Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\n
Seeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\n
Over these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\n
We are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\n
Thank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\n
Now with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n
"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\n
Seeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\n
Over these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\n
We are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\n
Thank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\n
Now with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6760",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Scientometrics",title:"Scientometrics",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Technological change is one of the greatest issues in the modern world. 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1. Introduction
\n
The Solanaceae species potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) and tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) are important horticulture crops. The oomycete, Phytophthora infestans (Mont.) de Bary and the fungus, Fusarium solani (Mart.) Sacc. f. sp. eumartii (Carp.) Snyder & Hansen, isolate 3122 (F. eumartii) are potentially pathogens in both Solanaceae species [1]. Late blight and fusariosis caused by P. infestans and F. eumartii, respectively, are frequently controlled with toxic and chemical fungicides. Mancozeb is a broad-spectrum contact fungicide commonly used to control early and late blights, rusts, downy mildews, and black spots, including Fusarium wilt [2]. In potato, Mancozeb treatments have been used by application rates of 2 and 4 kg ha−1 [3]. In the US, approximately 3.4 million kg of Mancozeb is applied annually in agriculture. The Mancozeb breakdown metabolite, ethylene thiourea (ETU) is an industrial contaminant [4]. ETU has been shown to produce tumors, birth defects, cell mutations, and thyroid effects in human and animals.
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Despite the valuable contribution of Mancozeb to control plant diseases, alternatives and more sustainable options are still hot topics in phytopathology. In this sense, chitosan has been proved as a nontoxic and environmental-friendly compound for agricultural uses [5]. Chitosan is a linear polysaccharide composed of randomly distributed β-(1-4)-linked d-glucosamine and N-acetyl-d-glucosamine. This polymer is obtained from chitin which is commonly isolated from the crustacean exoskeletons by enzymatic or nonenzymatic procedures. Chitosan of high and low molecular weights has been found to be differentially effective against fungal diseases [5, 6]. The mode of action of chitosan is rather variable, depending on its biological target and interacting lipids in the cell plasma membrane [7, 8]. Chitosan in combination with different chemicals (e.g., antioxidants, saccharine, essential oil) has been successful for the control of foliar diseases in cucumber, cantaloupe, pepper, and tomato [9]. Low-level copper and chitosan have been provided to confer protection against late blight in potato [10].
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This work provides data from in vitro and in vivo studies revealing insights into the water-soluble chitosan, low molecular weight chitosan (LMWCh) action in phytopathogens and plants. An effective action of LMWCh in combination with suboptimal doses of Mancozeb for the control of late blight was demonstrated. Additional field trials could also provide knowledge on its efficiency and environmental implications.
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2. Materials and methods
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2.1. Isolation and characterization of chitosan
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Chitin was isolated from shells waste of the shrimp Pleoticus mülleri from Argentine seacoast. Chitosan was prepared by heterogeneous deacetylation of chitin with 19 M NaOH. The water-soluble LMWCh (2.764 kDa) with a degree of deacetylation (DD) of 68% was prepared from chitosan by oxidative degradation with 1 M H2O2 under microwave irradiation (700 W) for 4 min. The molecular mass was estimated by using Mark-Houwink-Kuhn-Sakurada’s equation [11]. The sample contained 13.3% moisture and 2.60% ash content [12].
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2.2. Biological materials
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Solanum tuberosum L. var. Spunta plants were grown to the seven-leaf stage under greenhouse conditions at 18°C with 16:8 h light/dark cycles in a growth chamber. It has been described as a susceptible genotype to P. infestans [13]. Expanded leaves from the third to the sixth node of potato plants were excised at the stem [14] and used for detached leaflet assays. P. infestans race R2 R3 R6 R7 R9, mating type A2 was cultivated as described by Andreu et al. [15], Andreu et al. [16], and Lobato et al. [17]. F. eumartii was obtained from Agricultural Experimental Station, INTA, Balcarce (Argentine). The fungus was grown as described by Terrile et al. [18].
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2.3. Chemical treatments and inoculations
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Commercial Mancozeb (800 g kg−1) WP (Dow AgroSciences, Argentina) was used at 8 mg ml−1 (8000 ppm) or at 0.08 mg ml−1 and 0.008 mg ml−1 in aqueous solution. Each solution was sprayed with a hand-held spray separately, or in combination with 0.25 mg ml−1 LMWCh on detached leaflets placed in Petri dishes. Controls were sprayed with distilled water. After being sprayed, leaflets were incubated at 18°C with light intensity of 120 µmol photons m−2 s−1 with 16:8 h light/dark cycles in a growth chamber. Each treatment combination was tested in a series of three independent trials.
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After chemical treatments on detached leaflets, 10 µl of spore suspension containing 2 × 104 spores ml−1 was infiltrated in the center of the abaxial side of each lateral leaflets using a 1 ml needleless syringe. Petri dishes with leaflets were sealed with parafilm to maintain 90–100% relative humidity and incubated at 18°C. After 5 days, diameter of lesion area was measured in each leaflet using the image-processing software ImageJ (NIH, Maryland, USA).
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2.4. P. infestans sporangium germination assay
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The sporangium germination assay was conducted as described by Mendieta et al. [19].
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2.5. Measurements of F. eumartii spore germination
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Determination of F. eumartii spore germination was performed as described by Mendieta et al. [19].
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2.6. Measurements of endogenous NO production in F. eumartii spores
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Determination of endogenous NO production was monitored by incubating 107 spores ml−1 in 20 mM of HEPES-NaOH, pH 7.5, with different concentrations of LMWCh or LMWCh in combination with NO-specific scavenger, 2-(4-carboxyphenyl)-4,4,5,5,-tetramethylimidazoline-1-oxyl-3-oxide (cPTIO, 1 mM) as described in Terrile et al. [18].
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2.7. Cell death stain and fluorescence microscopy
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F. eumartii spore suspension (2 × 105 spores ml−1) was incubated with different concentrations of LMWCh for 16 h and 100% relative humidity at 25°C in the dark. SYTOX Green probe (Molecular Probes, Thermo Fisher Scientific, USA) was added at a final concentration of 1 mM, and detection of SYTOX Green uptake was done after 30 min of incubation with a Nikon Eclipse E200 fluorescence microscope equipped with a B-2A Fluorescein filter set. SYTOX® Green nucleic acid stain is a green-fluorescent nuclear and chromosome counterstain that penetrates the compromised membranes characteristic of dead cells.
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2.8. Protein extraction and western blot assay
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Total proteins from potato leaflets were extracted as described by Terrile et al. [18]. Protein samples were boiled for 5 min and running on SDS-PAGE 12% polyacrylamide gels according to the method of Laemmli [20]. Proteins were transferred onto nitrocellulose using a semi-dry blotter (Invitrogen, USA) [21]. Immunodetection was performed using polyclonal antibodies raised against chitinase [22].
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2.9. Statistical analysis
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Treatments were established in a randomized complete block design, typically with four to seven treatments in each trial. The values shown in each figure are mean values ± SD of at least three experiments. Data were subjected to analysis of variance (one-way ANOVA), and post hoc comparisons were done with Tukey’s multiple range test at p < 0.05 level. SigmaStat 3.1 was used as the statistical software program. Limpel’s formula as described by Richer [23] was used to determine synergistic interactions between LMWCh and Mancozeb. This formula corresponds to Ee = X + Y − (XY. 10−2), in which Ee is the expected effect from additive response of two treatments, and X and Y are the percentages of inhibition of germination relative to each agent used alone. Thus, if the combination of the two agents produces any value of inhibition of germination greater than Ee, the synergism does exist [24].
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3. Results
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3.1. LMWCh exerts antimicrobial action on P. infestans and F. eumartii.
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The high water solubility and easy handling for agricultural application make LMWCh an attractive compound to deepen on its properties in the control of plant diseases. In this work, we hypothesized that LMWCh exerts protection against biotic stress in Solanaceae species, and in turn, it can be used in combination with reduced doses of Mancozeb (hundred times less than recommended dosage) for utilization in putative safer formulations. With the intention to move in that direction, we characterized the antimicrobial properties of LMWCh on P. infestans and F. eumartii as phytopathogen models of potato and tomato, respectively. LMWCh exerted inhibitory activity on germination of both P. infestans and F. eumartii in a dose-dependent mode (Figure 1). The estimated IC50 value (the concentration needed to inhibit half of the maximum spore germination) was IC50 = 0.1 µg ml−1 LMWCh and IC50 = 130 µg ml−1 LMWCh for P. infestans and F. eumartii, respectively.
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Figure 1.
LMWCh affects germination of reproductive structures in phytopathogenic microorganisms. P. infestans sporangia (A) and F. eumartii spores (B) were incubated with different concentrations of LMWCh for 16 h and 100% relative humidity at 18°C in the dark. Scale bar: 30 µm (A) and 25 µm (B). Values are the mean (±SD) of three independent experiments.
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Figure 2.
LMWCh induces NO production in F. eumartii spores. Spore suspension was incubated with different concentrations of LMWCh in combination with the NO scavenger, cPTIO for 16 h. Then, the suspension was loaded with the NO-specific fluorescent probe DAF-FM DA, and the fluorescence was determined in a fluorometer. Data are expressed as the fold increase with respect to the control. Values are the mean (±SD) of at least three independent experiments. Different letters indicate statistically significant differences (Tukey’s test, p < 0.05).
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In turn, due to the easy handle and reproducibility, F. eumartii was used to characterize LMWCh-mediated biological action. NO-specific fluorophore diaminofluorescein-FM diacetate (DAF-FM DA) was assayed to compare endogenous NO production in LMWCh- and nontreated spores as a biomarker of cytotoxicity (Figure 2) [18]. Exogenous LMWCh application ranging from 0.25 to 2.5 mg ml−1 induced NO production indicating a dose-dependent LMWCh-mediated effect on F. eumartii spores. Since DAF-FM DA fluorescence was significantly reduced in the presence of the NO scavenger, cPTIO, we propose that endogenous NO production is a downstream event upon LMWCh treatment in fungal spores.
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Figure 3.
LMWCh treatment induces cell death in F. eumartii spores. Fungal spores were exposed to different concentrations of LMWCh for 16 h and then incubated with the fluorescent probe SYTOX Green. (A) Dead cell was visualized as green fluorescence. Pictures show general phenomena representative of at least three individual experiments. A bright field image for each treatment is shown below fluorescent images. Scale bar: 25 µm. (B) Quantification of fluorescent spores. Values are the mean (±SD) of at least three independent experiments. Different letters indicate statistically significant differences (Tukey’s test, p < 0.05).
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SYTOX Green dye is often used to distinguish between live and dead cells. The fluorescence emission of SYTOX Green stain was measured in the presence of increasing concentrations of LMWCh. A substantial enhancement was measured in 0.25 and 2.5 mg ml−1 LMWCh-treated spores (Figure 3).
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Figure 4.
LMWCh plus Mancozeb have a synergistic action on F. eumartii spore germination. F. eumartii spores were incubated with different concentrations of LMWCh, Mancozeb, or a combination of both, for 16 h and 100% relative humidity in the dark. (A) Pictures show general phenomena representative of at least three individual experiments. Scale bar: 25 µm. (B) Quantification of spore germination. Values are the mean (±SD) of at least three independent experiments. Different letters indicate statistically significant differences (Tukey’s test, p < 0.05).
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Then, LMWCh at 0.025 and 0.25 mg ml−1 and Mancozeb at 10−1 and 10−2 dilutions from the recommended field dosage were tested on fungal spore germination (Figure 4). Compared with control, the combination of suboptimal doses of 0.025 mg ml−1 LMWCh and 0.008 mg ml−1 Mancozeb had a remarkable inhibitory activity on spore germination (Figure 4). The treatment with the combined solution resulted in a synergistic effect in the reduction of spore germination. According to Limpel’s formula, the Eevalue calculated for percent reduction of germinated spores using LMWCh and Mancozeb alone and their combination was 61.51%. Thus, we proposed that the mixture of LMWCh and Mancozeb exerted a synergistic effect on germination of F. eumartii spores.
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3.2. LMWCh potentiates Mancozeb effect and protects against late blight in potato
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The effect of LMWCh and Mancozeb treatments, alone or in combination, to control late blight in potato was tested. Meanwhile, single treatments revealed no significant differences, and the combined treatment of 0.25 mg ml−1 LMWCh and 0.08 mg ml−1 Mancozeb evidenced a reduction of at least sixfold in the late blight symptoms on potato leaflets (Figure 5).
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Figure 5.
LMWCh and Mancozeb protect plant from microbial attack. Potato leaves were pretreated with 0.25 mg ml−1 LMWCh, 0.08 mg ml−1 Mancozeb or a combined solution of LMWCh and Mancozeb and then inoculated with P. infestans. (A) Representative images from leaflets at 5 days upon P. infestans inoculation. (B) Quantification of lesion area; 100% represents the total area in each leaflet. Values are the mean (±SD) of at least three independent experiments. Different letters indicate statistically significant differences (Tukey’s test, p < 0.001).
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Figure 6.
LMWCh and Mancozeb activate plant defense responses. Potato leaves were pretreated with 0.25 mg ml−1 LMWCh, 0.08 mg ml−1 Mancozeb, or the combined solution of LMWCh and Mancozeb. Western blot analysis was assayed with antichitinase antibody (upper panel). Ponceau staining was used as loading control (lower panel). Picture is representative of two independent experiments.
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With the aim to provide broader evidence on LMWCh-mediated mechanism, we assayed its elicitor properties in potato plants (Figure 6). Chitinases, the well-known pathogenesis-related proteins used as defense markers, are constitutively expressed at low levels, but highly induced by biotic stresses in potato leaves [22, 25]. Meanwhile, the 32 kDa chitinase was only detected at very low level in control; it moderately increased in Mancozeb-treated leaflets and was remarkably high in LMWCh-treated leaflets. Otherwise, the highest levels of chitinase isoforms were detected in potato leaflets upon LMWCh and Mancozeb treatment. Particularly, in the presence of LMWCh, the level of a third 27 kDa isoform was increased, suggesting that specific defense proteins are elicited by LMWCh in potato tissues (Figure 6).
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4. Discussion
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LMWCh was effective as an antimicrobial compound on spores from both P. infestans and F. eumartii under assayed conditions. As spores were treated with LMWCh, the SYTOX Green signal went up. The fact that NO production has been postulated as stress signals and is detected in LMWCh-treated spores allowed us to suggest that it probably downstream modulates cell toxicity in F. eumartii [18]. The combination of LMWCh and Mancozeb had a synergistic effect in reducing spore germination and also remarkably induced chitinase accumulation in potato leaflets. The sensitivity to LMWCh as judged by its estimated IC50 values on the reduction of germination was higher in the oomycete than in fungal spores. The inhibition of P. infestans [26] and fungal growth by chitosan has been extensively demonstrated [7, 18, 27–29]. Thus, the positive effect of LMWCh on the control of late blight might derive from the combination of its antimicrobial and eliciting properties.
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In this work, we demonstrated that the addition of LMWCh to an ineffective Mancozeb dose became a highly effective treatment to control late blight. The synergistic effect of LMWCh and commercially synthetic fungicides has been showed on Botrytis cinerea, Alternaria brassicicola, and Muocor piriformis [30]. The combination of chitosan and ethanol in reduced doses showed an effective control of gray mold [31]; however, the mechanism of action has not still been elucidated. Due to the intrinsic polycationic chemistry of chitosan, we speculated that LMWCh might modify cell membrane permeability [32] and in turn facilitate the uptake of Mancozeb when both compounds are applied simultaneously, on plant tissues. In our work, consistent with the less damage, a potentiated accumulation of three chitinase isoforms was detected on potato leaflets, allowing us to suggest that LMWCh and Mancozeb might activate natural defense mechanisms and maximize the known action of chitosan as plant elicitor [33]. Similar accumulation patterns were also obtained in tomato seedlings subjected to identical treatments (data not shown). In addition to chitinases, the host defense responses elicited by chitosan might include glucanase activation, cell wall lignifications, phytoalexin biosynthesis, and generation of reactive oxygen species, among others [33]. Majid et al. [34] demonstrated that Mancozeb induces antioxidant compounds in Cassia angustifolia Vahl. Considering that the antioxidant metabolism is also activated during the plant defense response and adding the fact that chitosan is a suitable candidate to enhance antioxidative enzymes activities [35], we also speculated that summative antioxidant activity might be exerted by Mancozeb and LMWCh on the plant tissue. Since at least two degraded metabolites, ETU and ethylene urea from Mancozeb, have been found on potato tissue [36], we cannot rule out that Mancozeb derivatives also had action on potato defense mechanisms. It has also been accepted that the risk of P. infestans resistance against Mancozeb is rather low [37]. Thus, chitosan applied in combination with Mancozeb could represent a useful strategy with additional advantages within environmental-friendly plant protection strategies.
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5. Conclusion
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In summary, water-soluble LMWCh is an effective antimicrobial compound on spores from both P. infestans and F. eumartii. NO is a downstream stress signal mediating LMWCh cytotoxicity in spores. In addition, the combination of LMWCh and the synthetic fungicide Mancozeb showed an effective control late blight in potato leaflets. However, major studies are needed on new agro-inputs and environmental science to provide the conditions for the use of more eco-friendly pesticide formulations in plant crops.
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\n\n',keywords:"chitosan, Fusarium f. sp. Eumartii, Mancozeb, Phythophtora infestans, potato, tomato",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/52593.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/52593.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52593",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52593",totalDownloads:1481,totalViews:415,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"April 13th 2016",dateReviewed:"September 6th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"January 11th 2017",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Late blight and wilt caused by the oomycete, Phytophthora infestans, and the fungus, Fusarium solani f. sp. eumartii, respectively, are severe diseases in Solanaceae crops worldwide. Although traditional approaches to control plant diseases have mainly relied on toxic chemical compounds, current studies are focused to identify more sustainable options. Finding alternatives, a low molecular weight chitosan (LMWCh) obtained from biomass of Argentine Sea’s crustaceans was assayed. In an attempt to characterize the action of LMWCh alone or in combination with the synthetic fungicide Mancozeb, the antimicrobial properties of LMWCh were assayed. In a side-by-side comparison with the SYTOX Green nucleic acid stain and the nitric oxide–specific probe, diaminofluorescein-FM diacetate (DAF-FM DA), yielded a similar tendency, revealing LMWCh-mediated cell death. The efficacy of LMWCh, Mancozeb, and the mixture LMWCh–Mancozeb was in turn tested. A synergistic effect in the reduction of F. eumartii spore germination was measured in the presence of subinhibitory dosis of 0.025 mg ml−1 LMWCh and 0.008 mg ml−1 Mancozeb. This mixture was efficient to increase the effectiveness of the single treatments in protecting against biotic stress judged by a drastic reduction of lesion area in P. infestans–inoculated tissues and activation of the potato defense responses.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/52593",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/52593",book:{slug:"biological-activities-and-application-of-marine-polysaccharides"},signatures:"Sebastián D. Ippólito, Julieta R. Mendieta, María C. Terrile, Claudia\nV. Tonón, Andrea Y. Mansilla, Silvana Colman, Liliana Albertengo,\nMaría S. Rodríguez and Claudia A. Casalongué",authors:[{id:"188841",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Casalongué",fullName:"Claudia Casalongué",slug:"claudia-casalongue",email:"casalong@mdp.edu.ar",position:null,institution:{name:"National University of Mar del Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Materials and methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Isolation and characterization of chitosan",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Biological materials",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Chemical treatments and inoculations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4. P. infestans sporangium germination assay",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.5. Measurements of F. eumartii spore germination",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.6. Measurements of endogenous NO production in F. eumartii spores",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"2.7. Cell death stain and fluorescence microscopy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"2.8. Protein extraction and western blot assay",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"2.9. Statistical analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"3. Results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.1. LMWCh exerts antimicrobial action on P. infestans and F. eumartii.",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"3.2. LMWCh potentiates Mancozeb effect and protects against late blight in potato",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15",title:"4. Discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Nowicki M, Foolad MR, Nowakowska M, Kozik EU. Potato and tomato late blight caused by Phytophthora infestans: an overview of pathology and resistance breeding. Plant Disease. 2011;96: 4–17.'},{id:"B2",body:'Hibar K, El Mahjoub M. Evaluation of fungicides for control of Fusarium wilt of potato. Plant Pathology Journal. 2006;5: 239–243.'},{id:"B3",body:'Caldiz D, Rolon D, Di Rico J, Andreu A. Performance of dimethomorph + Mancozeb applied to seed potatoes in early management of late blight (Phytophthora infestans). Potato Research. 2007;50: 59–70.'},{id:"B4",body:'Burwell SM. Report on Carcinogens, 13th ed., Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA; 2014.'},{id:"B5",body:'Badawy ME, Rabea EI. 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Postharvest Biology and Technology. 2007;45: 134–140.'},{id:"B32",body:'Falcón-Rodríguez AB, Wégria G, Cabrera J-C. Exploiting plant innate immunity to protect crops against biotic stress: chitosaccharides as natural and suitable candidates for this purpose. InTech Open Access Publisher, Croatia; 2012.'},{id:"B33",body:'El Hadrami A, Adam LR, El Hadrami I, Daayf F. Chitosan in plant protection. Marine Drugs. 2010;8: 968–987.'},{id:"B34",body:'Majid U, Siddiqi TO, Iqbal M. Antioxidant response of Cassia angustifolia Vahl. to oxidative stress caused by Mancozeb, a pyrethroid fungicide. Acta physiologiae plantarum. 2014;36: 307–314.'},{id:"B35",body:'Yang F, Hu J, Li J, Wu X, Qian Y. Chitosan enhances leaf membrane stability and antioxidant enzyme activities in apple seedlings under drought stress. Plant Growth Regulation. 2009;58: 131–136.'},{id:"B36",body:'Environmental fate of Mancozeb. 2000. Available from: http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/emon/pubs/fatememo/mancozeb.pdf [Accessed: 2016-03-01].'},{id:"B37",body:'Kato M, Mizubuti ES, Goodwin SB, Fry WE. Sensitivity to protectant fungicides and pathogenic fitness of clonal lineages of Phytophthora infestans in the United States. Phytopathology. 1997;87: 973–978.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Sebastián D. Ippólito",address:null,affiliation:'
Institute for Biological Research, Faculty of Natural Sciences, UE CONICET-UNMDP, National University of Mar del Plata, Mar del Plata, Argentina
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Julieta R. Mendieta",address:null,affiliation:'
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Vegetables",slug:"ice-temperature-storage-technology-of-fruits-and-vegetables",signatures:"Liu Bin, Cai Bihao and Shen Jiang",authors:[{id:"103474",title:"Dr.",name:"Liu",middleName:null,surname:"Bin",fullName:"Liu Bin",slug:"liu-bin"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"68576",title:"Application of Negative Pressure Wound Therapy on Closed Incisions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88658",slug:"application-of-negative-pressure-wound-therapy-on-closed-incisions",body:'
1. Introduction
The concept of negative pressure wound therapy (NPWT) was pioneered in 1997 by Morykwas, applying vacuum-assisted closure (VAC) on a pig wound model. Morykwas’ initial methodology involved packing the wound with foam, covering and sealing with an adhesive drape, and applying 125 mm Hg of negative pressure either continuously or intermittently [1]. The rudimentary NPWT led to increased blood f low, granulation tissue, and f lap survival, with decreased bacterial growth [1].
NPWT refers to wound healing technology consisting of three major parts: a wound dressing, covers, and a pump [2]. Wound dressing aids in transferring pressure from the pump to the wound itself, and modern NPWT typically utilizes reticulated open-pore polyurethane foam, intended to equalize the negative pressure across the entire wound surface [2]. The cover creates an airtight seal over an open wound, and the pump applies the negative pressure [2, 3].
There are four major types of NPWT [4]. The first is a large, battery-powered NPWT in the acute inpatient setting, while the second is a portable, battery-powered NPWT designed for outpatient use, but cannot be purchased over the counter and tends to be noisy [4]. The third type is a longer-lasting battery-powered NPWT that can be purchased over the counter and is designed to last 7 days and subsequently discarded, while altered models designed for inpatient use that include additional functions, such as negative pressure wound therapy with instillation-dwelling (NPWTi-d) and incisional negative pressure wound therapy (iNPWT), are the last [4].
1.1 Mechanism of action
By drawing f luid out of the wound, negative pressure increases blood f low, decreases the bacterial burden, cleans the wound, reduces local edema, and removes soluble inf lammatory mediators that may delay wound healing [2, 3, 4]. It has been postulated that NPWT draws antibiotics into the wound, but evidence is lacking [2]. The application of pressure applies forces to the wound, exerting effects macroscopically, through macrodeformation, as well as microscopically, through microdeformation [2, 5]. Naturally, negative pressure on a sealed wound draws the wound edges together [2]. However, it is important to note that the effect is reliant upon tissue parameters such as elasticity and tension, and the strength of the negative pressure does not seem to affect the amount of macrodeformation that occurs [2].
With NPWT, 5–20% of the wound surface experiences tissue stress, and by using a reticulated wound dressing, the action of drawing the wound bed into each pore via negative pressure constitutes the microdeformation that promotes tissue healing processes: increases in cell proliferation, angiogenesis, granulation tissue formation, and epithelialization and decreases in inf lammation [2, 5]. NPWT has the potential to grow granulation tissue over exposed bone, tendon, or devices [4]. Specifically, NPWT increases the concentration of VEGF, TGF-beta, FGF-2, PDGF, and IL-8 in the wound, with IL-10 increasing in the body, and decreased concentrations of TNF-alpha, IL-1 beta, and matrix metalloproteases (MMPs) [2]. In patients with type-2 diabetes, the pro-angiogenic and pro-epithelization proteins GDNF family receptor alpha-2 (GFRA2), which complement C1q binding protein (C1QBP), RAB35, and synaptic inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate 5-phosphatase 1 (SYNJ1), were increased [2].
2. NPWT
2.1 Early indications and need for NPWT
Traditional NPWT has been utilized for chronic and acute open wounds and has become a mainstay of wound management [4, 6, 7].
Contraindications of NPWT include fistulas, malignancy, osteomyelitis, or infection, and NPWT should never be applied over exposed critical anatomic structures or in wounds with necrotic tissue [4, 5]. Despite the benefits of NPWT, there are several key reminders to remember in order for treatment to be effective. The cover and drainage tube must be assessed carefully as loss of seal or f luid buildup in the tube can lead to skin loss or maceration [5]. It is also important to monitor the pump to minimize the risk of exsanguination.
There is significant variability regarding the application of NPWT that depends on wound characteristics [2, 5]. The wound packing can be foam or gauze [2]. The pump may be mechanically or electrically driven [2]. The strength of negative pressure can vary from −50 mm Hg to −150 mm Hg [2]. The pattern of negative pressure application can be intermittent, continuous, or variable, with a continuous pattern the most common [2]. Selection of parameters is typically at the physician’s discretion, but a recommended pressure is 125 mm Hg applied in a pattern alternating between a 5-minute negative pressure and a 2-minute suction [4, 5]. Although studies suggest intermittent NPWT is the most effective pattern in inducing granulation tissue formation and increasing blood f low, it also increases pain for the patient [4, 5]. As a result, continuous pressure is often used for painful wounds, as well as wounds with overlying skin grafts, and particularly edematous wounds [5]. Beyond wound outcomes, NPWT reduces the number of dressing changes, healthcare labor, time spent in the hospital, and costs, and this is most demonstrated in portable NPWT, which allows treatment to be done at home [5, 9].
2.2 Current applications
Beyond its indications listed previously, the use of NPWT has been expanding into newer wound types, including tunneling wounds and avascular tissue, and new published case series have demonstrated the use of NPWT in wounds such as necrotizing fasciitis [4, 5, 10]. Alterations to traditional NPWT led to negative wound pressure therapy with installation (NPWT-i) and incisional negative pressure wound therapy (iNPWT), the latter of which is utilized on closed wounds.
3. Incisional NPWT
Incisional NPWT (iNPWT) has been used since 2006, as an adjunct treatment to augment wound healing and prevent surgical site infections (SSI) and wound complications.
3.1 Evolution and development
Surgical incisions are a break in the skin and its defenses in avoiding translocation of infectious pathogens into the deeper tissues. It’s imperative to cover and isolate these incisions by a sterile protective dressing in the sterile environment of the operating room. Advances in these sterile protective dressings have taken place over decades and, in the present form, are made up of a nonadherent, antimicrobial-containing dressing covered with sterile gauze or abdominal pads, which are held in place by tapes or transparent film.
In the 1990s, NPWT demonstrated promising results in the management of acute and chronic open wounds, and Argenta and Morykwas proposed improved perfusion and wound contraction, which had a profoundly positive effect on the success of wound healing [1].
Gomoll et al., in 2006, pioneered the idea of incisional NPWT and described the application of NPWT on 35 orthopedic trauma patients, considered high-risk for infections [11]. A permeable nonadherent dressing was applied over the incision and covered with standard VAC sponge cut into 1-inch wide strips and then sealed with conventional VAC adhesive material. The negative pressure was maintained for 3 days, and patients were followed up for SSI for a minimum of 3 weeks. None of these 35 patients reported infections, which led to heightened interest in application of NPWT for surgical incisions.
3.2 Mechanism of action
Efficacy of NPWT depends on a number of factors, namely, foam width, foam thickness, magnitude of negative pressure, and its duration and frequency.
To achieve reproducible and standardized results, the NPWT dressing includes a skin interface layer, which is directly placed over the incision site, over which reticulated foam dressing is secured with occlusive drape. The VAC pump along with the canister is then connected via tubes attached through the foam dressing and secured underneath the occlusive drape to maintain an airtight seal. It’s imperative to secure and maintain an airtight seal, in order to achieve efficacy and prevent complications like maceration of peri-wound skin.
Several studies and trials have proposed these mechanisms of iNPWT (Figure 1):
Physical barrier to external contamination
Microdeformation of the wound edges and release of local growth factors
Approximation of wound edges and minimizing lateral tension and dead space
Fluid egress and exudate removal
Figure 1.
Cross-sectional depiction of an incision closed with sutures without incisional NPWT (a). Application of incisional NPWT decreases lateral tissue tension and increases incisional apposition (b), reducing dead space. The applied pressure causes microdeformation and release of local growth factors, promoting healing of the surgical incision (reprinted with permission from Ref. [36]).
The negative pressure is commonly used continuously within a range of −75 mm of Hg to −125 mm of Hg. Although a faster rate of granulation is seen with interrupted pressure, the associated drastic changes in the foam contraction and expansion often render it more painful and impractical for use.
Another alternative, to bridge the gap between continuous and interrupted pressure, is variable pressure. It combines the benefit of interrupted pressure and faster granulation tissue growth with gradual and smaller deviations in pressure, in an attempt to minimize pain.
The role of foam width and thickness is important, as it’s proportional to the lateral tension attenuation, as described later in the chapter. Hence, a standard foam width of 60 mm is recommended. Cutting thin strips of the foam and using as a construction dressing are also discouraged, as it limits the efficacy and benefits of the iNPWT.
The optimum negative pressure has been a debatable aspect of NPWT. A lot of research focused on negative pressure of −80 mm Hg with positive results, followed by a paper published by Morykwas et al., using −125 mm Hg. The results of this trial were promising as it demonstrated improved healing and granulation as compared to the earlier results published by the same team and others. Recent literature and guidelines recommend a pressure of −125 mm Hg; however, pressures ranging from −80, −100, and −125 mm Hg have been employed, and encouraging results have been published.
Application of iNPWT on perineal wounds, following abdominoperineal resection (APR) for colonic and anal lesions, demonstrated improved wound healing and reduced complications and infection rates, while using pressure of −80 mm Hg. The increase in negative pressure beyond −125 mm Hg does not demonstrate improved wound outcomes, either in open or closed wounds.
As the uses and application of the NPWT system develop for closed incision surgical wounds, results of various large-scale clinical trials would emerge, and further modifications would evolve to maximize the clinical benefits of this promising therapeutic modality for postoperative surgical wounds.
3.3 Advantages of iNPWT
Several studies have described the benefits of incisional NPWT (iNPWT) in general, colorectal, cardiac, vascular, plastic, and orthopedic surgeries. These benefits have been classified as immediate, intermediate, and long-term effects and result from the sterile isolation of the incision; mechanical stabilization and reduction in the tensile forces; obliteration of dead space; reduction of local edema, hematoma, and seroma; and increased perfusion and lymphatic f low.
Protection of incision from external contamination
Decreased lateral tension on the incision
Increased appositional strength
Normalized stress distribution
Increased skin perfusion
Intermediate effects
Decreased edema
Decreased hematoma/seroma formation
Increased lymphatic f low
Long-term effects
Improved Incision quality
Mechanical strength
Histology
Gene expression
3.3.1 Prevention of external contamination and surgical site infections
Surgical site infections (SSIs) result in significant morbidity and increased healthcare costs, accounting for 21.8% of the 721,800 healthcare-associated infections recorded annually in the United States [13].
SSIs are estimated to increase average hospital stay by 9.6 days, resulting in an added cost of $38,656 and around $10 billion in direct and indirect costs annually [14].
With emphasis on lowering healthcare costs and advancing quality of care, SSIs pose a major physical, psychological, and economic burden.
Incisional NPWT immediately provides protection and isolation of the incision from external contamination. Multiple studies in trauma surgery, general surgery, and plastic surgery have attributed decreased local edema, f luid egress, lower hematoma/seroma rates, lower time to healing, and improved genomic profile, in terms of reduction of pro-inf lammatory cytokines and chemokines in surgical incisions covered with NPWT. An international expert panel in 2017 recommended ciNPWT for patients at high risk for surgical site complications [15]. Notable high-risk features include diabetes, ASA score ≥ 3, obesity (BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2), tobacco use, hypoalbuminemia, corticosteroid use, high-tension wounds and revision surgery.
Multiple studies across different specialties reported a threefold to fivefold reduction in the surgical site infection risk, following the use of ciNPWT [16, 17, 18].
Notably, Grauhan and team reported findings of a prospective study of 150 obese patients who underwent cardiac surgery via a median sternotomy. A significant reduction of fourfold in the incidence of wound infection was seen in the iNPWT group compared to conventional dressings, at 1 week of surgery [19]. Similar findings were reported by Matatov in groin infections covered with iNPWT, after vascular procedures (6 vs. 30%, p = 0.0011) [20]. Bonds described a reduction in the rate of SSIs in the iNPWT group, after open colectomy (12.5 vs. 29.3%, p < 0.05) [21].
Contrastingly, a study analyzing 398 patients concluded incisional NPWT improved short-term wound complications but had no effect on long-term infection rate following knee and hip arthroplasty. A higher proportion of iNPWT patients reported wound drainage at day 7, though similar increase was not seen at different time intervals. This study is the largest RCT comparing outcomes of NPWT dressing in elective lower extremity arthroplasty and supporting improved soft tissue healing response and lower wound-related complications, but no effect on the risk of late superficial or deep infections [22].
Evidence supporting the use of iNPWT in hand and spine surgery is new and fewer. SSIs occur is 0.4–20% of patients undergoing spine surgery and contribute to increased morbidity, hospitalization, and costs [23, 24, 25, 26]. Various treatment modalities such as drains, copious irrigation, and prophylactic antibiotics are employed. Adogwa et al. reported a 30% reduction in wound infection rate and 50% reduction in wound dehiscence rates in patients after long-segment thoracolumbar spine fusion and suggested ciNPWT as a safe and effective means of wound management for high-risk spine incisions.
Recent literature suggests incisional NPWT as a safe and effective method in preventing SSIs and wound complications in high-risk patients.
3.3.2 Cost analysis of iNPWT
As modern healthcare strives to deliver quality and efficient yet cost-effective care, continued efforts are warranted to evaluate economic viability of NPWT use and its application in various specialties.
An estimated cost of $100 per day was associated with the use of the PREVENA (V.A.C therapy, KCI, San Antonio, TX) system, which showed significant reduction in SSI risk [27]. With a typical use of 5–7 days, cost of ciNPWT is estimated around $500–700. When used in high-risk populations and higher-cost wound management modality, such additional costs of the NPWT system are validated, as they lead to overall reduction in total healthcare expenditure. SSIs prolong hospital stay, on an average of 9 days, and are associated with an increase in costs up to $20,000 [28].
When compared with indirect costs associated with treatment of wound dehiscence and complications, and direct costs such as daily dressing changes, the economic viability of the iNPWT system in high-risk population seems justified. Chopra et al. found an estimated cost saving of $1456 with ciNPWT use in abdominal wall surgeries. Raymund Horch and his team proposed a cost saving of $163 in obese patients and $203 in morbidly obese patients employing iNPWT in post-bariatric patients undergoing abdominal and thigh dermolipectomy. The authors determined that a 28 and 25% reduction in SSIs’ rate in the obese and morbidly obese patients, respectively, was needed to achieve cost savings with iNPWT. Lewis et al. proposed cost savings with iNPWT if wound complications are reduced by one-third in patients undergoing laparotomy for gynecological malignancies [29]. Further evaluation of the applicability of the NPWT system and its costs is warranted in diverse patient population (high vs. low risk), healthcare setups (inpatient vs. at-home), and specialties.
3.3.3 Wound healing
NPWT has been applied successfully as a therapeutic modality to treat open wounds for decades, which led to heightened interest in the scientific community to use it over closed wounds, incisions, and skin grafts. Many trials and studies have proposed the following mechanisms of incisional NPWT:
Foam dressing protects wound from external mechanical stress.
Decrease wound tension and tensile forces in deeper dermal layers.
Continuous removal of exudate and f luids.
Decrease local edema improving physiologic adaptation of the wound.
Increase in local perfusion, oxygenation, and lymphatic f low.
Decrease hematoma/seroma rates.
Decrease in time-to-heal duration.
On a molecular level, iNPWT has been hypothesized to remove toxic inf lammatory mediators and increase the concentration of local tissue growth factors, via microdeformation [30].
An immediate benefit of the iNPWT is the foam dressing that protects the incision/wound from external contamination as well as its ability to minimize the lateral tension around the suture line by 50%. It also normalizes tensile forces in the deep dermal tissue to decrease dead space, which aids in wound healing and reduced seroma/hematoma rates. In wound mechanics, study conducted on an incision made on silicon surface found when iNPWT was applied, 51% more force was required to pull apart a sutured incision, and 43% more force was required to pull apart a stapled incision than non-iNPWT-treated incisions. An interesting correlation was the proportional association between the width of the foam dressing and the force required to pull the incision apart. The study concluded that a foam width of 60 mm is required to increase the tensile strength of the incision.
Studies on earlier techniques of NPWT discouraged the construction method (dressing of the incision by cutting foam into thin strips) as it likely decreased the positive effect of reduced lateral tension on the incision [1].
Early application of iNPWT on pig wound model demonstrated improved healing in terms of mechanical, histomorphometric, and gene expression properties. These incisions showed significantly improved mechanical properties (strain energy density, peak strain) and a narrower scar, extending in the deep dermis [31].
Long-term genomic analysis on surgical wounds reveals pro-inf lammatory chemokine and cytokine signals in conventional dressing (sterile absorbent abdominal dressing)-treated incisions compared to iNPWT-treated incisions. Thus, the latter seemed superior in wound strength and wound maturity compared to conventional dressing-covered incisions [31].
Early application of iNPWT promotes f luid egress and continuous removal of exudates. This leads to reduction in local edema, reduced hematoma/seroma rates, improved time to hematoma resolution, decreased time to wound healing, and with split-thickness skin grafts (STSG), improved survival with NPWT [12]. When used with grafts and skin substitutes, the f luid egress with iNPWT minimizes sheer stress and provides tight apposition to the underlying recipient wound bed, which promotes incorporation of the graft or skin substitutes and reepithelialization of graft interstices [32, 33, 34]. Maruccia et al. described faster healing, fewer dressing changes, and quicker maturity of mesh skin grafts when combined with NPWT. This combined treatment provides higher integration, better immobilization of the graft, expulsion of f luids, and a moist clean wound bed [35].
The reduction in local edema and removal of f luids in sites such as the abdomen and breast help in reducing the need for postoperative drainage. There is renewed interest in analyzing results to conclude reduced need and duration for postoperative drains. Several studies in general surgery, plastic surgery, and orthopedic surgery have demonstrated reduced drainage with iNPWT-covered incisions. Raymund Horch and his team, in 2014, demonstrated the benefits of iNPWT in a post-bariatric patient population undergoing dermolipectomy of the abdomen and who presented with reduced exudate formation, earlier drain removal, and decreased length of hospitalization [36].
3.3.4 Pain relief
Pain relief with iNPWT has been reported rarely, as very few studies have focused on reporting pain scores with this modality. Maruccia et al., in 2016, reported a statistically significant reduction in pain scores and wound area in skin graft patients. This could be explained by faster healing and improved uptake of the graft, along with less frequent need for dressing changes [35].
3.3.5 Scar appearance
Recent literature shows scar appearance improvement with the iNPWT system, across various incision sites. Keeney et al., in 2018, reported a trend toward better outcomes and improved scar appearance in total knee arthroplasty (TKA) patients [22]. Similar improvements have been reported with breast, abdominal, and lower and upper extremity incisions too. This is explained by faster wound healing, decreased time-to-heal time, reduced wound area and lateral tension, and reduced scarring in the deep dermal layers. Optimization in wound healing and avoidance of complications, such as wound dehiscence and hematoma/seroma formation, reduce secondary scarring and augurs well for improved scar appearance.
3.3.6 Perfusion and oxygen saturation
An important aspect of iNPWT is its ability to alter microcirculation and improve tissue perfusion and oxygen saturation, in the immediate, intermediate, and long-term analysis of surgical wounds. The purported mechanisms of action are microdeformation of wound and increased neo-angiogenesis via release of local growth factors [37]. Improved perfusion is demonstrated in the cutaneous arterioles (along the skin edges) as well as the deeper tissues, as evidenced by Atkins et al., in peri-sternal perfusion after cardiac surgery via median sternotomy. The iNPWT was also able to compensate for the reduced perfusion rendered by mammary artery harvesting in these patients. In a study published in 2014, Raymund Horch and his team demonstrated improved SaO2 and blood f low at all time intervals, over abdomen and thigh wounds in post-bariatric surgery patients undergoing dermolipectomy. This was recorded by placing sensors and O2C probe over the abdominal skin and thighs [36].
Timmers et al. found a fivefold increase in perfusion, assessed with Doppler probes, after application of NPWT over the forearms of healthy volunteers [38].
In a study on iNPWT published in 2016 from the University of Chicago, comprising of 228 patients undergoing immediate expander-based breast reconstruction (study and control groups of 45 and 183, respectively), it was concluded that the application of iNPWT significantly decreased the rate of major mastectomy f lap necrosis rate (requiring operative intervention), overall mastectomy f lap necrosis rates, and overall complication rates [39].
3.3.7 Lymphatic f low
An important supplement to the improved perfusion is increased lymphatic f low around the incision. Lymphatic f low increments aid in reducing hematoma and seroma rates, which are estimated to be reduced by 50–63% with the use of iNPWT. The importance of increased lymphatic f low on reducing seroma/hematoma rates is evidenced by the porcine model study described by Kilpadi and Cunningham, in which significant reduction of hematoma and seroma occurs without f luid collection in the canister [40].
Kilpadi and Cunningham reported 63% reduced hematoma/seroma rates with iNPWT and injected isotope-labeled nanospheres in the subcutaneous tissue to discover their highest concentration in lymph nodes closest to, draining the incision site [40]. Recent literature is overwhelmingly in favor of reduced seroma/hematoma rates, across various surgical procedures covering different surgical specialties and incision sites. To name a few, iNPWT and reduced seroma/hematoma have been demonstrated at f lap donor sites, like scapular and latissimus dorsi free f lap harvest sites, total hip and knee arthroplasty, over abdominal (e.g., cesarean, laparotomy, and abdominoplasty), thoracic incisions (e.g., sternotomy), breast incisions (expander-based and autologous reconstruction), lower extremity (trauma and fractures), and groin incisions (vascular procedures involving femoral vessels) [40, 41, 42, 43].
3.3.8 Hospital stay
Reduced hospital stay with iNPWT use has been demonstrated extensively, via reduced time-to-heal duration, as well as decreased SSI and wound dehiscence and complication rates. A recent systematic review on abdomen procedures estimates reduction of ICU stay but required more extensive clinical RCT and research [44]. Though, it’s difficult to quantify this reduction in hospital stay across various procedures, NPWT as an incision management tool has been demonstrated to optimize and accentuate the wound healing process.
3.3.9 Readmission and reoperation rates
These rates have been assessed in a recent meta-analysis comparing efficacy of NPWT in high-risk patients undergoing abdominal wall reconstruction. Both outcomes were low in the iNPWT group as compared to control [9 vs. 14% and 3 vs. 14%, respectively; RR = 0.68 CI (0.46–0.99)].
3.3.10 Wound dehiscence and complication
Wound dehiscence and complications are lowered with the use of iNPWT and its aforementioned benefits. Recent literature estimates a reduction of ~50% reduction in wound dehiscence rates, across various surgical specialties [23, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50].
The proposed mechanism of improved wound healing, increased perfusion, decreased infection rates, decreased hematoma/seroma rates, decreased lateral and deep wound tension, improved wound maturity, and strength and obliteration of dead space augurs well for low wound dehiscence and complication rate.
Besides the cost-benefit analysis, an incision management tool with these benefits and improved scar appearance definitely requires further clinical trials and recommendations for use, especially in high-risk patients.
3.4 Complications and risks of iNPWT
Interest in the use of iNPWT has been peaking in the last few years as favorable outcomes seem promising and with easy adaptability and application of at-home single-use canister-based NPWT. This single-use NPWT can be used for 7 days and improves patient acceptability and compliance. A lot of research has been invested in the safety of these systems and to identify complications impeding its widespread use.
The risk of hemorrhage, especially in patients on anticoagulants and with clotting disorders, has been described with the use of iNPWT. Any evidence of fistulas or communication to visceral cavities needs further imaging and management before the application of negative pressure. Allergic reaction to the dressings is a contraindication to the use of iNPWT. Minor skin irritation and ecchymosis are the most frequently encountered complications.
4. Clinical applications of incisional NPWT
The earliest description of the use of negative pressure in wound healing was in the management of soft tissue injury associated with open fractures. The beneficial outcomes seen in various animal models spurred the development of a wide range of clinical indications including abdominal, breast, orthopedic, vascular, cardiac, and plastic surgeries (e.g., skin graft, burns, muscle f lap) [51].
4.1 Abdominal wounds
The use of incisional NPWT in high-risk patients undergoing abdominal surgeries decreased wound complications such as surgical site infections and wound healing complications. The primary goals of incisional NPWT wound management include active removal of exudates, estimation of third-space f luid loss, and avoidance of mechanical contamination of the abdominal viscera [51].
With the help of the dressing, NPWT applies negative pressure uniformly, thus promoting healing by reducing edema, approximating the wound, and removing infectious material and exudates [52].
Some studies showed that NPWT improves the removal of abdominal f luid, which helps in early fascial closure. The removal of f luids is especially beneficial in reducing inf lammatory responses that may occur [53, 54]. This is supported by the septic/hemorrhagic shock porcine model, which showed that NPWT efficacy was partially due to a reduction in the anti-inf lammatory response [55].
On a recent comparative study on incisional NPWT and conventional dressing following abdominal wall reconstruction, the authors demonstrated a statically significant reduction in the incidence of skin dehiscence and overall wound complications in the incisional NPWT group compared with the conventional dressing group [30].
In a study comparing the rates of SSI of patients who underwent surgery for pancreatic, colorectal, or peritoneal surface malignancies between incisional NPWT and conventional dressings, the incidence of SSI was significantly lower in the incisional NPWT group than the conventional group [56].
The use of incisional NPWT as an effective prophylactic tool has been examined in studies from various surgical specialties. The results show that its use facilitates healing of incisional wounds and reduces the incidence of wound healing disorders [57].
4.2 Breast surgery
Breast reconstruction using the expander-/implant-based breast reconstruction is usually performed after mastectomy and plays a crucial role in psychosocial and oncological outcomes in breast cancer patients.
One of the most common and significant complications in the immediate expander-based breast reconstruction is mastectomy f lap necrosis, which has been reported to occur in up to 30% of the patients [58]. Authors of a recent study evaluated the incidence of mastectomy f lap necrosis in patients with incisional NPWT after immediate expander-based breast reconstruction compared with the incidence in patients with conventional dressing.
The incisional NPWT group had a lower overall complication rate, overall mastectomy f lap necrosis rate, and major mastectomy f lap necrosis than the conventional dressing group [59].
Besides oncological breast surgery, the use of incisional NPWT was also assessed in a multicenter study on reduction mammoplasty. The results have shown that incisional NPWT applied to closed incision appeared to be most effective on dehiscence in the higher BMI categories and benefit most in preventing complications in the higher tissue resection weight categories [60] (Figure 2). The results thus suggest applying incisional NPWT devices in reduction mammoplasty where the BMI is over 25 or resection weight is above 500 mg [60] (Figure 3).
Figure 2.
Progression of incisions in patient treated with iNPWT and standard wound care after bilateral reduction mammaplasty. Wound complications and dehiscence are reduced with iNPWT (reprinted with permission from Ref. [60]).
Figure 3.
Relation of body mass index (BMI) on wound dehiscence rates in patients undergoing reduction mammaplasty. The NPWT group shows lower wound dehiscence rates than standard wound care (reprinted with permission from Ref. [60]).
The safety and efficacy of incisional NPWT in elderly patients undergoing breast surgery were studied previously. The results of the study suggest that the rates of infections and surgical site events (SSE) were lower with the use of incisional NPWT. The use of incisional NPWT is thus highly recommended in elderly patients, who have significant increased risk of developing SSE when compared with younger patients [61]. Other studies have concluded that incisional NPWT applied to closed surgical incisions on healthy patients after breast reduction surgery prevented postsurgical wound complications significantly [62].
4.3 Orthopedics
Complications related to high-risk lower extremity fractures such as calcaneal, pilon, and tibial plateau are particularly common. Common complications include infection and wound healing problems. In a prospective randomized multicenter clinical trial evaluating the use of NPWT after calcaneus, pilon, or tibial fractures, the authors have found a significant reduction of infection in the NPWT group [48]. The beneficial effects of NPWT on wounds after total ankle replacement or calcaneus fractures were recognized in a study that showed decreased total time required to achieve complete healing, decreased risk of infections, and decreased pain and swelling [63]. Several retrospective studies showed positive effects of incisional NPWT on wounds after open reduction and internal fixation of acetabular fractures. The NPWT group showed reduced rates of wound dehiscence, deep wound infections, and infection rates [64, 65].
A prospective randomized clinical study examined the wounds of patients after total hip arthroplasty using ultrasound examination to evaluate for the development of potential seroma, a possible risk factor for wound infections. The study showed a significant reduction in the seroma size when compared to standard wound dressing and positive effects on wound healing and complication rate [42].
4.4 Cardiac surgery
Despite the use of prophylactic antibiotics, the increasing incidence of postoperative sternal wound infections continues to be a serious problem after surgical cardiac procedures. Sternal wound infections are associated with additional expenses, increased length of stay in the hospital, increased mortality during the first year, and a significant reduction in quality of life [66].
Risk factors that increase the risk of sternal wound infections include smoking, diabetes, increasing number of grafts, peripheral vascular disease, chronic pulmonary disease, obesity, increased duration of mechanical ventilation, preoperative malnutrition, and harvesting of bilateral internal mammary arteries [67].
The use of incisional NPWT on sternal surgical incisions in patients with multiple comorbidities and consequently a high risk for wound complications was evaluated. Results have shown no wound complications in this high-risk group of patients at least 30 days after surgery and complete wound and surrounding skin healing with the absence of skin lesion due to negative pressure after removal of the dressing [68]. Results from another study also concluded that applying incisional NPWT over clean, closed incisions for the first 6–7 postoperative days reduced the likelihood of postoperative wound infections after median sternotomy not only in high-risk patients but also in a comprehensive patient population [45].
4.5 Vascular surgery
Vascular surgical site infections (SSI) occur as a result of perioperative events that lead to the colonization of the wound and underlying graft with bacterial species. Patients undergoing vascular procedures are at an increased risk of developing an SSI of up to 5% of clean procedures and 30% of clean-contaminated procedures [69]. Severe complications that arise after vascular surgery including leg amputation and death prompted the use of incisional NPWT postoperatively to prevent complications associated with such surgeries. Results of different studies have shown a potential reduction in wound complications and no observed increase in hemorrhage in high-risk patients with severe comorbidities undergoing vascular surgeries [70].
Recent retrospective study on lower leg fasciotomy supports faster wound closure and daily wound size reduction, fewer dressing changes, and shorter hospital stay with NPWT. These factors contribute to significant reduction in surgical site infections, from 30 per cent with standard wound care to 6 per cent with closed incisional NPWT [71].
4.6 Plastic surgery
In plastic surgery, the use of NPWT is particularly important in patients who experienced complications associated with skin graft rejection and its associated partial necrosis. It’s also used after excision of large scalp f laps due to injuries and lack of opportunities to cover it with the patient’s own skin. NPWT resulted in faster healing and granulation of wounds and a reduction of the overall size [72]. The use of NPWT in large wound surfaces with large amounts of mucus, observed in skin burns, resulted in a significant acceleration in the time taken for patients’ healing and rehabilitation. Additional outcomes included wounds that healed better, fewer infection rates, and more elastic tissue preservation [73]. Results from a multicenter, prospective randomized controlled, within-patient study involving our center and senior author (RDG) provided high-level evidence supporting significantly reduced wound complications following application of iNPWT in susceptible patients [60].
5. Conclusion
Advances in surgical and sterilization techniques have largely mitigated risk of wound complications and SSI rates; however, these complications till date pose a major physical, financial, and psychological challenge in the postoperative phase of treatment. Incisional NPWT presents a promising treatment modality for surgical wounds and incisions, with its proposed benefits in reducing infections, preventing wound dehiscence and optimizing wound healing and scarring. Randomized controlled trials and further clinical research are warranted to develop guidelines to the safe, effective, and routine use of iNPWT. However, in the present economic model of healthcare, efficacy of a treatment modality alone does not justify its use, and a large-scale cost-benefit analysis is warranted to rationalize its use in high-risk and low-risk postoperative patients.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Abbas Hassan, Rou Wan, and Dr. Jing Liu for their valuable inputs and contribution.
Conf lict of interest
The authors declare no conf lict of interest.
Notes/thanks
The first author CJJ would like to immensely thank senior author RDG for his unending support, guidance, and inspiration to strive to be perfect.
\n',keywords:"negative pressure wound therapy, incisional NPWT, closed incision NPWT, wound healing, wound dehiscence, surgical site infections",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/68576.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/68576.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68576",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68576",totalDownloads:332,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"April 15th 2019",dateReviewed:"July 17th 2019",datePrePublished:"October 10th 2019",datePublished:null,dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Negative pressure wound therapy (NPWT) is widely used for chronic and acute open wounds, with clinically proven benefits of faster wound healing by promoting granulation tissue growth and increased perfusion and facilitating epithelialization and contraction. Improved outcomes on open wounds prompted the application of NPWT on closed surgical incisions. The application of NPWT, in the immediate postoperative period, reduces surgical site infections (SSIs) and wound dehiscence by 50% in high-risk patients. The negative pressure reduces wound edema and improves local perfusion and lymphatic f low, thereby minimizing hematoma and seroma rates. The improved perfusion and oxygenation facilitate quicker wound healing as well as minimize ischemic complications like f lap necrosis. Recent literature supports enhanced wound healing and superior scar appearance as well as improved wound maturity, evidenced by 50% more force required to pull apart a sutured incision. Improved outcomes of incisional NPWT are reported from various surgical procedures on abdominal, breast, orthopedic, vascular, cardiac, and plastic surgeries. Further clinical studies and cost-benefit analysis are needed to recommend routine postoperative use of incisional NPWT in high-risk and low-risk patient population.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/68576",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/68576",signatures:"Chitang J. Joshi, Ji-Cheng Hsieh, Abbas Hassan and Robert D. Galiano",book:{id:"9066",title:"Wound Healing",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Wound Healing",slug:"wound-healing",publishedDate:"June 10th 2020",bookSignature:"Muhammad Ahmad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9066.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"204257",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"muhammad-ahmad",fullName:"Muhammad Ahmad"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 Mechanism of action",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3",title:"2. NPWT",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.1 Early indications and need for NPWT",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.2 Current applications",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Incisional NPWT",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1 Evolution and development",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.2 Mechanism of action",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.3 Advantages of iNPWT",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"3.3.1 Prevention of external contamination and surgical site infections",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"3.3.2 Cost analysis of iNPWT",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"3.3.3 Wound healing",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"3.3.4 Pain relief",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"3.3.5 Scar appearance",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"3.3.6 Perfusion and oxygen saturation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"3.3.7 Lymphatic f low",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"3.3.8 Hospital stay",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"3.3.9 Readmission and reoperation rates",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"3.3.10 Wound dehiscence and complication",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"3.4 Complications and risks of iNPWT",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21",title:"4. Clinical applications of incisional NPWT",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"4.1 Abdominal wounds",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"4.2 Breast surgery",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23_2",title:"4.3 Orthopedics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_24_2",title:"4.4 Cardiac surgery",level:"2"},{id:"sec_25_2",title:"4.5 Vascular surgery",level:"2"},{id:"sec_26_2",title:"4.6 Plastic surgery",level:"2"},{id:"sec_28",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_29",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_29",title:"Conf lict of interest",level:"1"},{id:"sec_30",title:"Notes/thanks",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Argenta LC, Morykwas MJ. Vacuum-assisted closure: A new method for wound control and treatment. Clinical experience. Annals of Plastic Surgery. 1997;38(6):563-576'},{id:"B2",body:'Borys S, Ludwig-Slomczynska AH, Seweryn M, et al. Negative pressure wound therapy in the treatment of diabetic foot ulcers may be mediated through differential gene expression. Acta Diabetologica. 2019;56(1):115-120. 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Clinical effectiveness of dermal substitution in burns by topical negative pressure: A multicenter randomized controlled trial. Wound Repair and Regeneration. 2012;20(6):797-805'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Chitang J. Joshi",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
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Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
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