gas emissions and biodegrades in 6 weeks. They stated that cost of Livaeco™ is 4–5% higher than the conventional type of their fibers produced [91]. Livaeco™ has the FSC® C135325 certificate that refers wood is sourced from the forests following the principles of Sustainable Forestry Management provided environmental, social and economic benefits. They also have various certificates, tools, and documents about sustainability for different processes. They have Forest Stewardship Council (FSC®) certificate for obtaining wood, pulping, fiber production processes regularly; Rainforest Alliance certificate in pulping process; Higg Index, Thinkstep in fiber production step; Tracer tool (fiber, yarn, fabric, garment), OEKO-TEX 100, Sustainable Textile Solution for their Livaeco™ viscose fiber, BLOCKCHAIN for Fiber 2 Retail Process. Besides these certificates, they achieved Dark Green Shirt, Ranking in Canopy’s Hot Button Report in 2020 [92]. Kelheim Fibers have also CELLIANT Viscose which is introduced as the first in-fiber sustainable viscose infrared (IR) solution that is an alternative to synthetic fibers. They use natural minerals and embedded them into plant-based fibers. It is certified by FSC® or PEFC™ about raw material used. They are also awarded with a dark green/green shirt in Canopy’s 2021 Hot Button Report, which is a sustainability indicator for viscose fiber producers [93].
When polyamide is considered, one of the brand marks is Econyl® by Aquafil S.P.A. It has two types of nylon textile filament yarns; ECONYL® FDY yarns on beam and ECONYL® texturized yarns on cones that are both types of yarns produced via using 100% recycled post-consumer and post-industrial recycled content. They use fishnets, carpets, oligomers (generated by polymer industries), and other types of PA6 materials as wasted content. In ECONYL® plant operation processes has two steps as depolymerization step (where the specific mix of waste is transformed back into secondary raw material-caprolactam) and the purification step of caprolactam [94].
Fulgar is another company that has various types of sustainable fibers with the brand names; Q-NOVA®, Q-CYCLE®, EVO®, AMNI SOUL ECO®. Q-NOVA® PA 6.6. yarn has an eco-friendly process called as MCS (Spinning Continuous Melting). MCS is a mechanical regeneration system that does not involve using chemical materials which would lessen the sustainability of the end product. More than half of it is produced by pre-consumption waste. This waste is remolded using a mechanical regeneration process, then after, it is turned into a form of a polymer. Its prominent features are stated as lightness, breathability, having bright colors. It has certificates as The Global Recycled Standard (GRS), EU ECOLABEL, Higg index [95]. Q-CYCLE® yarn is their new eco-sustainable PA 6.6 yarn produced with their interaction with BASF’s ChemCycling™ recycling project. They use post-consumer recycled contents like plastic wastes (used tires) that is not possible to be mechanically recycled. Its certifications are under the evaluation process [96]. EVO® is the other trademark of Fulgar that is a bio-based origin polyamide that its polymerization is partially or completely sourced from castor oil (from castor seeds) [97]. AMNI SOUL ECO® has enhanced PA 6.6 formula, developed by Rhodia-Solvay group, which enables garments to be a biodegradable feature when left in landfills [98].
Considering the polyurethane known as elastane in the market, COREVA™ can be mentioned. It is a plant-based yarn obtained from natural rubber for replacing synthetic, petrol-based yarns and is patented by Candiani Denim. Organic cotton is wrapped around a natural rubber core, so they produce plastic-free yarn by replacing conventional synthetic and petrol-based elastomers. As they declared, Candiani has created an innovative, biodegradable stretch denim fabric but still, it has the features such as elasticity, physical qualities, and durability that are important factors for producing jeans [99].
4.3 Sustainability certifications for textiles and textile eco-labels
Environmental issues are trending topic and their importance increase gradually. There are some international treaties to regulate the behavior of the countries to reduce greenhouse gases and protect the ozone layer. Kyoto Protocol and Montreal Protocol are exemplary treaties for the sign of industrialized countries, describing the precautions that they should take [55]. The carbon footprint is the amount of the greenhouse gases released from fossil fuels used for electricity, heating, and transportation purposes. Textile and clothing sectors are the leading sectors that have high carbon footprint generation and greenhouse gases emissions [37]. Energy is the other critical case for the textile industry. The consumed energy according to textile processes can be given as 34% for spinning, 23% for weaving, 38% for chemical process, and 5% for various purposes [100].
All the efforts for sustainability including getting certifications, discovering new sustainable processes, producing new sustainable fibers, getting textile ecolabels, United Nations’ The Sustainable Development Goals (UNSDGs) are playing a major role. United Nations’ 17 goals can be listed regularly as; no poverty, zero hunger, good health and well-being, quality education, gender equality, clean water and sanitation, affordable and clean energy, decent work and economic growth, industry, innovation and infrastructure, reduced inequalities, sustainable cities and communities, responsible consumption and production, climate action, life below water, life on land, peace, justice and strong institutions, partnerships for the goals. There are various studies about the relationship between UNSDGs and fashion brands, certifications, and new type of sustainable fibers [101, 102].
In the past, products are disposed of after the end-of-life or disuse of the products. But today, solutions and precautions for sustaining the environmental cycle are steadily taken. ISO 14040:2006 (Environmental Management-Life Cycle Assessment-Principles and Framework) is the valid standard to evaluate the sustainability of the product cycle [103, 104]. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a methodology that is determined by the ISO 14040 and ISO 14044 [80]. It merges the environmental impacts of the studied product or service through the value chain [104]. It is possible to determine the potential environmental benefits of various systems of textile reuse and recycling processes within the methods of LCA [50]. LCA does not contain design and development stages because it is considered that design of the product has not environmental impact. But the design of the product can be affected by the other life cycle stages such as emissions to air, water, and land at each stage of manufacture, use, and disposal of the product [105].
There are various textile sustainability standards and certifications. EU Ecolabel supports Europe strategy for zero pollution and circular economy targets by minimizing products’ harmful impact on the environment. Products labeled with EU Ecolabel make a reduction in water consumption, make less pollution in the air, restrict the use of hazardous chemicals, and minimize the waste [106, 107]. Better Cotton Initiative (BCI) is claimed itself as the world’s leading sustainability initiative for cotton. Their mission is to help cotton communities survive and thrive while protecting and restoring the environment. They have selected five impact areas consisted of climate change mitigation, soil health, pesticide use, smallholder livelihoods, and women’s empowerment [108, 109]. In BCI’s Better Cotton Assurance Model, they have a roadmap for Better Cotton Farmers and farmer groups to move from baseline performance to meeting the key indicators of the Better Cotton Principles and Criteria and ultimately achieving long-term improvement goals. The model has four overarching goals. The first one is giving license to sell their cotton as Better Cotton if they can meet the standards and criteria to license for selling their cotton as Better Cotton. The second one is improvement in the framework for making sustainable practices. The third one is the development in the improvement of connection between producers and partners. The last one is measuring the sustainability performance of the farmers [109, 110].
Besides OEKO-TEX Standard 100, OEKO-TEX has series of Sustainability Standards comprising of Oeko-Tex Sustainable Textile Production (STeP), Made in Green by OEKO-TEX®, ECO PASSPORT by OEKO-TEX®, OEKO-TEX® DETOX TO ZERO. ECO PASSPORT by OEKO-TEX® is used for chemical products (textile and leather chemicals, colorants, and auxiliary agents) that are used in the textile, leather, and clothing industry. Oeko-Tex Sustainable Textile & Leather Production (STeP) is the standard for modules, such as chemical management, environmental performance, environmental management, social responsibility, quality management, health, and safety in production chain. To get Made in Green by OEKO-TEX® certificate, some criteria (some OEKO-TEX® certificates) should be taken due to finished products that consumers can buy at retailers or semi-finished products sold to companies within the supply chain. This certificate means that textile or leather products’ materials are tested for harmful substances, produced as environmentally, safe, and socially responsible workplaces are supplied [111].
GOTS is also one of the textile processing standard for organic fibers, also both for ecological and social criteria. It comprises the whole textile supply chain starting with harvesting of the raw materials till packing and labeling. It is important to use dyes and chemicals that have a low impact on environment and even it has water norms in production, besides this, it also considers fiber requirements, environmental criteria, social criteria, and traceability. GOTS have various production criteria limits. For example, additional fiber limits for natural fibers both for vegetable and animal fibers (linen, hemp, wool, silk, mohair, etc.) is up to 30%; for sustainable regenerated fibers is (Lyocell® & protein based fibers: from organic, FSC(Forest Stewardship Council™)/Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC) certified recycled raw materials is up to 30%; for Recycled Claim Standard (RCS from Textile Exchange), Global Recycle Standard (GRS from Textile Exchange), Recycled Content Standard (from SCS) certified synthetic fibers (polyester, polyamide, polypropylene, and polyurethane) is up to 30%. There are also restricted fibers in blends like conventional cotton, virgin polyester, conventional angora hair, acrylic, asbestos, and carbon, silver. They have also an obligation for using virgin synthetic and regenerated fibers like viscose, modal, polyamide, elastane, and polypropylene in fiber blends as the maximum ratio is 10%. They have given some more examples like it is permitted to use 70% organic cotton, 30% lyocell from the organic plantation; but, it is not permitted to use 70% organic cotton, 30% lyocell from conventional wood [112, 113].
BlueSign® is one of the sustainability standards that offer a system with solutions for industry and brands for increasing their sustainability performance. They have various criteria such as chemical products for end-consumer use, surface treatment of metals, and plastics/non-textile substrates, fiber manufacturing, textile manufacturers, down and feathers processing, flame retardants, nanoscale materials/structures [114]. They have also a restricted substances list (RSL). In fiber manufacturing for production sites, it is stated that 99% solvent recovery (lyocell, acetate, etc.) rate should be aimed at dry spinning or wet spinning. They encourage their partners to develop fibers that meet their requirements for supporting a circular economy and to give ahead manufacturers to produce and use of recyclable and recycled fibers for circular textile production. It is obligatory for fiber manufacturing sites to pass the chemical assessment that they use Alkylphenol ethoxylates (APEO), free agents, in all preparation and sizing agents used. It is possible to give more examples for other type of fibers. In polyester fiber production, they have limited values of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) not only for year, but also limited emission factors per PET chips (one kg) and filament fiber (one kg). It is also important to have wood policy for cellulosic regenerated fibers, such as viscose, lyocell, and acetate. In production, 25% of sourced pulp fibers/pulp should be used from the wood certified by independent third-party certification with the label of the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC®). Besides this, independent third-party risk assessments, audits and on-site visits should be taken with positive results by audits (preferably a CanopyStyle Audit with at least bronze status) or independent third-party certification of sustainable forest management programs (e.g. Rainforest Alliance) [115].
The Higg Index is used as a tool for the standardization of sustainability measurement. It is comprised of five tools; the Higg Facility Environmental Module (FEM), Higg Facility Social & Labor Module (FSLM), Higg Brand & Retail Module (BRM), Higg Materials Sustainability Index (MSI), and Higg Product Module (PM). They evaluate the social and environmental performance of the value chain together with the environmental impacts of products. It gives an opportunity to consumers using the Higg Index to inform their individual sustainability strategies in crosswise topics, such as water use, carbon emissions, labor conditions, consumer goods brands, retailers, manufacturers, and governments [116].
The Recycled Claim Standard (RCS) and Global Recycled Standard (GRS) are stated as international and voluntary standards. They set requirements for third-party certification about recycled input and chain of custody. Their aim is to raise the usage ratios of recycled materials. The GRS contains also social and environmental processing requirements and chemical restrictions as additional criteria compared with RCS [117]. For RCS, labeling can be applied to all products containing at least 5% recycled material for textiles. It also enhances the traceability of recycled raw materials, transparent communication, clear labeling, and stakeholder engagement [118]. The GRS label assured that there are high percentages of recycled contents in products, the harmful impact is reduced both for people and the environment, traceability and stakeholder engagement are supplied [119].
Cradle to Cradle Certified® is another global standardization for safe, circular, and responsibly made products. It evaluates the safety, circularity, and responsibility of materials and products in five categories of sustainability performance such as material health, product circularity, clean air & climate protection, water and soil stewardship, and social fairness [120].
Forest Stewardship Council® (FSC) forest management certification endorsed that the management of forests is made by taking care of biological diversity and benefits the lives of local people and workers. There are 10 principles for forest operation for receiving FSC forest management certification. These principles include a broad range of issues, from maintaining high conservation values to community relations and workers’ rights, as well as monitoring the environmental and social impacts of forest management [121].
There are also some other sustainability standards like Cotton Made in Africa, Organic Content Standard (OCS), Soil Association Organic Standard, Responsible Down Standard (RDS), Responsible Wool Standard (RWS) [122, 123, 124, 125, 126].
5. Conclusions
Recycling has shown continuity since ancient times as a technique that people comprehended its importance towards the purpose of living with scarce resources and applied it even if not in a scientific sense. Recycling has reached scientific meaning throughout history, and then the subject has evolved towards sustainability. Textile recycling has a great place within the scope of this subject, which has been on the agenda for a long time and will also continue to be, with the advantages it creates in both environmental and economic terms. Human beings fall into textile products from the moment that they are born, they need these textile products throughout their lives (even when they die in some cultures—due to the rituals of burial with various fabrics). The indispensability of textile has always kept it at the forefront in various areas for years.
Engineering-based scientific research always aims to increase the quality of life and make the world habitable for a longer period. In this context, these purposes are embodied as the main objectives in the studies on recycling and sustainability. As the decrease in natural resources, population growth, changes in fashion causing excessive consumption of resources, and technological developments continue, the interest in recycling and sustainability will increase acceleratingly. As emphasized herein, recycling in textiles, recycling limits in textile wastes, and the search for sustainable new textile resources will continue to be hot topics of the area. In conclusion, approaches on more effective utilization of traditional fibers, the discovery, commercialization, and popularization of new sustainable fibers, and the representation of new models for the management of textile waste will be the focus of researchers for years.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"textile recycling, textile wastes, limitations in textile recycling, textile eco-labels, sustainability certifications, sustainability",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/82044.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/82044.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/82044",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/82044",totalDownloads:18,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"May 1st 2022",dateReviewed:"May 2nd 2022",datePrePublished:"June 9th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"May 31st 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The sharply increasing world population reveals the insufficiency of natural resources in meeting the needs of humanity, while creating a tendency to search for new resources. Textile products constitute one of the most basic needs of humanity and the consumption of textile products is also increasing due to the changing fashion sense, increasing population, and technology developments. Discovery of alternative or renewable energy sources, recycling of all kinds of materials, enhancing engineering methods and technologies used to make recycling effective, and trends like sustainable fashion that promote sustainability and take parts among the hot topics of this field. Recycling studies are also common in textile science. It is feasible to reduce the usage of natural fibers by utilization of recycled fibers. However, there are some limitations to textile recycling. These limitations led the development of new sustainable fibers and processes as alternatives to natural. In this context, most of the recycling and sustainability-based studies carried out in this field emphasized the indispensability of the subject, while neglecting a few points about limitations. Consequently, the limits of recycling in textiles and new fibers developed to overcome these limits are addressed in this chapter.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/82044",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/82044",signatures:"Gizem Celep, Gamze D. Tetik and Fulya Yilmaz",book:{id:"11124",type:"book",title:"Next-Generation Textiles",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Next-Generation Textiles",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Hassan Ibrahim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11124.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-883-7",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-882-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-884-4",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"90645",title:"Dr.",name:"Hassan",middleName:null,surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"hassan-ibrahim",fullName:"Hassan Ibrahim"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. History of recycling",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Processes in textile recycling",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Recyclability of textile materials",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Recycling processes in textile",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"3.2.1 Physical processes in textile recycling",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_4",title:"3.2.1.1 Mechanical process in textile recycling",level:"4"},{id:"sec_5_4",title:"3.2.1.2 Thermal process in textile recycling",level:"4"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"3.2.2 Chemical recycling in textile",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"3.2.3 Downcycling",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"3.2.4 Upcycling",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"3.2.5 Open-loop recycling in textile",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"3.2.6 Closed-loop recycling in textile",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14",title:"4. Sustainable textile Fibers",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"4.1 Recyclable common textile fibers and limitations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"4.2 Branded sustainable textile fibers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"4.3 Sustainability certifications for textiles and textile eco-labels",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_22",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Hawley JM. Textile recycling. In: Worrell E, Reuter MA, editors. Handbook of Recycling: State-of-the-art for Practitioners, Analysts, and Scientists. Burlington: Elsevier; 2014. p. 211-218'},{id:"B2",body:'Zafer Kalkınma Ajansı, Uşak İli Tekstil Geri Dönüşüm sektör Raporu [Internet]. 2019. Available from: https://www.kalkinmakutuphanesi.gov.tr/assets/upload/dosyalar/usak-tekstil-geri-donusum-raporu-tgdr.PDF [Accessed: April 23, 2022]'},{id:"B3",body:'Kleinhückelkotten S, Neitzke H. 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Organic Content Standard (OCS) [Internet]. 2022. Available from: https://textileexchange.org/standards/organic-content-standard/ [Accessed: April 17, 2022]'},{id:"B124",body:'Soil Association. Types of organic textile certification [Internet]. 2022. Available from: https://www.soilassociation.org/certification/fashion-textiles/types-of-certification/ [Accessed: April 17, 2022]'},{id:"B125",body:'Textile Exchange. Responsible Down Standard (RDS) [Internet]. 2022. Available from: https://textileexchange.org/standards/responsible-down/ [Accessed: April 11, 2022]'},{id:"B126",body:'Responsible Wool Standard (RWS) [Internet]. 2022. Available from: https://textileexchange.org/responsible-wool/ [Accessed: April 11, 2022]'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Gizem Celep",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Occupational Health and Safety, Faculty of Health Sciences, Usak University, Turkey
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Gamze D. Tetik",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Materials Science and Nanotechnology Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Usak University, Turkey
Department of Textile Engineering, Graduate Education Institute, Usak University, Turkey
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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. 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He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. 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He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"38",type:"subseries",title:"Pollution",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment",scope:"
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11966,editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",biography:"Ismail Md. Mofizur Rahman (Ismail M. M. Rahman) assumed his current responsibilities as an Associate Professor at the Institute of Environmental Radioactivity, Fukushima University, Japan, in Oct 2015. He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",biography:"Zinnat A. Begum received her Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University in 2012. She achieved her Master of Science (M.Sc.) degree with a major in Applied Chemistry and a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. Her work affiliations include Fukushima University, Japan (Visiting Research Fellow, Institute of Environmental Radioactivity: Mar 2016 to present), Southern University Bangladesh (Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering: Jan 2015 to present), and Kanazawa University, Japan (Postdoctoral Fellow, Institute of Science and Engineering: Oct 2012 to Mar 2014; Research fellow, Venture Business Laboratory, Advanced Science and Social Co-Creation Promotion Organization: Apr 2018 to Mar 2021). The research focus of Dr. Zinnat includes the effect of the relative stability of metal-chelator complexes in the environmental remediation process designs and the development of eco-friendly soil washing techniques using biodegradable chelators.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713"},editorialBoard:[{id:"252368",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ong",slug:"meng-chuan-ong",fullName:"Meng-Chuan Ong",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRVotQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-20T12:04:28.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"187907",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Anne",slug:"olga-anne",fullName:"Olga Anne",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBE5QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-07T09:42:13.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Klaipeda State University of Applied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:20,paginationItems:[{id:"80964",title:"Upper Airway Expansion in Disabled Children",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102830",signatures:"David Andrade, Joana Andrade, Maria-João Palha, Cristina Areias, Paula Macedo, Ana Norton, Miguel Palha, Lurdes Morais, Dóris Rocha Ruiz and Sônia Groisman",slug:"upper-airway-expansion-in-disabled-children",totalDownloads:35,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"80839",title:"Herbs and Oral Health",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103715",signatures:"Zuhair S. 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