Common inorganic and organic arsenic species [5].
\r\n\t
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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. 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A metalloid is a chemical element that has properties of both metals and nonmetals. Arsenic is from all its features mostly recognized as a poison. Arsenic has a complex chemical behavior since it exists in four different oxidative states [1]. Depending on oxidative state and presence in environment, arsenic species exhibit different toxicity [2]. Arsenic species can be present in all types of environment and can originate from natural and anthropogenic sources [3]. Natural sources of arsenic are: rocks with incorporated arsenic compounds, activity of volcanoes and some biological processes. Anthropogenic sources are numerous, from mining to different types of production (pesticides, wood preservatives, and pigments). When the arsenic compounds reach groundwater, it is hard to distinguish the origin, both natural and anthropogenic arsenic species are released [3].
According to Science Direct, during the last decade, a significant number of scientific papers reporting the results from arsenic investigations are presented in Figure 1. The focus of these researches was the development and improvement of methods for arsenic detection, extraction, separation and removal.
The number of publications with keyword arsenic, according to Science Direct.
The investigation of arsenic species and their behavior in various samples, especially in natural waters and environment is important for chemistry and environmental protection. The most common arsenic species are presented in Table 1
Arsenic species | Oxidation state | Chemical formula | Group | Presence in the environment |
---|---|---|---|---|
As(V) | +5 | AsO4−3 | iAs | Water |
As(III) | +3 | AsO3−3 | ||
MMA | +5 | CH3AsO(OH)2 | oAs | |
DMA | +5 | (CH3)2AsO(OH) | ||
TMAO | +5 | (CH3)3AsO | Seafood (fish, mussels) | |
TETRA | +3 | (CH3)4As+ | ||
AsB | +3 | (CH3)3As+CH2COO− | ||
AsC | +3 | (CH3)3As+CH2CH2OH |
Common inorganic and organic arsenic species [5].
Depending on the oxido-reduction conditions, microbiological environment, arsenic species can be present in water in solution or in a precipitated form, and they can also adsorb or desorb from the existing precipitates [1, 2]. When arsenic species are soluble in water, they can be present in both inorganic and organic forms. For iAs species both As(III), arsenite, and As(V), arsenate, can be present. For oAs species, MMA and DMA are soluble forms of organic arsenic species. From the value of the chemical equilibrium constants for each molecular or ionic form of arsenic in water, the present species can be recognized [3]. When choosing and analyzing the most dominant form of arsenic in water, the most present is inorganic arsenic as As(V). If As(III) is present, there are two important things that need to be taken into account. As(III) is more poisonous (even at low concentrations) than As(V). Beside the severe toxic effect, As(III) is easily oxidized. In oxidized conditions, stable forms of arsenic are As(V), and MMA and DMA, from oAs species. Many water sources in the world containing high concentration of arsenic cause health problems or diseases such as cancer. The WHO provisional guideline value for arsenic in drinking water is 10 μg L−1 [4]. Water quality analysis usually do not include test on arsenic. Arsenic compounds are colorless and odorless.
Once the presence of arsenic is determined in water, the separation and removal is obligatory. Removal technologies that are efficient, but still need improvement include absorption, precipitation, different electrochemical processes, membrane and hybrid membrane processes [6, 7, 8, 9].
Arsenic enters the water through the dissolution of minerals, ores soil, sediments, water, living organisms and rocks containing high concentrations of arsenic. Drinking water from surface water bodies usually does not contain high concentrations of arsenic. Higher concentrations have only been found in the groundwater. Human activities influence and change the content of arsenic in nature. When using arsenic compounds for different purposes, there is a direct influence. There is also indirect influence that affects the mobility of arsenic from different natural sources. Organic arsenic compounds such as AsB, AsC, TETRA, TMAO, arsenosugars and arsenic-containing lipids are mainly found in marine organisms although some of these compounds have also been found in terrestrial species.
Despite the fact that iAs species are predominant in natural waters, the presence of oAs has also been reported. Even though the main analytical interest is to determine total arsenic in water, it is also important to develop the procedures for As species determination, separation, and removal. The distribution of i As and oAs species is a function of pH value of water [2].
The distribution of arsenic species vs. pH values of water is presented in Figure 2 [2].
The distribution of iAs and oAs species as a function of pH values of water [
As(III) species: H3AsO3, H2AsO3−, HAsO32− and AsO33−, are stable under slightly reducing aqueous conditions. As(V) species: H3AsO4, H2AsO4−, HAsO42− and AsO43−, are stable in oxygenated waters [6]. Two valences of the same element, molecular (ortho, H3AsO3, H3AsO4 and meta forms, HAsO2, HAsO3) and ionic forms with different charges make the research of arsenic removal from water more challenging and indivisible of arsenic chemistry knowledge. Any arsenic removal technology strongly depends on the water conditions and the stability of arsenic forms in the water.
Bearing in mind the fact that arsenic occurs in water in molecular and ionic form depending on water pH, the main goal of many investigations is to select the most efficient exchanger, not only in terms of efficiency, but also in terms of applicability in the wide range of water pH values in real and environmentally friendly water treatment systems. In neutral conditions, As(V) species are completely in ionic form (H2AsO4− and HAsO42−), while As(III) is in molecular (H3AsO3 or HAsO2), as shown in Figure 2 [2].
There are a variety of chemical methods from classical to contemporary analytical techniques that are used for determination of arsenic and arsenic species in water.
There has been several review articles on the speciation of arsenic in a variety of samples [10, 11, 12, 13, 14]. These reviews focus on (1) determination of total content of arsenic and (2) speciation analysis.
A review of contemporary methods for arsenic and arsenic species in water is presented in Table 2. The parameters, as detection limit, advantages and disadvantages are pointed out in order to have an insight into ability and application of available techniques.
Methodology | Detection | Detection limit (μg L−1) | Advantages | Disadvantage | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
ICP-AES | Total arsenic | ~30 | Minimal sample volume; no sample pretreatment and short measurement time | Expensive; needs lot of knowledge for operating and interpretation of data | [14] |
ICP-MS | Total arsenic | ~0.1 | Approved by US EPA | Spectral and matrix interferences | [11, 13, 19] |
GF-AAS | Total arsenic | ~0.025 | Approved by US EPA | — | [3, 14] |
HG-AAS | Total arsenic and arsenic speciation | 0.6–6.0 | Approved by US EPA | — | [14] |
HPLC-HG-AAS | Total arsenic and arsenic speciation | 1–47 | No need for sample pretreatment | — | [3, 14] |
HPLC-HF-AAS | Arsenic speciation | 0.05–0.8 | Rapid, inexpensive. No need for sample pretreatment | — | [3, 14] |
IC-ICP-MS | Arsenic speciation | 0.01 | No need for sample pretreatment | — | [19] |
HPLC-ICP-MS | Total arsenic | 0.01 | No need for sample pretreatment | — | [13] |
A review of contemporary methods for arsenic and arsenic species determination in water.
The total concentration of arsenic in drinking water (mostly traces of arsenic, level of μg L−1 or less) can be detected only by sophisticated analytical techniques as ICP-MS, GF-AAS and HG-AAS [3, 14]. For As speciation analysis, well-established methods that involve the coupling of separation techniques, such as HPLC with a sensitive detection system, that is, ICP-MS, are recommended, and they are mostly used [13].
Historically,
To perform speciation analysis properly, the best option is coupling of two analytical techniques. One technique is used for the separation of all chemical forms of arsenic that are present in water, and the other is used for the detection of these species. Besides coupling analytical techniques, there are necessary steps for complete analysis of arsenic. The first one is the extraction of arsenic, which has to be both mild and effective, at the same time. The second step is separation of various forms of arsenic species. The final step is the measuring step which gives the answer to the quantification of each present arsenic compound.
Analytical methods for determining different arsenic species have become increasingly important due to different toxicity and chemical behavior of various arsenic forms. Methods that involve the coupling of separation techniques, such as IC and HPLC with a sensitive detection system, such as ICP-MS, HG-AFS, HG-AAS and GF-AAS [3, 11, 13, 14, 19]. HPLC has been a preferred technique used for separation of arsenic compounds. Coupled with ICP-MS for determination, as HPLC-ICP-MS system it is a method of choice for separation and measurements all arsenic species in water. In addition, applying IC coupled with ICP-MS, it is possible to separate and estimate arsenic species in water: iAs(III), iAs(V), DMA, MMA, AsBet. A representative result is presented in Figure 3 [19].
Determination of five arsenic species by IC-ICP-MS. Mobile phase: NaOH [
The evaluation of analytical method is based on defining: selectivity, repeatability, accuracy, specific features of the method and defining the limits of detection and quantification (LoD and LoQ). These limits, these numbers give the information on the smallest concentration that can be detected and quantified with certain accuracy that has been defined [10]. The LoD was discussed and determined for the induced coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) measurements of arsenic [11]. Thorough analysis has shown that the best option for LoD would be experiments, which would include the repetition many times. If experiments would be repeated 100 times, it is expected that only five measurements would be inadequate. Although this is ideal, the time consumption for the repetitive measurements is not acceptable. The most important conclusions were that LoD is not permanent and constant value, and it has to be verified and adopted for each new case. LoD is a basic parameter for estimation of the LoQ. It was concluded in [11] that the traditional (IUPAC) method is the one that could be applied.
Different methods can be applied for arsenic removal from water. Arsenic (V) is more effectively removed than As(III) by both conventional and nonconventional methods. Pretreatmen (preoxidation) of As(III) to As(V) is an essential step for better removal [2]. Methods that have been successfully applied in water treatment plants are: precipitation and coprecipitation, electrochemical (such as electrocoagulation), ion exchange and MST (reverse osmosis, ultrafiltration and other membrane techniques) [6, 7, 8, 9, 20, 21].
A wide range of sorbent materials for aqueous arsenic removal has been tested and used: biological materials, mineral oxides, activated carbons and polymer resins. Even some agricultural and industrial by-products such as red mud, fly ash, waste iron slag from steel production plant and waste filter sand from water treatment plant, have proved to be good and inexpensive arsenic sorbents [6, 7]. The potential use and application of industrial wastes in water treatment is in favor of the eco-friendly concept that preserves natural resources and supports the reuse-recycle concept. The technology of arsenic adsorption is based on materials which have a high affinity for dissolved arsenic. Adsorption of arsenic by iron modified sorbents has been established by several authors [6, 7]. There are numerous scientific and professional investigations with intention to develop a small and efficient system for arsenic removal based on natural and artificial sorption materials [20, 21]. Large amount of chemicals used for
A step forward has been made by investigations that were devoted to the evaluation of selective multifunctional sorbents including ion-exchange resins for SPE and chromatographic columns connected with a sensitive measurements system [2]. The need to determine As species in water resulted in developing new materials for arsenic separation and removal. A simple procedure for selective separation (in pretreatment) of arsenic species in water using chemically modified and unmodified ion-exchange resins is presented in Figure 4 [2].
Procedure for selective separation arsenic species in water using ion-exchange resins [
For separation of As species in water, two types of resins, strong base anion exchange resin (SBAE), hybrid resins (HY) and hybrid resin chemically modified (HY-Fe and HY-AgCl), were tested and used. The HY-Fe resin retained all arsenic species except DMAs(V). This is recognized as an advantage because this makes direct measurement of this species in the effluent possible. The HY-AgCl resin retained all iAs, which was convenient for direct determination of oAs species in the effluent. The selective bonding of arsenic species on three types of resins, as shown in Figure 4, has been established as the procedure which enables the separation and calculation of all arsenic species in water [2].
EC comprises complex chemical and physical processes involving many surface and interfacial phenomena. Very effective and perspective EC process consists of three processes: electrochemical reactions (simultaneous anodic oxidation and cathodic reduction), flotation and coagulation [9, 20]. The EC process relies on the generation of metal ions from electrodes. The electrodes can be made of iron, aluminum or zinc, depending on the most favorable reactions for arsenic removal. The reaction in reaction chamber starts after the application of direct current. The electrode (metallic anode) dissociates into valent metallic ions. The metallic ions migrate to oppositely charged ions and the precipitation of different insoluble salts occur (different sulfides, oxides, hydroxides, chromates or phosphates, depending on the presence of ions in water). EC has several advantages when compared to other methods. The construction of reaction chamber is compact, control of the process is simple, no additional chemicals are required, and the result is reduced amount of sludge. If the electrode is made of iron, ferric hydroxide is one of the main solid products, as shown in Eq. (1) [9]:
Arsenate co-precipitates or adsorbs to Fe(OH)3(s), as shown in Eq. (2).
The potential of EC as an alternative water treatment technique to remove arsenic from water needs to be realized [8, 9, 20].
Ion-exchange, IE, processes with regeneration capability is a proven, efficient and low-cost treatment method for the exchange of arsenic in the As(V) form [1, 2]. The ion-exchange reaction between As(V) and a bed of chloride-form SBAE resin (designated as R-Cl resin) occurs as presented by Eq. (3):
When the regeneration of resins is needed, both HCl and NaCl can be applied. Still, with HCl solution, more efficient regeneration occurs because the ionic forms of arsenic (anions) transform to molecular form (H3AsO4). Molecular forms do not affect the equilibrium of ion-exchange processes as illustrated by Eq. (4):
Different sorption processes, from adsorption, to chemisorption and ion-exchange, have shown a potential being efficient and cheap (depending on the selected sorbent). With improved, more selective and chemically modified sorbents, the extraction technique can be replaced [17, 18, 19]. What has been specifically used as an advantage for arsenic species separation is different behavior of arsenic species at various pH values [3, 22].
The hybrid resin (HY) that has successfully been applied uses the activity of the hydrated iron oxides (HFO) and anion exchange for selective separation of arsenic [2]. With integrated use of anion exchange and sorption, the separation of As(III) and As(V) species and removal of all species of arsenic can be accomplished. With application of HY resin, two separate things can be accomplished: the collection and preconcentration of low concentrated iAs or the removal of iAs species, if it is interfering the determination.
Membrane separation technologies, such as RO, NF, UF, MF, can be employed in the removal of arsenic from water. Depending on the removal efficiency, RO and NF are more efficient than UF and MF. Operating conditions, membrane material, water quality, temperature, pressure, pH value and chemical compatibility have to be considered during operation of a membrane plant. When MF and UF are applied, less amounts of chemicals are used, and therefore, less sludge is produced. When RO and NF are used, no chemicals are needed and the amount of sludge is neglectable [8].
The comparison and future perspective of different technologies for arsenic removal are presented in Table 3.
Technology for arsenic removal | Advantage | Disadvantage | Some specific feature | Future perspective |
---|---|---|---|---|
Adsorption | Cheap materials, effective and efficient removal | Further treatment for regeneration and consumption of chemicals | Additional filter for removal of fine particles is required | Still attractive as an efficient and cheap technology for As removal. Finding new, environmentally friendly sorbent is still a challenging task |
Chemical coagulation | Effective for industrial wastewater treatment plants and efficient for As(V) removal | Chemical required. pH adjustment needed. Large volumes of sludge that needs further treatment | Arsenic leaching out from sludge | Not attractive as a solution, only if it coupled with electrochemical techniques |
Electrocoagulation | Efficient for arsenic removal. Low maintenance costs. No chemicals or pH adjustment. Low operating costs | Applicable only on batch scale. Passive oxide films for on the electrode. High energy consumption | No generation of secondary pollutants | Attractive for future investigations. Need to overcome the lack of application on a large scale |
Ion exchange | Efficient for As(V) removal. Exchange resins are available; the selective resins for removing arsenic are one of the most important requirements to provide high removal. Together with hybrid solution is an excellent technology | Interference with other ions. Easily blocked. Huge amount of chemicals | Using this kind of technique depends on the pH values of water | Attractive only if selective and sensitive chemical agents are included in ion-exchange process |
Membrane technologies | Efficient in arsenic removal. No chemical reagents. No sludge. Small dimensions for membrane treatment plant. Easy automation and control | Removal of arsenic depends on the pressure, pH value, solute concentration, temperature of feed solution | Arsenic is concentrated in the retentate | Attractive in future perspective. With decrease of investment the MST will prevail in arsenic removal technologies. Different membrane materials and processes need to be evaluated to select the optimum for each situation |
The comparison and future perspective of different technologies for arsenic removal.
Arsenic contamination of water has been reported as a critical issue in many articles, which reflects the latest state-of-the-art understanding of the behavior and toxicity of various arsenic species. Many water sources in the world contain low concentration of arsenic (mostly traces of arsenic, level of μg L−1 or less). If the concentration of arsenic in drinking water is higher than 10 μg L−1, which is the WHO provisional guideline value for arsenic, it causes various health problems. All arsenic compounds dissolved in water are toxic. In natural waters, arsenic appears most often in inorganic forms and to a lesser extent in organic form. Inorganic species, arsenic acids (H3AsO3 and H3AsO4) and their ions are more toxic than organic forms. In addition, As(III) species are more toxic than As(V) ones. The valence (+III and +V), the type of arsenic species, ionic or molecular forms are dependent on the oxidation–reduction condition and pH of the water. Arsenic in water occurs in both inorganic and organic forms, but inorganic species are predominant in natural waters. In neutral conditions, As(V) species are completely in ionic form (H2AsO4− and HAsO42−), while As(III) is in molecular form (H3AsO3 or HAsO2).
Arsenic compounds are colorless and odorless, and testing water for arsenic is an important strategy for the health and well-being of people. Working with a water professional to monitor and maintain the quality of the well and water supply is an important responsibility.
In this work, methods for arsenic and arsenic speciation separation, determination and removal were reviewed. There are numerous methods for separation and determination of arsenic species in water. It is very important to recognize easy, simple and inexpensive methods to estimate the very low concentrations of arsenic.
The total concentration of arsenic in drinking water can be detected by simple Gutzeit method, and some similar colorimetric methods of comparing stains produced on treated paper strips. Although its minimum detectable concentration is 1.0·μ L−1, these tests should be used when only a qualitative or semiqualitative detection is needed.
For precise, and reliable determination of arsenic in water, only sophisticated analytical techniques as ICP-MS, GF-AAS and HG-AAS can be applied. These methods are approved by US EPA. The features of these methods are high sensitivity, high accuracy, minimal sample volume; no sample pretreatment and short measurement time with minimum detectable concentration of 0.1 μ L−1. They are expensive, need lot of knowledge for operating and interpretation of data.
For As speciation analysis, well-established methods that involve the coupling of separation techniques, such as HPLC with a sensitive detection system, that is, ICP-MS, are recommended, and they are mostly used. Through the limits, it is possible to define the smallest concentration of analyte that can be reliably detected and quantified. Limit of detection for the HPLC-ICP-MS system is 0.001 μ L−1. This system is also expensive and needs lot of knowledge for operating and interpretation of data.
In all works, a special attention is paid to the preservation of arsenic species in environmental water samples for reliable speciation analysis. An appropriate procedure for the extraction of arsenic species from water should be accomplished without changing any original state of arsenic. This is still a challenging topic for research. The proposed system showed themselves to be accurate, precise and time efficient, as just a very simple sample treatment is required. Successful application of all methods required considerable practice.
Sorption processes (ion exchange, adsorption, chemisorption) with regeneration capability are proven as efficient and low-cost treatment methods for the removal of arsenic species from water. Separation of arsenic species using these new selective and chemically active sorbents recognize as a cost- and time-saving alternative to the traditional extraction techniques. The major drawback of all these techniques is that they are unable to remove As(III) efficiently.
Membrane separation technologies, such as RO, NF, UF, MF, are recommended for the removal of arsenic from water in water treatment plants.
Although there are numerous research papers focused on extraction techniques, yet it is not possible to set universal extraction procedures. These procedures depend on the presence of different species as well as on the type of matrices. For arsenic speciation, the choice of the most appropriate method is of great importance for obtaining reliable and accurate results.
The authors are grateful to the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Serbia which supported our scientific work (projects no. TR37009, TR37010 and III43009).
As | arsenic |
iAs | inorganic arsenic |
oAs | organic arsenic |
As(III) | arsenite ion |
As(V) | arsenate ions |
MMA | monomethylarsenic acid |
DMA | dimethylarsenic acid |
TMAO | trimethylarsine oxide |
TETRA | tetramethylarsonium ion |
AsB | arsenobetaine |
AsC | arsenocholine |
IC | ion chromatography |
HPLC | high-performance liquid chromatography |
MS | mass spectrometry |
AES | atomic emission spectrometry |
ICP-MS | inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry |
ASV | anodic stripping voltammetry |
CSV | cathodic stripping voltammetry |
DPCSV | differential pulse cathodic stripping voltammetry |
GF-AAS | graphite furnace absorption spectrometry |
HG-AAS | hydride generation atomic absorption spectrometry |
HPLC-HG-AAS | high-performance liquid chromatography-hydride generation-atomic absorption spectrometry |
HPLC-HG-AFS | high-performance liquid chromatography or solid-phase cartridge separation combined with hydride generation-atomic fluorescence spectrometry |
HPLC-ICP-MS | high-performance liquid chromatography-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry |
SPE | solid phase extraction |
IE | ion exchange |
SBAE | strong base anion exchange resin |
HY | hybrid resin |
EC | electrocoagulation |
RO | reverse osmosis |
NF | nanofiltration |
UF | ultrafiltration |
MF | microfiltration |
MST | membrane separation technologies |
Aortic valve stenosis (AS) is a progressive disease in which the end-stage is characterized by an increase in global left ventricular (LV) load, resulting in inadequate cardiac output, decreased exercise capacity, congestive cardiac failure and death [1]. Without correction, the rate of death is more than 50% at 2-years for patients with severe AS and symptomatic disease [2]. Patients with AS are frequently elderly, with concomitant hypertension and increased arterial stiffness. Higher global LV load – as reflected in blood pressure, resistive (i.e. systemic vascular resistance) and pulsatile (i.e. vascular impedance) load – is known to be associated with poorer quality-of-life measures and survival outcomes. As such, AS is no longer regarded as an isolated valvular disease, but rather a pathological process involving the left ventricle, aortic valve and large conducting arteries (Figure 1) [3].
Factors that contribute to the global left ventricular load in elderly patients with aortic valve stenosis. Abbreviations: LV, left ventricular.
The past decade has seen a rapid uptake of device technologies to treat patients with AS. Despite the obvious effects of vascular aging, uncoupling intrinsic properties of the left ventricle and arterial tree from the degree of valvular stenosis remains challenging. This is particularly true of patients with severe AS with low-flow/low-gradient (LF-LG) (aortic valve area [AVA] ≤1 cm2; ejection fraction [EF] ≤30–45%; and mean transvalvular gradient ≤30–40 mmHg) or paradoxical LF-LG severe AS (LVEF ≥50%; indexed stroke volume [SVi] ≤35 mL/m2; and mean gradient ≤40 mmHg). This is important, however, as acute interventions on either compartment may cause reciprocal changes in the other. Patients with severe LF-LG or paradoxical LF-LG AS, for example, are at considerably higher risk of ongoing exertional intolerance, even after relief of valvular obstruction, due to presumed mismatch between ventricular filling, valvular stenosis, and vascular stiffness.
Pulsatile pressure-flow relationships to describe vascular impedance (the relationship of pressure to flow) of the human circulation were first reported over half-a-century ago in (then) pioneering invasive studies [4, 5]. The clinical use of this technique for determination of vascular impedance has remained limited however, as high-fidelity catheters are considered cumbersome, expensive and may fail to appreciate the eccentricities of pressure and flow dynamics in the ascending aorta. Over the intervening years, measurements of steady-state load (such as systolic arterial pressure, systemic arterial compliance, pulse pressure and systemic vascular resistance [SVR]) have erroneously been taken to represent the vascular impedance. The advent of transcatheter aortic valve implantation (TAVI) has re-ignited this conversation.
As discussed further below, simultaneous high-fidelity pressure and flow catheters have recently been used to describe the acute changes that occur following TAVI [6]. The valvulo-arterial impedance (ZVA) index obtained by Doppler echocardiography (TTE) is one of the most widely adopted non-invasive methods to assess vascular impedance in patients with AS [7]. Valvulo-arterial impedance is assessed using brachial systolic pressure, mean aortic pressure gradient and indexed stroke volume within the LV outflow tract. It has been found to be useful in patients with AS because it incorporates stenosis severity, volume flow rate, body size, SVR and vascular impedance. More recent studies have utilized non-invasive pressure (from carotid or radial applanation tonometry [AT]) and flow velocity (from the LV outflow tract on cardiac magnetic resonance [CMR]) to estimate vascular impedance in the time or frequency domain [8, 9].
Determination of both the steady-state and pulsatile components of the vascular tree are expected to play an increasingly important role in the clinical evaluation of patients with severe LF-LG or paradoxical LF-LG AS states moving forward, as well as in the prognostication of adverse clinical outcomes following TAVI. The following Review provides an overview of key concepts, as well as invasive and non-invasive methods to measure global LV load in individuals with AS.
Hydraulic load of the systemic circulation includes both steady-state and pulsatile components. Steady-state load is best represented by the SVR, although systolic arterial pressure, systemic arterial compliance, and pulse pressure are frequently used. Systemic vascular resistance is calculated as:
where
Pulsatile load occurs because of wave reflections and vascular stiffness and is best described using the term vascular impedance (Z), or the relationship of pressure to flow. When the general term ‘impedance’ is applied to a vascular bed, it is usually referring to “input impedance” (Zin), this being the relationship between pulsatile pressure and pulsatile flow recorded in an artery feeding a particular vascular bed. Zin can be estimated with the following complex equation:
where
With aging, the central elastic aorta progressively dilates, elongates and becomes tortuous with stiffened, thickened walls [13]. Characteristic age-related changes in aortic flow velocity, pressure waveform and vascular impedance now well described [11, 14]. Stiffer, older vessels lead to a faster velocity of pressure pulse and earlier timing of reflected pulse wave from the periphery, augmenting central aortic systolic pressure and yielding a greater afterload on the heart [10, 11]. Systemic vascular resistance is higher, while the systemic impedance phase typically shows similar values for the first harmonic at all ages, then increases for all age groups, crossing zero to positive values later in elderly patients and also those with AS (around 3–4 Hz). Harmonic refers to the analysis of signals with respect to frequency (Hz) rather than time. Put simply, a frequency-domain graph shows how much of the signal lies within each given frequency band over a range of frequencies. The effect of age-related alterations to vascular impedance is to cause further mismatch between energy expenditure of LV ejection, and an increase in pulsatile energy lost in the circulation. The result is a direct increase in LV afterload and left ventricular mass. Additionally, mean aortic systolic pressure is increased, thereby increasing LV oxygen requirements and LV afterload, while mean aortic diastolic pressure is decreased, reducing coronary blood flow [15].
Limited studies have explored the effect of aortic valve replacement on vascular impedance in elderly patients with AS. Residual LV afterload is more often than not assumed by assessing transvalvular pressure gradient, effective orifice area or the degree of valve patient-prosthesis mis-match [16]. However, focusing on valvular hemodynamics alone is clearly inadequate. In one study,
As mentioned earlier, vascular impedance (Z-INV) of the human circulation was first determined in pioneering catheter studies during the 1960’s and 1970’s [13, 18, 19, 20, 21]. From this early work, a typical Z-INV pattern in the ascending aorta was demonstrated to have a relatively high modulus at zero frequency – which is the peripheral/systemic resistance or steady-state load – then experience a fall of modulus with increasing frequency to a minimal value around 3–4 Hz, before rising to a maximal value around twice the minimal frequency and continuing to fluctuate around its characteristic impedance at higher frequencies [5, 22]. The phase (or difference in angle) value was found to be negative at low frequencies – indicating arterial flow leading pressure – then crossed zero around the same frequency where modulus was at a minimum and became positive at higher frequencies [5, 22]. These impedance patterns are mainly influenced by ascending aorta distensibility and arterial pulse wave velocity [4], both of which are significantly altered in the presence of vascular aging and cardiovascular disease.
Studies of Z-INV have not been actively pursued beyond the 1970s until recently, partly because of the requirement of invasive technique and costly sensors to register arterial pressure and/or flow waveform accurately. In a study by
Methods to determine vascular impedance in patients with aortic valve stenosis. Abbreviations: DBP, diastolic blood pressure; PP, pulse pressure; SAC, systemic arterial compliance; SBP, systolic blood pressure; SVRI, systemic vascular resistance index; VAL, valvulo-arterial load; ZINV, valvulo-arterial impedance invasive; ZVA, valvulo-arterial impedance; ZVA–INV, valvulo-arterial impedance instantaneous.
Pulse pressure (PP), systemic arterial compliance (SAC), the systemic vascular resistance index (SVRi), and valvulo-arterial impedance (ZVA) are the most widely applied echocardiographic methods to determine vascular impedance in patients with AS. Steady-state load is best represented by the SVRi, which is calculated as:
where
where
where
Since ZVA was first described in patients with AS, elevated values have been associated with poorer outcomes, a greater degree of myocardial dysfunction and reduced overall survival [24, 25]. Poorer outcomes are thought to be related to comorbidities which elevate vascular impedance – namely advanced age, hypertension, and obesity [26]. For patients with asymptomatic severe AS, who have a 3% mortality rate a 5-years if left untreated, a ZVA index >5 mmHg/mL/m2 is associated with a 2.5-fold increase in overall mortality, regardless of treatment type [24]. Paradoxical low-flow, low-gradient AS is known to account for one-third of patients with severe AS and preserved EF. Patients with paradoxical LF-LG AS and a ZVA index >5.5 mmHg/mL/m2 also have increased mortality [24]. Interestingly, in patients with LF-LG AS, elevated ZVA has not yet been found to be associated with operative or long-term mortality [27]. The prognostic impact of ZVA is not well studied in patients with symptomatic moderate AS.
Despite the accessibility of ZVA and its widespread use, the technique has limitations including: (i) the potential for underestimation of flow velocity due to misalignment of the Doppler signal with flow direction; (ii) the risk of underestimation of LV outflow tract diameter due to inadequate quality and/or positioning of the imaging plane; (iii) measurement variability related to manual tracing of flow velocity contours, and; (iv) the calculation of mean pressure from brachial cuff pressure rather than direct measurement of central aortic pressure [12]. Furthermore, ZVA is measured as the ratio of pressure to indexed volume (rather than pressure to flow) and may therefore be more accurately described as a resistance index rather than a true measure of vascular impedance (Figure 2).
With the introduction of CMR into routine clinical practise, several parameters of aortic stiffness in patients with AS have now been described - aortic compliance, distensibility, capacitance, elasticity, stiffness index and valvulo-arterial impedance. Two methods to assess vascular impedance in patients with AS have been described – valvulo-arterial impedance instantaneous (ZVA-INS) and valvulo-arterial load (VAL).
where
where
VAL differs from ZVA-INS as it permits (i) simultaneous acquisition of aortic pressure and flow; (ii) measures the combined LV afterload; (iii) samples the multiple flow profiles seen in patients with AS [28], and; (iv) estimates systemic impedance in the frequency domain [29]. As left ventricular hypertrophy, aortic valve stenosis and vascular stiffness represent elevated impedances in series, simple summation of these resistances (as in the case of ZVA-INS) may lead to an overestimation of global LV load [9, 30]. Studies of CMR vascular impedance estimation in patients undergoing transcatheter aortic valve implantation (TAVI) are currently underway (Figure 3).
Valvulo-arterial load in patients with aortic stenosis by simultaneous cardiac magnetic resonance/applanation tonometry. Abbreviations: VAL, valvulo-arterial load index.
Although vascular impedance measures the pulsatile properties of the human circulation, aortic pulse wave velocity (PWV) is considered the ‘gold-standard’ measurement of arterial stiffness and an important tool to evaluate both arterial system damage, vascular adaptation, and therapeutic efficiency. Pulse wave velocity can be measured using non-invasive, reproducible, and relatively inexpensive techniques. The effect of elevated PWV has been studied in AS patients undergoing both surgical and transcatheter replacement, and found to be associated with poorer quality-of-life measures [31] and mortality [32] irrespective of stenosis severity. Waveform analysis post TAVI typically shows an acute increase in the forward compression wave, backward compression wave and forward expansion energies [33]. The duration that these changes persist post correction of AS remain unclear (Figure 2).
Beyond techniques to determine vascular impedance in patients with AS, the question remains – what can be done to ameliorate the insidious effects of arterial stiffness in patients with AS before and after intervention? Indeed, arterial stiffness involves both arteriosclerosis and atherosclerosis and is influenced by structural and biochemical changes within vessel walls, involving changes in elastin/collagen ratio, elastin cross-linking, vascular calcification, vascular smooth muscle cell stiffness, endothelial dysfunction, and inflammation [34, 35]. Lifestyle modification may have a considerable impact. A diet rich in fruits and vegetables, polyunsaturated fatty acids, coca flavonoids, tea catechins and dairy products with a limited intake of salt and red meat have all been demonstrated to reduce arterial stiffness [36]. Anti-hypertensive treatment, anti-diabetic drugs and lipid lowering agents have also been shown to reverse vascular aging in middle aged individuals, and to a lesser degree, in older patients [37]. The effect of diet, lifestyle, and pharmaceutical interventions in elderly patients with AS remains to be determined.
The natural history of AS is dictated by a progressive decoupling of the aortic valve from the left ventricle and vascular system over time. Vascular function is conditioned by the upstream valvular obstruction, which in turn dampens forward and backward compression waves in the arterial tree. Abrupt correction of valvular stenosis may have unforeseen effects on the left ventricle and vasculature not adequately accounted for using traditional TTE imaging techniques. Simultaneous CMR and AT techniques are uniquely placed as they better account for steady-state and pulsatile components of flow. Incorporation of techniques to assess vascular impedance in patients with AS is expected to play a greater role in patient selection of severe AS sub-types and prognosis with time.
All other authors have reported that they have no funding disclosures relevant to the contents of this paper to disclose.
All authors have reported that they have no relationships relevant to the contents of this paper to disclose.
AA | ascending aorta |
AS | aortic valve stenosis |
AT | applanation tonometry |
CMR | cardiac magnetic resonance |
FFT | fast Fourier transformation |
LV | left ventricular |
MPA | main pulmonary artery |
PA | pulmonary artery |
Pn | derived central aortic pressure |
PH | pulmonary hypertension |
PWV | pulse wave velocity |
Qn | aortic flow velocity product |
RHC | right heart catheterisation |
RV | right ventricular |
TAVI | transcatheter aortic valve implantation |
VAL | valvulo-arterial load |
VTF | velocity transfer function |
ZC | characteristic impedance |
Zin | input impedance |
ZVA-INS | valvulo-arterial impedance-instantaneous. |
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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:43,paginationItems:[{id:"82374",title:"The Potential of the Purinergic System as a Therapeutic Target of Natural Compounds in Cutaneous Melanoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105457",signatures:"Gilnei Bruno da Silva, Daiane Manica, Marcelo Moreno and Margarete Dulce Bagatini",slug:"the-potential-of-the-purinergic-system-as-a-therapeutic-target-of-natural-compounds-in-cutaneous-mel",totalDownloads:1,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"82212",title:"Protein Prenylation and Their Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104700",signatures:"Khemchand R. 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He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"333824",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Farouk",middleName:null,surname:"Musa",slug:"ahmad-farouk-musa",fullName:"Ahmad Farouk Musa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333824/images/22684_n.jpg",biography:"Dato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa\nMD, MMED (Surgery) (Mal), Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery (Monash Health, Aust), Graduate Certificate in Higher Education (Aust), Academy of Medicine (Mal)\n\n\n\nDato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa obtained his Doctor of Medicine from USM in 1992. He then obtained his Master of Medicine in Surgery from the same university in the year 2000 before subspecialising in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Institut Jantung Negara (IJN), Kuala Lumpur from 2002 until 2005. He then completed his Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Monash Health, Melbourne, Australia in 2008. He has served in the Malaysian army as a Medical Officer with the rank of Captain upon completing his Internship before joining USM as a trainee lecturer. He is now serving as an academic and researcher at Monash University Malaysia. He is a life-member of the Malaysian Association of Thoracic & Cardiovascular Surgery (MATCVS) and a committee member of the MATCVS Database. He is also a life-member of the College of Surgeons, Academy of Medicine of Malaysia; a life-member of Malaysian Medical Association (MMA), and a life-member of Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia (IMAM). Recently he was appointed as an Interim Chairperson of Examination & Assessment Subcommittee of the UiTM-IJN Cardiothoracic Surgery Postgraduate Program. As an academic, he has published numerous research papers and book chapters. He has also been appointed to review many scientific manuscripts by established journals such as the British Medical Journal (BMJ). He has presented his research works at numerous local and international conferences such as the European Association for Cardiothoracic Surgery (EACTS) and the European Society of Cardiovascular Surgery (ESCVS), to name a few. He has also won many awards for his research presentations at meetings and conferences like the prestigious International Invention, Innovation & Technology Exhibition (ITEX); Design, Research and Innovation Exhibition, the National Conference on Medical Sciences and the Annual Scientific Meetings of the Malaysian Association for Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. He was awarded the Darjah Setia Pangkuan Negeri (DSPN) by the Governor of Penang in July, 2015.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Monash University Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. He has also been a reviewer of international journals and ad hoc reviewer of scientific committees from Brazilian Universities.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"217850",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarete Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Bagatini",slug:"margarete-dulce-bagatini",fullName:"Margarete Dulce Bagatini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217850/images/system/217850.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Margarete Dulce Bagatini is an associate professor at the Federal University of Fronteira Sul/Brazil. She has a degree in Pharmacy and a PhD in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry. She is a member of the UFFS Research Advisory Committee\nand a member of the Biovitta Research Institute. She is currently:\nthe leader of the research group: Biological and Clinical Studies\nin Human Pathologies, professor of postgraduate program in\nBiochemistry at UFSC and postgraduate program in Science and Food Technology at\nUFFS. She has experience in the area of pharmacy and clinical analysis, acting mainly\non the following topics: oxidative stress, the purinergic system and human pathologies, being a reviewer of several international journals and books.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"27",type:"subseries",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11423,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. He has served as guest editor for a number of special issues of peer-reviewed international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"275140",title:"Dr.",name:"Dinh Hoa",middleName:null,surname:"Nguyen",slug:"dinh-hoa-nguyen",fullName:"Dinh Hoa Nguyen",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRbnKQAS/Profile_Picture_1622204093453",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kyushu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"20259",title:"Dr.",name:"Hongbin",middleName:null,surname:"Ma",slug:"hongbin-ma",fullName:"Hongbin Ma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRhDJQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-05-02T08:25:21.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"28640",title:"Prof.",name:"Yasushi",middleName:null,surname:"Kambayashi",slug:"yasushi-kambayashi",fullName:"Yasushi Kambayashi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYOQxQAO/Profile_Picture_1625660525470",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nippon Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{id:"82124",title:"Assessment of Diversity, Growth Characteristics and Aboveground Biomass of Tree Species in Selected Urban Green Areas of Osogbo, Osun State",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104982",signatures:"Omolara Aremu, Olusola O. Adetoro and Olusegun Awotoye",slug:"assessment-of-diversity-growth-characteristics-and-aboveground-biomass-of-tree-species-in-selected-u",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Forest Degradation Under Global Change",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11457.jpg",subseries:{id:"94",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability"}}}]},publishedBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7726",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7726.jpg",slug:"swarm-intelligence-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Javier Del Ser, Esther Villar and Eneko Osaba",hash:"e7ea7e74ce7a7a8e5359629e07c68d31",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",editors:[{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},testimonialsList:[{id:"8",text:"I work with IntechOpen for a number of reasons: their professionalism, their mission in support of Open Access publishing, and the quality of their peer-reviewed publications, but also because they believe in equality.",author:{id:"202192",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",slug:"catrin-rutland",institution:{id:"134",name:"University of Nottingham",country:{id:null,name:"United Kingdom"}}}},{id:"27",text:"The opportunity to work with a prestigious publisher allows for the possibility to collaborate with more research groups interested in animal nutrition, leading to the development of new feeding strategies and food valuation while being more sustainable with the environment, allowing more readers to learn about the subject.",author:{id:"175967",name:"Manuel",surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",institution:{id:"6221",name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",country:{id:null,name:"Mexico"}}}},{id:"18",text:"It was great publishing with IntechOpen, the process was straightforward and I had support all along.",author:{id:"71579",name:"Berend",surname:"Olivier",institutionString:"Utrecht University",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71579/images/system/71579.png",slug:"berend-olivier",institution:{id:"253",name:"Utrecht University",country:{id:null,name:"Netherlands"}}}}]},submityourwork:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental 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living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine"},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation"},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:{title:"Biomedical Engineering",id:"7"},selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 24th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfPublishedBooks:31,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. 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