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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"4589",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Endoscopy - Innovative Uses and Emerging Technologies",title:"Endoscopy",subtitle:"Innovative Uses and Emerging Technologies",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Endoscopy is a fast moving field, and new techniques are continuously emerging. In recent decades, endoscopy has evolved and branched out from a diagnostic modality to enhanced video and computer assisting imaging with impressive interventional capabilities. The modern endoscopy has seen advances not only in types of endoscopes available, but also in types of interventions amenable to the endoscopic approach. To date, there are a lot more developments that are being trialed. Modern endoscopic equipment provides physicians with the benefit of many technical advances. Endoscopy is an effective and safe procedure even in special populations including pediatric patients and renal transplant patients. It serves as the tool for diagnosis and therapeutic interventions of many organs including gastrointestinal tract, head and neck, urinary tract and others.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-2172-5",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-7258-1",doi:"10.5772/59220",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"endoscopy-innovative-uses-and-emerging-technologies",numberOfPages:414,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"e467c9d3b3eed077845b12b390abbe13",bookSignature:"Somchai Amornyotin",publishedDate:"September 24th 2015",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4589.jpg",numberOfDownloads:30663,numberOfWosCitations:8,numberOfCrossrefCitations:9,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:15,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:32,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 18th 2014",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 9th 2014",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 5th 2015",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 4th 2015",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 6th 2015",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"185484",title:"Prof.",name:"Somchai",middleName:null,surname:"Amornyotin",slug:"somchai-amornyotin",fullName:"Somchai Amornyotin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185484/images/system/185484.png",biography:"Dr. Somchai Amornyotin graduated from the Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand, in 1989. He joined the staff of the Department of Anesthesiology, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol University, in 1996. In 2020, he became a professor in the Department of Anesthesiology, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol University. His first scientific paper was published in Thailand in 1999. He has practiced anesthesia since 2002. More than eighty of his research articles have been published in Thai and international medical journals. Dr. Amornyotin is a member of the Royal College of Anesthesiologists of Thailand, the Gastroenterological Association of Thailand, and many scientific societies. He is also a reviewer and editor for many international journals.",institutionString:"Siriraj Hospital",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"Mahidol University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Thailand"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1021",title:"Hepatology",slug:"gastroenterology-hepatology"}],chapters:[{id:"48874",title:"Guidelines for Reprocessing Non-Lumened, Heat-Sensitive ENT Endoscopes",doi:"10.5772/61219",slug:"guidelines-for-reprocessing-non-lumened-heat-sensitive-ent-endoscopes",totalDownloads:1750,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Endoscopes have become an indispensable instrument in the ENT department, but their use has introduced potential health risks such as the infection transmission.",signatures:"Matteo Cavaliere and Maurizio Iemma",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48874",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48874",authors:[{id:"173404",title:"Dr.",name:"Matteo",surname:"Cavaliere",slug:"matteo-cavaliere",fullName:"Matteo Cavaliere"},{id:"175431",title:"Dr.",name:"Maurizio",surname:"Iemma",slug:"maurizio-iemma",fullName:"Maurizio Iemma"}],corrections:null},{id:"48863",title:"Anesthesia Innovations for Endoscopy of Gastrointestinal Tract",doi:"10.5772/60730",slug:"anesthesia-innovations-for-endoscopy-of-gastrointestinal-tract",totalDownloads:2377,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Gastrointestinal endoscopy (GIE) is a procedure for diagnosis and treatment of gastrointestinal tract abnormalities. This procedure requires some forms of anesthesia. The goal of procedural anesthesia is safe, effective control of pain and anxiety, as well as an appropriate degree of memory loss or reduced awareness. Generally, the majority of GIE procedures are performed by using topical anesthesia and intravenous sedation. General anesthesia is carried out in long and invasive procedures such as endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography, endoscopic ultrasound, and small bowel enteroscopy, as well in patients with history of failed sedation or drug and substance abuse, uncooperative or pediatric patients, and patients with cardiorespiratory system instabilities. The appropriate anesthetic agents for GIE procedures could be short acting, rapid onset with little adverse effects and also improved safety profiles. To date, the new anesthetic drugs and monitoring equipments for safety and efficacy are available. The present review focuses on pre-anesthetic assessment, anesthetic drugs used, monitoring practices, and post-anesthesia care for anesthesia innovations in GIE procedures.",signatures:"Somchai Amornyotin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48863",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48863",authors:[{id:"185484",title:"Prof.",name:"Somchai",surname:"Amornyotin",slug:"somchai-amornyotin",fullName:"Somchai Amornyotin"}],corrections:null},{id:"48521",title:"Fine-Needle Aspirates v2.0 — The Molecular Era",doi:"10.5772/60542",slug:"fine-needle-aspirates-v2-0-the-molecular-era",totalDownloads:1196,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Tissue biopsies are required for diagnosis, prognosis, and to measure individual drug response markers for patient management. For pancreatic adenocarcinoma, surgically harvested tissues are often used to collect data and perform genomic analysis to identify driver oncogenes and specific mutations, or to quantify a handpick of (micro)RNAs and proteins biomarkers. However, such strategy raises many concerns not only because 80% of patients diagnosed with pancreatic adenocarcinoma are not eligible for surgery, meaning that biopsies are not collected, but also because repeated core biopsies are related to higher risk of morbidity, are expensive and logistics can be limiting. Alternative sample collection methods include fine-needle aspirates (FNA) collected under endoscopic ultrasound (EUS). In this chapter, we will describe how EUS-FNA material can be a wealthy source of biomarkers for pancreatic cancer patient management. In greater details, we will review how DNA, micro(RNA), or protein analysis can help stratify pancreatic adenocarcinoma patients, from single events analysis, to cutting-edge, high-throughput studies.",signatures:"Louis Buscail and Pierre Cordelier",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48521",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48521",authors:[{id:"46250",title:"Dr.",name:"Pierre",surname:"Cordelier",slug:"pierre-cordelier",fullName:"Pierre Cordelier"},{id:"59363",title:"Prof.",name:"Louis",surname:"Buscail",slug:"louis-buscail",fullName:"Louis Buscail"}],corrections:null},{id:"49020",title:"Endoscopic Treatment of Gastrointestinal Bleedings",doi:"10.5772/61192",slug:"endoscopic-treatment-of-gastrointestinal-bleedings",totalDownloads:1777,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Digestive endoscopy represents an essential diagnostic and curative tool used when presented with a suspicion of gastrointestinal (GI) bleeding. Its role is not only confined to primary detection but also to establishing the severity of a lesion and providing relevant information regarding its risk of bleeding. New endoscopic techniques, accessories and compounds make the minimally invasive treatment suitable for a vast array of lesion types. Our main goal in this chapter is to summarize the main presentation of lesions at risk of bleeding, briefly classify them according to the gastrointestinal segment and finally detail the endoscopic treatment options currently available.",signatures:"Paul Mitrut, Liliana Streba, Anca Oana Docea, Adina Kamal, Sorin\nIoan Zaharie , Costin Teodor Streba and Nicolae-Dragoș\nMărgăritescu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49020",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49020",authors:[{id:"55546",title:"Dr.",name:"Costin",surname:"Streba",slug:"costin-streba",fullName:"Costin Streba"},{id:"59325",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca Oana",surname:"Docea",slug:"anca-oana-docea",fullName:"Anca Oana Docea"},{id:"92199",title:"Dr.",name:"Liliana",surname:"Streba",slug:"liliana-streba",fullName:"Liliana Streba"},{id:"173491",title:"Prof.",name:"Paul",surname:"Mitrut",slug:"paul-mitrut",fullName:"Paul Mitrut"},{id:"177423",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicolae-Dragos",surname:"Margaritescu",slug:"nicolae-dragos-margaritescu",fullName:"Nicolae-Dragos Margaritescu"},{id:"177459",title:"Dr.",name:"Adina",surname:"Kamal",slug:"adina-kamal",fullName:"Adina Kamal"},{id:"177460",title:"Dr.",name:"Sorin Ioan",surname:"Zaharie",slug:"sorin-ioan-zaharie",fullName:"Sorin Ioan Zaharie"}],corrections:null},{id:"48619",title:"Natural Orifice Translumenal Endoscopic Surgery of the GastroIntestinal Tract",doi:"10.5772/60552",slug:"natural-orifice-translumenal-endoscopic-surgery-of-the-gastrointestinal-tract",totalDownloads:1259,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Research Focus - NOTES is a new technique that faces numerous challenges. Current technology, training and research activities are conducted to make it a safe and effective minimal access technique.",signatures:"Abdulzahra Hussain",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48619",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48619",authors:[{id:"172173",title:"Mr.",name:"Abdulzahra",surname:"Hussain",slug:"abdulzahra-hussain",fullName:"Abdulzahra Hussain"}],corrections:null},{id:"48472",title:"Gastric Cardia and Gastroesophageal Junction — An Ongoing Challenge for the Endoscopist and the Pathologist",doi:"10.5772/60554",slug:"gastric-cardia-and-gastroesophageal-junction-an-ongoing-challenge-for-the-endoscopist-and-the-pathol",totalDownloads:1663,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The cardiac mucosa of the human stomach is composed mainly of branched PAS positive mucous glands that occupy the deep half of the mucosa thickness. This morphological pattern of the mucous glands present in endoscopic biopsies from the gastric fundus region or near the gastroesophageal junction (GEJ) serves as parameter for the histological diagnosis of gastric cardia. However, this morphological pattern is highly variable along the gastric part of the GEJ: in some areas these mucous glands are abundant and in others they are scarce, if not totally absent. Depending on the concept adopted for some, the cardiac mucosa would be a native structure attached to human GEJ, while for others it would have a metaplastic origin that would occur during the extra-uterine life. In cardiac mucosa the mixed glands (mucous/oxyntic glands) are almost always present in between mucous glands and in between oxyntic glands; such as the parietal cells which could also be detected in greater or lesser amounts. The aim of this work was to evaluate the presence of serotonin-immunoreactive cells (EC cells) in these different types of glands in both normal cardiac mucosa as well as in the Barrett´s esophagus. The main results concerning the endocrinology of gastric cardia allows to consider that the human cardia has exocrine and endocrine elements that together constitute its specific differential characteristic in relation to the gastric fundus and to the antropyloric regions of the stomach. On the other hand, the histologic and immunohistochemical analysis of endoscopic biopsies of 26 patients showed that 23 (88.5%) of them presented varying amounts of mucous glands associated with intestinal metaplasia in distal esophagus. Moreover, many of these patients presented a rich component of serotoninergic EC cells. The major population of serotonin-immunoreactive cells was found both in intestinal metaplasia as well as in its associated mucous glands. Among these patients, 16 (70%) presented foci of high concentration of serotoninergic EC cell in the distal esophagus. Whatever the neuroendocrine actions of serotonin in the GEJ, these actions should be enhanced in many patients who present a large population of EC cells in gastric cardia as well as in the areas of intestinal metaplasia of those with Barrett´s esophagus.",signatures:"Alfredo J. A. Barbosa and Rivelle D. Pereira",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48472",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48472",authors:[{id:"59283",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfredo",surname:"Barbosa",slug:"alfredo-barbosa",fullName:"Alfredo Barbosa"}],corrections:null},{id:"48501",title:"The Diagnosis and Treatment of Early-Stage Colorectal Cancer",doi:"10.5772/60760",slug:"the-diagnosis-and-treatment-of-early-stage-colorectal-cancer",totalDownloads:1585,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The introduction of colorectal endoscopic submucosal dissection (ESD) has expanded the applications for endoscopic treatment; as a result, lesions with low metastatic potential can be treated endoscopically regardless of the lesion size. The most attractive feature of ESD is the achievement of en bloc resection with a lower local recurrence rate in comparison to that of endoscopic piecemeal mucosal resection. However, in case of gastric cancers, ESD is not as widely applied to the treatment of colorectal neoplasms because of its technical difficulty, longer procedural time, and increased perforation risk. In the movement toward diversified endoscopic treatment strategies for superficial colorectal neoplasms, endoscopists who begin to perform ESD need to recognize the indications of ESD, as well as the technical issues and associated complications of this procedure.",signatures:"Taku Sakamoto, Masayoshi Yamada, Takeshi Nakajima, Takahisa\nMatsuda and Yutaka Saito",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48501",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48501",authors:[{id:"173461",title:"Dr.",name:"Taku",surname:"Sakamoto",slug:"taku-sakamoto",fullName:"Taku Sakamoto"},{id:"173570",title:"Dr.",name:"Yutaka",surname:"Saito",slug:"yutaka-saito",fullName:"Yutaka Saito"}],corrections:null},{id:"48994",title:"Endoscopic Treatment of Pancreatic Diseases",doi:"10.5772/60589",slug:"endoscopic-treatment-of-pancreatic-diseases",totalDownloads:1432,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Endoscopic therapy has been increasingly recognized as an effective method of treatment in selected patients with pancreatic diseases. Various endoscopic procedures, classical and modified, are used for the complex treatment of acute and chronic pancreatitis, as well as their complications. In pancreatic carcinoma, some endoscopic methods are applied mainly as palliative measures. There are still open questions regarding the placing and timing of various endoscopic procedures in the multidisciplinary management approach of pancreatic diseases.",signatures:"Borislav Vladimirov, Plamen Getzov and Radina Ivanova",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48994",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48994",authors:[{id:"59632",title:"Prof.",name:"Borislav",surname:"Vladimirov",slug:"borislav-vladimirov",fullName:"Borislav Vladimirov"}],corrections:null},{id:"48715",title:"New Developments in Endoscopy",doi:"10.5772/60544",slug:"new-developments-in-endoscopy",totalDownloads:1393,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The small bowel remains the “last frontier” in gastroenterology for a long period after the start of endoscopy. Even with the advent of better endoscopes and colonoscopies barium meal and follow through remained the preferred method of investigation of the small bowel. Although push enteroscopy was present from the 1980’s it was not until the advent of device assisted enteroscopy that the small bowel was finally conquered. Device assisted enteroscopy includes, double balloon enteroscopy, single balloon enteroscopy and spiral enteroscopy. The other method of visualizing the small bowel was capsule enteroscopy. Capsule enteroscopy too revolutionized endoscopy as it gave patients a degree for freedom never before enjoyed and would be the best screening tool available. However, its main disadvantage remains the inability to obtain biopsies.",signatures:"Arjuna P. De Silva",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48715",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48715",authors:[{id:"45365",title:"Prof.",name:"Arjuna",surname:"De Silva",slug:"arjuna-de-silva",fullName:"Arjuna De Silva"}],corrections:null},{id:"48403",title:"Observation of the Pharynx to the Cervical Esophagus Using Transnasal Endoscopy with Blue Laser Imaging",doi:"10.5772/60541",slug:"observation-of-the-pharynx-to-the-cervical-esophagus-using-transnasal-endoscopy-with-blue-laser-imag",totalDownloads:1404,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Background In 2014, the new transnasal endoscopy with Blue laser Imaging (BLI) has been developed. Aim We present the usefulness of the observation of from the pharynx to the cervical esophagus using transnasal endoscopy with BLI. Patients and Methods This study was conducted between June 2014 and October 2014. During this period, 70 consecutive patients (60 men, 10 women; mean age 67.9 years old) with esophageal or head and neck cancer underwent endoscopic screening at the oropharynx and hypopharynx by transnasal endoscopy with BLI system We performed this endoscopic observation from oral cavity to pharynx before inserting into the cervical esophagus.The visibility of subsites of the hypopharynx and the orifice of the esophagus was evaluated. The extent of the view of hypopharyngeal opening was classified into 3 categories (excellent, good, poor). Then, the diagnostic accuracy of transnasal endoscopy with BLI system was estimated. Our screening is as follows. First, the patient is asked to bow their head deeply in the left lateral position. We put a hand on the back of the patient’s head and push it forward. The patient is then asked to lift the chin as far as possible. In order to inspect the oral cavity, we insert an endoscope without a mouthpiece. After observation of the oral cavity, the endoscope was inserted through the nose. When the tip of the endoscope reached caudal to the uvula, the patient opened his mouth wide, stuck his tongue forward as much as possible and made a vocal sound like “ayyy”. The endoscopist caused the endoscope to U-turn and observed the oropharynx, in particular the radix linguae (Intra-oropharyngeal U-turn method). For examination of the hypopharynx and the orifice of the esophagus, the patient is asked to blow hard and puff their cheeks while the mouth remains closed (Trumpet maneuver). Results 8 elderly cases were excluded because they could not perform the adequate ballooning. Finally, 62 cases were investigated. The ballooning the pyriform sinus and posterior wall not only allows accurate assessment of the stretched pharyngeal mucosa but also gives a view of postcricoid subsite and the orifice of the esophagus. The wide endoscopic view of the pharynx was obtained in a series of the procedures (excellent=53/62, 85.4%; good=7/52, 4.5%; and poor=2/62, 7.6%). Among 70 patients, 6 superficial lesions (8.6%) at the oropharynx(n=1) and hypopharynx (n=5) were discovered with BLI system. Mucosal redness, a pale thickened mucosa, white deposits or loss of a normal vascular pattern, well demarcated areas covered with scattered dots are important characteristics to diagnose superficial carcinoma. Conclusion The more progress achieved in transnasal endoscopy rapidly in the last few years, it can improve for observing the blind area using trans-oral endoscopy, therefore the trans-nasal endoscope will be a standard tool for the screening of the upper gastrointestinal tract in the near future.",signatures:"Kenro Kawada, Tatsuyuki Kawano, Taro Sugimoto, Toshihiro\nMatsui, Masafumi Okuda, Taichi Ogo, Yuuichiro Kume, Yutaka\nNakajima, Katsumasa Saito, Naoto Fujiwara, Tairo Ryotokuji, Yutaka\nMiyawaki, Yutaka Tokairin, Yasuaki Nakajima, Kagami Nagai and\nTakashi Ito",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48403",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48403",authors:[{id:"173235",title:"Dr.",name:"Kenro",surname:"Kawada",slug:"kenro-kawada",fullName:"Kenro Kawada"}],corrections:null},{id:"48597",title:"Minimally Invasive Transcanal Endoscopic Ear Surgery",doi:"10.5772/60551",slug:"minimally-invasive-transcanal-endoscopic-ear-surgery",totalDownloads:1947,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Endoscopes have rapidly become widely accepted in the performance of ear surgery. Current chapter describes surgical technique and benefits and limitations for endoscopic eradication of cholesteatoma, endoscopic tympanoplasty, endoscopic stapedotomy and endoscopic cochlear implantation.",signatures:"Lela Migirov and Michael Wolf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48597",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48597",authors:[{id:"173566",title:"Prof.",name:"Lela",surname:"Migirov",slug:"lela-migirov",fullName:"Lela Migirov"},{id:"173748",title:"Prof.",name:"Michael",surname:"Wolf",slug:"michael-wolf",fullName:"Michael Wolf"}],corrections:null},{id:"48807",title:"Endoscopy for Skull Base Surgery",doi:"10.5772/60556",slug:"endoscopy-for-skull-base-surgery",totalDownloads:1794,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The endonasal approaches for skull base surgery have evolved in the recent decade. There are many publications of this technical safety and good outcomes, comparable with conventional procedure and have less morbidities. In this chapter, the authors describe the approach and surgical technique for each area of the skull base.",signatures:"Boonsam Roongpuvapaht, Kangsadarn Tanjararak and Ake\nHansasuta",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48807",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48807",authors:[{id:"173312",title:"M.D.",name:"Boonsam",surname:"Roongpuvapaht",slug:"boonsam-roongpuvapaht",fullName:"Boonsam Roongpuvapaht"},{id:"173523",title:"M.D.",name:"Kangsadarn",surname:"Tanjararak",slug:"kangsadarn-tanjararak",fullName:"Kangsadarn Tanjararak"},{id:"173524",title:"Mr.",name:"Ake",surname:"Hansasuta",slug:"ake-hansasuta",fullName:"Ake Hansasuta"}],corrections:null},{id:"48436",title:"Endoscopic Skull Base Surgery in the Pediatric Patient",doi:"10.5772/60555",slug:"endoscopic-skull-base-surgery-in-the-pediatric-patient",totalDownloads:1664,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Pathology along the anterior and posterior skull base has long posed challenges to surgeons due to the difficulty accessing these locations and complexity of the surrounding neurovascular anatomy. Initial surgical management of these disorders included open craniofacial approaches and/or craniotomy and these approaches are still utilized today for selected cases. However, advances in the later half of the 20th century in optics, endoscope design, and high definition digital images allowed the development of microscopic and, more recently, endoscopic approaches to the skull base. This technology was initially developed and used in adults, but has been adapted over time for use in the pediatric patient. In this chapter, the salient points regarding pediatric endoscopic skull base surgery will be reviewed to provide the reader a framework for understanding the indications, pertinent anatomy, preoperative evaluation, and intraoperative management of skull base pathology, highlighting challenges and circumstances unique to the pediatric population.",signatures:"Patrick C. Walz, Charles A. Elmaraghy and Kris R. Jatana",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48436",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48436",authors:[{id:"62186",title:"Dr.",name:"Kris",surname:"Jatana",slug:"kris-jatana",fullName:"Kris Jatana"},{id:"158120",title:"Prof.",name:"Charles",surname:"Elmaraghy",slug:"charles-elmaraghy",fullName:"Charles Elmaraghy"},{id:"173825",title:"Dr.",name:"Patrick",surname:"Walz",slug:"patrick-walz",fullName:"Patrick Walz"}],corrections:null},{id:"49115",title:"Skull Base Endoscopic-Assisted Surgery",doi:"10.5772/60588",slug:"skull-base-endoscopic-assisted-surgery",totalDownloads:1580,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Endoscopic-assisted surgery is becoming a more and more important tool in the neurosurgical armamentarium. This chapter provides a broad overview of the role of this technique in various skull base procedures. It starts with a historical perspective followed by a thorough exploration of the various principles and techniques for different indications. Additionally, the topics of “minimally invasive” techniques using “key hole” approaches are explained. At the end of this chapter, advantages and pitfalls with endoscopic assisted techniques are discussed.",signatures:"Joachim M.K. Oertel and Guilherme Ramina Montibeller",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49115",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49115",authors:[{id:"173554",title:"Prof.",name:"Joachim",surname:"Oertel",slug:"joachim-oertel",fullName:"Joachim Oertel"},{id:"173878",title:"Dr.",name:"Guilherme",surname:"Montibeller",slug:"guilherme-montibeller",fullName:"Guilherme Montibeller"}],corrections:null},{id:"48854",title:"New Frontiers in Managing Clival Tumors — The Extended Endoscopic Endonasal Approach",doi:"10.5772/60553",slug:"new-frontiers-in-managing-clival-tumors-the-extended-endoscopic-endonasal-approach",totalDownloads:2681,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Clival lesions still represent a challenge for neurosurgeons. A variety of expansive process, either benign or malignant, may be identified in the clival and paraclival region.",signatures:"G. Cossu, R.T. Daniel, M. George, F. Parker, N. Aghakhani, M. Levivier\nand M. 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This phenomenon caused a gradual depletion of natural petroleum reserves and increasing demand for petroleum products [1]. The petroleum industry is one of the world’s largest and most important global industries with a primary function in oil and gas production [2]. The global economy has become entangled with infrastructure that depends on petroleum hydrocarbon products such as petrol, diesel, kerosene, jet fuel, fuel oil and motor oils [3]. These products have become the main source of primary energy globally. Their exploration has transformed the world by providing fuel and raw materials for various industries for various applications and serving as feedstock for several consumer goods, thus playing an increasing and relevant role in our daily lives [4]. Apart from the benefit of being an important energy source, the products have caused the environment to become constantly bombarded with hazardous pollutants [5]. The causes of the pollutants entering the environment are diverse (Figure 1) as the amount of individual petroleum hydrocarbon components are significantly substantial. Pollution caused by petroleum hydrocarbon products poses direct and indirect ecotoxicological effects and human health risks [6, 7, 8].
Sources of petroleum hydrocarbon pollution.
The environmental fate and toxicokinetics of petroleum hydrocarbons are critical aspects of risk assessment because they determine human or environmental receptor exposure to pollution [9, 10]. When discharged or released in the environment, the components of petroleum hydrocarbons undergo weathering processes [11], involving various processes such as adsorption, volatilisation, dissolution, biotransformation, photolysis, oxidation, hydrolysis through interaction with microorganisms and metabolic pathways [12, 13]. The level at which various components of petroleum hydrocarbon deteriorate under weathering processes depends mainly on the nature of the petroleum hydrocarbon compounds, composition, physical and chemical characteristics [14]. A wide variety of natural processes involved in the fate and behaviour of petroleum hydrocarbons in the soil are illustrated in Figure 2. The weathering process includes adsorption to soil particles and organic materials, volatilisation to the atmosphere [15], and dissolution in water [16]. Environmental conditions, such as temperature, humidity and precipitation, affect the weathering process [11]. The aliphatic hydrocarbons are more readily biodegraded than aromatic hydrocarbons [17], and the aliphatic hydrocarbons are more volatile because of their molecular nature [18]. If volatilisation is the primary weathering process, the loss of lower molecular weight aliphatic hydrocarbons is the most dominant change in the petroleum hydrocarbon, which may be the principal air pollutants causing air pollution at contaminated sites [19]. Volatilisation changes the residual non-aqueous liquid (NAL), affecting its transportation over time [20]. The petroleum hydrocarbon vapours are transported to the gaseous phase through diffusion or advection, and the process depends on the soil pore characteristics [21]. The gas-phase mass transfer in a polluted soil consists of volatilisation from the non-aqueous phase liquid (NAPL) and partitioning in gaseous/aqueous interphase [14].
Environmental fate of petroleum hydrocarbon on soil [
However, considering the environmental impacts of petroleum hydrocarbons which affect the surface soil, subsoil, sediments, surface water and groundwater coupled with the human health risk. It has become imperative to transition from conventional treatment technologies such as physicochemical treatments, thermal/heat treatments, electric and electromagnetic treatments, acoustic and ultrasonic treatments that are challenging, laborious, extensive and expensive to more feasible biological treatment technologies that are sustainable, eco-friendly and economical.
Biological treatment technologies that have shown remarkable success for
The biological treatment technologies for petroleum hydrocarbon remediation.
The feasibility of the biological treatment technology depends mainly on the limiting factors and the location of the contaminants. Treatability also depends on the soil, sediments, surface water, and groundwater properties, whether it is localised or removed, excavated, and transported for treatment at an off-site treatment facility. If treatment is on-site, the term
Bioremediation is an eco-friendly, sustainable, and cost-effective means of restoring and cleaning soil contaminants such as petroleum hydrocarbons in polluted environments. The technique comprises the natural degradation of petroleum hydrocarbon contaminants by petroleum hydrocarbon-degrading microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, yeasts, and algae. Bioremediation removes and neutralises hazardous petroleum hydrocarbon contaminants to non-toxic or simpler compounds such as carbon (IV) oxide and water through oxidation process under aerobic conditions by the microorganisms with the nutrient provision and optimisation of the constraining factors for efficient metabolic activities [25, 26]. The petroleum hydrocarbon-degrading microorganisms in the soil participate in defining the metabolic pathways and mechanisms of the microbial degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons [27]. Bioremediation of alkanes typically occurs via a sequential oxidation process by a few microbial enzymes (i.e., alkane monooxygenases or cytochrome P450 oxidases, alcohol dehydrogenases, and aldehyde dehydrogenases) and connects to the cytosolic fatty acid metabolism (Figure 4).
Microbial bioremediation of petroleum hydrocarbon [
Some genes affiliated with the outset of petroleum hydrocarbon metabolism have been identified, as
Some of the most commonly isolated petroleum hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria belong to the genus
The advantages of bioremediation include; minimal disruption of the ecosystem, permanent elimination of contaminants, cheap operation costs, and can be coupled with other treatment technologies. The disadvantages include extensive monitoring, production of unknown by-products, long duration to complete bioremediation, and bioremediation limited to biodegradable compounds [40].
Biostimulation involves adding stimulatory materials, organic wastes (Figure 5), bulking agents, nutrients amendments, bio-surfactants, biopolymers, and slow-release fertilisers to enhance and support microbial growth and enzymatic activities of the indigenous microorganisms in the contaminated soil for remediation activities [23, 41, 42].
Organic wastes used in biostimulation of petroleum hydrocarbons.
Biostimulation occurs by optimising various rate-limiting parameters such as pH, temperature, aeration, macromineral nutrients, and electron acceptors such as carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, which accelerate the metabolic activities of the indigenous microorganisms [43]. Biostimulation can be performed
The benefits of biostimulation include; the use of native microorganisms adapted to the environment, being eco-friendly and cost-effective, preventing ecosystem disturbance, and can be coupled with other treatment technologies. The disadvantages include; it depends on environmental factors that control the potentiality, requiring extensive monitoring and scientific observations, contaminants may be non-biodegradable after adsorption to soil particles, and it takes a long duration to complete degradation [48, 49].
Various organic wastes have been used for biostimulation to optimise the degradation and removal of total petroleum hydrocarbons in the polluted soil [50, 51, 52].
Bioaugmentation involves adding exogenous microbial cultures, autochthonous microbial communities, or genetically engineered microbes with a specific catabolic activity that have adapted and proven to degrade contaminants to enhance degradation or increase the rate of degradation of contaminants [17, 53, 54, 55]. Alexander [56] described bioaugmentation as inoculating contaminated soil or sediments with specific strains or consortia of microorganisms to degrade pollutants in the soil. Soil microbial community composition changes while microbial diversity decreases by bioaugmentation treatment [46].
Genetically engineered microorganisms have shown potential in bioaugmentation, exhibiting enhanced degrading capabilities for broad coverage of chemical and physical pollutants [57]. In the oil-polluted site of ONGC field in Gujarat, India, Varjani et al. [58] demonstrated
The benefits of bioaugmentation include; less labour demand, the microbes do the work once introduced, microbial strains, mixed cultured or indigenous microbes can be used, eco-friendly and cost-effective, and can be carried out
Bioattenuation or natural attenuation is the use of naturally occurring processes, including a variety of physical and biochemical processes without human intervention, to remove, transform, neutralise and reduce the mass, volume, concentration, and toxicity of hazardous contaminants such as petroleum hydrocarbons in the environment by the activities of the indigenous microorganisms [28]. The process occurs through advection, dispersion, sorption, dissolution, volatilisation, chemical transformation, abiotic and biological transformation, stabilisation, and biodegradation [42]. Bioattenuation is applicable for contaminated environments with low contaminant concentrations and used in places where other remediation methods cannot be adopted [61].
The benefits of bioattenuation include; it can be adopted in all areas, causes minimal disruption of the site and the environment, low cleanup cost and can be used in conjunction with or as a follow up to other remediation methods. The disadvantages include; it is not all contaminants that are susceptible to rapid and complete degradation, it requires extensive site monitoring over a long period, it is limited to biodegradable contaminants, it depends on environmental factors that control potentiality for its success, and bioattenuation alone is inadequate and protracted in many cases [62].
Bioventing is an
Bioventing system for remediation of polluted soil [
In a bioventing system study conducted by Agarry and Latinwo [42], the bioventing process was demonstrated on diesel oil-contaminated soil amended with brewery effluents as an organic nutrient source and achieved a removal efficiency of 91.5% over 28 days period. A similar study by Thomé et al. [68] also assessed the bioventing process on diesel-contaminated soil without any soil amendment and obtained a removal efficiency of 85% after 60 days.
The benefits of bioventing include; it can be deployed for
Biotransformation is a biotechnological process that involves modifications in the chemical constituents of the hazardous pollutants by the microorganisms or enzyme-mediated systems to form molecules with high polarity [70]. The mechanism transforms organic compounds from one form to another to reduce the contaminants’ toxicity and persistence [71, 72]. Naturally, the biotransformation process occurs very slowly and is nonspecific and less productive. But microbial biotransformation or biotechnology generates high amounts of metabolites, more rapid and productive outcomes, with more specificity. Microbial biotransformation helps modify and transform various contaminants and a large variety of compounds, including petroleum hydrocarbons in the soil [69]. Biotransformation of petroleum hydrocarbon contaminated soil occurs through bacteria, fungi, and yeast metabolic activities [38]. However, genetically modified organisms (GMOs) or genetically engineered microorganisms (GEMs) have shown potential in the biotransformation of contaminants in soil [57]. Biotransformation processes occur through oxidation, reduction, denitrification, condensations, isomerisation, hydrolysis, sulphidogenesis, methanogenesis, functional group introduction, and new bonds, as illustrated in Figure 7 [73].
Biotransformation mechanism under the denitrifying conditions.
In a pilot-scale investigation, Al-Bashir et al. [74] demonstrated a biotransformation study of naphthalene at the concentration of 50 mg/L in a slurry system under denitrifying conditions for 50 days. The results indicated that 90% of the total naphthalene was transformed after 50 days at a maximum mineralisation rate of 1.3 mg L−1 per day.
The benefits of biotransformation include; it can be deployed for
Biosparging involves the injection of air (oxygen) and nutrients into the saturated zone under pressure to increase groundwater oxygen concentration to stimulate biological activities of the indigenous microorganisms to degrade contaminants [67, 75]. Biosparging technology helps to reduce the contaminant concentration adsorbed to the soil, within the capillary fringe above the water table, and contaminants dissolved in the groundwater. The effectiveness of biosparging depends on soil permeability and pollutant degradability [76]. Figure 8 illustrates the biosparging process in a polluted site.
Biosparging in petroleum hydrocarbon polluted soil [
In a study conducted by Kao et al. [78], a biosparging technique was deployed in a petroleum oil spill site for 10 months, and the result produced 70% removal efficiency for benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene (BTEX) within the remedial period.
The benefits of biosparging include; the equipment is easy to instal, creates minimal disturbance to site operation, requires no soil removal or excavation, and a low air injection rate minimises the potential need for vapour capture, and treatment is cost-competitive. The limitation of biosparging is in predicting the direction of airflow in the process as it depends on the high airflow rate to achieve pollutant volatilisation and promote degradation [79]. It is site-specific and can cause the migration of contaminants, some interactions among complex chemicals and biophysical processes are not well understood and used only where suitable [66].
Bioslurry involves the treatment of contaminated soil in a controlled bioreactor such as sequencing batch, feed-batch, continuous and multistage bioreactors [80, 81]. In a bioslurry treatment system, nutrients are added to enhance microbial activities to degrade hazardous contaminants. The bioslurry reactor is designed with various process controls to monitor, control, and manipulate temperature, mix, and add nutrients to achieve maximum removal efficiency. Amendments such as designer bacteria, surfactants, and enzyme inducers can be used in slurry bioreactors to stimulate and enhance biodegradative activities [82]. Bioslurry reactors may be constructed to provide sequential anaerobic/aerobic treatment conditions, as illustrated in Figure 9.
Bioslurry mechanisms [
Bioslurry is an
In a study conducted by Tuhuloula et al. [86, 87], bioslurry treatment was demonstrated on petroleum hydrocarbon contaminated soil obtained from the oil drilling site of Pertamina Petrochina in Indonesia using microbial consortia of
The benefits of bioslurry-phase treatment include increased intimated contact between microorganisms and the contaminants, faster degradation rate more than other biological treatments, provides greater control of environmental and operating conditions, and gas emissions are controlled and harnessed as biogas and requires small site space. The disadvantages include; it is an
Landfarming, also known as land treatment or land application, is an above-ground form of bioremediation technology that involves engineered bioremediation systems that employ tilling, ploughing, and spreading the polluted soil in a thin layer on the land surface to enhance and stimulate aerobic microbial activities with the addition of nutrients, mineral and moisture to reduce the pollutant level biologically [86]. It is suitable for treating soil contaminated with low molecular weight petroleum hydrocarbons, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and other organic compounds [88]. Enhancing biodegradation in landfarming is achieved by adding oxygen, moisture and nutrients [89]. Tilling also introduces oxygen to the soil and helps increase evaporation while adding nutrients or soil amendments such as organic wastes or organic fertilisers provide nutrients to stimulate microbial activities [90]. Figure 10 illustrates the component in the landfarming system for petroleum hydrocarbon contaminated soil.
Landfarming of contaminated soil [
The Landfarming method has been proven effective in reducing all the constituents of petroleum hydrocarbons at underground storage tanks. Low molecular hydrocarbons tend to be removed by volatilisation during landfarming aeration, tilling and ploughing and degraded through microbial respiration. The heavy molecular hydrocarbons do not volatilise during landfarming aeration but undergo breakdown by biodegradation activity by the soil microorganism [66].
The study demonstrated by Brown et al. [88] showed landfarming to improve biological treatment of petroleum hydrocarbons in the soil in 110 days with nutrient addition. The results obtained after 6 weeks showed 53% for total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) removal from the contaminated soil. Landfarming is a successful treatment option for remediation of petroleum hydrocarbon contaminated soil.
The benefits of landfarming treatment include; low capital input, simple technology design and implementation, a large volume of polluted soil can be treated,
Bio-piles, also known as bio-cells, bio-heaps, bio-mounds and compost piles, are used to reduce the concentrations of hazardous petroleum hydrocarbon contaminants in excavated soils through biodegradation. The technology involves a combination of landfarming and composting in an engineered cell aerated with blowers and vacuum pumps, irrigation and nutrient system, and leachate collection system for bioremediation of pollutant components adsorbed to soil and sediments [92]. The technique involves piling an excavated contaminated soil, followed by biostimulation and aeration to enhance microbial activities for degradation [93]. It is suitable for treating a large volume of contaminated soil and sediments in a limited space and effectively remedy pollutions in extreme environments [94, 95].
The essential components of the technique include the addition of air (oxygen), moisture (water), nutrients and bulking agents (organic materials), leachate collection system and treatment bed [96]. Biopiling of contaminated soil can limit the volatilisation of low molecular weight contaminants in petroleum hydrocarbons [97]. Biopile systems are similar to landfarms in that they are both engineered and above-ground systems that use oxygen from the air to stimulate the growth and reproduction of aerobic microorganisms, which degrade the adsorbed petroleum hydrocarbon contaminants in the soil. While landfarms are aerated through tilling or ploughing, biopiles are aerated through air injection or extraction through slotted or perforated piping placed throughout the piles [66]. Figure 11 illustrates the biopiling process for remediation of petroleum hydrocarbon contaminated soil.
Biopiling of contaminated soil [
Gomez and Sartaj [98] demonstrated a study by conducting biopiling treatment of petroleum hydrocarbon contaminated soil at a low-temperature field scale using consortia of microorganisms and organic compost for 94 days. The result obtained showed a removal efficiency of 90.7% for total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH).
The benefits of biopiling include; it is relatively simple to design and implement, effective for pollutants with slow biodegradation rates, it can be designed to be a closed system with vapour emission controls, it requires less land area than landfarms, and cost-effective. The limitations include; contaminants reduction >95% and concentration <0.1 ppm are challenging to achieve, not practical for high pollutant concentrations, volatile compounds tend to evaporate rather than biodegrade during treatment, a large land area is required, vapour generation require treatment before discharge, and requires bottom liners to prevent leaching [66].
Composting is a controlled microbial aerobic biochemical degradation of organic waste materials and its conversion into a stabilised organic material that can be useful as soil conditioners for remediation of soil contaminated with organic compounds such as petroleum hydrocarbons [99, 100]. The composting process involves careful control with nutrient addition, tilling, watering and addition of suitable microbial consortia and bulking materials in the form of organic wastes to improve bioremediation. The composting process requires thermophilic conditions of 50–65°C to properly compost soil contaminated with hazardous compounds such as petroleum hydrocarbon compounds. An increased temperature results from heat generated from the microbial activities during the metabolic breakdown of organic materials in the compost, and efficient degradation of pollutants is achieved by periodic tilling, watering and aeration of the compost [101]. Figure 12 illustrates the compost piling of contaminated soil.
Contaminated soil composting pile.
Atagana [102] conducted composting bioremediation of petroleum hydrocarbons using sewage sludge compost on contaminated soil with a total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) concentration of 380,000 mg kg−1 for 19 months. The results obtained after the experiment period showed a 99% removal efficiency for TPH, while other selected hydrocarbon components were removed 100% within the experiment period. Composting helps degrade, bind and convert contaminants into harmless substances and compounds with substantial potential for remediation application to treat petroleum hydrocarbon contaminated soil [103].
The benefits of compost piling include abundant nutrients, soil enrichment retains moisture and nutrients, improves soil quality and altering soil pH, cheap soil conditioner, eco-friendly and cost-effective, and promoting the growth of beneficiary microorganisms. The disadvantages include; it requires extensive monitoring and turning of the pile, takes time and energy, takes about 6 months to 2 years under optimal conditions, emission of greenhouse gases and requirement for a large site area.
The windrow treatment process relies on periodic tilling, ploughing and turning piled contaminated soil with water application to increase moisture and aeration with the distribution of nutrients to enhance biodegradation. In the windrowing process, the increase in microbial activities by the indigenous and transient petroleum hydrocarbon-degrading microorganisms in the contaminated soil speed up the biodegradation process [71, 79]. The biodegradation process is accomplished through biotransformation, assimilation and mineralisation [104]. Compared with biopiling, the windrowing method showed a higher removal efficiency rate for petroleum hydrocarbons. The windrowing process for the remediation of polluted soil is illustrated in Figure 13.
Windrowing of petroleum hydrocarbon polluted soil.
A study demonstrated by Al-Daher and Al-Awadhi [105] investigated biodegradation of petroleum hydrocarbon contaminated soil using a windrow soil system for 10 months. The windrow system was subjected to regular watering, tilling and turning to enhance aeration and microbial activities. The results obtained showed a 60% reduction in the total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) in the first 8 months, and the degradation rate was enhanced when the moisture content was effectively maintained.
The benefits of the windrowing process include; soil enrichment, retaining moisture and nutrients, improving soil quality and altering soil pH, requiring low capital and operational costs, being eco-friendly and easy to implement and promoting the growth of beneficiary microorganisms. On the downside, windrow treatment is not the best option in removing soil contaminated with volatile petroleum hydrocarbon compounds due to the release of toxic volatile compounds during the periodic turning and tilling [79]. There is an emission of greenhouse gases such as methane (CH4) in windrow treatment due to the formation of an anaerobic zone within the piled heap [103]. It requires ample space for composting, attracting scavengers, long duration of time under optimal conditions, produces odour, compost may become anaerobic in rainy conditions, requires regular turning to maintain aerobic conditions and vulnerability to climate changes.
Vermiremediation is an expanding technology that uses earthworms to biodegrade hazardous contaminated soil [106, 107]. The earthworms in the soil help enhance and improve soil fertility, biological, chemical and physical properties. They stimulate and enhance microbial activities by creating suitable conditions for microorganisms to thrive and improve soil aeration by burrowing and tunnelling through the soil structures [108, 109]. The presence of earthworms in the soil depends on soil moisture, organic matter content and pH. They usually occur in diverse habitats, especially those rich in organic matter and moisture [110, 111]. Vermiremediation of petroleum hydrocarbon in the soil occurs through vermidegradation. The earthworms stimulate the biodegradation processes by enhancing oxidation, soil aeration and microbial activities in the polluted soil. Figure 14 illustrates the components of vermiremediation in petroleum hydrocarbon contaminated soil.
Vermiremediation in petroleum hydrocarbon contaminated soil [
A study demonstrated by Azizi et al. [113] conducted vermiremediation using earthworm (
The benefits of vermiremediation include; minimal environmental disruption, enhanced organic matter, nutrient concentration and biological activity, improved soil utility and fertility, and cost-efficiency. The disadvantages include; high concentration of pollutants may be toxic to the earthworms, the process is restricted to the depth of earthworm activities, effective for slightly or moderately contaminated soil, requires strict conditions, sensitive to climate and seasonal conditions, and restricted by food abundance in the soil [106].
Mycoremediation involves using fungi processes to biodegrade hazardous contaminants such as petroleum hydrocarbons to less toxic or non-toxic forms, thereby reducing or eliminating environmental contaminants [115, 116, 117]. Fungi can degrade variable environmental recalcitrant pollutants due to their ability to produce and secrete extracellular enzymes such as peroxidases that break down lignin and cellulose [118, 119]. Ligninolytic fungi such as the white-rot fungi
Mycoremediation of petroleum hydrocarbon polluted soil.
Studies have shown that many filamentous fungi species are petroleum hydrocarbon-degrading in nature. Some white rot fungi use their mycelia to degrade petroleum hydrocarbon contaminants due to their high production of oxidative enzymes, extracellular enzymes, chelators and organic acids, which help them degrade petroleum hydrocarbon pollutants [122]. In a mycoremediation study demonstrated by Ulfig et al. [123], keratinolytic fungi
The benefits of mycoremediation include; minimal disturbance to the environment, does not produce corrosive or harmful chemicals, eco-friendly and cost-effective, and requires no special equipment. The disadvantages include; the efficiency is not 100%, long-duration for treatment, periodic turning with reapplication of growth medium is required, competition with indigenous bacterial population may reduce the efficiency, and high concentration of contaminants may be toxic to the fungi.
Phycoremediation, a technique that uses algal species (macroalgae or microalgae) to sequester, remove, break down, biotransform or metabolise pollutants such as petroleum hydrocarbons from contaminated water environments [124, 125, 126]. As illustrated in Figure 16, this technique is one of the effective methods used in water pollution treatment due to its high efficiency and low-cost usage [127]. Algae can accumulate and degrade toxic pollutants and organic compounds such as petroleum hydrocarbons, biphenyls, pesticides, and phenolics [125]. Algae are very adaptive in most environments and grow in autotrophic, mixotrophic, or heterotrophic conditions. Algae play a vital role in regulating and controlling the concentration of metals in the water environment. The mixotrophic algae are excellent in bioremediation and carbon sequestration [128].
Phycoremediation technique in a pond system.
Algae can produce O2, fix CO2 by photosynthetic process, increase the BOD level in the polluted water, and remove excess nutrients [129]. The mineral uptake by microalgae occurs in two steps. The initial step is independent of cell processes and involves physical adsorption onto the cell’s surface, and the ions are gradually carried into the cell by chemisorption [120]. The second step is dependent on cell processes and involves intracellular uptake and absorption. Studies have shown that heavy metals can be sequestered in the polyphosphate body of algae and serve for detoxification and storage [130]. Phycoremediation was successfully used to reduce nutrient levels in wastewater treatment, and the technique includes algal biofilm, algal turf scrubbers, high-rate algal ponds, and immobilised algae [127]. Several algae species such as
A phycoremediation study was demonstrated by Kalhor et al. [133], who investigated the potential of
The advantages of phycoremediation include; simple and economic pilot scale, low implementation cost, high versatility and adaptability, high nutrient removal in effluents, algal biomass is easy and cheap to harvest in low scale operation, and the algal biomass can be used for biogas production. The disadvantages include; it is difficult and expensive to harvest algal biomass in large scale operations, poor and inconsistent contaminant removal due to characteristics of the pollutants, sensitivity to climate and seasonal conditions, the infestation of predators that feed on algae, and injection of CO2 incur a cost for the implementation.
Phytoremediation is a low-cost remediation technique that uses green plants and the associated soil microorganisms to reduce the concentrations of contaminants and their toxic effects [134]. The technique removes, extracts, and sequesters the contaminants (decontamination) into the plant matrix (stabilisation) [43]. Phytoremediation uses the natural processes of the green plants or plant-based systems to remediate environments contaminated by organic compounds, heavy metals, and inorganic compounds. It formed the basis of the reed beds and constructed wetlands [43]. The phytoremediation system uses the synergistic relationship among the plants, indigenous microorganisms dwelling in the contaminated soil, and the roots of the plants [135]. The plants produce inherent enzymatic activities and uptake processes that remove and sequester contaminants. The plants act as symbiotic hosts to aerobic and anaerobic microorganisms, providing nutrients and habitat to the microorganisms [134]. The mechanisms of phytoremediation include phytoextraction (phytoaccumulation), phytodegradation, phytostabilisation, phytotransformation, phytovolatilisation, rhizofiltration, and rhizodegradation (rhizoremediation), as illustrated in Figure 17 [137, 138].
Mechanism of phytoremediation [
In phytoremediation, plants break down, degrade, concentrate, sequester, bioaccumulate, contain, stabilise and metabolise contaminants by acting as filters or traps in the tissue through various mechanisms. These mechanisms convert the contaminants into less toxic and less persistent in the environments [139]. The mechanisms and efficiency of the phytoremediation technique depend on the pollutants, bioavailability, and properties of the polluted soil, and the mechanisms affect the mobility, toxicity of pollutants, volume, and concentration [136, 140]. The plants’ roots and shoots provide colonisable surface area for absorption, exudates, and leachates in the rhizosphere for microbial activities [141]. The success of phytoremediation depends mainly on the plant’s ability to bioassimilate or bioaccumulate both organic and inorganic contaminants into their cell wall structures and carry out oxidative degradation of organic xenobiotics [142].
Many researchers have conducted phytoremediation and reported studies using different plants to remediate soil contaminated with petroleum hydrocarbons, heavy metals and other organic pollutants. Cook and Hesterberg [143] published a summary of major plants (trees and grasses) currently used in phytoremediation, which adsorb or degrade contaminants in polluted environments. Other researchers, including Dadrasnia and Agamuthu [144], Cartmill et al. [145] and Agamuthu et al. [146], demonstrated phytoremediation of petroleum hydrocarbon contaminated soil using several plants with the addition of organic wastes and organic fertilisers to enhance the biodegradation process.
Some of the advantages of phytoremediation include; it is a permanent treatment technique, it has low capital investment and operation costs, there is no soil excavation, phyto-accumulated metals may be recycled and provides additional economic advantages, it eliminates secondary air and water-borne wastes, and it has public acceptance due to aesthetic reasons. The disadvantages include being slower than other remediation techniques, hyperaccumulating plants being slow growers, working efficiency is not 100%, may not be effective for mixture pollutants, high concentration of contaminants may be toxic to plants, and treatment is limited to shallow contaminants.
Electrobioremediation or bioelectrochemical system is an emerging biodegradation technology with a trans-disciplinary system that depends on the use of electroactive microorganisms to catalyse the oxidation or reduction reactions of organic and inorganic electron donors. The bioelectrochemical system delivers electrons to the solid-state electrode (anode), with subsequent transfer or exchange of electrons to the solid-state electrode (cathode) through a conductive circuit and simultaneously generating electrical energy (Figure 18) [147, 148]. The mechanism involves an electrokinetic process in the acceleration and orientation of the transport of pollutants and microorganisms [149].
Bioelectrochemical system works effectively in contaminated media as unlimited electron acceptors or donors [150] and converts chemical energy from organic wastes or contaminants to electrical energy and hydrogen or value-added chemical products [151]. The system works on the interface of electrochemistry and fermentation [152]. The bioelectrochemical system can be classified based upon the application of microbial fuel cells for power generation, microbial electrolytic cells for biofuel production, microbial desalination cell for saline water desalination, and microbial electro synthetic cells for the synthesis of value-added by-products [134].
A study conducted by Daghio et al. [77] demonstrated that bioelectrochemical systems energised and stimulated anaerobic oxidation of different types of organic wastes to reduce contaminants in soil and groundwater, including petroleum hydrocarbons halogenated compounds. In a laboratory study, Palma et al. [153] demonstrated a bioelectrochemical treatment system for petroleum hydrocarbon contaminated groundwater. The results showed that phenols were gradually removed from 12 to 50% while electric current generation gradually increased from 0.3 mA to 1.9 mA. The phenol removal rate and the coulombic efficiencies were 23 ± 1 mg L−1 d and 72 ± 8% on average.
The advantages of electrobioremediation include generating electrical energy level and electron flux; no waste is generated, cheap operational cost, and highly selective towards target pollutants, pollutants can be adsorbed on the electrodes when graphite or carbon is used. The disadvantages include; slower anaerobic degradation than aerobic degradation. The cathodic reaction may limit the anodic reaction when microbial fuel cells are used, chlorine gas is produced, a scale-up process is challenging, and the process is affected by changes in pH in the contaminated soil [77].
Nanobioremediation is an emerging technology used in remediating environmental pollutions. The system functions with the aid of reactive biosynthetic nanomaterials (NMs), nanoparticles (NPs), nanostructured materials (NSMs), nanocomposites manufactured particles (NCMPs), manufactured nanoparticles (MNPs), and nanoclusters (NCs) [154, 155, 156]. These biosynthetic nanoparticles exhibit unique physical, chemical and biochemical properties in enzyme-mediated remediation, transformation, and detoxification of persistent hydrophobic contaminants and toxicants [157]. These nanomaterials or particles are engineered or formed by plants or microorganisms and comprise particles with at least one dimension measuring between 1.0 and 100 nm [158, 159]. Figure 19 illustrates
The nanoparticles can be carbon-based (carbon fullerenes) and carbon nanotubes. They can be metal-based (quantum dots, nano zero-valent iron (nZVI), nanosilver, nanogold, and nanosized metal oxides such as ZnO, Fe3O4, TiO2, CeO2). They can also be dendrimers or nano polymers and composite or bulk-type materials [161]. The nanomaterial or nanoparticles have properties that allow catalysis and chemical reduction to remove the contaminants. As reducing agents, the particles degrade hazardous organic contaminants in the environment. The process changes elements’ oxidation state, combined with catalytic enhancement of redox reactions for soil and groundwater remediation.
In the nanoremediation process, no groundwater is pumped out for above-ground treatment, and no soil is excavated or transported to a different location for disposal and treatment [162]. With the nanoparticles’ minute size and innovative surface coating, they pervade tiny spaces in the subsurface and remain dispersed in the soil or groundwater, allowing the particles to move and migrate farther than larger or micro or macro-sized particles and achieve wider distribution [163]. The sorption process occurs by adsorption and absorption. In adsorption, the interactions between the pollutants and the sorbent occur at the surface level, while in absorption, the pollutants penetrate deeper into the sorbent layers to form a solution [164]. The mobility of natural or biosynthetic nanoparticles depends on their dispersions, aggregations, settlings, and formation of mobile clusters.
Nanoparticles such as zeolites, carbon nanotubes, nanofibres, metal oxides, titanium dioxide, enzymes, and noble metals such as bimetallic nanoparticles (BNPs) have been used successfully in the remediation of organic compounds and petroleum hydrocarbons from the contaminated environments [165, 166]. Among the nanoparticles, the most widely used is the nanoscale zero-valent iron (nZVI) modified with palladium inclusion as a catalyst for improved performance [167]. Nanobioremediation can be used where other conventional remediation technologies do not prove productive because nanoparticles are less toxic to soil flora and enhance microbial activity [157]. The nanoparticles have highly desired properties for
A study conducted by Reddy et al. [168] demonstrated nanobioremediation using nanoscale iron to degrade the organic compound dinitrotoluene (DNT) in the soil. The results obtained showed 41–65% removal efficiency for DNT near the anode, while removal efficiency of 30–34% was recorded near the cathode. The highest removal was recorded using lactate-modified nanoscale iron particles. However, the overall degradation of DNT was due to nanoscale iron particles having the electrochemical process that enhanced the delivery of nanoscale particles in the degradation of organic contaminants.
The advantages of nanobioremediation include; effectivity across a wide range of environmental conditions, the high surface area increasing reactivity and treatability, extending the range of treatable contaminants, eliminating intermediate by-products, and combining with other treatment techniques for enhanced remediation. The disadvantages include; potential to generate harmful by-products, the potential to enter the food chain with the possibility of biomagnification and bioaccumulation, the production of nanoparticles is an expensive engineering process, and the societal issue due to fear of the environmental impact from the manufactured nanoparticles.
Trichoremediation is an emerging technique. The etymology originates from the ancient Greek word θρίξ
Trichoremediation of petroleum hydrocarbon polluted soil.
Cervantes-González et al. [173] investigated the ability of chicken feather wastes as petroleum hydrocarbon sorbent and studied their structural biodegradation and removal of petroleum hydrocarbons. Their findings showed that chicken feathers enhanced the contact between petroleum hydrocarbons and bacteria and enhanced the removal of petroleum hydrocarbons. They also observed that the microorganisms colonised the chicken feathers and degraded the materials completed in the study. In their observation during the treatment, there was an exponential growth phase of bacteria during the early days of the treatment, and the simultaneous degradation of feathers and petroleum hydrocarbons was evident [173].
The benefits of trichoremediation technology include; relatively low cost and maintenance, ease of implementation and operation, reduced landfill wastes, fully organic and biodegradable materials, improved soil quality and structure, and additional accessible carbon sources and co-metabolites. The disadvantages include; long treatment time, sensitivity to the level of toxicity and environmental conditions, generating toxic metabolites, metabolic pathways may switch to a less toxic carbon source, inhibits metabolic pathway by the presence of the metabolites, and additional compounds may negatively affect the biodegradation process.
The purpose of biological treatment technologies for biodegradation of petroleum hydrocarbon polluted sites through sustainable and eco-friendly means is to eliminate the hazards of pollution in the environment and human health risks. Applying biological treatment technology in a polluted environment at a field scale is a challenging and laborious task. The choice of a biological treatment technology depends on several biological and environmental properties, which vary from one site to another. The influencing parameters comprised environmental and biological properties include nature and concentration of the contaminants, type and properties of the soil, and the interaction with microorganisms and metabolic pathways [174]. The environmental properties influence the biological properties, while the biological properties produce the overall biodegradation effect in the system. The environmental properties affecting biodegradation influence the rates and extent of microbial transformation of the pollutants [175]. Biological treatment technologies immobilise contaminants through adsorption, absorption, desorption, volatilisation, solubilisation, complexation, hydrolysis, oxidation, and mineralisation [12, 13]. Figure 21 illustrates the various factors affecting biological treatment technologies.
Factors affecting the degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons polluted using organic wastes amendments [
The biological treatment technologies have grown as alternatives to the traditional physicochemical, thermal and electromagnetic technologies for the remediation of petroleum hydrocarbons polluted soil. They are preferred due to low energy consumption, cost-effectiveness, environmental-friendliness, non-invasiveness, feasibility, and sustainability compared to other physicochemical, thermal and electromagnetic treatment options, which are cost-prohibitive, often destroy the soil properties and render the soil impoverished and sterile eventually. The biological treatment technologies can be selectively adapted and adopted to degrade the pollutants without causing further damage to the site and the indigenous flora and fauna. Although various biological treatment technologies are accessible, no single biological treatment is the most suitable for all varieties of contaminants and the type of site-specific conditions occurring in the petroleum hydrocarbon-affected environments. Good knowledge of the environmental conditions of the affected environments, nature, composition and properties of the contaminants, fate, transport, and distribution of the contaminants, mechanism of biodegradation, the interactions and relationships with the microorganisms, intrinsic and extrinsic factors affecting the remediation processes, and the potential impact of the possible remedial measure determine the choice and selection of a biological treatment technology requirements. More than one biological treatment technology may be adopted or combined into a process train to effectively remove, contain or destroy the petroleum hydrocarbon pollutants in polluted environments.
However, selecting one or more biological treatment technology is essential in decision-making, as many parameters that conflict in nature plays a significant role in decision-making. Consequently, it is a welcome idea to select biological treatment technologies that are feasible, adaptive, scientifically defensible, sustainable, non-invasive, eco-friendly, and economical because remediation of petroleum hydrocarbon polluted environments through the conventional physicochemical, thermal, and electromagnetic technologies is a challenging, laborious, extensive and expensive task.
The authors express sincere gratitude to all the researchers whose valuable data reported in their respective publications were cited in this chapter and contributed to the knowledge of the biological treatment technologies. We are also grateful to the reviewers whose constructive criticisms have benefitted the manuscript and brought it to the present form.
The authors hereby declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this book chapter.
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He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"436430",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mesut",middleName:null,surname:"Işık",slug:"mesut-isik",fullName:"Mesut Işık",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/436430/images/19686_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bilecik University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"9",type:"subseries",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. 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The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",annualVolume:11423,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"275140",title:"Dr.",name:"Dinh Hoa",middleName:null,surname:"Nguyen",fullName:"Dinh Hoa Nguyen",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRbnKQAS/Profile_Picture_1622204093453",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kyushu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"20259",title:"Dr.",name:"Hongbin",middleName:null,surname:"Ma",fullName:"Hongbin Ma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRhDJQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-05-02T08:25:21.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"28640",title:"Prof.",name:"Yasushi",middleName:null,surname:"Kambayashi",fullName:"Yasushi Kambayashi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYOQxQAO/Profile_Picture_1625660525470",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nippon Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/165738",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"165738"},fullPath:"/profiles/165738",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()