\r\n\tThe description of possible chemical or physical techniques available nowadays will be enriched by biological methods. Methods with a high potential for commercialization are of particular importance, that is why some of the material presented in this book will relate to this aspect.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"14fd989f11b44b2e886b74caa5c77874",bookSignature:"Dr. Agnieszka Saeid",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7643.jpg",keywords:"Chemical Precipitation, Ion-Exchange, Adsorption, Membrane Filtration, Bioremediation, Phytoremediation, Biosorption, Biaccumulation, Immobilization, Soil Flushing, Vitrification, Electrokinetics",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 2nd 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"August 23rd 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 22nd 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 10th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 10th 2020",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"208781",title:"Dr.",name:"Agnieszka",middleName:null,surname:"Saeid",slug:"agnieszka-saeid",fullName:"Agnieszka Saeid",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/208781/images/system/208781.jpeg",biography:"Agnieszka Saeid graduated from the Department of Chemistry, Wrocław University of Science and Technology (WUST) in 2005. In 2010, she defended her doctoral thesis, and in 2019 she obtained habilitation and she was granted a Marie Sklodowska-Curie Actions (MSCA) to participate in the Postgraduate School of Industrial Ecology (PSIE) - IndEcol at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology in Trondheim. She has published over 77 papers, including 69 papers in world-known peer-reviewed scientific journals from the JCR list. Her works have been cited more than 300 times and she has an h-index: 15. She is the author of 5 patents. She cooperates with many universities in the field of multidisciplinary projects. She has edited books for CRC Press, Wiley, and NOVA Science and has also contributed to 10 book chapters published by Elsevier, Wiley, CRC Press, Nova Science, Studium Press LLC, and IntechOpen.",institutionString:"Wroclaw University of Science and Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Wrocław University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"14",title:"Materials Science",slug:"materials-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"297736",firstName:"Katarina",lastName:"Paušić",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297736/images/8495_n.jpg",email:"katarina.p@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6320",title:"Advances in Glass Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6d0a32a0cf9806bccd04101a8b6e1b95",slug:"advances-in-glass-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Vincenzo M. 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Churchill, Maja Dutour Sikirić, Božana Čolović and Helga Füredi Milhofer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8812.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"219335",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Churchill",slug:"david-churchill",fullName:"David Churchill"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6851",title:"New Uses of Micro and Nanomaterials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"49e0ab8961c52c159da40dd3ec039be0",slug:"new-uses-of-micro-and-nanomaterials",bookSignature:"Marcelo Rubén Pagnola, Jairo Useche Vivero and Andres Guillermo Marrugo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6851.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"112233",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Marcelo Rubén",surname:"Pagnola",slug:"marcelo-ruben-pagnola",fullName:"Marcelo Rubén Pagnola"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"70433",title:"The Moral Role of Pedagogy as the Science and Art of Teaching",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90502",slug:"the-moral-role-of-pedagogy-as-the-science-and-art-of-teaching",body:'\nThe purpose of this chapter is to present the key concepts and actors in pedagogy and in pedagogical relationships in the context of educational institutions. The goals of education are established in a national curriculum and in more detailed institutional curricula. In many countries, for example, in Finland, the goal of education is to support the development of the whole personality, rather than merely the cognitive domain [1]. In this kind of holistic approach, human beings are lifelong learners who need to be educated in all educational domains to actualize their full potential. These domains include three domains in learning as identified by Benjamin Bloom: cognitive, affective and psychomotor [2]. Many learning tasks, for example, the skills related to morality, require teaching and learning in both cognitive and affective domains [3]. In this chapter we discuss how pedagogy, the science and art of teaching, can promote the educational goals identified in the curriculum.
\nWe can identify two different curriculum tradition influencing national curriculums in different countries. The Bildung tradition aims at educating individuals to become competent citizens who actualize their individual talents and also benefit the society with their competences [4]. Bildung advocates the importance of individual and society transformation through education. In Europe and Nordic countries,
The basic elements and relations in the didactical triangle [
In this
The Anglo-American curriculum tradition is based on psychological theories on learning, and the emphasis is on accountability and learning outcomes [6]. The curriculum and the teaching plans are well-articulated and detailed with the goals to achieve the learning objectives with clearly defined contents. The teachers are trained to teach certain contents with the goal to produce good learning results that can be measured objectively with standardized tests. Teachers are certified after their training, and they are evaluated regularly on the basis of their students’ learning outcomes [4, 6]. Teachers’ task is to implement the given national curriculum and achieve the learning objectives listed in them.
\nIn this chapter, we adhere to the
Shulman [9] argues that teacher’s knowledge of ends, purposes and values of education is perhaps the most important part of teachers’ professional knowledge. This kind of knowledge includes the following issues: the visions on what is possible in pedagogy, how a pedagogically well-functioning school might look like, what the students should become and how good education can be defined [9]. In Finland, for example, the holistic growth of students is emphasized in the national curriculum with the aim to educate them to be good citizens who contribute to the society with their talents [1]. This goal of education assumes that the teacher has internalized the values and purposes in education and can actualize them in her teaching. In addition to these general pedagogical values, the teacher needs to be aware of the subject-specific values of each subject taught [10]. A current pedagogical challenge for Finnish teachers includes the task of curriculum integration [11].
\nAccording to Niemelä and Tirri the need for an integrated curriculum emerges from current ethical and social issues in the world. Curriculum integration can be applied, for example, to teaching what climate change means and what can be done to stall, if not reverse it. Curriculum integration can also advance democratic education in schools with a pedagogical purpose of meeting the needs of diverse students [11].
\nTo be able to act as an ethical professional with a long-term commitment, a teacher needs a personal purpose for her work [12]. William Damon and his colleagues have defined the term “purpose” as “a stable and generalized intention to accomplish something that is both meaningful to the self and of intended consequence to the world beyond the self” [13]. Tirri argues that to meet the criteria of a purposeful teacher, three criteria needs to be met. They include intention, engagement and prosocial reasoning [12]. Purposeful teachers are those professionals who have internalized the moral core of pedagogy and the long-term goals in education. Those goals need to be both personally meaningful for a teacher and at the same time go beyond herself to serve her students holistic growth.
\nIn the Anglo-American contexts, the concept of pedagogy is usually used as a synonym to the German concept of didactics (die Didaktik). The
An important aspect of German Didaktik tradition and pedagogy is that it has both descriptive and normative aspects, science and art of teaching. In descriptive sense,
Teacher and students, content of instruction as well as the relationships between them mainly contribute on the quality of classroom interaction [16]. Several researchers [17, 18, 19] after Herbart have considers the basic elements—teacher, student and content—and relations in the didactical triangle (see Figure 1).
\nIn this pedagogical core and context, the
The relations between the basic elements in the didactical triangle play an important part in the whole. Naturally,
The
In Anglo-American tradition, Shulman’s [9] framework of the teacher’s practical knowledge and especially pedagogical content knowledge has informed and guided research practice related to teachers and teacher education. He suggests that teacher education programmes should combine two knowledge bases to more effectively prepare teachers. These two knowledge bases are content and pedagogy. A crucial aspect of the teachers’ knowledge development of how to teach their subject is subject matter knowledge. A second aspect of teacher knowledge is pedagogical knowledge, which goes beyond knowledge of the subject matter per se to the dimension of subject matter for teaching. Pedagogical content knowledge can be called as an amalgam between content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge; it allows teachers to support pupil learning, organize teaching in a pedagogically meaningful way and choose relevant teaching and assessment methods when teaching subject matter. Pedagogical content knowledge is unique to teachers and separates, for example, a science teacher from a scientist. With this knowledge, a teacher can teach a certain context to different learners effectively and with special attributes that help her/him guide a student to understand content in a manner that is personally meaningful [9].
\nAccording to Shulman [9], pedagogical content knowledge is an aspect of broader general pedagogical knowledge. General pedagogical knowledge comes close to the German notion of Didaktik, and pedagogical content knowledge comes close to the subject pedagogy or
The activities that invite students’ knowledge construction in school include teachers’ teaching and students’ studying. Uljens [24] argues that both teaching and studying are intentional activities that are directed to promote students’ learning. These activities are, however, not necessary prerequisites for learning; students can learn new things without intentional studying or teaching. In addition, teaching and studying cannot guarantee learning. According to Uljens: “Teaching and studying may thus be called activities supporting individual growth through the process of learning. Learning in itself is therefore a process, among others, through which individual growth is achieved. Competence and changes in one’s personality may then be called the results of individual growth [24]”.
\nInteraction between teacher and students, and among students, is fundamental in teaching. According to Husu [25], interaction seems to be important for at least two reasons: first, a certain amount of interaction is necessary so that teachers and students can understand each other and perform their teaching and studying activities. Without this basic interactive understanding, it would be difficult to know whether teaching and studying activities respectively are focusing in the shared aims that both teachers and students intend. Second, teaching and studying methods are interactive to varying degrees. They can be interactive in themselves (discussion method), or they can allow interaction to a lesser degree (methods of student’s individual studying) [25].
\nKansanen [26] talks about indirect interaction that includes the pre-interactive and post-interactive phases that both teachers and students need in order to be prepared for the next instructional situation. When the teacher prepares for his/her lessons she/he must consider the previous study history and personal characteristics of the students. Furthermore, she/he must create an appropriate learning environment for heterogeneous group of students. The students, on the other side, must organize their own study schedules and do their homework.
\nWe can conclude that the science and art of teaching can be found in purposeful, holistic, normative and context-dependent nature of teaching. Teaching requires strong subject matter knowledge, knowledge on students and the totality of the teaching-studying-learning process.
\nThe professional task of the teacher is to create effective, supportive and challenging learning environments in which pupils can learn skills to direct their lives successfully. In this chapter we take a stance that education extends beyond acquiring knowledge or increasing cognitive capacities toward developing the whole person, including emotion, motivation, volition, spirituality and sociality [27, 28]. A current challenge in school pedagogy is to increase the intercultural and ethical sensitivities of students both in basic and higher education to be able to function as global citizens in the world of diverse values and cultures. Students need a clear purpose and goals in their own lives and in their studies to be able to plan their futures with goal direction and moral reflection on their choices beyond themselves. The teacher’s task is to provide them encouragement, guidance and opportunities to find their own interests and become engaged both socially in dialog with peers and academically in terms of the learning contents in pedagogically supportive ways [29]. Teaching both in schools and in higher education institutions needs to adapt to the needs of twenty-first century learners and society.
\nRelated to students’ academic engagement, there exists a broadening discussion and also concerns about students’ well-being both in basic and in higher education [30] that is constructed between students and the various learning contexts and interactions in them [31]. Several studies have identified factors that are related to students’ decreased well-being both in basic and in higher education contexts, for example, learning difficulties, study-related burnout [32, 33], experiences of bullying [34, 35, 36] and loneliness in peer relations [37, 38]. These concerns encourage to think actively about the factors contributing to students’ well-being and especially the structures and pedagogical practices in educational institutions. In the field of positive psychology, a variety of models based on empirical evidence have been constructed to structure the individual and contextual factors related to student well-being. Typically, self-acceptance, positive perceptions about one’s own growth and development, conceptions of purpose of one’s own life, positive relationships with others, environmental mastery and autonomy have been identified as key factors related to well-being [39, 40, 41].
\nThe variety of digital technologies and social media can be used to support learning and stimulate the discussion on different cultures and the values underlying them. Students need to learn the skills in information and communication technology to be able to function as citizens in the twenty-first century. Many countries, for example, Finland has taken an active role in implementing information and communication technology (ICT) in schools and teacher education [42]. In the future vision, Finland is investing in digital teaching and learning and education of teachers in their pedagogical use. This educational approach is a challenge for many teachers and students. Teachers might lack knowledge and skills to use relevant digital tools and pedagogies related to them to support student learning [43]. Teachers need to be educated for purposeful use of digital tools that includes paying attention to her students’ abilities, gender, prior knowledge, motives and expectations to make learning meaningful for them. Students’ skills in information and communication technology differ a lot, and teachers need the skills to differentiate teaching in inclusive classrooms [44].
\nTeachers are facing more diversity than before in their student populations. This will demand high-level ethical and pedagogical skills to cope with these new challenges. With the research-based education and professional ethics, teachers have the potential to meet the challenges of the future. In teacher education we can also identify the need for more education in the moral domain and particularly in moral sensitivities [3]. Teachers are facing more and more challenges due to the rising number of immigrant students and children who have learning difficulties. For example, in Finland, we have had serious problems concerning child welfare and school shooting tragedies that require new educational strategies and help from other professionals [45]. We can conclude that in addition to didactic aspect which is needed to help students improve their learning, teaching has a strong moral dimension, and teachers therefore need the moral competence to identify and solve moral dilemmas in their learning communities.
\nIt is widely recognised that full maturation of the root apex of permanent tooth is expected to occur three years after the time of eruption. During this period, an immature tooth may encounter situations such as traumatic injury, extensive caries and dental anomalies to the developing dentition, which in turn may lead to pulpal necrosis. This will hinder root maturation and will cause premature loss of the permanent dentition.
Necrotic immature teeth exhibit challenges for cleaning and shaping due to the presence of wide pulp canals, thin fragile walls and blunt root apices. In addition, it is difficult to obturate such a wide canals with large open apices to obtain hermetic apical seals.
At first, necrotic immature teeth were treated by calcium hydroxide apexification [1], which requires multiple visits to a clinic in order to change the calcium hydroxide dressing until a hard apical barrier is formed. However, long-term calcium hydroxide dressings will negatively affect the root canal dentine flexural strength and will make the tooth more susceptible to fracture [2, 4]. The apexification procedure was later modified by introducing an artificial hard barrier, Mineral Trioxide Aggregate (MTA) [3]. MTA apexification can be done in one or two sessions and provides a more reliable apical bacteria-tight seal. It also is biocompatible with periapical tissues and promotes hard tissue barrier formation [4]. However, MTA apexification does not induce root maturogensis, leaving the immature tooth with thin root walls that are susceptible to fracture. On the contrary, regenerative endodontic procedures can help stimulate the formation of a new pulp/dentin complex in the pulp canal space, which will put the tooth in a more favourable physiological status [5].
Regenerative endodontic procedure (REP) is a biologically based treatment that aims to heal periapical periodontitis and substitutes the damaged structure including dentin, cementum, and cells of pulp/dentin complex in order to continue the tooth-growing process. Although the histological characteristics of dentin/pulp tissues are not yet clear, radiographic evaluation has revealed a resolution of periapical lesions, an increase in root length to complete apical root formation, and a thickening of canal walls.
The idea of revitalization of lost tissues in the empty root canal was discussed first by Nyggard Ostby in 1961 [5]. He suggested that introducing a blood clot into the sterilized pulp canal would stimulate new tissue formation and heal the periapical pathosis. His hypothesis was based on the significance of blood clots in the healing of fractured bones [6].
In the histologic analysis, Ostby [5] noted connective tissue ingrowth inside the pulp canal, with scattered islands of mineralized tissue implanted into the newly formed connective tissue. In addition, the signs and symptoms of the necrotic teeth had disappeared and the apical radiolucency had healed. Although no odontoblasts were observed in the histological analysis and unwanted cells (cementoblast) were present, the presence of fibroblast and newly formed tissues was the foundation for regenerative endodontic treatment.
In 1971, Ostby and Hjortdal [7], published a case series of regenerative treatments, but they used antibiotics in the disinfection protocol. They observed an increase in root length, healing of periapical lesions, and a resolution of signs and symptoms.
The contemporary REP was first published in 2001 by Iwaya et al. [8]. In this case, the author reported on a necrotic immature premolar treated with sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), then dressed with a double-antibiotic paste (DAP), which consist of metronidazole and ciprofloxacin Figure 1. This treatment protocol resulted in the resolution of inflammatory signs and symptoms, full root maturation and response to cold test. The second case by Banchs and Trope in 2004 [9] used NaOCl and chlorohexidine (CHX) to disinfect the canal chemically and employed a Triple Antibiotic Paste (TAP) containing metronidazole, ciprofloxacin, and minocycline, and observed the same result of Iwaya et al. [8].
On the left side, pre-operative radiograph of lower right 2nd premolar with open apex, incomplete root formation and periapical radiolucency. In the middle, radiograph taken after five months of calcium hydroxide dressing. On the right side, 35 months after treatment completion revealing complete root formation increase in root width and length [
These two cases established the fundamentals for the recent regenerative case reports. The fundamentals were the removal of bacteria and disinfecting the root canal; establishment of a scaffold; the introduction the stem cells for new tissue formation; and having a coronal bacterial tight seal to prevent recontamination of the root canal system.
Several terms had been used in case reports to describe the ingrowth of new tissue inside the root canal. These are revascularization, revitalization and regeneration. Revascularization is defined as the re-establishment of vascular supply to the already-present pulp of the immature tooth [10]. Revitalization is defined as the ingrowth of tissue that may differ from the initial original tissue [11]. Endodontic regeneration is defined as the replacement of lost or damaged structures including dentine, root structures and cells from pulp/dentin complex, by another structure [12].
Lately, there have been two histological case reports of teeth extracted after having endodontic regenerative treatment [13, 14]. These studies gave a clearer idea of what was happening inside the canal after regeneration.
In the first histological case report [13], the tooth became painful and symptomatic 14 months after receiving regenerative treatment. When the pulp was extirpated and examined histologically, the author found a vital loose pulp-like connective tissue Figure 2.
(A) Pulp like connective tissue generated in human tooth after Regenerative Endodontic Therapy. (B) Higher magnification of the soft tissue showing the presence of collagen fibers, cells, and blood vessels in this tissue [
In the second histological report [14], three and a half weeks after regenerative treatment was completed, the tooth had a complicated crown root fracture that left the remaining tooth structure beyond restoration. After extracting the tooth, the pulp canal content was examined histologically; the author reported the content of the pulp canal as a loose connective tissue, similar to pulp tissue, but histologically proven to be not pulpal tissue.
The histological findings of these two case reports did not provide sufficient evidence to represent all teeth that had undergone an endodontic regenerative procedure. However, the available findings suggest that tissue regeneration is occurring inside the root canal. Accordingly, endodontic regenerative procedure is the most relevant term to describe the type of tissue grows in the pulp canal.
The regenerative endodontic procedure is a biologically based procedure in which good case selection will have an impact on the outcomes. The recent recommendations of the American Association of Endodontists (AAE) suggest that the regenerative endodontic procedure should be carried out in teeth with necrotic pulp and immature roots, and that the root canal space should not be utilized to retain a coronal restoration in the future. In other words, the selected tooth should have enough coronal tooth structure that it will need a post to retain the coronal core [15].
It would appear that the aetiology of pulp necrosis does not play a role in case selection here; many regenerative endodontic case studies did include necrotic immature teeth with different aetiologies, whether the pulp necrosis was caused by a caries lesion [16], was secondary to trauma [17] or due to dental anomalies [9].
In view of the fact that root canal space will be occupied by a blood clot and a bacterially tight hard barrier, teeth with insufficient remaining tooth structure are not recommended to be selected, since this would require further retentive means (post). In addition, in some cases, if the tooth structure loss is massive, isolation might become problematic. Patient and/or parental cooperation is necessary, as the treatment requires multiple visits and regular monitoring and follow-up appointments. Furthermore, the consent form must be signed.
The chances of success for teeth with immature root apices to be re-vascularized are significantly higher than for teeth with fully or nearly fully formed root apices. This could be attributed to the better ingrowth of vasculatures and stem cells flow in the pulp canal.
A study by Kling et al. [18] on re-implanted teeth noticed that teeth with apical foramen diameters of 1 mm or less had no chance of re-vascularization. In different circumstances, teeth with apical foramen diameters ranging from (1.1 mm - 5.0 mm) had spontaneously vascularized 18% of the time. They noticed also that when extra-oral time was under 45 minutes re-vascularization significantly increased; 39% of the teeth re-vascularized with shorter periods, compared to 11% only with longer periods (P < 0.05).
In addition, blood samples taken from incomplete root apices showed levels of CD 73 and CD 105 (Mesenchymal stem cell markers) almost 600 times higher than in samples obtained from the circulating blood stream, indicating the higher availability of stem cells in the apical dental papilla of immature roots [19].
Lovelace et al. did not obtain samples from mature roots for comparison. This could have produced similar results. However, the findings are supported by another study that apical papilla of the immature root apices represent a superior reliable source of stem cells that possess high surviving and cells turn over levels [20].
Immature roots with periapical pathosis of endodontic origin can undergo the regenerative endodontic procedure. Many published case reports have revealed potential root maturation in non-vital immature permanent teeth with the presence of periapical lesion or apical abscess [8, 9, 21, 22] that produced a complete resolution of the apical radiolucency in addition to a successful root maturation.
There are three possible explanations for this. The first is that immature roots with open apices allow easy communication between the root canal pulp and the periapical area. This may allow infection and inflammatory cells to reach the apex quickly while the pulp tissue is partially vital. In addition, the stem cells in the pulp and periapical papilla could survive the infection due to the high vascularity. Thus, the stem cells still can differentiate and allow root maturation in spite of the ongoing infection. The second explanation is that in young patients, the majority of the jawbone is cancellous and the bony trabeculations are larger. Therefore, resorption and periapical radiolucency may be formed in a short period and not all of the pulp tissues had turned necrotic [20]. Finally, the periapical radiolucency could be related to the apical dental papilla, where a radiolucent shadow of the dental papilla is expected and not necessarily to periapical pathology.
As a general statement, regenerative endodontic procedures should be performed if the patient is not allergic to any of the antibiotics or the medicament or irrigation agents that are usually used in sterilizing and dressing the canal in this procedure. In addition, patients should be classified as American Society of Anaesthesiologist (ASA) I or ASA II physical status. ASA I means that the patient is healthy and is a non-smoker, with no or minimal alcohol consumption. ASA II defined as with a mild disturbance without any significant functional limitations, for example if a person is fit and well but a smoker or social alcohol consumer. In addition, pregnancy, controlled Diabetes mellitus, and obesity (BMI over 30 and less than 40) all fall into ASA II classification.
This requirement is to ensure better tissue healing and a favourable response toward a stem cells differentiation, and thus continuation of root maturation without complication.
Given the proper environment, many body tissues are programmed to regenerate new cells in order to compensate for lost ones; dental pulp tissue is no an exception. One of the most critical factors for regeneration is a bacteria-free root canal to allow stem cells to continue to regenerate and grow the root further into its full maturation without any damage.
Sterilizing an infected root canal can be sometimes quite challenging since roughly 20 different bacterial species can be found in an infected root canal with chronic apical periodontitis [23]. In addition, the root canal anatomy can provide a good sanctuary for the microbiota to thrive, containing places antimicrobial agents have difficulty reaching, for example accessory canals, isthmuses and fins.
Teeth can be subjected to many conditions in which lead to bacterial contamination of the root canal. The most prevalent are caries lesions, traumatic injuries and dental anomalies. Caries lesions can cause pulp exposure in teeth with immature apex, often in the permanent first molars. Permanent first molars erupt at an early age (6 to 7 years old), often when children are not sufficiently skilled in maintaining adequate oral hygiene on their own. This explains why caries is more prevalent in children who live in families of low socioeconomic status that have the inadequate oral hygiene and/or poor dietary habits that lead to early dental caries [24].
Caries exposure related to vital pulp can present clinically with mild to moderate symptoms. In this case, vital pulp therapy like pulp capping [25] or pulpotomy [26, 27] using calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)₂] or Mineral Trioxide Aggregate (MTA) would allow full root maturation. In spite of this treatment approach, usually the pulp goes necrotic and presents with asymptomatic or symptomatic apical periodontitis.
Periapical radiolucency of the dental follicle in immature teeth makes it hard to diagnose periapical periodontitis from dental radiographs. For this reason, apical periodontitis should be confirmed with clinical examinations such as cold tests, percussion, palpation, swelling and the presence of sinus tract. Once the pulp is confirmed to be necrotic in an immature tooth, a regenerative procedure may allow normal root maturation.
Among congenital tooth anomalies, dens evaginatus is the most prevalent anomaly that causes early pulp devitalization and subsequent pulp necrosis in immature teeth [9, 28]. Dens evaginatus is a developmental anomaly causes a formation of accessory cusp (tubercle) project in the tooth surface. This tubercle consists of enamel, dentin and pulp tissues. With normal physiological tooth wear, the pulp gets exposed, leading to asymptomatic pulp necrosis in immature teeth [29]. Nevertheless, pulp exposure can be avoided if the tubercle is discovered early. Simple occlusal adjustment and topical fluoride application increases the enamel hydroxyapatite which contributes to enamel remineralization. Another treatment option would be the use of flowable composite resin sealant or in the case of pinpoint pulp exposure shallow pulpotomy using layer of tri calcium silicate cement (MTA, Biodentine®) or calcium hydroxide would be a conservative solution in case of dens evaginatus and thus avoid early pulp devitalization. Dens invaginatus is described as the folding of enamel into dentine which increases the risk of caries development and pulpal involvement. However, pulpal exposure can be avoided by simple preventive measures such as a fissure sealant.
Many studies have revealed some situations in which an immature root may regenerate pulpal tissue and dentine after trauma spontaneously. Kling et al. [30] monitored 154 replanted avulsed teeth (72 were immature teeth) radiographically for pulp revascularization.
In all mature teeth with apical foramen width 1 mm and smaller, revascularization did not occur, while 18% of the immature teeth (apical foramen width larger than 1.1 mm) revealed signs of revascularization. Instead, all teeth that did not respond to pulp revascularization revealed signs of periapical lesions and/or external resorption. Post-operative systemic antibiotics did not have any effect on the probability of pulp/dentine revascularization in replanted avulsed teeth in this study. The same result regarding post-operative systemic antibiotic use after avulsed teeth replantation was found in a later study by Andereason et al. [31]. Two types of hard tissue formation were found in teeth with revascularized pulp. There was either normal root maturation in both length and thickness of the root, or radiopaque material separated from the root and continued to grow with alveolar bone, while the tooth length arrested [32].
Extra-alveolar time can be defined as the time that the avulsed tooth spends out of its original socket. Andersson et al. [32] Found that extra-alveolar time of avulsed teeth was less than 45 minutes, the probability of revascularization was 39%, compared to 11% in teeth with extra-alveolar time more than 45 minutes. 60 minutes of extra-alveolar time can cause necrosis of the Periodontal Ligament (PDL) membrane and cells, which leads to external root resorption and the inhibition of further root development. When avulsed teeth are implanted immediately or within 15 minutes, no resorption was noted. In addition to this, after 15 minutes, replanted avulsed teeth revealed some root resorption but not in a progressive pattern [32]. Extra-alveolar time of less than 45 minutes shows better root formation and less inflammatory resorption when compared to times longer than 45 minutes. There was no significant difference in regeneration and subsequent root formation between different extra-alveolar storage media (dry medium, wet media [saliva, tab water, etc.], and combination medium [dry then wet]) for the avulsed tooth. Although it is not significant, a dry extra-alveolar time of less than 45 minutes led to more frequent root formation and completion [33].
For avulsed teeth kept in a wet storage media (saliva, tap water, etc.), the survival of the pulp is significantly greater when it is kept for less than 5 minutes. This is because only part of the pulp that communicates with the storage medium is the pulpal tissue in the apical foramen; the body of the root protects the rest of the pulp. However, if the apical foramen were to be contaminated with bacteria due a longer duration of storage, the vascularization process as a whole would be jeopardised [31].
The extent of root maturation is related to the pulp revascularization; in healing pulp, more root maturation is found compared to necrotic pulp. Immature roots with large apical foramen had more tendencies toward pulpal tissue regeneration; large apical foramen facilitates the flow of apical papilla stem cells into root canal easier than a mature, narrow apical foramen.
A factor that had a strong correlation with pulp regeneration in avulsed teeth is the length of the pulp canal (the distance between the apical foramen and pulp chamber). Since pulp regeneration may be arrested by infection process, the longer the distance to be regenerated, the more chances there are of an infection occurring, and thus less chance for the pulp to regenerate [34]. The correlation between the length of the pulp canal and the probabilities of pulp revascularization has also been found in another study of revascularization of auto-transplanted 370 premolars [35].
Partial or arrested root formation is generally followed by bone ingrowth and formation of internal PDL tissues. Hertwig’s epithelial root sheath (HERS) is presumed to prevent the invasion of bone and PDL derived cells inside the canal and thus reduce disturbance to root development. This presumption is explained by a partial or total loss of HERS being accompanied by partial or arrested root development. In case of pulpal necrosis, root development and maturation may occur because HERS can tolerate trauma to avulsed tooth and damage by extra-alveolar time [33].
The predominant root resorption found in replanted avulsed teeth is external replacement resorption (Ankylosis), followed by inflammatory root resorption and finally, external inflammatory surface resorption. Inflammatory root resorption is most common in immature roots, while replacement resorption (ankyloses) is found more in mature roots [36]. Although bone remodelling is higher in young adolescents, rate of resorption in general is not affected by age. However, if the HERS and PDL are viable, age would not make a difference in the rate of resorption. In addition, Root Canal Treatment within the first three weeks (usually the third week) after tooth replantation can reduce the rate of resorption [32].
In follow-up visits, clinical and radiographic outcomes should be evaluated. Clinical evaluation includes absence of pain on percussion and palpation, no presence of soft tissue swelling and disappearing of sinus tract if present before treatment. The tooth response to sensibility tests (cold and EPT) should be recorded, but the absence of response does not indicate treatment failure. Radiographic evaluation includes: resolution of pre-treatment periapical radiolucency if it was present, further root length maturation and an increase in canal wall thickness.
There is no standard follow-up protocol after endodontic regenerative procedures as of yet. Nevertheless, in the published endodontic regenerative case reports, the follow-up ranged from 6 months [37] up to 60 months [38] after completing treatment. The European Society of Endodontology recommends follow-up and recall appointments every 3, 6, 12, 18 and 24 months, with annual recall after the follow-up period for the next 5 years [39].
In most endodontic regenerative cases, enhancement or resolution of periapical lesion is expected in the first 6 months. Wiggler et al. [40] endorse a recall every three months in the first year after completion of treatment and then every six months, unless symptoms developed.
In conclusion, regenerative endodontic procedure is a non-invasive treatment that restores the dentin/pulp complex in necrotic immature teeth, and is now an essential part of the endodontic speciality. In many case reports it shows a promising potential for saving necrotic immature teeth and helping the continuation of root maturation. Unlike conventional MTA or calcium hydroxide apexification, it tends to promote further root development and increases root canal wall thickness, which will improve the overall survival of the tooth.
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Surgery",slug:"gastroenterology-colorectal-surgery",parent:{id:"181",title:"Gastroenterology",slug:"gastroenterology"},numberOfBooks:11,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:383,numberOfWosCitations:131,numberOfCrossrefCitations:116,numberOfDimensionsCitations:225,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"1020",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"10136",title:"Intestinal Obstructions",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e23eb01e6d12a4a25a4c16dc9bb23e89",slug:"intestinal-obstructions",bookSignature:"Dmitry Victorovich Garbuzenko",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10136.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"108808",title:"Prof.",name:"Dmitry",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Garbuzenko",slug:"dmitry-garbuzenko",fullName:"Dmitry 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by"}},{type:"book",id:"283",title:"Colonoscopy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1a7ab66798a05a0bc1b4deaa7f1b7492",slug:"colonoscopy",bookSignature:"Paul Miskovitz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/283.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"53627",title:"Prof.",name:"Paul",middleName:"Frederick",surname:"Miskovitz",slug:"paul-miskovitz",fullName:"Paul Miskovitz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:11,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"25358",doi:"10.5772/25753",title:"The Role of Intestinal Barrier Function in Early Life in the Development of Colitis",slug:"the-role-of-intestinal-barrier-function-in-early-life-in-the-development-of-colitis",totalDownloads:4675,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:32,abstract:null,book:{id:"1056",slug:"colitis",title:"Colitis",fullTitle:"Colitis"},signatures:"R.C. Anderson, J.E. Dalziel, P.K. Gopal, S. Bassett, A. Ellis and N.C. Roy",authors:[{id:"64425",title:"Dr.",name:"Rachel",middleName:"C",surname:"Anderson",slug:"rachel-anderson",fullName:"Rachel Anderson"},{id:"71872",title:"Dr.",name:"Julie",middleName:null,surname:"Dalziel",slug:"julie-dalziel",fullName:"Julie Dalziel"},{id:"71873",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicole",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"nicole-roy",fullName:"Nicole Roy"}]},{id:"49625",doi:"10.5772/61945",title:"Epidemiology of Colorectal Cancer — Incidence, Lifetime Risk Factors Statistics and Temporal Trends",slug:"epidemiology-of-colorectal-cancer-incidence-lifetime-risk-factors-statistics-and-temporal-trends",totalDownloads:2220,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Colorectal cancer is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in the entire world. Among cancers that affect both men and women, it accounts for >8% of all cancer incidence, making it the third most common cancer worldwide (behind lung and breast cancer). There were an estimated 14.1 million cancer cases around the world in 2012-last data available; 7.4 million were in men and 6.7 million in women. Of that, nearly 1.4 million new cases were from colorectal cancer. And, it has consistently been shown that the developed world carries the majority of the burden (Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the United States and parts of Western Europe), likely due to similarity in lifestyles and diets.",book:{id:"4723",slug:"screening-for-colorectal-cancer-with-colonoscopy",title:"Screening for Colorectal Cancer with Colonoscopy",fullTitle:"Screening for Colorectal Cancer with Colonoscopy"},signatures:"Camille Thélin and Sanjay Sikka",authors:[{id:"175650",title:"M.D.",name:"Camille",middleName:null,surname:"Thelin",slug:"camille-thelin",fullName:"Camille Thelin"}]},{id:"49037",doi:"10.5772/61012",title:"Building up the Future of Colonoscopy – A Synergy between Clinicians and Computer Scientists",slug:"building-up-the-future-of-colonoscopy-a-synergy-between-clinicians-and-computer-scientists",totalDownloads:1792,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Recent advances in endoscopic technology have generated an increasing interest in strengthening the collaboration between clinicians and computers scientist to develop intelligent systems that can provide additional information to clinicians in the different stages of an intervention. The objective of this chapter is to identify clinical drawbacks of colonoscopy in order to define potential areas of collaboration. Once areas are defined, we present the challenges that colonoscopy images present in order computational methods to provide with meaningful output, including those related to image formation and acquisition, as they are proven to have an impact in the performance of an intelligent system. Finally, we also propose how to define validation frameworks in order to assess the performance of a given method, making an special emphasis on how databases should be created and annotated and which metrics should be used to evaluate systems correctly.",book:{id:"4723",slug:"screening-for-colorectal-cancer-with-colonoscopy",title:"Screening for Colorectal Cancer with Colonoscopy",fullTitle:"Screening for Colorectal Cancer with Colonoscopy"},signatures:"Jorge Bernal, F. Javier Sánchez, Cristina Rodríguez de Miguel and\nGloria Fernández-Esparrach",authors:[{id:"58626",title:"Mr.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Bernal",slug:"jorge-bernal",fullName:"Jorge Bernal"},{id:"175152",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Sánchez Pujadas",slug:"francisco-javier-sanchez-pujadas",fullName:"Francisco Javier Sánchez Pujadas"},{id:"175153",title:"Dr.",name:"Gloria",middleName:null,surname:"Fernández-Espárrach",slug:"gloria-fernandez-esparrach",fullName:"Gloria Fernández-Espárrach"},{id:"175154",title:"MSc.",name:"Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Rodríguez De Miguel",slug:"cristina-rodriguez-de-miguel",fullName:"Cristina Rodríguez De Miguel"}]},{id:"28752",doi:"10.5772/28497",title:"Animal Models of Colorectal Cancer in Chemoprevention and Therapeutics Development",slug:"animal-models-of-colorectal-cancer-in-chemoprevention-and-therapeutics-development",totalDownloads:4163,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"2031",slug:"colorectal-cancer-from-prevention-to-patient-care",title:"Colorectal Cancer",fullTitle:"Colorectal Cancer - From Prevention to Patient Care"},signatures:"Shubhankar Suman, Albert J. Fornace Jr. and Kamal Datta",authors:[{id:"74075",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Datta",slug:"kamal-datta",fullName:"Kamal Datta"},{id:"121217",title:"Dr.",name:"Shubhankar",middleName:null,surname:"Suman",slug:"shubhankar-suman",fullName:"Shubhankar Suman"},{id:"121218",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Fornace",slug:"albert-fornace",fullName:"Albert Fornace"}]},{id:"57197",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70781",title:"Acquired and Intrinsic Resistance to Colorectal Cancer Treatment",slug:"acquired-and-intrinsic-resistance-to-colorectal-cancer-treatment",totalDownloads:1387,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"First line therapy for colorectal cancer (CRC) is usually fluoropyrimidine monotherapy and oxaliplatin, or irinotecan-based therapy. Additionally, targeted therapies such as bevacizumab, aflibercept, ramucirumab, regorafenib, cetuximab and panitumumab are indicated in combination with chemotherapy in metastatic CRC. Resistance of CRC to treatment is the principal rationale for treatment failure. Resistance can be intrinsic (primary resistance) or acquired (secondary resistance). Here, we discuss the classical model of resistance, which focuses primarily on mechanisms involving alterations in drug metabolism, increased drug efflux, secondary mutations in drug targets, inactivation of apoptotic pathways, p53 and DNA damage repair. Other resistance mechanisms, including the Warburg effect, cancer stem cells, intra-tumor heterogeneity and pharmacoepigenomic mechanisms will also be discussed. We conclude the chapter with a systems medicine approach to predict response to treatment for the discovery and validation of predictive biomarkers that are urgently needed.",book:{id:"6177",slug:"colorectal-cancer-diagnosis-screening-and-management",title:"Colorectal Cancer",fullTitle:"Colorectal Cancer - Diagnosis, Screening and Management"},signatures:"Romina Briffa, Simon P. Langdon, Godfrey Grech and David J.\nHarrison",authors:[{id:"181205",title:"Dr.",name:"Godfrey",middleName:null,surname:"Grech",slug:"godfrey-grech",fullName:"Godfrey Grech"},{id:"208013",title:"Dr.",name:"Romina",middleName:null,surname:"Briffa",slug:"romina-briffa",fullName:"Romina Briffa"},{id:"208931",title:"Dr.",name:"Simon",middleName:null,surname:"Langdon",slug:"simon-langdon",fullName:"Simon Langdon"},{id:"210845",title:"Prof.",name:"David J",middleName:null,surname:"Harrison",slug:"david-j-harrison",fullName:"David J Harrison"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"50834",title:"Molecular Mechanisms Involved in the Acquisition of Resistance to Treatment of Colon Cancer Cells",slug:"molecular-mechanisms-involved-in-the-acquisition-of-resistance-to-treatment-of-colon-cancer-cells",totalDownloads:1717,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Cancer cells are remarkably resilient to therapies aimed at their elimination. The exploration of pathways that sustain cancer cells and that allow cancer cells to become resistant has revealed new avenues for chemotherapeutic development, as well as rational approaches to combination therapies based on existing treatment options. Several signaling pathways, such as Wnt, phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), and Ras-Raf-MEK, constitute integrated networks that work together to maintain cellular homeostasis under basal conditions and to drive cell-mass accumulation and cell cycle progression in the presence of appropriate mitogenic stimuli. During cancer development, these pathways are corrupted in malignant cells to maintain viability and proliferative activity under environmentally stressful conditions such as limited growth factors, oxygen, and nutrients that drive normal cells into quiescence or death. Importantly, dysfunction within any one of these pathways results in compensatory responses from the other networks. Thus, biological research is gradually shifting toward more general approaches that target entire pathways rather than isolated components and integrate those pathways into biological networks.",book:{id:"5122",slug:"colorectal-cancer-from-pathogenesis-to-treatment",title:"Colorectal Cancer",fullTitle:"Colorectal Cancer - From Pathogenesis to Treatment"},signatures:"Dora M. Velázquez, María Cristina Castañeda-Patlán and Martha\nRobles-Flores",authors:[{id:"140473",title:"Dr.",name:"Martha",middleName:null,surname:"Robles-Flores",slug:"martha-robles-flores",fullName:"Martha Robles-Flores"},{id:"142831",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Castañeda-Patlán",slug:"maria-cristina-castaneda-patlan",fullName:"Maria Cristina Castañeda-Patlán"},{id:"185099",title:"MSc.",name:"Dora M.",middleName:null,surname:"Velázquez",slug:"dora-m.-velazquez",fullName:"Dora M. Velázquez"}]},{id:"45657",title:"Rare Tumors of the Colon and Rectum",slug:"rare-tumors-of-the-colon-and-rectum",totalDownloads:2666,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"3529",slug:"colorectal-cancer-surgery-diagnostics-and-treatment",title:"Colorectal Cancer",fullTitle:"Colorectal Cancer - Surgery, Diagnostics and Treatment"},signatures:"Goran Stanojević and Zoran Krivokapić",authors:[{id:"86108",title:"Prof.",name:"Zoran",middleName:null,surname:"Krivokapic",slug:"zoran-krivokapic",fullName:"Zoran Krivokapic"},{id:"166112",title:"Prof.",name:"Goran",middleName:"Zoran",surname:"Stanojevic",slug:"goran-stanojevic",fullName:"Goran Stanojevic"}]},{id:"48954",title:"Colonoscopy — Indications and Contraindications",slug:"colonoscopy-indications-and-contraindications",totalDownloads:7790,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"This chapter discusses some of the major indications and contraindications for colonoscopy. Advances in colonoscopic techniques have expanded the role of colonoscopy beyond conventional screening, surveillance, and diagnosis to various complex therapeutic and interventional utilities. Several guidelines with new information are being published and updated regularly in the field of colonoscopy and are currently used in clinical practice. However, there is still a lack of well-designed randomized clinical trials investigating the role of colonoscopy in early diagnosis and treatment of various conditions and its impact on long-term survival and disease status. 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The increasing indications for endoscopic evaluation and potential therapeutic intervention parallels technological advances and the expanding diagnostic and therapeutic capabilities of colonoscopy. The diagnostic and therapeutic yield of colonoscopy is highly user dependent. Thus, it is essential for the clinical endoscopist to perform a thorough endoscopic evaluation and be cognizant of normal and pathologic findings. This review details normal and pathologic endoscopic findings in a variety of disease states that are often encountered by the clinical endoscopist including colon polyps, inflammatory bowel disease, and infectious and non-infectious colitides. 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His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. 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She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Integral University. Currently, he’s working as an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than 32 original articles published in reputed journals, 3 edited books, 5 book chapters, and a number of scientific articles published in ‘Ingredients South Asia Magazine’ and ‘QualPharma Magazine’. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs that aim to provide practical solutions to current healthcare problems.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. He has also been a reviewer of international journals and ad hoc reviewer of scientific committees from Brazilian Universities.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"217850",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarete Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Bagatini",slug:"margarete-dulce-bagatini",fullName:"Margarete Dulce Bagatini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217850/images/system/217850.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Margarete Dulce Bagatini is an associate professor at the Federal University of Fronteira Sul/Brazil. She has a degree in Pharmacy and a PhD in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry. She is a member of the UFFS Research Advisory Committee\nand a member of the Biovitta Research Institute. She is currently:\nthe leader of the research group: Biological and Clinical Studies\nin Human Pathologies, professor of postgraduate program in\nBiochemistry at UFSC and postgraduate program in Science and Food Technology at\nUFFS. She has experience in the area of pharmacy and clinical analysis, acting mainly\non the following topics: oxidative stress, the purinergic system and human pathologies, being a reviewer of several international journals and books.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"226275",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Metin",middleName:null,surname:"Budak",slug:"metin-budak",fullName:"Metin Budak",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226275/images/system/226275.jfif",biography:"Metin Budak, MSc, PhD is an Assistant Professor at Trakya University, Faculty of Medicine. He has been Head of the Molecular Research Lab at Prof. Mirko Tos Ear and Hearing Research Center since 2018. His specializations are biophysics, epigenetics, genetics, and methylation mechanisms. He has published around 25 peer-reviewed papers, 2 book chapters, and 28 abstracts. He is a member of the Clinical Research Ethics Committee and Quantification and Consideration Committee of Medicine Faculty. His research area is the role of methylation during gene transcription, chromatin packages DNA within the cell and DNA repair, replication, recombination, and gene transcription. His research focuses on how the cell overcomes chromatin structure and methylation to allow access to the underlying DNA and enable normal cellular function.",institutionString:"Trakya University",institution:{name:"Trakya University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",biography:"Anca Pantea Stoian is a specialist in diabetes, nutrition, and metabolic diseases as well as health food hygiene. She also has competency in general ultrasonography.\n\nShe is an associate professor in the Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases Department, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania. She has been chief of the Hygiene Department, Faculty of Dentistry, at the same university since 2019. Her interests include micro and macrovascular complications in diabetes and new therapies. Her research activities focus on nutritional intervention in chronic pathology, as well as cardio-renal-metabolic risk assessment, and diabetes in cancer. She is currently engaged in developing new therapies and technological tools for screening, prevention, and patient education in diabetes. \n\nShe is a member of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes, Cardiometabolic Academy, CEDA, Romanian Society of Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, Romanian Diabetes Federation, and Association for Renal Metabolic and Nutrition studies. She has authored or co-authored 160 papers in national and international peer-reviewed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"279792",title:"Dr.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Cotas",slug:"joao-cotas",fullName:"João Cotas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279792/images/system/279792.jpg",biography:"Graduate and master in Biology from the University of Coimbra.\n\nI am a research fellow at the Macroalgae Laboratory Unit, in the MARE-UC – Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre of the University of Coimbra. My principal function is the collection, extraction and purification of macroalgae compounds, chemical and bioactive characterization of the compounds and algae extracts and development of new methodologies in marine biotechnology area. \nI am associated in two projects: one consists on discovery of natural compounds for oncobiology. The other project is the about the natural compounds/products for agricultural area.\n\nPublications:\nCotas, J.; Figueirinha, A.; Pereira, L.; Batista, T. 2018. An analysis of the effects of salinity on Fucus ceranoides (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae), in the Mondego River (Portugal). Journal of Oceanology and Limnology. in press. DOI: 10.1007/s00343-019-8111-3",institutionString:"Faculty of Sciences and Technology of University of Coimbra",institution:null},{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279788/images/system/279788.jpg",biography:"Leonel Pereira has an undergraduate degree in Biology, a Ph.D. in Biology (specialty in Cell Biology), and a Habilitation degree in Biosciences (specialization in Biotechnology) from the Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Coimbra, Portugal, where he is currently a professor. In addition to teaching at this university, he is an integrated researcher at the Marine and Environmental Sciences Center (MARE), Portugal. His interests include marine biodiversity (algae), marine biotechnology (algae bioactive compounds), and marine ecology (environmental assessment). Since 2008, he has been the author and editor of the electronic publication MACOI – Portuguese Seaweeds Website (www.seaweeds.uc.pt). He is also a member of the editorial boards of several scientific journals. Dr. Pereira has edited or authored more than 20 books, 100 journal articles, and 45 book chapters. He has given more than 100 lectures and oral communications at various national and international scientific events. He is the coordinator of several national and international research projects. In 1998, he received the Francisco de Holanda Award (Honorable Mention) and, more recently, the Mar Rei D. Carlos award (18th edition). He is also a winner of the 2016 CHOICE Award for an outstanding academic title for his book Edible Seaweeds of the World. In 2020, Dr. Pereira received an Honorable Mention for the Impact of International Publications from the Web of Science",institutionString:"University of Coimbra",institution:{name:"University of Coimbra",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"61946",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol",middleName:null,surname:"Bernstein",slug:"carol-bernstein",fullName:"Carol Bernstein",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61946/images/system/61946.jpg",biography:"Carol Bernstein received her PhD in Genetics from the University of California (Davis). She was a faculty member at the University of Arizona College of Medicine for 43 years, retiring in 2011. Her research interests focus on DNA damage and its underlying role in sex, aging and in the early steps of initiation and progression to cancer. In her research, she had used organisms including bacteriophage T4, Neurospora crassa, Schizosaccharomyces pombe and mice, as well as human cells and tissues. She authored or co-authored more than 140 scientific publications, including articles in major peer reviewed journals, book chapters, invited reviews and one book.",institutionString:"University of Arizona",institution:{name:"University of Arizona",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"182258",title:"Dr.",name:"Ademar",middleName:"Pereira",surname:"Serra",slug:"ademar-serra",fullName:"Ademar Serra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/182258/images/system/182258.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serra studied Agronomy on Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS) (2005). He received master degree in Agronomy, Crop Science (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2007) by Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados (UFGD), and PhD in agronomy (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2011) from Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados / Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz (UFGD/ESALQ-USP). Dr. Serra is currently working at Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA). His research focus is on mineral nutrition of plants, crop science and soil science. Dr. Serra\\'s current projects are soil organic matter, soil phosphorus fractions, compositional nutrient diagnosis (CND) and isometric log ratio (ilr) transformation in compositional data analysis.",institutionString:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",institution:{name:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"87",type:"subseries",title:"Economics",keywords:"Globalization, Economic integration, Growth and development, International trade, Environmental development, Developed countries, Developing countries, Technical innovation, Knowledge management, Political economy analysis, Banking and financial markets",scope:"\r\n\tThe topic on Economics is designed to disseminate knowledge around broad global economic issues. Original submissions will be accepted in English for applied and theoretical articles, case studies and reviews about the specific challenges and opportunities faced by the economies and markets around the world. The authors are encouraged to apply rigorous economic analysis with significant policy implications for developed and developing countries. Examples of subjects of interest will include, but are not limited to globalization, economic integration, growth and development, international trade, environmental development, country specific comparative analysis, technical innovation and knowledge management, political economy analysis, and banking and financial markets.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/87.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11971,editor:{id:"327730",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaime",middleName:null,surname:"Ortiz",slug:"jaime-ortiz",fullName:"Jaime Ortiz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002zaOKZQA2/Profile_Picture_1642145584421",biography:"Dr. Jaime Ortiz holds degrees from Chile, the Netherlands, and the United States. He has held tenured faculty, distinguished professorship, and executive leadership appointments in several universities around the world. Dr. Ortiz has previously worked for international organizations and non-government entities in economic and business matters, and he has university-wide globalization engagement in more than thirty-six countries. He has advised, among others, the United Nations Development Program, Inter-American Development Bank, Organization of American States, Pre-investment Organization of Latin America and the Caribbean, Technical Cooperation of the Suisse Government, and the World Bank. Dr. Ortiz is the author, co-author, or editor of books, book chapters, textbooks, research monographs and technical reports, and refereed journal articles. He is listed in Who’s Who in the World, Who’s Who in America, Who’s Who in Finance and Business, Who’s Who in Business Higher Education, Who’s Who in American Education, and Who’s Who Directory of Economists. Dr. Ortiz has been a Fulbright Scholar and an MSI Leadership Fellow with the W.K. Kellogg Foundation. His teaching interests revolve around global economies and markets while his research focuses on topics related to development and growth, global business decisions, and the economics of technical innovation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Houston",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",issn:"2753-894X"},editorialBoard:[{id:"104262",title:"Dr.",name:"Chee-Heong",middleName:null,surname:"Quah",slug:"chee-heong-quah",fullName:"Chee-Heong Quah",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/104262/images/system/104262.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"236659",title:"Prof.",name:"Monica Violeta",middleName:null,surname:"Achim",slug:"monica-violeta-achim",fullName:"Monica Violeta Achim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/236659/images/system/236659.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Babeș-Bolyai University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"202039",title:"Dr.",name:"Nahanga",middleName:null,surname:"Verter",slug:"nahanga-verter",fullName:"Nahanga Verter",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCwtQAG/Profile_Picture_1643101901237",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Mendel University Brno",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Czech Republic"}}},{id:"107745",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Panagiotis E.",middleName:null,surname:"Petrakis",slug:"panagiotis-e.-petrakis",fullName:"Panagiotis E. Petrakis",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRzzaQAC/Profile_Picture_1644221136992",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National and Kapodistrian University of Athens",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"196259",title:"Dr.",name:"Ryan Merlin",middleName:null,surname:"Yonk",slug:"ryan-merlin-yonk",fullName:"Ryan Merlin Yonk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196259/images/system/196259.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Institute for Economic Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:21,paginationItems:[{id:"80761",title:"Extractions Methods and Biological Applications of Essential Oils",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102955",signatures:"Sonu Kumar Mahawer, Himani, Sushila Arya, Ravendra Kumar and Om Prakash",slug:"extractions-methods-and-biological-applications-of-essential-oils",totalDownloads:1,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"81545",title:"Physiochemical Properties of Essential Oils and Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104112",signatures:"Sunil Kumar Yadav",slug:"physiochemical-properties-of-essential-oils-and-applications",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"81067",title:"Encapsulation of Essential Oils and Their Use in Food Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103147",signatures:"Hamdy A. Shaaban and Amr Farouk",slug:"encapsulation-of-essential-oils-and-their-use-in-food-applications",totalDownloads:50,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"80959",title:"Biological Application of Essential Oils and Essential Oils Components in Terms of Antioxidant Activity and Inhibition of Cholinesterase Enzymes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102874",signatures:"Mejra Bektašević and Olivera Politeo",slug:"biological-application-of-essential-oils-and-essential-oils-components-in-terms-of-antioxidant-activ",totalDownloads:48,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"80859",title:"Antioxidant Effect and Medicinal Properties of Allspice Essential Oil",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103001",signatures:"Yasvet Yareni Andrade Avila, Julián Cruz-Olivares and César Pérez-Alonso",slug:"antioxidant-effect-and-medicinal-properties-of-allspice-essential-oil",totalDownloads:34,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"80777",title:"Starch: A Veritable Natural Polymer for Economic Revolution",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102941",signatures:"Obi P. Adigwe, Henry O. Egharevba and Martins O. 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