Isolation of Mycobacterium spp / M. pinnipedii in Arctocephalus australis, Otaria flavescens and Mirounga leonina in Uruguay.
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",isbn:"978-1-83968-298-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-297-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-299-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"362b356f3ae4c3b5ab5a5fe69d92d270",bookSignature:"Dr. Luigi Cocco",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10385.jpg",keywords:"Virtual Analysis, Target Definition, Assembly Solution, Robotics, Software Architecture, Data Fusion, Autonomous Driving, Functional Safety, Vehicle Battery, Charging Infrastructures, Hybrid Vehicles, Cybersecurity",numberOfDownloads:655,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 6th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 27th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 25th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 14th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 12th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"7 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Cocco received his master's degree in Telecommunication Engineering and his Ph.D. in Information Engineering before joining the automotive industry. From the Ferrari F1 Team to Automobili Lamborghini, he has worked on Electrical/Electronics systems, he has expertise in Research & Design, Supply Quality and Product Development. Currently, he is System Responsible for Passive Safety & ADAS of Maserati vehicles at Maserati S.p.A.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"112023",title:"Dr.",name:"Luigi",middleName:null,surname:"Cocco",slug:"luigi-cocco",fullName:"Luigi Cocco",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/112023/images/system/112023.jpg",biography:'Dr. Luigi Cocco has received his master\'s degree in Telecommunication Engineering and his Ph.D. in Information Engineering before to join the automotive industry. Since 2005, From the Ferrari F1 Team to Automobili Lamborghini, he has worked on Electrical/Electronics systems; he has expertise in Research & Design, Supply Quality and Product Development. 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His research interests include electronic measurements and digital signal processing, he has published several papers and three books with InTech: "Modern Metrology Concerns” (2012), "New Trends and Developments in Metrology” (2016) and "Standards, methods, and solutions of Metrology” (2018).',institutionString:"Maserati S.p.A.",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"74236",title:"New Robust Control Design of Brake-by-Wire Actuators",slug:"new-robust-control-design-of-brake-by-wire-actuators",totalDownloads:60,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74309",title:"Role of Bearings in New Generation Automotive Vehicles: Powertrain",slug:"role-of-bearings-in-new-generation-automotive-vehicles-powertrain",totalDownloads:96,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74420",title:"Hydrogen Fuel Cell Implementation for the Transportation Sector",slug:"hydrogen-fuel-cell-implementation-for-the-transportation-sector",totalDownloads:133,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"73891",title:"Quantum Calculations to Estimate the Heat of Hydrogenation Theoretically",slug:"quantum-calculations-to-estimate-the-heat-of-hydrogenation-theoretically",totalDownloads:66,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"73339",title:"Generation and Relaxation of Residual Stresses in Automotive Cylinder Blocks",slug:"generation-and-relaxation-of-residual-stresses-in-automotive-cylinder-blocks",totalDownloads:86,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74124",title:"Quality and Trends of Automotive Fuels",slug:"quality-and-trends-of-automotive-fuels",totalDownloads:36,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74097",title:"Hydrogen Storage: Materials, Kinetics and Thermodynamics",slug:"hydrogen-storage-materials-kinetics-and-thermodynamics",totalDownloads:72,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74920",title:"Light Weight Complex Metal Hydrides for Reversible Hydrogen Storage",slug:"light-weight-complex-metal-hydrides-for-reversible-hydrogen-storage",totalDownloads:32,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"73923",title:"Hybrid Steering Systems for Automotive Applications",slug:"hybrid-steering-systems-for-automotive-applications",totalDownloads:76,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"280415",firstName:"Josip",lastName:"Knapic",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280415/images/8050_n.jpg",email:"josip@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"40768",title:"Uruguayan Pinnipeds (Arctocephalus australis and Otaria flavescens): Evidence of Influenza Virus and Mycobacterium pinnipedii Infections",doi:"10.5772/54214",slug:"uruguayan-pinnipeds-arctocephalus-australis-and-otaria-flavescens-evidence-of-influenza-virus-and-my",body:'Uruguay has 450 km of shorelines along the La Plata River and 220 km along the Atlantic Ocean (MTOP-PNUD-UNESCO, 1980). Two species of Otariids breed and reproduce on Uruguayan Atlantic islands: the South American fur seal, Arctocephalus australis (Zimmermann, 1783) (Fig. 1), and the South American sea lion, Otaria flavescens (Shaw, 1800), (Fig. 2), (Ponce de León, 2000; Ponce de León & Pin 2006; Vaz-Ferreira, 1976, 1982). Both are polygynous, gregarious and show strong sexual dimorphism (Bartholomew, 1970). South American fur seal adult males reach lengths of 1.9 m and weigh from 120 kg to 200 kg, while females can reach 1.4 m long and weigh from 40 kg to 55 kg, and newborns can be from 0.4 m to 0.5 m long and weigh from 3.5 kg to 5.5 kg (Vaz-Ferreira, 1982). Sea lion males may reach 2.8 m and weigh up to 354 kg while adult females are much smaller, reaching up to 1.9 m long and weighing as much as 150.0 kg (Ponce de León, 2000). Newborns in this species are between 0.7 m and 0.9 m long and weigh from 10.0 kg to 17.0 kg (Cappozzo et al., 1994). A third pinniped species, the southern elephant seal Mirounga leonina (Fig. 3), is a frequent visitor of Uruguayan islands and shorelines, although its reproductive areas are located in Argentina. Elephant seals can reach up to 5 m, 3 m or 1.3 m in length for males, females and pups respectively, and they can weigh as much as 5,000 kg, 800 kg from 40 kg to 50 kg (Reeves et al., 1992).
Group of South American fur seal Arctocephalus australis males, females and pups on Lobos Island. Photograph: A. Ponce de León.
South American sea lion Otaria flavescens reproductive groups with pups on Marco Island with pups. Photograph: A. Ponce de León.
Young male southern elephant seal Mirounga leonina on Coronilla’s Islet. Photograph: A. Ponce de León.
The exploitation of fur seals by Europeans in Uruguay is known to have begun in 1516, soon after the Spaniards explored the South Western Atlantic Ocean. During this exploration, Juan Díaz de Solís discovered the La Plata River and his crew landed on Isla de Lobos, where they killed 66 seals for their meat to be salted and consumed on their way back to Europe. The first semi-organized commercial exploitation took place in 1724, and the seal oil obtained was used for illuminating the city of Maldonado. From 1792 the Real Compañía Marítima, under direct instructions of the King of Spain, was responsible for sealing, until England invaded the territory in 1808. Shortly after, seal harvesting was carried out by private concessionaries and controlled by the local Government. From 1873 to 1900 a total of 440,000 seals were slaughtered (annual average of 16,000 pelts), whereas no records are available from 1901 to 1909. Further on, from 1910 to 1942, 72,000 South American fur seals were killed, as well as 17,000 more between 1943 and 1947. Due to the uncontrolled exploitation, populations of both seal species began to decrease. After 1950 a new management scheme started on Isla de Lobos, based on the system used for Northern fur seals (Callorhinus\n\t\t\t\t\tursinus) in Pribilof Islands (Alaska), and the harvest was restricted to males. Also, private sector concessions were suspended, and the Government directly organized the harvesting program and related activities. Between 1959 and 1991 a total of 276,000 South American fur seals were removed (about 8,400 animals per year) and from 1967 to 1978, 36,400 sea lions were also slaughtered (3,000 animals per year). Products taken were crude skins, oil, meat and male genitals. Pelts were tanned and prepared in specific areas in Uruguay. Carcasses and fat were processed to obtain special oil for making soap, cosmetics and paints. In the XIX century, seal oil was used for illuminating the main streets of some cities. The meat was sometimes dried and given to the Montevideo Zoo for feeding big cats, eagles and condors. Since 1980, genitals were processed and sold for preparing medicines and aphrodisiacs (Acosta y Lara, 1884; DINARA, 2006; Pérez Fontana, 1943; Ponce de León, 2000; Vaz-Ferreira 1982; Vaz-Ferreira & Ponce de León, 1984, 1987).
Harvesting and slaughtering of Uruguayan seals stopped in 1978 for South American sea lions and in 1991 for South American fur seals. From 1992 to the present day, the conservation and preservation of pinnipeds and cetacean species are under control of the National Direction of Aquatic Resources (DINARA: Dirección Nacional de Recursos Acuáticos).
Uruguayan South American fur seal and sea lion colonies are located on three main islands in the Atlantic Ocean: 1) Isla de Lobos and Lobos Islet, 9,260 m off Punta del Este (Department of Maldonado); 2) Torres Group Islands (Rasa Island, Encantada Island and Islet) close to Polonio’s Cape (Department of Rocha) and 3) Marco Island close to Valizas (Department of Rocha). There are two more small islets close to La Coronilla (Department of Rocha), where small groups of sea lions aggregate in reproductive areas (Fig. 4). Sometimes, a few South American fur seals also appear on these islands (Ponce de León, 2000; Ponce de León & Pin, 2006; Smith, 1934; Vaz Ferreira, 1950, 1952, 1956; Vaz Ferreira & Ponce de León, 1984, 1987).
Location of Uruguayan South American fur seal and sea lion calving, breeding and mating islands close to the shorelines of the Departments of Maldonado and Rocha : Isla de Lobos (35º 01’ 38” S – 54º 52’ 55” W) and Lobos Islet; Rasa Island (34º 24’ 12” S – 53º 46’ 10” W), Encantada Island (34º 24’ 26” S – 53º 45’ 56” W), Torres Islet (34º 24’ 09” S – 53º 44’ 59” W); Marco Island (34º 20’ 59” S – 53º 44’ 26” W); 3) Verde Island and Coronilla’s Islet (33º 56’ 21” S – 53º 29’ 15” W). Isobath data layer obtained from FREPLATA-Proyecto de Protección Ambiental del Río de la Plata y su Frente Marítimo (www.freplata.org).
Parturition and mating occur between November and January for South American fur seals and during January and February for South American sea lions (Franco-Trecu, 2005; Ponce de León, 2000, 2001; Ponce de León & Pin, 2006; Trimble, 2008). Gestation lasts around one year. In South American fur seals, lactation extends for several months and weaning begins between the 8th and the 12th month of age (Ponce de León, 1983, 1984, 2000; Ponce de León & Pin, 2006). From the 6th month of age, pups start eating fish and small mollusks as can be seen when analyzing stomach contents and gastrointestinal parasites of indirect cycle (Katz et al., 2012; Morgades et al., 2006). In some cases, South American fur seal lactation can be extended further, and the mother has to feed two pups from two consecutive breeding seasons: the yearling pup and the new one (Vaz-Ferreira & Ponce de León, 1987). In sea lions, there is a mother-pup relation for one year and in some cases for two (Vaz-Ferreira & Achaval, 1979) or possibly, up to three years (Soto, 1999). Little is known about the exact time of weaning, and whether pups are mixing milk with solid prey. It was suggested that weaning occurs when the mother actively rejects the older pup because a new one is born (Vaz-Ferreira, 1981; Vaz-Ferreira & Achaval, 1979).
South American fur seals have a lek reproductive system (Franco-Trecu, 2005). During the reproductive season, males fight each other to defend territories in very violent battles that can result in serious wounds and scars (Ponce de León, 2000; Ponce de León & Pin, 2006; Vaz-Ferreira, 1976, 1982; Vaz-Ferreira & Ponce de León, 1984, 1985, 1987). Females have no strong bonds with the areas defended by males. Fur seal colonies on islands are occupied by individuals from different age classes during the entire year. During the reproductive season there is a high density of animals in rocky areas as compared to sandy surfaces. As a consequence of the high environmental temperature, territorial males may abandon the reproductive areas in order to refresh themselves in the water (Vaz-Ferreira & Palerm, 1962; Vaz-Ferreira & Sierra de Soriano, 1962). After giving birth, South American fur seal females may remain with their pups for 6 to 11 days (Franco-Trecu, 2010) before starting short foraging trips that gradually become longer as the pups grow bigger and more independent (Ponce de León & Pin, 2006; Franco-Trecu, 2010).
The Uruguayan South American fur seal population is the biggest in South America (Vaz-Ferreira, 1982), with an annual growth rate of 3.3% (Páez, 2006) and an actual size estimated at 400,000 individuals. However, this species is included by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) in the list of globally protected species because of population decline of other South American colonies (de Oliveira et al., 2006). For the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) the same species is listed as “Of low concern”.
South American sea lions have a polygynous breeding system (Ponce de Leon & Pin, 2006; Trimble, 2008; Vaz-Ferreira, 1981; Vaz-Ferreira & Sierra de Soriano, 1962). The reproductive season extends from mid December to mid February. During this time males fight each other to establish territories and to defend females from other males (Campagna & Le Boeuf, 1988; Ponce de Leon & Pin, 2006). Pregnancy has an estimated duration of 363 days (Franco-Trecu & Trimble, unpublished data). Territorial males display violent fights that may last at least one hour, and end with serious wounds. After parturition, sea lion females remain with their pups in order to suckle them for approximately one week and then start short foraging trips of three days, alternated with two-day suckling periods on land (Campagna & Le Boeuf, 1988). There is a decrease in the number of adult males and females at the end of the reproductive season because, after fasting during the breeding season, males begin their foraging period at sea. In addition, adult females alternate foraging trips at sea and suckling periods ashore, and move to other areas of the island (Franco-Trecu & Trimble, unpublished data; Ponce de León & Pin, 2006). Despite the fact that sea lions abandon the islands in order to move to feeding areas, there are generally some animals in the rookeries, even outside the reproductive season. In many other South American colonies this species maintains an increasing population growth (Grandi et al., 2008; Sepúlveda et al., 2006) and has been classified as low risk by the IUCN. However, sea lions in Uruguay are considered a highly endangered species due to their population decrease of 1.7 to 2% annually, with a total population estimated at only 12.000 individuals (Páez, 2006; Pedraza et al., 2009).
On Lobos Island and Lobos Islet, South American sea lion groups are found in small patches, surrounded by large groups of South American fur seals. However, on the Torres Islands (Rasa Island, Encantada Island and Islet), Marco Island and other islets, groups of sea lions are more numerous than on the bigger Lobos Island. According to Pedraza et al., (2009) and Ponce de León (unpublished data), sea lion populations are stable or increasing (2.4% annually) in Polonio´s Cape islands, while in Lobos Island their growth have a negative tendency. This is related to a positive trend in the A. australis population and may be an indicator of competition for territory (breeding areas), a process that occurs only on Lobos Island and Lobos Islet.
The breeding and reproductive areas of the elephant seal Mirounga leonina are located in sub Antarctic regions along the coast of South America (Campagna & Lewis, 1992; Lewis et al.,\n\t\t\t\t\t1998) and smaller colonies are formed in the Antarctic (Le Boeuf & Laws, 1994). The only large breeding colony of southern elephant seals on the South American continent is found in Península Valdés (42°04\'S, 63°45\'W) (Campagna & Lewis, 1992; Le Boeuf & Laws 1994; Lewis et al., 2004). Young, juvenile and adult animals migrate to northern regions (Lewis et al., 2006) and occur at different points all along the Uruguayan shoreline of the La Plata River and Atlantic Ocean beaches. During practically the whole year, elephant seals of both sexes are frequently seen in the flat areas of access to Lobos Island, Lobos Islet, Rasa Island and Coronilla Islet (Fig. 3 and 4). Mother and pup couples have been seen on Lobos Island in October, and in some odd cases, individuals have swum up the waters of the Uruguay River to the Departments of Rio Negro and Paysandú (Ponce de León & Pin, 2000).
South American fur seals have mainly pelagic feeding habits (Naya et al., 2002; Ponce de León & Pin, 2000, 2006; Vaz-Ferreira, 1976) but also feed in shallower waters (Franco-Trecu, 2010). Their diet is basically composed of anchovies (Engraulis anchoita, Anchoa marinii), squid (Illex argentinus, Loligo sanpaulensis), hake (Merluccius hubbsi), striped weakfish (Cynoscion guatucupa), oceanic shrimp (Pleoticus muelleri) and cutlassfish (Trichiurus lepturus) (Frau &Franco-Trecu, 2010; Naya et al., 2002; Pin et al., 1996; Ponce de León et al., 1988; Ponce de León et al., 2000; Ponce de León & Pin, 2006; Vaz Ferreira 1976; Vaz-Ferreira & Ponce de León, 1984, 1987). Uruguayan fur seals usually do not interfere directly with artisanal and industrial fisheries, as they do not eat from nets nor destroy fishing gears (Ponce de León & Pin, 2006), though there are a few records of fur seal by-catch in artisanal (Franco-Trecu et al., 2009) and industrial fisheries (Szephegyi et al., 2010).
Diving records obtained by different researchers showed that during lactation, female fur seals perform dives of up to 186 m (media: 23.5 m ± 19.5 m) in depth with an average duration of 1.2 min ± 0.8 min (max. 5.3 min.) (Riet et al., 2010; York et al., 1998). These data suggest that females use both benthic and pelagic foraging strategies, and demonstrate their huge endurance for deep dives, apnea resistance and swimming ability. Diurnal dives were shallower and shorter than nocturnal ones (Riet et al., 2010). It was determined that lactating females consume different prey species, adapting their diving strategies to variations in food resources (Ponce de León & Páez, 1996; Ponce de León & Pin, 2006; Riet et al., 2010; York et al., 1998).
During early lactation, female sea lions perform dives of 21 m ± 8 m in depth with an average time of 1.9 min ± 0.7 min. Mean distance traveled per trip was 62.2 km ± 63.0 km. Foraging trips lasted 1.3 ± 0.8 days and did not exceed the continental shelf (>50 m of depth). Maximum distance from the colony was 98.60 km ± 31.3 km. These results indicate that during the breeding season females forage in coastal and shallow continental shelf areas (Riet et al., 2009, 2012). In autumn, foraging trips last 5 days (range: 1-14 days). Most animals seemed to complete round trips along the same tracks, meaning that each animal uses the same path on successive trips, with low overlap between individuals. Site fidelity to Lobos Island was highly remarkable for all animals, independently of their reproductive condition (Rodríguez et al., 2012).
Sea lions compete directly with small-scale coastal fishing and artisanal fisheries, feeding on species that are part of the fishermen\'s daily catch by stealing prey trapped in nets and longlines, and sometimes causing important damage or cracks in the gear (Franco-Trecu et. al., 2012; Lezama & Szteren, 2003; Ponce de León & Pin, 2006; Szteren & Páez, 2002). According to different authors, the sea lions\' diet is mainly made up of coastal prey and some pelagic fishes: whitemouth croaker (Micropogonias furnieri), striped weakfish (Cynoscion guatucupa), Brazilian codling (Urophysis brasiliensis), cutlassfish (Trichiurus lepturus), mackerel (Trachurus lathami), Argentinean conger (Conger\n\t\t\t\t\torbignyanus), carangid (Parona\n\t\t\t\t\tsignata), two species of anchovies (Engraulis anchoita and Anchoa marinii), and Argentinean croaker (Umbrina canosai) (Franco-Trecu, 2010; Naya et al., 2000; Pinedo & Barros, 1983; Ponce de León & Pin, 2006; Riet et al., 2011, 2012; Vaz Ferreira, 1981). As a consequence of interactions with sea lions, fishermen lost prey with high local commercial market value. Sometimes, fishermen find small shark specimens in their nets (Mustelus schmitti, Galeorhinus galeus, Myliobatis spp.) which have bite marks in their abdominal area (Fig. 5) from sea lions that learned to exploit this energy reservoir (Ponce de León & Pin, 2006). Recent reports show that during the early lactation period, foraging home ranges of sea lion females overlapped with fishing effort areas of coastal bottom trawl fisheries (15%) and artisanal fisheries (>1%). For both fisheries the resource overlap per fisheries impact index identified the “hotspots” which are distributed along the coast, west of the breeding colony (56ºW - 55Wº) (Riet et al., 2011).
Artisan fishery capture of Mylobatis spp. The opened abdominal areas of the sharks are seen, from where sea lions have taken highly nutritive and energy rich livers and pancreas. Photograph: A. Ponce de León.
South American fur seals and South American sea lions could represent an important tourism attraction. Since the seals are only a few meters away from visitors on Lobos Island and Polonio’s Cape, seal watching in both of these popular natural areas could be exploited for tourism activities (Ponce de León & Pin, 2000, 2006; Ponce de León & Barreiro 2010). This type of exploitation should be regulated by serious and responsible Government rules in order to assure sustainable coastal management of environmental resources. New employment opportunities for local people in the Departments of Maldonado and Rocha would be created. This kind of offer would also contribute to public awareness-raising programs for conservation of these charismatic species and for conservation of aquatic ecosystems.
Nowadays, fur seals are an important nontraditional exportation item: between 60 and 80 living young fur seals are captured annually on Lobos Island and exported to aquaria and theme parks all over the world. The principal objective of these parks is to educate people about environmental issues and about the conservation of aquatic and marine resources and ecosystems. Although live sea lions had been sold by the Uruguayan Government since 1980, the exportation of living specimens of this Otariid was suspended in 2006 by DINARA-MGAP due to decreasing population numbers. Captures of animals are held in Lobos Island from mid March to mid November. This special period was defined in order to avoid disturbances and to be respectful of parturition, breeding and mating periods of the two Otariid species present in the island (Ponce de León, 2000; Ponce de León & Pin, 2006).
As far as research is concerned, DINARA maintains the old seal factory plant on Lobos Island, using parts of the buildings for providing accommodation to researchers who are developing studies in both species. Through the development of various research projects, the Government institution DINARA, students and graduates of the University of Uruguay (Universidad de la República) as well as from foreign countries, are gathering and collecting data to increase knowledge about the population dynamics of both species, which will also help in developing appropriate rules and guidelines for their management, and ensuring the conservation of Uruguayan natural resources.
Marine mammals are susceptible to a variety of pathogens including influenza viruses. In humans, influenza causes annual epidemics and occasional pandemic diseases, with a significant threat to human health. In wild animals, several outbreaks have been reported and especially marine mammals experienced several devastating episodes that highlight the importance of monitoring wild populations to perform conservation programs and to evaluate possible risks to human health.
Influenza viruses belong to the Orthomyxoviridae family and are enveloped viruses with a segmented, negative-sense RNA genome (Webster et al., 1992). Embedded in the lipid envelope, the hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) proteins are responsible for virus attachment and release from host cells, respectively (Webster et al., 1992). This family of viruses is composed of four genera: influenza A, B and C viruses and Thogoviruses (Wright & Webster, 2001). While influenza B and C viruses are primarily “human” viruses, influenza A viruses infect a variety of avian and mammalian species including humans, horses, swine and marine mammals such as seals and cetaceans (Wright & Webster, 2001; Webster et al., 1992). Influenza B virus was isolated from a harbor seal (Phoca vitulina) for the first time in the year 2000 (Osterhaus et al., 2000) becoming a possible second reservoir of this virus.
Influenza viruses are unique among respiratory tract viruses as they undergo considerable antigenic variation. Both surface antigens of the influenza A viruses are subject to two types of variation: drift and shift. Antigenic drift involves minor changes in the hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) and plays a role in influenza epidemics, which occur sporadically. Antigenic shifts involve major changes in these molecules resulting from replacement of the gene segment, producing new pandemic strains (Wright & Webster, 2001).
Phylogenetic evidence suggests that influenza epidemics in humans and other mammals, including seals, come from mutation and antigenic drift of viruses originating from aquatic birds (Webster et al., 1992). Several influenza events which have affected marine mammals have been described since the late seventies. The New England coast was the scene of an episode of influenza virus between December 1979 and November 1980. More than 400 harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) died of acute pneumonia associated with the influenza virus A/Seal/Massachusetts/1/80 (H7N7). This was the first evidence of an influenza virus antigenically and genetically related to avian viruses that could be associated with severe disease in wild animals (Geraci et al., 1982; Lang et al., 1981; Webster et al., 1981). This H7N7 strain was associated with an approximate 20% mortality of the seal population and also showed potential for causing conjunctivitis in humans. However, it was not transmitted among humans.
A new event was described along the New England coast from June 1982 through March 1983. This time the influenza virus isolation was an H4N5 subtype, which had previously been detected only in birds. It was recovered from harbor seals dying of viral pneumonia (Hinshaw et al., 1984). This strain, which caused an estimated mortality of 2 % to 4 %, was found to be genetically and serologically related to avian strains.
In January 1991 and January to February 1992, influenza A viruses were isolated from seals that died of pneumonia along the Cape Cod Peninsula in Massachusetts. Antigenic characterization identified two H4N6 and three H3N3 viruses. This was the first isolation of an H3 influenza virus from seals, although this subtype is frequently detected in birds, pigs, horses and humans (Callan et al., 1995). Genetic analysis indicated that the viruses were both of avian origin and that transmission from birds to seals was the most likely possibility.
Also, indirect evidence of influenza infection was reported from a variety of marine mammal species. In pinnipeds, antibodies against influenza A virus were detected in sera from harp seals (Phoca groenlandica) and hooded seals (Cystophora cristata) collected between 1991 and 1992 in the Barents Sea (Steuen et al., 1994), as well as from sea lions (Otariidae) and seals in the North and Bering seas (De Boer et al., 1990), and a ringed seal (Pusa hispida) in Alaska (Danner et al., 1998). A serological survey of influenza A antibodies from five species of marine mammals collected from Arctic Canada between 1984 and 1998, revealed that 2.5% of ringed seals (Phoca hispida) were serologically positive (Nielsen et al., 2001). A serological study of influenza virus infection in Caspian seals (Phoca caspica) detected antibodies to human-related (H3N2) virus in 36% of the seals (Ohishi et al., 2002). Two years later, another study suggested that human-related H3 viruses were prevalent in Baikal seals (Phoca sibirica) and ringed seals (Pusa hispida) inhabiting the central Russian Arctic (Ohishi et al., 2004). Serological evidence of influenza A virus infection was reported in Kuril harbor seals (Phoca vitulina stejnegeri) of Hokkaido, Japan, from samples collected between 1998 and 2005 (Fujii et al., 2007). In this study, antibodies to H3 and H6 subtypes of influenza A virus were detected. This was the first time that H6 antibodies were identified in seals (Fujii et al., 2007).
Indirect evidence of influenza A viruses has been reported in 27% of the South American fur seals sampled in Uruguay (Blanc et al., 2009). By Hemagglutination Inhibition Assay (HAI) it was found that all the positive samples reacted with A/New Caledonia/20/99(H1N1) antigen reaching HAI titer of 320 but none of the sampled serum reacted with A/Panamá/2007/99(H3N2) antigen. For the first time, the presence of influenza A in A. australis was confirmed (Blanc et al., 2009) (Fig. 6).
Influenza viruses have also been detected in whales. An H1N3 virus was isolated from a striped whale in the South Pacific (Lvov et al., 1978). In 1984 influenza A viruses of the H13N2 and H13N9 subtypes were isolated from a pilot whale (Globicephala melas) (Hinshaw et al., 1986). Serological, molecular, and biological analyses indicate that the whale isolates are closely related to the H13 influenza viruses from gulls (Hinshaw et al., 1986). In cetaceans, specific antibodies were observed in a low portion of sera from belugas (Delphinapterus leucas) in Arctic Canada (Nielsen et al., 2001).
Few studies have been reported regarding the detection of influenza B viruses in marine mammals. The first one reported the isolation of influenza B virus (B/seal/Netherlands/1/99) from a naturally infected harbor seal in the year 2000. Sequence analyses as well as serology indicated that this influenza B virus is closely related to strains that circulated in humans 4 to 5 years earlier. Retrospective analyses of sera collected from 971 seals showed a prevalence of antibodies of the influenza B virus in 2% of the animals after 1995, and in none before that year, suggesting that the virus was introduced in the seal population from a human source around 1995 (Osterhaus et al., 2000). Antibodies to influenza B viruses were detected by ELISA in 14% and 10% of serum samples collected from Caspian seals in 1997 and 2000, respectively (Ohishi et al., 2002).
Serologic evidence of influenza B virus has been reported from South American Uruguayan fur seals A. australis (Blanc et al., 2009). Thirty of the 37 serum samples assayed by HAI reacted against one of the three antigens used: 25/37 (68%) reacted against B/Beijing/184/93-like viruses, 20/37 (54%) reacted against B/Hong Kong/330/01, and 24/37 (65%) reacted against B/Sichuan/379/99. The results show that 17 sera reacted against all B antigens, only six reacted against two antigens and eight sera did not react against any of them. The highest titer reached was (640) against B/sichuan antigen. The results demonstrated influenza B virus circulation in South American fur seals for the first time in our country and in this species. The antigens assayed correspond to strains that circulated in humans between the years 1999 and 2001, 3 to 5 years after the study was carried out, confirming the hypothesis of other authors that marine mammals could be a reservoir of influenza strains that circulated in the past (Fig. 6).
It is important to consider that marine mammals share their habitat with several different wild shorebirds as well as with aquatic birds, the main influenza A virus hosts. The presence of bird feces in water, which can shed high concentrations of Avian Influenza viruses, and the close contact during feeding activities between birds and seals, increase the probability of fecal-oral transmission.
Antibodies to Influenza A and B virus by HAI in fur seal sera. Percent (number positive/number tested) of samples bearing antibodies vs. HAI titer for each Influenza antigen assayed. Titers ≥ 80 were considered positive. Antigens used: A/New Caledonia/20/99(H1N1), A/Panamá/2007/99(H3N2), B/Beijing/184/93-like viruses, B/Yamanashi/166/98, B/Hong Kong/330/01, and B/Sichuan/379/99.
Monitoring the distribution of the influenza virus in wild animal species including marine mammals is important for understanding the ecology and evolution of the virus, and also to understand how the virus can mutate and re-emerge more virulent, producing devastating epidemic diseases.
Bacteria belonging to the Genera Mycobacterium are acid-fast bacilli (AFB) classified in different complexes and species according to biochemical, cultural and genetic features. The first communication of tuberculosis (TB) in captive seals dates from the early twentieth century (Blair, 1913). However, the diagnosis and study of tuberculosis and mycobacteriosis in different species of marine mammals is fairly recent. Ehlers (1965) reported a tuberculosis case in a Northern seal (Cystophora cristata). Subsequently, Kinne (1985) described tuberculosis cases in several marine mammal species. In 1986, the first isolates of Mycobacterium spp. were obtained in Australian fur seals and sea lions (Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus and Neophoca cinerea respectively) and New Zealand fur seals (Arctocephalus forsteri) in captive and wild conditions (Forshaw & Phelps, 1991; Woods et al., 1995). Successive isolations were made from wild pinniped species in the Southern Hemisphere (Bastida et al., 1999; Bernardelli et al., 1996; Cousins et al., 1993; Hunter et al., 1998; Romano et al., 1995; Woods et al., 1995; Zumárraga et al., 1999).
In Uruguay, the first isolation of Mycobacterium spp. in pinnipeds was conducted in 1987 from samples of South American sea lion O. flavescens specimens kept in “Villa Dolores” municipal zoo. Of the ten animals studied, one died and nine others were tuberculin-positive and were later euthanized. Seven animals showed typical histo-pathological lesions of tuberculosis, and a total of 6 strains were isolated. Initially, it was considered that the bacillus was M. bovis according to results from a smear, biochemical tests and culture features. The strains were inoculated to guinea pigs (0,1 mg) that developed characteristic lesions and subsequently Mycobacterium spp. were isolated, fulfilling Koch\'s postulates (Castro-Ramos et al., 1998). In 1997 Mycobacterium spp. was isolated from lung samples of an adult South American fur seal stranded on the coast of Montevideo. The animal was collected from the beach by a NGO and sent to quarantine in a zoo for recovery, but died four days after admission. The observed granulomatous lung lesions were typical of TB, and a Mycobacterium spp. strain was isolated (Castro-Ramos et al., 2001).
Between 2001 and 2006, pathological, microbiological and genetic studies were conducted on dead stranded animals of different species of pinnipeds found along ocean shores of Uruguay: South American fur seal (n = 129), South American sea lion (n = 24) and Southern elephant seal (n = 1). Necropsies were performed using standard methods (Dierauf, 1990). Samples from several organs with or without lesions (lung, mediastinal lymph nodes, spleen, liver) (n = 36) were stored at 4° C, frozen at -20° C or fixed in 10% formalin.
Formalin fixed samples were processed by standard histological methods: 4-5 cuts were made at 5-6 µm and stained with Hematoxylin-Eosin and Ziehl-Neelsen (ZN) (Luna, 1968). Mycobacteriological studies were performed according to the methodology described by the Pan American Zoonoses Center (Centro Panamericano de Zoonosis (OPS/OMS) (1979), Office International des Epizooties (OIE) (2000), Runyon et al., (1980) and Tacquet et al., (1967). Smears from single or pooled samples of each animal were performed and then cultured in Stonebrink and Lowenstein Jensen media. Cultures were kept for eight weeks at 37° C and periodically reviewed. Culture tests were based on microscopic features, morphology of the colony, growth temperature, time of development and cromogenicity of isolates. The identification was completed with the following biochemical tests: niacin, nitrate reduction, catalase at 22° C and 68° C, hydrolysis of Tween 80 at 5 and 10 days, reduction of potassium tellurite 0.2% at 3 days, urease and pyrazinamidase. A total of 14 strains were isolated (Table 1).
Strains isolated in 1987 (N° 01073, adult male O. flavescens), 1997 (N ° 01337, juvenile male A. australis) and 2002 (N ° 2493, juvenile female O. flavescens) were analyzed through amplification of 200 bp of the Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) region through Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) as in Roth et al., (2000). Sequences obtained were compared to those available at GenBank database through a maximum parsimony phylogenetic tree, and strains were grouped with sequences of M. tuberculosis / M. pinnipedii.
During the necropsies, granulomatous lesions were observed in only five animals: two South American sea lions (juvenile male and female) and three South American fur seals (two adult and one juvenile male) (Fig. 7), from which M. tuberculosis / M. pinnipedii complex strains were isolated. Isolates were also obtained from organs without gross lesions belonging to pups and juvenile fur seals (n = 9) and from a sub-adult male elephant seal (Castro-Ramos et al., 2005, 2006) (Fig. 9).
Code | Year of sampling | Species | Sex | Category | Origin | Baciloscopy | Culture |
9/2001 | 2001 | Aa | ♂ | Adult | w | --- | --- |
2493 | 2002 | Of | ♀ | Juvenile | w | + | + |
0874 | 2002 | Aa | ♂ | Adult | w | + | + |
0873 | 2003 | Aa | ♀ | Pup | w | + | + |
0875 | 2003 | Aa | ♀ | Pup | w | + | + |
1405 | 2003 | Of | ♂ | Juvenile | w | + | + |
1332/3 | 2004 | Aa | ♀ | Pup | w | --- | + |
2172/1 | 2005 | Aa | ♀ | Pup | w | - | + |
2172/2 | 2005 | Aa | ♀ | Pup | w | - | + |
2172/3 | 2005 | Aa | ♀ | Pup | w | - | + |
2172/4 | 2005 | Aa | ♂ | Pup | w | - | + |
2172/6 | 2005 | Aa | ♂ | Pup | w | - | + |
2172/7 | 2005 | Aa | ♂ | Pup | w | - | + |
2173 | 2005 | Of | ♀ | Pup | w | - | + |
2174 | 2005 | Ml | ♂ | Juvenile | w | - | + |
Aa= Arctocephalus australis; Of= Otaria flavescens; Ml= Mirounga leonina; c= captive, w= wild. |
Isolation of Mycobacterium spp / M. pinnipedii in Arctocephalus australis, Otaria flavescens and Mirounga leonina in Uruguay.
Macro and microscopic lesions were recorded. Hydrothorax and hemothorax were found in two adult animals. Papillary and proliferative lesions in parietal and visceral pleura (Fig. 7) were associated with a chronic inflammatory process, mononuclear and lymphocytic infiltration, and in some cases congestion and hemorrhage. Lungs presented yellowish-white nodules on surface and deep pulmonary parenchyma, which corresponded to granulomas with AFB. Histology showed mononuclear infiltration throughout the parenchyma as well as congestion, emphysema and atelectasia near nodules. Granulomas showed the typical structure with a necrotic center surrounded by a mild fibroblastic reaction and mononuclear infiltration with AFB in single arrangements or small groups (Fig. 8). In bronchi and bronchioles mononuclear exudates at the lumen and lymphocyte/macrophage aggregates below the cartilage were present. Necrotic foci were also recorded in mediastinal lymph nodes with AFB. In one juvenile sea lion a mediastinal abscess and hematoma were found between the great vessels near the heart, which was associated with a chronic inflammatory process.
Macroscopic view of an Arctocephalus australis lung. Numerous granulomas were present on the surface and deep parenchyma (white arrows) and a significant thickening of the visceral pleura.
Histological section from an Arctocephalus australis lung. A granuloma in the lung parenchyma (star) surrounded by areas of congestion and atelectasis (arrows) can be observed. Inset: AFB groups within the granuloma (immersion) (black arrows). (Ziehl-Neelsen. 400x)
Mycobacterium spp. / M. pinnipedii colonies in Stonebrink medium culture. Sample obtained from a Mirounga leonina lung.
These results indicate a wide distribution of the disease in Uruguayan fur seal and sea lion colonies associated with a high prevalence of the disease in zoos and aquaria from South American native pinnipeds populations (Jurzinsky et al., 2011; Lacave, 2009; Lacave et al., 2009; Moser et al., 2008). The region used for genetic analysis can only discriminate between two large complexes within the Genera Mycobacterium, Mycobacterium\n\t\t\t\ttuberculosis complex (MTC) and M. avium (MAC). Based on these results we can conclude that the sequences studied are part of the MTC and correspond to M. pinnipedii as determined by more precise genetic studies (Cousins et al., 2003, Jurczinski et al., 2012; Kriz et al., 2011; Moser et al., 2008) which include a strain isolated in Uruguay (Cousins et al., 2003). Discrimination between different members of the MTC is essential for epidemiological investigations of wild populations, as well as the diagnosis of human cases associated with an adequate chemotherapy (de la Rua-Domenech, 2006).
The isolation of bacilli in pups and juvenile animals without apparent lesions indicates early transmission of the organism even though the animals do not show symptoms of respiratory disease. Similar findings were reported for wild carnivores for which positive cultures for M. bovis were not accompanied by gross or histological lung lesions (Bruning-Fann et al., 2001; Little et al., 1982). Furthermore, cattle with M. bovis developed a non-progressive disease, with small lesions in lymph nodes (retropharyngeal and mediastinal), which in turn are positive reactors to diagnostic tests for delayed cutaneous hypersensitivity (Tuberculin skin test). Most individuals of the population carrying the dormant bacilli may become ill with TB at some point in their life, if an immunodeficient situation develops. It is therefore necessary to consider all infected individuals as potentially diseased animals (Rider, 1999).
The fact that most gross and microscopic lesions are located in the respiratory system of pinnipeds (Bastida et al., 1999; Bernardelli et al., 1996; Castro-Ramos et al., 1998, 2001; Forshaw & Phelps, 1991; Katz et al., 2002; Moser et al., 2008; Woods et al., 1995) indicates that the main transmission is by aerosols. Less frequently, lesions were located in liver, spleen, kidney and abdominal lymph nodes (Bernardelli et. al., 1996; Forshaw & Phelps 1991; Kiers et al., 2008; Kriz et al., 2011), cases in which the bacilli probably spread through blood flow or swallowing of sputum containing mycobacteria (Forshaw & Phelps, 1991; Kriz et al., 2011). In wildlife, it is expected that transmission takes place mainly through spray during coughing and sneezing which is frequently observed in pups and adults (H. Katz, pers. obs.) or the typical naso-nasal contact between pinnipeds.
M. pinnipedii have been isolated from fur seals, sea lions and elephant seals from the Southern Hemisphere (Arctocephalus australis, A. forsteri, A. pussilus doriferus, A. tropicalis, Otaria flavescens, Neophoca cinerea, Mirounga leonina, Phocarctos hookeri). They have been found both in wild animals and specimens kept in European aquaria or theme parks taken from South American colonies (Bernardelli et al., 1996; Castro-Ramos et al., 2005; Cousins et al., 2003; Duignan et al., 2003; Kiers et al., 2008; Kriz et al., 2011; Lacave, 2009). Micobacteriosis was diagnosed in only one Otariid species of the Northern Hemisphere (California sea lion, Zalophus californianus, Ehlers, 1965; Gutter et al., 1987). Most diagnoses were made in captive Otaria flavescens, probably because it is the most common species in aquaria as it is easily trained. Uruguay exported this species destined for aquaria from 1980 to 2006, when captures were restricted due to population decline (Páez, 2006). Nowadays, only live juvenile specimens of A. australis are caught for exportation to different destinations (Asia, Latin America and Europe). As this species is also carrier of M. pinnipedii (Cousins et al., 2003; Castro-Ramos et al., 2006; Katz et al., 2002) it is important to establish accurate diagnostic methods. The isolation of M. pinnipedii from different mammalian species (cattle, Bactrian camels, Malayan tapirs, Guinea pigs and humans), indistinguishable from strains isolated from pinnipeds, suggests that the bacillus has significant potential to infect a wide range of hosts, particularly when animals are in captivity (Cousins et al., 2003; Kiers et al., 2008; Moser et al., 2008).
Presently, the diagnostic methods in living specimens have certain inaccuracies or deficiencies that make it difficult to establish a universal technique or golden standard. This is particularly important given that individuals carrying the microorganism can take years to show signs of the disease; only in terminal cases have nonspecific symptoms including anorexia, dysphagia, lethargy and weight loss been described. Coughing has not been described as a sign accompanying respiratory infection although significant lung lesions were present (Bernardelli, 1996; Castro-Ramos et al., 1998, 2006; Cousins et al., 1993; Kiers et al., 2008; Kriz et al., 2011; Lacave, 2009). In necropsied seals, tuberculosis diagnosis had been made based on mycobacterial isolation, histopathology and genetic characterization of strains. Imaging methods (radiography, computer tomography) have been used in captive animals, but in wild conditions these procedures are impractical. Chest radiographs were performed on pinnipeds of different sizes, but in cases of very small lesions in large animals with thick blubber, radiological images do not give appropriate information (Forshaw & Phelps, 1991; Jurczynski et al., 2012). In some zoos computer tomography has been used for detection of small calcified granulomas (Jurczynski et al., 2011, 2012), but it is very difficult to be used routinely. Different serological tests (rapid test, Elephant TB STAT-PAK, Chembio; multiantigen print immunoassay (MAPIA) Chembio; dual path platform assay (DPP Vet; Chembio) have been used in O. flavescens individuals in captivity, with DPP technique demonstrating greater sensitivity (87.5%) (Jurczynski et al., 2012). The tuberculin skin test (TST) with purified protein derivative (PPD bovine and avian) for screening has been done in O. flavescens and A. australis individuals (Bernardelli et al., 1990; Castro-Ramos et al., 1998; Kiers et al, 2008; Lacave, 2009) and reported by Forshaw & Phelps (1991) in A. forsteri, A. pusillus\n\t\t\t\tdoriferus and N. cinerea. This technique is very sensitive, economical and easy to perform. The possible occurrence of false negatives must be taken into consideration in cases of advanced infection with anergy or very recent infections that have not yet generated an appropriate immune response (Jurczynski et al., 2011). False positives may also occur in nonspecific cases of exposure to non-tuberculous mycobacteria (Mycobacterium avium, M. chelonae, M. fortuitum and M. smegmatis) (Bernardelli et al., 1990; Forshaw & Phelps, 1991). Tissue and bronchial secretion smears have been used for diagnosis (Jurczynski et al., 2012), but the AFB may correspond to mycobacteria other than M. pinnipedii and, therefore, other confirmation methods must be used. Molecular techniques (PCR, spoligotyping and MIRU / VNTR) applied to samples from purified cultures, tissues and sputum, have produced quick results, allowing the identification of strains involved and their origin (Cousins et al., 2003; Jurczynski et al., 2011; Kiers et al., 2008; Kriz et al., 2011; Moser et al., 2008). In zoo collections, it is suggested that the final diagnosis should be based on the simultaneous use of three different methods, needing a minimum of two positive tests to increase the overall sensitivity when making the final decision for euthanasia. In case of wild animals, the possible diagnostic methods could include the TST, culture and molecular analysis of sputum (PCR) and serology (DPP). This would be extremely important in order to establish or confirm the endemic conditions of the disease in wild colonies and prevent the exportation or handling of carrier animals.
It has been documented that the introduction of novel pathogens into a native animal population without previous exposure could result in epizootics. Human and wildlife populations share a wide range of diseases. While the most common disease transmissions reported are between wild and domestic animals (though many zoonoses do have wildlife origin), emerging diseases of animal origin represent one of the greatest potential threats to public health.
The emergence and re-emergence of over 30 agents have been reported in marine mammals (Miller et al., 2001). There are several reports about their susceptibility to virus, bacterial, fungal and parasitic agents, provoking diseases that result in mass mortality events (Gulland et al., 1996; Miller et al., 2004; Ostehaus, 2000). Once new or previous pathogens are established in the host, they can represent a health risk to other marine vertebrates, humans, or both. It is, however, very difficult to know which routes these zoonotic marine mammal infections take in the marine environment.
The dynamic governing the relationship between infectious diseases affecting humans and marine vertebrates, including sea mammals is very complex and generally poorly understood. It is probable that human activity is a greater threat to marine vertebrate health than vice versa (Mos et al., 2006). However, it is very difficult to establish the role of marine animals as vectors or carriers of zoonotic diseases. Although the role of sea mammals in transmission of potential zoonotic pathogens is not well established, several risk factors, including frequent and prolonged direct contact with live specimens, were clearly identified in workers exposed to these animals (Hunt et al. 2008). Thus, these animals may present a zoonotic potential and also the potential for epizootic events which could cause health problems in marine animals. Since the influenza virus is transmitted by direct contact with infected individuals, by aerosol, or contact with infected objects, several incidents of influenza A virus transmission have occurred from infected seals and whales maintained in captivity to humans (Webster et al., 1981).
Due to their life span, high trophic feeding and the continuous exposition to emerging pathogens, sea mammals might be considered as sentinel species of emerging/re-emerging diseases. Pinnipeds share these characteristics and may serve as effective sentinels providing information about public and aquatic ecosystem health, and indicating the current or potential negative impacts on animal health at the individual or population level.
Implementing a proper management and the accurate execution of conservation policies of wildlife requires the analysis of the vulnerability of the animals to infectious diseases. The majority of animals included in our studies belonged to colonies near cities or towns in proximity to shore (Punta del Este, Polonio\'s Cape), regions that are commonly used by humans, marine and terrestrial mammals and different avian species, establishing an optimal opportunity for zoonotic disease transmission and long-term disease maintenance. The dense aggregations of pinniped colonies make fur seals and sea lions vulnerable to epizootics. Also, movements between adjacent latitudinal domains are common in both pinniped species, which could transmit or acquire pathogens during feeding trips to other parts of the Atlantic Ocean and the La Plata River.
The diagnosis of influenza virus in high-density seal populations in Uruguay generated considerable concern about the potential impacts on South American fur seal and sea lion colonies, as well as potential health risks to humans and domestic animals. In the evolution and ecology of influenza viruses, interspecies transmission is an important factor; seabirds and marine mammals are conspicuous animals that integrate changes in the ecosystem and reflect the existing state of the environment (Aguirre & Tabor, 2004; Boersma, 2008; Moore, 2008; Thiele et al., 2004). Transmission of the influenza virus occurs between avian and several marine mammal species (Mandler et al., 1990) at least for influenza A virus, representing an important step in the evolution and emergence of new mammalian viral strains. Fur seals have the potential to serve as an influenza reservoir for other mammal species. However, more detailed studies are needed to elucidate the role of seals in the epidemiology of influenza along the Uruguayan coasts and in other South American countries.
Our findings confirm that fur seals can act as reservoirs of human influenza strains that circulated in the past, and also suggest that influenza A and B viruses may be transmitted from humans to seals as has been mentioned by other authors (Ohishi et al., 2002, 2004; Osterhaus, 2000). This transmission is due to the highly social lifestyle of pinnipeds, which congregate at sea and on land, and frequently associate with seals from other colonies. It is important to note that there is a strong interaction between seals and humans on Lobos Island and Polonio\'s Cape during live animal captures; nowadays, most interactions occur during capture and research activities, as well as in rehabilitation centers and sometimes with divers that swim near the seal islands. These events constitute opportunities for new influenza strains to jump between humans and seals, providing the potential for an epidemic event. Gaining information on the full spectrum of influenza viruses circulating in our seal colonies and detecting these viruses will remain an important task for its surveillance, outbreak control, and animal and public health.
As described previously, tuberculosis in pinnipeds had been recorded from the beginning of the twentieth century but it was not until mid 80\'s and later that several publications appeared with data from stranded animals and zoological collections. It is important to note that most records are from Otariids from the Southern Hemisphere, a single diagnosis is from a southern elephant seal and one from one native Northern Otariid species kept in captivity in the Northern Hemisphere.
Despite the fact that the seal harvest in Uruguay extended for 200 years, there are no records of macroscopic lesions observed in animals, nor of tuberculosis diagnosis from the staff working in the capture, slaughter or processing of the by-products, that could contribute retrospective data to this disease in Uruguayan pinniped colonies. The disease is considered endemic because of the numerous cases diagnosed in wild animals and the high prevalence of South American seals kept in aquaria and zoos. Unfortunately, to date non epidemiological studies have been conducted in any of the seal colonies from the Southern Hemisphere which could indicate the prevalence of the disease in its natural environment.
Information presented in this work, including the isolation of M. pinnipedii in pups and juvenile seals, indicates the early transmission of the organism. However, it is difficult to establish the course of the disease or immune mechanisms that may develop in each individual to control the infection or, in other cases, allow individuals to act as healthy carriers for several years until some trigger factor determines the development of the disease.
The most important mechanism of transmission of M. tuberculosis, and probably M. pinnipedii, is through the air by droplets produced when an individual with respiratory tract TB eliminates aerosolized microorganisms by coughing or sneezing. Large droplets fall quickly due to their weight and reach the ground without evaporation. Smaller drops evaporate and decrease in size, becoming infectious droplet nuclei, which remain suspended in ambient air for a long time and can be airborne for days. Successful transmission requires that these micro droplets charged with bacilli are of sufficiently small size (1 to 5 µm) to enable them to reach very deep into the lungs and alveoli (Rider, 1999). This phenomenon is more frequent in captive conditions in zoos and aquaria where spray released during enclosure hygiene, poor ventilation and exposure among animals in confined environments, constitute increased risk factors for infection as has been shown in different zoos (Cousins et al., 1993 and 2003; Kiers et al., 2008; Thompson et al., 1993). In wild pinniped colonies, natural ventilation and increased exposure to UV is a natural way of microorganism control that could be the reason for the less common occurrence of TB in these colonies.
In the early course of host-pathogen interaction, mycobacteria are phagocytized by alveolar macrophages. In case the macrophage cannot destroy the pathogen, it resides in a quiescent state with a relatively low multiplication until cell mediated immunity is compromised transiently or permanently. Among the risk factors for immune-compromise, are age, history of a spontaneous TB cure with residual fibrotic lesions, and the time elapsed since infection. Other medical conditions such as endocrine disorders, tumors, malnutrition and stress may influence the progression of infection to disease (Musser et al., 2000; Rider, 1999). This evolution of the disease is consistent with the findings by different authors who have isolated AFB in organs without lesions from pups and juveniles (Bruning-Fann et al., 2001), identified the presence of calcified granulomas in mediastinal lymph nodes in adult and some juvenile animals in captivity and documented tuberculosis lesions in older animals (Jurczynski et al., 2011, 2012).
Keepers and veterinarians at zoos, aquaria and rehabilitation centers are at increased risk of infection because of their extensive contact with the animals. The degree of risk depends on the type of accommodation and sanitizing procedures of the enclosures (Kiers et al., 2008; Thompson et al., 1993) in association with the presence of open tuberculosis cases. Given the zoonotic condition of the disease, it is important to take preventive measures in all personnel working near or with access to wild and captive pinnipeds (researchers, fishermen, seal hunters, rehabilitation centers, aquaria and zoos staff) (Kiers et al., 2008; Thompson et al., 1993) and to establish hygiene measures for reducing the chances of spreading the infection.
Since development of the disease is triggered under immunosuppressive conditions, it is important to assess which factors directly or indirectly affect the immune system and allow development of the disease in wild populations of the Southern Hemisphere. This also applies to other diseases that may be affecting the health status of wild colonies, particularly in O. flavescens from Uruguay, whose population is declining.
Further investigation is needed in order to establish the sources of zoonotic potential in the marine environment and to better understand the nature of health risks for sea mammals and human. Additional epidemiologic studies are also required, to investigate epizootic episodes assessing its impact and to elucidate how these diseases spread among and within marine mammal’s populations.
The present work has been conducted with research permission from DINARA-MGAP at Isla de Lobos and Cabo Polonio. We are extremely grateful to the fur seal keepers Leonardo Olivera, Nelson Veiga, Miguel Casella and César Barreiro who helped us to work with the animals at Isla de Lobos; Lic. Oscar Castro, Dr. Gustavo de Souza, Dra. Graciela Pedrana, Dr. Antonio Moraña, Dr. Francisco Gutiérrez, MSc. Valentina Franco and Dr. Federico Riet, who helped during field work and contributed with bibliography that enriched the present article. We thank Dr. Riet for the figure showing pinniped colonies distribution.
Mangroves of the Niger Delta are the most abundant and most productive forest in Africa [1]. It is also the third largest in the world. The significance of mangroves unlike other rain forest ecosystem e.g. Mahogany (Khaya ivorensis), obeche (Triplochiton scleroxylon) and iroko (Malicia excelsa is the kind of ecosystem services they provide [2]. This is because in addition to purifying the air, stabilizing the soil and being used as timber, mangroves play special role in the environment by serving as one of the biggest carbon sink in the world [3] based on the kind of terrain they occupy. They are the only tree species that grow within the swamps and at the fringes of the sea in highly saline environment [4]. They are adapted to one of the most gruesome environments for any tree to survive. For instance, apart from their salty environment, they grow in soft and muddy soil and are constantly bashed by violent tidal currents. In spite of all these environmental difficulties the mangroves had come out unscathed. Mangroves tend to survive very difficult environmental conditions. To deal with high salt, their system shuts off, sweats out or pumps out excessive salt to survive their environment. Their adventitious root system grows not only from the bottom of the tree but also grow out from the branches in an octopus-like manner to be rooted in the swamp, which provide additional support from the ground-based roots. These roots system if not carefully identified can easily be mistaken for mature stems. Excess salt that will easily kill off other trees act as nutrients for their rapid growth. The survival of mangrove in its difficult environment can be a lesson on resiliency for humans.
Seedling recruitment in mangroves occurs when juvenile organisms survive to be added to a population, by birth or immigration, usually a stage whereby the organisms are settled and are able to be detected by an observer in natural mangroves forest [5]. The Nigerian landscape has significantly changed over the last few decades and anthropogenic activities by man such as sand mining practices is one of the most important causes of this change. Rapid re-establishment of native vegetation, particularly after a large-scale disturbance, can be critical in preventing soil erosion, invasion by exotics, and other unwanted species such as Nypa fruticans. Re-colonization of disturbed sites may be slow and unpredictable, especially if seed sources are remote. Ecological restoration may involve not only artificial reintroduction of the original community dominants, but also nurse species that improve seed trapping and establishment [6], attract seed carriers, enhance soil conditions through organic matter or nutrient accumulation [7, 8], or provide protection of sensitive seedlings [9]. Ecological restoration approaches, however, must be based on a thorough understanding of the natural successional dynamics of the system as well as the growth requirements of the dominant plant species. The current challenge in ecological restoration is to manipulate development so that recovery of the entire suite of structural and functional features is achieved as quickly as possible [10]. Few studies have experimentally examined facilitation in the context of restoration [11, 12]. Facilitation may not only involve amelioration of environmental conditions that promote growth of a beneficiary species, but can also arise from effects of dispersal and establishment, e.g., trapping of seeds. Facilitation has been studied in extreme environments such as salt marshes [13, 14] where plants must cope with stresses such as salinity, flooding, and variable sediment and nutrient supplies such as mangroves. Mangroves are the tropical equivalent of temperate salt marshes, but in contrast to marsh grasses that can propagate vegetatively, these tidal forests are dominated by tree species dependent upon seedling recruitment for regeneration. Mangroves are frequently disturbed by hurricanes and human activities, which severely damage or eliminate the forest community [15]. Mangrove plant communities often contain herbaceous species, which are common components of the tropical beach habitat, salt marshes, or other wet coastal communities [16]. Although factors influencing mangrove recruitment such as seed and seedling predators [17, 18], flooding and salinity [19, 20], and sedimentation [21] had been studied in neotropical forests. Mangroves may be extremely slow to recolonize and grow, especially in harsh (e.g., arid, hypersaline) environments [22]. Mangrove ecosystems thus constitute not only a critical habitat with important ecological and societal benefits, but are systems in which facilitative interactions might be applied to improve restoration techniques.
Ecological restoration is defined as the process of repairing damage caused by humans to the diversity and dynamics of indigenous ecosystem [23]. Ecological restoration includes a wide scope of projects including erosion control, reforestation, removal of non-native species (e.g. N fruticans) and weeds, revegetation of disturbed areas, day lighting streams, reintroduction of native species, and habitat and range improvement for targeted species. Hydrological connections to natural restoration site are also very important to allow in inflow of saline water and mangrove seeds [24]. Inflow of water will also clean the site from pollutants such as oil spillage [25].
Factors that affect ecological restoration include the following:
Disturbance: is a change in environmental conditions that disrupts the functioning of an ecosystem [26]. Disturbance can occur at a variety of spatial and temporal scales, and is a natural component of many communities. For instance, sand mining and oiling activities urban development are disturbances. Differentiating between human-caused and naturally occurring disturbances is important in restoration and minimization of anthropogenic impacts.
Human disturbance: This is a kind of disturbance caused by humans e.g. urbanization and industrialization. Humans build bridges, shopping malls, roads, schools, hospitals etc. in cleared mangrove forests. These activities eliminate the natural wetland system and destroy numerous biodiversity that inhabit this environment (barnacles, mussel, periwinkles, crabs etc). During oil and gas exploration humans deliberately bulldoze and clear large acre of forest to make way for the establishment of booth camps, oil wells and crude oil pipelines. The pipelines conveys petroleum products from oil wells to the refinery while finished products are transported back via pipelines to tankers evacuating products at the port (Figure 1A). These pipelines are established by creating right of way passage (ROW) through deforestation (Figure 1B), furthermore, crude oil spills occur from these pipelines due to sabotage or mechanical failure leading to the destruction of vast amount of mangrove forest (Figure 1C).
Natural disturbances: This is a disturbance that is caused by force of nature. This includes flood, erosion, hurricanes, tsunami and earthquake [27]. These disturbances are controlled by weather conditions and cause massive damage to mangrove forest, which changes the forest structure and composition (Figure 2).
Ecological Succession: is the process by which a community changes over time, especially following a disturbance [28]. In many instances, an ecosystem will change from a simple level of organization with a few dominant pioneer species to an increasingly complex community with many interdependent species. Restoration often consists of initiating, assisting, or accelerating ecological successional processes, depending on the severity of the disturbance. Following mild to moderate natural and anthropogenic disturbances, restoration in these systems involves hastening natural successional path.
Habitat Fragmentation: describes spatial discontinuities in a biological system, where ecosystems are broken up into smaller parts through land use changes (e.g. agriculture) and natural disturbance [29]. This reduces the size of the populations and increases the degree of isolation. Thus, the smaller and isolated populations are more vulnerable to extinction whereas fragmenting ecosystems decreases quality of the habitat.
Ecosystem function: describes the most basic and essential foundational processes of any natural systems, including nutrient cycles and energy fluxes [30]. An understanding of ecosystem functions is necessary to address any ecological processes that may be degraded. Ecosystem functions are emergent properties of the system as a whole, thus monitoring and management are crucial for the long-term stability of ecosystems. Mangrove ecosystem functions include three major aspects namely: (1) good and services e.g. timber, fuel, food, medicine and dyes; (2) Environmental and ecological services such as (i) regulatory services e.g. coastal protection, climate regulation and (ii) supporting services e.g. nursery, biodiversity, nutrient cycling and soil formation; (3) Cultural services e.g. spiritual, esthetic, recreational and educational.
Community assembly: is a framework that can unify virtually all of community ecology under a single conceptual umbrella. Community assembly theory attempts to explain the existence of environmentally similar sites with differing assemblages of species [31]. It assumes that species have similar niche requirements, so that community formation is a product of random fluctuations from a common species pool.
Population genetics: Genetic diversity has shown to be as important as species diversity for restoring ecosystem processes [32]. Hence ecological restorations are increasingly factoring genetic processes into management practices. Such processes can predict whether or not a species successfully establishes at a restoration site.
Pollution: is the emission of toxic substances into the environment. Mangroves are impacted by hydrocarbon pollution [33], and this occurs during crude oil spillage from punctured pipelines at both offshore and onshore sites. The crude oil spilled into the water coat the roots of mangroves and suffocates them to death. Oil pollution in mangrove forest lead to the increase in heavy metal concentration, which creates toxic condition and lead to the death of immature mangroves [34].
Picture a: Pipelines’ leading from Port Harcourt refinery to Okrika Jetty was taken in 2010. Spillages do occur, which affects neighboring mangrove forest. Picture B: Deforestation of mangrove forest at Okrika refinery Jetty to make way for pipelines right of way (ROW) taken in 2015. Picture C: Massive death of mangrove forest at Abbi Ama, Buguma Asari-Toru local government area of Rivers state following a major oil spillage. The picture was taken in 2010.
Causes of disturbances in mangrove forest in the Niger Delta, Nigeria
Pollution prevents propagule germination and growth, and causes mutation of mangrove which results to stunted growth and eventually death [35, 36]. Hydrocarbon pollution increases litter fall via defoliation, which increases the rate of productivity [37]. Pollution also slows, but do not stop the rate of decomposition [38]. Based on the action of pollution on mangrove structure it is as an impairing agent of its ecosystem functions. This is because it impedes the air purification role of mangrove trees because of increase in defoliation. Death of immature trees prevents their use as a source of firewood production, a major source of cooking energy by poor rural people already wallowing in poverty. The role of mangrove as a biodiversity hotspot is affected because of oil spill that kills other organisms that live on, within and around the mangrove forest.
The ability of mangroves to survive in difficult terrain goes beyond the natural perturbations (sodium chloride, heat, waves etc) to anthropogenic activities (oil spillage, organic waste, pollutants etc.). This is because mangrove survive polluted environment by using similar means to survive a highly saline environment. This is because studies had revealed that mangroves growing in highly polluted sites have higher productivity than mangroves growing in lowly polluted sites [37]. The growth of mangroves in a polluted soil reduces the pollutant load by accelerating microbial action in the soil through decomposition of litter materials. Soil pollutants absorbed into mangrove parts are locked up and deactivated in guard cells which prevent the pollutants from becoming harmful to the internal organs of the plant just the same way salinity is controlled and eliminated in mangrove cells [39].
Mangrove cope with pollution through the following means: (1) by acting as a sink for pollutants, this is because mangroves absorb heavy metals and prevent them from circulating in the ecosystem, (2) through defoliations of leaves that have absorbed pollutants. Here the leaves accumulate pollutants and later fall off to prevent the contamination of the tree [40]; (3) Tough giant root system, the adventitious root system of mangroves grow to a maximum height of above 5 meters from the ground and have only 25% of the root embedded in the swamp and 75% hanging in the atmosphere. This therefore makes oil spill or any pollutant to have limited focus of attack and thus less effect on the tree because of the low root-soil contact. (4) Mangrove root is tough and coated with algal growth, which further provides a layer of protection against external pollutants from the watery environment. This prevents the diffusion of crude oil into the root of mangroves and (5) Tidal flushing, is a process where the tides wipe away oil spills from the forest floor.
Nypa palm (N fruticans) is invasive in the Niger Delta because it is a foreign species brought in from Indonesia [41], and over the years they have driven away the mangroves and colonized their territory. Nypa fruticans are from the family palmae and have different bio-physical properties from the mangroves, which makes them to have an antagonistic relationship with the mangroves. Currently, nypa palms have limited ecosystem services as compared to the mangroves in the Niger Delta. This is the reason why they are removed from most location in favor of the mangrove forest. Although, there are ongoing research to manufacture manure and life buoy from the palms.
Mangrove parts (leaf, stem, root and seed) can be used in attenuating pollutants load in the soil. A recent study using ground mangrove parts on polluted soil shows a drastic reduction in oil pollution level (Table 1). The preliminary results shows that roots of mangrove and nypa palm performed better than other parts whereas the stem of mangrove had the least remediating effect (Numbere unpublished). Mangrove of the Niger Delta has one of the highest productivity levels in the world [29]. High litter fall causes high microbial activities, which in turn leads to high decomposition rate [38]. This has made the mangrove of the Niger Delta to survive a 50 year period of constant pollution from oil spillages. During major oil spillages (Table 1) hydrocarbon pollution suffocates the trees causing death and fragmentation of the forest. In addition mangrove response to stress includes the following (adapted from [42]):
Tree mortality
Defoliation of canopy
Root mortality
Bark fissuring/epithelial scarring
Development of abnormal adventitious root pneumatophores
Leaf deformities and chlorosis
Propagule shrinking
Alterations in the numbers of lenticels
Reduction in tree snail and crab mortality
Changes in in-faunal density
Types of oil spills | Land | Swamp | Offshore | Total |
---|---|---|---|---|
Minor spills (1–249) | ||||
Number of spills | 457 | 446 | 130 | 1, 033 |
Quantity of spills (barrels) | 7, 565 | 14, 317 | 21, 297 | 43, 179 |
Medium oil spills (250–2499 barrels) | ||||
Number of spills | 596 | 91 | 31 | 712 |
Quantity of spills (barrels) | 17, 203 | 33, 139 | 49, 359 | 99, 701 |
Major oil spills (over 2500 barrels) | ||||
Number of spills | 206 | 32 | 16 | 256 |
Quantity of spills (barrels) | 76, 996 | 44, 775 | 1, 379, 2423 | 1, 921, 013 |
Mangrove survives pollution by shutting down pollutants from being absorbed into the root. It also survives by concentrating pollutants in the leaves which are later expelled from the tree via defoliation.
In addition, to pollution, construction or industrial activities carried out by government and private agencies lead to increased deforestation. It causes difficulty in the restoration of the mangrove forests. However, to recover such areas those structures have to be removed by bulldozing the buildings, excavating the soil and replacing them with mangrove swamp soil. Mangrove propagules should then be transferred from the nursery to the restoration sites after two years. The removal of invasive N. fruticans, which thrives in disturbed environment, is also important because they are the second most significant threat to mangrove forest after hydrocarbon pollution [33]. The palms grow mainly in fresh water but have adapted to salt water conditions having lived several years in this environment, where they compete effectively with mangroves [41].
Plant parts: Mangrove Rhizophotra (branch, leave, root, seed and stem) and nypa palm (leave, root and seed) parts were retrieved from the forest at Eagle Island (4°43’N and 7 °58′E). These parts were put in polyethylene bags and sent to the laboratory. They were oven-dried at 70 °C for 48 hours and then ground into fine powder by a hand grinding machine. The powdered form of the leaves were bagged and labeled (Figure 3).
Soil: soil samples were collected randomly at ten points with a soil augur 5 cm below the soil surface from a polluted site at Okrika. Some samples of the collected soil were bagged and sent to the laboratory for physicochemical analysis. The soil is then put in 27 (9 plant parts × 3 replicates) seedling containers for the remediation experiment.
Remediation experiment using ground parts of mangrove (Rhizophora spp.) and Nypa palm (N. fruticans).
Physicochemical analysis of the soil and ground parts were analyzed for Cadmium (Cd), Iron (Fe), Lead (Pb), total hydrocarbon content (THC) and Zinc (Zn).
Remediation experiment: the ground plant parts are applied to the soil surface and monitored for six months with monthly soil samples sent to the lab for physicochemical analysis.
The result (Table 2) shows that there was no significant difference in heavy metal concentration in the soil samples treated with the ground plant parts (P > 0.05).
Metal | Mangrove parts | Nypa palm parts | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Control | M.branch | M.leaf | M.root | M.seed | M.stem | P.leaf | P.root | P.seed | |
Cd | 0.36 ± 0.01 | 0.94 ± 0.01 | 0.04 ± 0.01 | 0.06 ± 0.01 | 0.001 ± 0.00 | 0.4 ± 0.01 | 0.2 ± 0.01 | 0.001 ± 0.00 | 0.001 ± 0.00 |
Fe | 2562.2 ± 0.25 | 454.2 ± 1.29 | 419.4 ± 0.46 | 431.9 ± 0.18 | 453.2 ± 0.61 | 436.8 ± 0.48 | 434.1 ± 0.48 | 457.6 ± 0.59 | 421.1 ± 0.45 |
Pb | 12.02 ± 0.24 | 0.002 ± 0.001 | 0.001 ± 0.00 | 0.001 ± 0.00 | 0.001 ± 0.00 | 0.002 ± 0.001 | 0.001 ± 0.00 | 0.001 ± 0.00 | 0.001 ± 0.00 |
THC | 607.9 ± 0.6 | 218.2 ± 2.15 | 118.3 ± 0.4 | 6.3 ± 0.11 | 224.1 ± 0.25 | 1137.9 ± 0.6 | 67.8 ± 0.65 | 15.3 ± 0.35 | 91.2 ± 0.39 |
Zn | 14.18 ± 0.4 | 6.79 ± 0.02 | 6.9 ± 0.22 | 3.5 ± 0.01 | 12.2 ± 0.51 | 6.9 ± 0.15 | 8.0 ± 0.06 | 11.8 ± 0.46 | 5.3 ± 0.01 |
Concentration of total hydrocarbon content (THC) and heavy metals in soil samples after treatment with ground mangrove and nypa palm parts.
Where M refers to mangrove and P refers to Nypa palm species.
Heavy metal concentration in mangrove versus nypa palm parts in soil.
The result reveals that there was significant difference in the heavy metal concentration between mangrove and nypa palm parts (P < 0.05). Soils treated with ground N. fruticans parts have lower concentration of THC and heavy metals as compared to Rhizophora species parts. This result revealed that N. fruiticans parts remediated the soil better than the Rhizophora species parts. N. fruiticans parts can therefore be used as a biological remediating agent to clean crude oil contaminated soil. This will be an advantage and a reason for protecting the palms in the long run because they have been seen as having no usefulness in this region.
After the remediation of polluted mangrove forest soils intensive re-planting can be done to recover the devastated forest [44]. This can come through natural or artificial process depending on the nature of the terrain. If it is an area that has the natural setting for recruitment, this strategy can be used. The set up that facilitates natural recruitment are an enclosed coastal channel, connection to an active river with good tidal pressure (i.e. fluctuation of high and low tides) or hydrology, swampy soil that contains soil nutrients such as Nitrates and Iron, nearby parent plants that supplies viable seeds, high litter fall, and high microbial activities. If these conditions are not already set up it can be deliberately established to accelerate the natural process of seedling recruitment as long as it is close to a river. Natural remediation can be facilitated by practically changing coastal structures to create a barrier to trap mangrove seedlings once they are brought in by tidal current to enable the seeds to settle down and grow. An example is the research at Eagle Island, which facilitated mangrove seedling recruitment and growth. But for a non-coastal area such as upland mangroves that are far away from the river natural recruitment will not be possible except artificial recruitment is done where seedlings are grown in nursery and transplanted to the field to facilitate growth. However if the disturbance type was sand mining activity the remediation, recruitment and regeneration methods will vary as given below.
Restoration of Mangrove Forest For a sand dump the sand on the surface has to be scooped away and replaced with swamp soil collected from nearby mangrove forest. After piling the area with mangrove swamp, it should be left for some weeks to settle and consolidate. River connection should be established if it does not exist already so that tidal water will flow in and out to deposit seeds and seedlings from parent trees in the catchment area. In flow of estuarine water will also change the soil chemistry through increase in salinity level. In addition, seedlings can be brought in from the nursery to supplement the ones recruited naturally. Details of the different regeneration methods that can be adopted are given below.
Forest regeneration is a process by which forest is renewed, and mangrove forest can be regenerated in two ways: (1) Natural and (2) Artificial (Figure 4).
Natural regeneration: This occurs when seedlings of mangroves sprout naturally without human intervention. It involves the provision of suitable environment for the growth and development of volunteer tree species, which are growing in the area. Mangrove forests require suitable environmental condition for them to grow such as high temperature to enhance productivity, precipitation and saline water. Natural regeneration usually occur after disturbance such as deforestation, dredging, urbanization, clearing of forest to create right of way (ROW) passage for oil and gas pipelines [45]. The success of natural regeneration in mangroves is dependent on some factors, which are:
Presence of sufficient numbers of parent trees that would supply enough seeds that would be carried by tides to the regeneration sites.
Connecting hydrology that would bring in the seeds
Presence of an enclosure containing wire gauze to filter debris, but allow water to flow. Similarly, litter materials in the enclosure trap seeds and prevent them from being flushed away into the open river by tidal currents.
The right soil type (swamp locally called “chikoko”) and chemistry that would accelerate the growth of the seeds
Production of viable seeds by the parent plant that would germinate fast within short period of time.
Low population of fiddler crab (Uca tangeri) that feed on the seeds
Reduction in anthropogenic disturbances in mangrove wetland can lead to the proliferation of fiddler crabs. The action of U. tangeri consuming seeds do not entirely affect seed growth negatively, but also helps to redistribute and bury mangrove seeds around the forest, which causes zonation and rapid growth of seeds [46].
The growth of mangrove seedling can occur through (a) artificial and (b) natural means of regeneration. The natural regeneration is occurring at Eagle Island, Niger Delta, Nigeria.
Advantages of natural regeneration: (i) The forest is established naturally and is not expensive when compared with artificial regeneration that involves finances; (ii) Natural regeneration of the forest do not require site recreation, a forest which naturally recreates will have much forest species; (iii) It brings about the establishment of natural ecosystem in an area of its choice. Natural regeneration does not permit the outbreak of pest and disease epidemic; (iv) It does not require management skill, it is rather based on experience. Mangrove forest restoration is mainly carried out using Rhizophora species (i.e. monospecific restoration). This is because of its ability to grow speedily in both nurseries and natural environment. However, in the natural environment many species (e.g. red, white and black mangroves and nypa palm) (See Table 3) are carried into restoration sites and grow at different pace depending on their ability to adapt to soil physico-chemical conditions, for instance natural mangrove recruitment site at Eagle Island, Niger Delta (Figure 4).
Species | Common name | Abundance | Proportion (pi) | Ln (pi) | Pi*Ln (pi) | H | Rank |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
R. racemosa | Red mangrove | 63 | 0.0334 | −3.399 | −0.114 | −0.114 | 3rd |
L. racemosa | Black mangrove | 1079 | 0.5721 | −0.558 | −0.319 | −0.319 | 2nd |
A. germinans | White mangrove | 709 | 0.3759 | −0.978 | −0.368 | −0.368 | 1st |
N. fruticans | Nypa palm | 35 | 0.0186 | −3.985 | −0.074 | −0.074 | 4th |
Total | 1886 |
Abundance and diversity of different species of mangroves and nypa palms in a natural regeneration site at Eagle Island, Niger Delta.
Disadvantage of natural regeneration: (i) It results in lack of uniformity of trees because there are differences in size classes; (ii) Lack of uniformity of stands, so that they cannot be used for suitable purpose such as logging that provides same size stems; (iii) It lacks uniform management e.g. rate of growth, and maturity of each tree is slow.
The development of forest via natural regeneration takes 10 to 20 years to grow to maturity and start fruiting. For the forest to develop quickly there need to be salt water that will facilitate growth, since most mangrove species are halophilic. Furthermore, there need to be adequate soil nutrients such as nitrate, phosphorus, calcium and zinc to aid growth. Mangrove forest is also facilitated by litter decomposition through microbial action that converts organic materials (leaves, seeds, and branches) to soil nutrients.
Artificial regeneration: This is the total replacement of old stand that has been cut down or affected by any form of disturbance with new seedlings, which are deliberately planted in nurseries and later transferred to the field. It involves deliberate establishment of forest trees in remediated polluted site. Direct planting of seedlings on the remediated site can also be done, especially if there is barrier created by swamp embankments to slow down tidal pressure to prevent erosion from carrying away the seeds. Artificial regeneration is used because there is adequate nurturing of seeds for 1 to 2 years to enable them to develop root system so that when planted in the field they will start to grow immediately to withstand environmental changes such as erosion, climate change and pollution. Similarly, during growth in nursery pest can easily be controlled and diseases prevented through the administration of chemicals to mitigate against future attack by disease-causing insects. Operations of artificial regeneration involve the following: (a) Site preparation such as clearing and removing of thorns, tree stems and other dirt (b) Seedling collection, which is very important in the establishment of a forest (c) nursery practice, i.e. raising the seeds in the nursery or seeds pots or bags. Nurseries are places where seedlings are raised before they are taken to the planting site. Its success lies in the production of adequate number of seedlings of the right quality and fast growing ability.
Two types of nurseries are permanent and temporary nurseries, permanent nursery is meant for large scale, continuous and sustained production of seedlings while temporary nursery is for a short term period of seedling growth.
Advantage of artificial regeneration: (i) There is a high rate of uniformity of the growth of the trees; (ii) Uniformity results in the production of trees very suitable for specific purposes e.g. red mangroves (Rhizophora spp) for firewood; (iii) The trees grow and mature faster than in natural regeneration.
Disadvantage of artificial regeneration: (i) It is very expensive and requires a lot of skills; (ii) Environmentally, it brings about change in existing ecosystem particularly in the area of its establishment; (iii) It may result into an outbreak of pest and diseases.
Species diversity describes the diversity of important ecological entities that span multiple spatial scales from genes to communities. This has to do with species richness and evenness in a specific area. In a second study of species abundance and diversity done at Eagle Island, which measures about 3900 m2, it was found that black mangroves (Laguncularia racemosa) were the most abundant species (n = 1079) followed by white mangroves (Avicennia germinans) (n = 709), red mangroves (Rhizophora racemosa) (63) and nypa palm (Nypa fruticans) (35) (Table 3). A. germinans had the highest species diversity while N. fruticans had the least species diversity.
There are three aspects of mangrove management, the ecological, human and the ecosystem.
Ecological management: This occurs when there is a disturbance like hydrocarbon pollution, deforestation to establish urban areas and sand mining and shortly after these events take their courses through ecological succession. It involves a progressive change of plant growth through the replacement of destroyed mangrove with new mangrove community. An example is successional process of different species of mangrove seedlings including nypa palm colonization of an abandoned sand mining site at Eagle Island, Niger Delta (Figure 5).
Plant succession in deforested mangrove forest at Eagle Island, Niger Delta, Nigeria.
The four stages of succession to be encountered in the above kind of environment include:
Pioneer species (P): This is the first species after a disturbance. It is common 1─5 years after a major disturbance had occurred such as earth quake, flood or volcano. An example of this species is annual plant such as weeds and grasses. Everything is killed leaving behind bare soil, but after a period of time there is a dramatic increase in weed,
Early successional species (E): They are a group of species that replace pioneer species. They are dominant for 5─10 years e.g. woody shrub
Mid successional species (M): They are large shrubs or small trees that are dominant for 10─30 years. They basically replace their early successional species.
Late successional species (L): They are also called climax community. They are tall tree communities that exist in the absence of disturbance.
The cause of the regular progression of change in the mangrove community is seed dispersal, which is facilitated by water. Mangrove takes a long time to mature between i.e. 10─20 years. But the annuals like grasses grow faster and colonize the disturbed site few weeks after disturbance. The mangroves are the top species in the intertidal marine environment because of their ability to withstand the tough environmental conditions created by nature and humans.
There is evidence to support the above successional pattern in marine intertidal system where progressive change in disturbed area lead to increase in diversity. One of such hypothesis is the intermediate disturbance hypothesis (IDH). It is an empirical relationship between the time a disturbance occurs and the time species diversity increases in a given location. This is because the climax no longer has the highest diversity. It explains why in some areas we have high diversity while in others we have low diversity. The cause of decline in diversity is competition. Low diversity is also caused by the suppression of early species. The implication for mangrove management is that classical pattern minimizes disturbance to maximize diversity whereas IDH pattern manages disturbance at an intermediate level. Therefore, to identify an IDH system the following should be noted: (a) there will be complete replacement during succession; (b) climax species need to competitively suppress all other successional species, (c) The climax species does not create a new species.
In mangrove forest restoration, regional management is better than local site management. This is because disturbance is managed to maximize diversity but make sure all successional stages exist within the management area. Secondly, at the regional level everything is reproducing. Moreover, disturbance does occur at different time and at different places so each one of four successional processes are often dominant. This is done by introducing disturbance in the system in other to maximize diversity. For example, after the Ozark forest is burnt down different species begin to sprout rapidly that were not originally present. This means humans can play a role in natural disturbance to maximize natural biodiversity. In the Niger Delta low level of hydrocarbon pollution i.e. minor crude oil spill (See Table 1) does not impact mangrove growth and development, even when deliberately added it will have little or no effect on plant growth. However, in major oil spill it may be harmful to growth by deforming the seedlings or killing them outright. Years of study mangrove forest in Niger Delta has shown that low level introduction of crude oil in mangrove forest could help facilitate the growth of seedling that has resilient qualities, and the elimination of weak species. However, further studies are needed to validate this field observation. This will ensure a long term positive feedback of rejuvenated growth, as recorded in previous findings, where it was discovered that highly polluted sites had higher productivity, species diversity and mangrove tree structure than less polluted site [29]. Although, this revelation has not been thoroughly studies to make a conclusive statement, there are some observations that point to the fact that crude oil pollution in low amount can facilitate mangrove growth in some areas in the Niger Delta. However, the implication is that there might be bioaccumulation of pollutant up the food chain. This suggestion is made because the mangroves of the Niger Delta had been growing in polluted environment for over fifty years without dying. Rather the major killer of mangroves is deforestation through urbanization and fire wood production. It is suspected but not proven that the DNA of this set of mangroves might have been imprinted with “pollution resisting genes” that has made them less vulnerable in the face of high pollution. The complete removal of a disturbance regime is a form of disturbance in itself because we are basically altering the order [47].
Human management: Humans are the ultimate problem of biodiversity especially the mangroves. This is because of their affinity for the mangroves due to the ecosystem services they render. All aspects of the mangroves are useful to humans such as the leaves, stem, root, leaves and seeds, which are used for producing medicinal herbs, fire wood, food etc. Hazardous climatic effect such as earthquake, tsunami, hurricane, cyclone and flood do not affect the mangroves of the Niger Delta rather humans are the greatest threat to the mangroves in this region. The aim of human management is to prevent negative anthropogenic effect on the mangroves by keeping people away from the forest. This is because human activities such as deforestation, logging, and oil and gas exploration are the major threats of mangroves. Since people cause problems for mangroves it is necessary to create zones of use, buffer and transition zones to protect forest resources. The purpose of this method is to allow plants and animals to be protected [32].
Ecosystem management: It is a new way of managing reserve to benefit biodiversity and people. It is a strategy for protecting or restoring the function, structure and species composition of an ecosystem while providing for its sustainable socio-economic use. The tenets of ecosystem management of mangrove forest are as follows:
Ecosystems are dynamic- This means they change during succession because they are not static.
Ecosystems are subject to unpredictable events or disturbances such as fire, pest and insect attack, crab and animal herbivory, hydrocarbon pollution, earthquake and cyclone, so management need to be flexible in a process called adaptive management.
Humans are integral part of the ecosystem
Ecosystem requires constant monitoring of populations.
Sustainability means the ability to preserve an environmental resource to last for future generations. Therefore, sustainable management of mangrove forest is the process whereby mangrove forest is managed to last long for the benefit of incoming future generations. Studies have already shown that 5% of mangrove forest has already been lost in the Niger Delta due to oil and gas exploration, urbanization and invasive nypa palm species [48]. To manage mangrove sustainably, those aforementioned key factors that lead to their decimation need to be eliminated. Both onshore and offshore oil and gas exploration results to many cases of oil spillages recorded in the Niger Delta which has devastated large amount of mangrove forest for a period of over a sixty years (1956 to 2020). The rate of oil spillage has to be reduced drastically by the oil companies through the constant maintenance of old pipelines. In the same vein, sabotage of pipelines by local vandals has to be checked to prevent incessant oil spillages. Urbanization is a necessity to modernize the city, but the mangroves areas can be avoided or put into the city plan through urban ecology, where city and forest would exist side-by-side with each other, this will guarantee the survival of the forest. As for the N. fruticans they can be removed within the mangrove forest through the use of bulldozers so as to provide breathing space for the mangroves. When all these suggested changes are executed mangrove forest can last for centuries and become beneficial to future generations.
It is a process of intentionally altering a site to establish a given indigenous historic ecosystem. In this method we try to bring degraded location to what it was originally. There are four ways of accomplishing restoration; three are active method while one is passive method.
Passive method; It involves the stopping of degradation and allowing succession to occur. This method is good because it is predictable and attains climax. It involves natural succession. Here degraded land can be sealed off and allowed to recuperate through natural seedling recruitment and regeneration. A classical example of this method is the natural mangrove seedling recruitment at an abandoned sand fill site at Eagle Island (Figure 4). Three year (2016─2019) monitoring of this area shows that seedlings that were carried into the site by tidal water had been growing naturally for the past 3 years without human intervention. This method holds great potentials in re-populating many polluted and destroyed sites in the Niger Delta. To achieve this method we need to create the right environmental condition such as establishing water channels, creating an enclosure to trap the seeds from escaping, improving soil chemistry and increasing microbial population of the soil. An example is the natural regeneration of mangroves at Sungei Api-Api, a man-made estuarine channel in Singapore [49]. Factors considered in this study include: the establishment of mangroves include: slope gradients, salinity and tidal inundation levels substrate type, tidal currents and propagule establishment.
Active method: This is required for areas that have been severely degraded. There are 3 active methods, and these include:
Replacement – instead of going back to the original forest, which is impossible a new set of forest or plant community is established as a replacement. For instance, changing mangrove forest to another type of tropical forest (i.e. inter-species replacement) will not be the best option, this is because mangroves are habitat-specific and can only occupy swampy areas. Therefore to restore mangroves, the right soil condition need to be established. This method will work if nypa palm forest is replaced with mangrove forest and soil conditioning carried out. Why it would work out is because both species occupy nearly similar environment. Another kind of replacement that can be done is intra-species replacement where red mangroves (Rhizophora spp) are replaced by white (Avicennia germinans) or black mangroves (Laguncularia racemosa). This one is better than bringing in a completely different species. Mangrove fern (Acrostichum aureum) is a species that can grow in disturbed area. It can be planted as a pioneer species in remediated site.
Rehabilitation- In this method an attempt is made to restore the original ecosystem, but it cannot be fully restored because most of the species had gone extinct. Mangrove forest can be rehabilitated after damage by carrying out artificial seedling regeneration or direct planting.
Restoration- It is the attempt to fully restore the original ecosystem. Here the degraded mangrove forest can be restored through the provision of more species to enhance ecosystem structure and function. For instance, mangrove forest in Armacao dos Buzios Brazil was managed by establishing environmental protection unit, education and enlightenment campaigns to support active regeneration [50].
Mangroves are unique species of plants that are useful to the environment therefore, their protection is important to prevent their extinction as a result of harmful practices such as sand mining, oiling activities, dredging, urbanization etc. The resilience of mangroves in the face of pollution should not be overestimated because just like other species they have a threshold of resistance against environmental perturbation. And once this limit is surpassed they will become vulnerable to the slightest environmental change. There is therefore a need for repopulating lost mangroves to recover lost stands. Increase in population through natural and artificial means will ensure that mangroves become dominant again in their coastal habitat so as to withstand invasion by foreign species such as N. fruticans, which are the most dominant invasive species wreaking havoc to the mangroves. It is recommended that more emphasis should be placed on natural recovery of mangrove forest by deliberately facilitating this process. This can be achieved by the removal of foreign species, the establishment of connecting water channels, soil conditioning and seed transportation to sites of restoration. Finally to accelerate recovery process there can be a combination of natural and artificial seedling recruitment and regeneration methods.
As an Open Access publisher, IntechOpen is dedicated to maintaining the highest ethical standards and principles in publishing. In addition, IntechOpen promotes the highest standards of integrity and ethical behavior in scientific research and peer-review. To maintain these principles IntechOpen has developed basic guidelines to facilitate the avoidance of Conflicts of Interest.
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\\n\\nA Conflict of Interest is a situation in which a person's professional judgment may be influenced by a range of factors, including financial gain, material interest, or some other personal or professional interest. For IntechOpen as a publisher, it is essential that all possible Conflicts of Interest are avoided. Each contributor, whether an Author, Editor, or Reviewer, who suspects they may have a Conflict of Interest, is obliged to declare that concern in order to make the publisher and the readership aware of any potential influence on the work being undertaken.
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\\n\\nEditors can also have Conflicts of Interest. Editors are expected to maintain the highest standards of conduct, which are outlined in our Best Practice Guidelines (templates for Best Practice Guidelines). Among other obligations, it is essential that Editors make transparent declarations of any possible Conflicts of Interest that they might have.
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\\n\\nEXAMPLES OF CONFLICTS OF INTEREST:
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\\n\\nNON-FINANCIAL
\\n\\nAuthors are required to declare all potentially relevant non-financial, financial and material Conflicts of Interest that may have had an influence on their scientific work.
\\n\\nAcademic Editors and Reviewers are required to declare any non-financial, financial and material Conflicts of Interest that could influence their fair and balanced evaluation of manuscripts. If such conflict exists with regards to a submitted manuscript, Academic Editors and Reviewers should exclude themselves from handling it.
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\\n\\nAuthors should declare if they are board members of an organization that could benefit financially or materially from the publication of their work.
\\n\\nAcademic Editors should declare if they were coauthors or they have worked on the research project with the Author who has submitted a manuscript.
\\n\\nAcademic Editors should declare if the Author of a submitted manuscript is affiliated with the same department, faculty, institute, or company as they are.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-09
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"In each instance of a possible Conflict of Interest, IntechOpen aims to disclose the situation in as transparent a way as possible in order to allow readers to judge whether a particular potential Conflict of Interest has influenced the Work of any individual Author, Editor, or Reviewer. IntechOpen takes all possible Conflicts of Interest into account during the review process and ensures maximum transparency in implementing its policies.
\n\nA Conflict of Interest is a situation in which a person's professional judgment may be influenced by a range of factors, including financial gain, material interest, or some other personal or professional interest. For IntechOpen as a publisher, it is essential that all possible Conflicts of Interest are avoided. Each contributor, whether an Author, Editor, or Reviewer, who suspects they may have a Conflict of Interest, is obliged to declare that concern in order to make the publisher and the readership aware of any potential influence on the work being undertaken.
\n\nA Conflict of Interest can be identified at different phases of the publishing process.
\n\nIntechOpen requires:
\n\nCONFLICT OF INTEREST - AUTHOR
\n\nAll Authors are obliged to declare every existing or potential Conflict of Interest, including financial or personal factors, as well as any relationship which could influence their scientific work. Authors must declare Conflicts of Interest at the time of manuscript submission, although they may exceptionally do so at any point during manuscript review. For jointly prepared manuscripts, the corresponding Author is obliged to declare potential Conflicts of Interest of any other Authors who have contributed to the manuscript.
\n\nCONFLICT OF INTEREST – ACADEMIC EDITOR
\n\nEditors can also have Conflicts of Interest. Editors are expected to maintain the highest standards of conduct, which are outlined in our Best Practice Guidelines (templates for Best Practice Guidelines). Among other obligations, it is essential that Editors make transparent declarations of any possible Conflicts of Interest that they might have.
\n\nAvoidance Measures for Academic Editors of Conflicts of Interest:
\n\nFor manuscripts submitted by the Academic Editor (or a scientific advisor), an appropriate person will be appointed to handle and evaluate the manuscript. The appointed handling Editor's identity will not be disclosed to the Author in order to maintain impartiality and anonymity of the review.
\n\nIf a manuscript is submitted by an Author who is a member of an Academic Editor's family or is personally or professionally related to the Academic Editor in any way, either as a friend, colleague, student or mentor, the work will be handled by a different Academic Editor who is not in any way connected to the Author.
\n\nCONFLICT OF INTEREST - REVIEWER
\n\nAll Reviewers are required to declare possible Conflicts of Interest at the beginning of the evaluation process. If a Reviewer feels he or she might have any material, financial or any other conflict of interest with regards to the manuscript being reviewed, he or she is required to declare such concern and, if necessary, request exclusion from any further involvement in the evaluation process. A Reviewer's potential Conflicts of Interest are declared in the review report and presented to the Academic Editor, who then assesses whether or not the declared potential or actual Conflicts of Interest had, or could be perceived to have had, any significant impact on the review itself.
\n\nEXAMPLES OF CONFLICTS OF INTEREST:
\n\nFINANCIAL AND MATERIAL
\n\nNON-FINANCIAL
\n\nAuthors are required to declare all potentially relevant non-financial, financial and material Conflicts of Interest that may have had an influence on their scientific work.
\n\nAcademic Editors and Reviewers are required to declare any non-financial, financial and material Conflicts of Interest that could influence their fair and balanced evaluation of manuscripts. If such conflict exists with regards to a submitted manuscript, Academic Editors and Reviewers should exclude themselves from handling it.
\n\nAll Authors, Academic Editors, and Reviewers are required to declare all possible financial and material Conflicts of Interest in the last five years, although it is advisable to declare less recent Conflicts of Interest as well.
\n\nEXAMPLES:
\n\nAuthors should declare if they were or they still are Academic Editors of the publications in which they wish to publish their work.
\n\nAuthors should declare if they are board members of an organization that could benefit financially or materially from the publication of their work.
\n\nAcademic Editors should declare if they were coauthors or they have worked on the research project with the Author who has submitted a manuscript.
\n\nAcademic Editors should declare if the Author of a submitted manuscript is affiliated with the same department, faculty, institute, or company as they are.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-09
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I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. 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After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. 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I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. 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