Barthel Index modified by Granger et al. Adapted from Granger et al. [40].
\r\n\tFrom practice to a mathematical and technological application, scheduling has become another form of art: an algorithmic art, declined in as many OS and hardware constraints, from embedded systems onboard an aircraft or a spacecraft to databases in all financial and Internet servers.
\r\n\tThey have become ubiquitous so that a large part of our civilisational development is supported by their reliability, redundancy, and optimisation capacity. Like all of our civilisational assets, they are benefiting from scientific breakthrough in computational sciences such as evolutionary algorithms, Artificial Intelligence, and quantum computing. If not by using it, by being in need of adapting to the next generation of computing. Space development is also bringing new challenges, especially in redundancy and reliability.
Action observation therapy (AOT) is based on the well-known “mirror mechanism.” AOT alludes to the activation of motor-related areas not only when an action is performed, but also when the action is observed [1]. This mechanism was first described in the premotor cortex of the macaque [2], and over the last two decades, several studies have focused on the identification, description and characterization of the human brain regions that present this mechanism [3–5]. Nowadays, there is much agreement about the existence of a neural network formed by regions that present the “mirror mechanism.” The most consistent regions are located in the frontal lobe [mainly in the inferior frontal gyrus (IFG)] and in the posterior parietal lobe [mainly in the inferior parietal lobule (IPL)] [1, 4], though there are other regions that may also be involved [6, 7]. This brain network is the so-called mirror neuron system (MNS) (Figure 1).
The MNS in humans. Many functional studies have shown that many brain regions present mirror properties. Apart from premotor cortex (PMC), parietal and temporal regions are also activated when an action is executed or observed and this is clearly related with the important role that mirror neurons seem to play in many aspects of social cognition (language, empathy, learning process, etc.). Because of this, it has been suggested that developmental MNS dysfunction leads to disordered social cognition in humans, including autism spectrum disorders. Anyway, the most studied areas that present mirror properties in humans are the inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) corresponding to BA 44 and inferior parietal lobule (IPL), corresponding to BA 40. Both form the core of the known parietal-frontal mirror neuron system (MNS). The superior temporal sulcus (STS) is consistently activated during the observation of human movements and seems to play a prominent role in the flux of information to the MNS.
The dual activation of the MNS has been associated with the ability to understand the actions performed by others [3, 8]. Bearing this in mind, it is easy to deduce that the MNS is essential for imitation and, eventually, for action learning [9–11]. Several experiments have provided some evidence in this respect and have led to the suggestion of the possible role of action observation (i.e., MNS activation) in motor rehabilitation. Effectively, the activation of motor regions during the simple observation of an action may result in an improvement of motor impairment; this is the AOT hypothesis. However, the MNS is associated not only with motor functions, but also with social cognition. Many authors agree in considering the involvement of the MNS in social interaction and in the relationship between people and the environment [4, 12]. This consideration makes the AOT not only a motor rehabilitation program, but also a functional recovery program.
\nBearing in mind only neurological diseases, stroke is, unmistakably, the most common neurological disease where AOT has been tested. Motor impairment and aphasia were the most common features of the stroke patients included in trials and prospective observational studies [13–20]. For both clinical conditions, the majority of the studies reported a clear benefit of AOT, with a maintained improvement in the motor condition and the functional status. In fact, the benefit of this therapy has been remarked on in a recent evidenced-based review of the literature concerning the effect of AOT in upper limb dysfunction after stroke [21].
\nAOT has also been used in other movement disorders such as Parkinson’s disease and cerebral palsy, though the number of studies that have focused on these diseases is much lower than those focused on stroke. In any case, the application of AOT leads to an improvement in gait and bradykinesia in Parkinsonian patients [22–24] and in the functional status in cerebral palsy’s infants [25]. Finally, cognitive benefits have been reported after the application of AOT in Alzheimer’s disease [26].
\nNew and different studies about AOT need to be performed in order to properly identify the role of this therapy in the rehabilitation of neurological disorders. Some weaknesses in the current literature about AOT can be identified. For example, most of the previously cited studies included patients with a chronic evolution of their diseases (more than 6 months after the onset) and not in the acute or subacute phase of the disease, where the therapy might also show efficacy (or even more). Furthermore, the number of patients is highly variable between the different studies and the differences in the period where patients were exposed between the different studies are large. However, these methodological aspects are not the only ones that must be considered when AOT is going to be applied. In the present work, we stress the importance of adequately selecting the actions to be used during therapy as well as the correct scale for evaluating the results of AOT. The consideration of these aspects in future studies may help to provide a better understanding of the MNS and to know the real impact of the therapy in patient’s recovery. This study also discusses the differences and similarities that exist between virtual reality-based therapies, an innovative approach that is being increasingly applied in rehabilitation centers. Finally, future perspectives about AOT research are proposed.
One major issue about AOT is the kind of action that should be used in order to get the maximum benefit. Most of the actions that have been employed in AOT studies consist of upper limb transitive actions (i.e., actions with object interaction, e.g., using a pencil). These are usually daily actions that have been selected on the basis of their ecological value [27]. This kind of action has been shown to have increased MNS activity in neuroimaging studies [15, 28] and corticospinal facilitation in transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) [29, 30].
\nAlthough the benefits of AOT have been demonstrated with the use of transitive actions, the use of intransitive ones (i.e., actions without object interaction, e.g., the opposition of the index finger and the thumb as the pantomime of a precision grasping) may also be considered for use in this therapy. Intransitive actions lead to an activation of the human MNS (there is new evidence of this activation in primates too) in a more restrictive way than transitive actions do [31, 32]. In fact, the activity of the MNS when intransitive actions are observed tends to predominantly activate posterior parietal regions more than premotor areas [31, 33]. Minor activation of the MNS does not have to mean that an AOT based on these actions had less benefit than using transitive ones. It is known that part of the brain activity obtained with the use of transitive actions is due to the presence of an object and a more complex scenario where the action takes part [34]. In this respect, many patients with neurological disorders may have attention deficits or less capacity to follow the action continuously, because there are many factors that catch the observer’s attention (e.g., the object features) and they may become cognitively overloaded. Furthermore, when patients are asked to imitate the motor actions, the imitation of simple and intransitive actions would be effortless than the performance of complex and transitive ones. Consequently, future studies should incorporate intransitive actions to those which patients must observe to evaluate the efficacy of the AOT using these actions. Although they will lead to less brain activity, the patient can be more focused on the effector as well as on the kinematics of the action, and neither on the object which the effector interacts with nor on the context where the action takes place.
\nOn the other hand, another factor that must be considered in AOT is the visual perspective from which the motor acts of others are observed. It has been demonstrated that the majority of mirror neurons in the monkey premotor cortex are view-dependent (i.e., they are only activated when the action is presented in a specific visual perspective) [35, 36] and, depending on the point of view, action observation leads to different activations of the MNS [37]. In this sense, certain evidence exists that an egocentric view (i.e., first-person perspective) of an action leads to higher brain activity than a third-person view [30] (Figure 2). Moreover, studies in monkeys have revealed the existence of some subcategories of mirror neurons that are selective for specific space positions, right or left hand, and for specific directions [2, 38]. Although these properties have been less studied in the human MNS, its presence in non-human primates makes it easy to assume the existence of this diversity among the mirror neurons of human beings. Thus, the MNS is important for visuospatial and visuoperceptive abilities. Bearing this in mind, patients who are candidates for AOT should be previously tested in these functions with proper neuropsychological assessment. This evaluation may allow the adaption of the kind of actions that are shown to the patient in order to achieve better and faster results.
Different visual perspectives. First-person perspective (A) and third-person perspective (B) of an intransitive motor action (index to thumb opposition task). First-person perspective seems to conduct to higher MNS activity than a third-person view.
One of the most important aspects when considering AOT is to adequately evaluate the results. The use of an appropriate scale or index is a basic requisite to analyze the efficacy of any rehabilitative therapy. Previous studies have reported the efficacy of the AOT in terms of changes in scales that measured specific clinical aspects of each neurological disease. For instance, some stroke-based studies expressed the efficacy of AOT with changes in Upper Extremity Fugl-Meyer Motor Assessment (FMA) and Functional Test of the Hemiparetic Upper Extremity (FTHUE) [20]; similarly, the application of AOT in Parkinson’s disease patients was measured with a 39-item Parkinson Disease Questionnaire (PDQ-39) [24]. Although the specific scales are vital for understanding the effect of MNS therapy in the clinical symptoms of each neurological disease, the broad implications of AOT (considering its effect on the MNS with motor and cognitive implications) mean that these scales are restricted. Moreover, these scales should also be versatile enough to be applied to the majority of the spectrum of neurological diseases where AOT may be applied. Thus, it seems reasonable to propose a more general scale or index to evaluate the results of AOT in terms of functional recovery.
\nFunctioning is a generic term defined by the World Health Organization (WHO), which includes the positive aspects of the interaction between an individual (with a certain health condition) and the contextual factors (personal and environmental factors). This leads to a definition of disability as the restriction of a person’s functioning. Neurorehabilitative approaches must converge in a recovery in the functioning that may have been lost as a result of the disease. Therefore, the efficacy of this kind of therapy has to be measured by functional scales.
\nThere are several functional scales described in the literature. Bearing in mind its extensive applicability in neurological diseases, broad extended use and adaptability, the Barthel Index (BI) can be considered as a trustworthy scale for evaluating AOT results. The BI was designed in 1965 by Mohoney and Barthel [39] and has been subsequently modified by many others. The modification made by Granger et al. [40] should be mentioned as it is probably the most used version of the BI nowadays. The BI modified (BIm) consists of the evaluation of the independency degree when a patient performs 15 basic daily life activities (BDLA). Granger et al. grouped the activities into two subscales: one measuring the capacity to take care of themselves and the other determining the degree of mobility (Table 1). The BIm is a highly sensitive, valid and feasible, which is able to detect progress or impairment during the evolution of a rehabilitation program [41]. Furthermore, it is an inexpensive tool, which does not take up much of the examiner’s time.
Independent | Assistance | Dependent | |
---|---|---|---|
Drinking using a glass | 4 | 0 | 0 |
Eating | 6 | 0 | 0 |
Dressing the upper part of the body | 5 | 3 | 0 |
Dressing the lower part of the body | 7 | 4 | 0 |
Putting on prosthesis | 0 | −2 | 0 |
Tidying up | 5 | 0 | 0 |
Bathing | 6 | 0 | 0 |
Urine control | 10 | 5 | 0 |
Fecal control | 10 | 5 | 0 |
Sitting/getting up from a chair/bed | 15 | 7 | 0 |
Use of the toilet | 6 | 3 | 0 |
Getting in/out to the shower1 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
Walking 50 m | 15 | 10 | 0 |
Going down/upstairs | 10 | 5 | 0 |
Propelling a wheelchair | 5 | 0 | 0 |
0–20 | Complete disabled | ||
21–60 | Severe disabled | ||
61–90 | Moderate disabled | ||
91–99 | Slight disabled | ||
100 | Independent |
Barthel Index modified by Granger et al. Adapted from Granger et al. [40].
However, the evaluation of the capacity to perform the BDLA may not be enough to appropriately measure the impact of the AOT. “Instrumental daily life activities” (IDLA) and “advanced daily life activities” (ADLA) have been defined as activities that allow a person to be independent in the community (IDLA) (e.g., going to the supermarket, cooking) and to develop a social role (ADLA) (e.g., working, practicing sports, religion). The measurement of the capacity to develop these activities would provide a more holistic picture of the patient’s situation before and after the application of AOT. It would be interesting to evaluate the results of AOT using specific scales for IDLA and ADLA, because the MNS is clearly involved in the normal development of these activities.
\nOne of the scales for IDLA assessment is the Lawton and Brody scale, which consists of eight items related to daily activities (e.g., use of transport) which are asked directly to the patient or the caregiver [42]. It is a highly sensitive scale and has a high inter- and intra-observer correlation coefficient. However, the main disadvantage of this scale is that it was conceived for the elderly population, and thus, its application might be restricted.
\nFurthermore, it should be recognized that the evaluation of IDLA and ADLA is more complex than other evaluations and such activities are influenced by the culture and the geographical environment of the patient. Therefore, some effort needs to be made for testing new scales to approach the evaluation of IDLA and ADLA and apply them (with BDLA scales) to the measurement of AOT impact.
AOT is not the only rehabilitative tool that has been investigated in the last decade to improve the functional status of patients with neurological disorders. The application of virtual reality (VR) approaches in the field of rehabilitation is extensively reported, and it has been shown to have certain benefits, not only in the recovery of motor dysfunctions [43], but also in improving cognitive impairment [44, 45]. VR therapies are based on the generation of a real-time three-dimensional environment that makes the patients feels as if they are in a real situation [46]. Normally, the patient is situated in front of a monitor and is required to perform actions with the impaired limb (or with the non-impaired limb when the deficit is notable). These actions are recognized by a movement sensor, and the patient receives the feedback by means of the monitor, observing different movements or consequences of the performed actions. The feedback will depend on which VR program has been initiated. For instance, a VR program may consist of a box moving from one side to the other; the patient performs an action and observes the displacement of the boxes on the screen). These VR approaches have demonstrated their usefulness in several neurological disorders [43, 47–49], with stroke being the subject of the largest number of studies. In fact, a recent Cochrane meta-analysis concluded that VR leads to an improvement in upper limb function and recommended its use as a complementary therapy to the usual therapy for improving the activity of daily living function [50].
\nVR therapy has some aspects in common with AOT. The feedback in both therapies consists of an observation task (although the feedback of VR is usually over dimensioned); moreover, patients can be requested to interact with the elements they observe, with an imitation (AOT) or by trying to modify a condition in the virtual environment. Thus, VR and AOT modulate the MNS to achieve an improvement in the functional condition of patients. In this respect, some studies have shown the presence of an intense MNS activity during VR tasks [51, 52].
\nHowever, although these therapies share common features in the conditions they use, as well as the neural substrates they take advantage of, there are important feasibility and applicability differences. On the one hand, VR therapy requires a more sophisticated informatics structure than AOT; thus, it may be less efficient and makes this therapy less practical for use at home. On the other hand, the instructions and the tasks of VR therapies are more complex than those applied in AOT (i.e., simply observing or imitating a movement). Therefore, although VR and AOT may be complementary rehabilitation tools, AOT may be more widely used than VR in different socioeconomic environments.
The road that AOT has to travel until it can be considered a standard therapy in neurorehabilitation is still long. Although some randomized trials have been published reporting the efficacy of this therapy in stroke, Parkinson’s disease and cerebral palsy patients, new studies are necessary (considering the heterogeneity in the scales used for measuring the efficacy and in the period of treatment). Furthermore, other neuropathological conditions should be considered in such trials. For example, multiple sclerosis or traumatic brain injury patients could also benefit from AOT, but no randomized trials with this kind of patients have been performed to date.
\nOn the other hand, apart from the aspects that have been discussed above, it would also be interesting if new studies reported the results of neurofunctional studies (i.e., neuroimaging and/or other functional tests). It would provide much information about the functioning of the MNS in different pathological conditions as well as the plastic changes in the brain that may be associated with the use of AOT.
\nFurther study of AOT may generate a new weapon in the armory against the functional and social limitations produced by neurological disorders. The decrease of such limitations is clearly associated with an improvement in the quality of life and survival periods of the patients, thanks to the reduction of complication rates (associated with the aforementioned limitations). Therefore, new and appropriate research is needed to convert the AOT in a standard therapy in our hospitals and rehabilitative centers.
We would like to thank all members of the research group “Neurochemistry and Neuroimaging” of the University of La Laguna for their ideas and contributions to the preparation of this chapter.
It is well known that such mineral as calcium and magnesium, in particular, along with iron and manganese cause water harness, the existence of which may cause scaling problems and serious failures in pipelines of boilers and heat- transfer equipment. Also, these divalent ions can react with soap anions and thus decreasing the cleaning efficiency resulting in high consumption of detergents. Temporary hardness is a type of water hardness caused by the presence of dissolved bicarbonate minerals (calcium bicarbonate and magnesium bicarbonate). When dissolved, these type of minerals yield calcium and magnesium cations (Ca2+, Mg2+) and carbonate and bicarbonate anions (CO2−3 and HCO−3). The presence of the metal cations makes the water hard. However, unlike the permanent hardness caused by sulfate and chloride compounds, this “temporary” hardness can be reduced either by boiling the water, or by the addition of lime (calcium hydroxide) through the process of lime softening. Boiling promotes the formation of carbonate from the bicarbonate and precipitates calcium carbonate out of solution, leaving water that is softer upon cooling. Permanent hardness (mineral content) is generally difficult to remove by boiling. If this occurs, it is usually caused by the presence of calcium sulfate/calcium chloride and/or magnesium sulfate/magnesium chloride in the water, which do not precipitate out as the temperature increases. Ions causing permanent hardness of water can be removed using a water softener, or ion exchange column.
Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the human body. Calcium plays vital roles in the structure and function of the human body [1]. It is substantial for intracellular metabolism, bone growth, blood clotting, nerve conduction, muscle contraction and cardiac function [2]. However, there is a significant association between calcium level in drinking water and colorectal, gastric and breast cancer [3]. Magnesium is a naturally occurring mineral that is found in food and other medical products. It is an essential component in the in bones and in muscles and other tissues. However, the too much supplement of magnesium may result in symptoms of toxicity, such as a fall in blood pressure, confusion, abnormal cardiac rhythm, muscle weakness, difficulty breathing and deterioration of kidney function [4].
Therefore, it is important to control the level of hardness in water. Several technologies are available for removal of water hardness (Ca2+, Mg2+), such as electrochemical processes [5], Enzyme catalyzed [6], Nanofiltration [7], electro-dialysis [8], ultrasound [9], ultra-filtration [10], ion exchange [11, 12], membranes [13] and pulsed spark discharge [14]. The two major methods which are typically used to remove hardness form water are lime soda softening and ion exchange softening. The high operating cost of lime soda softening, which is mostly used for municipal purposes [15], is attributed to the production of a large volume of sludge that requires post-treatment, excessive use of chemicals (e.g., lime soda ash, and caustic soda) and the addition of acids for pH adjustment [16]. The ion exchange process is primarily employed for residential water softening. Experimental studies have found the sodium level in softened water was 2.5 times higher than municipal water [17]. Adsorption is one of the few promising alternatives for this purpose, especially using low-cost sorbets. A three-dimensional super absorption polymer were used as a absorbents for heavy metal ions from water and other aqueous solution susficialy. Polymer like polyacrylic acid, polyacryliamide and its derivatives which have functional groups (such as carboxylic, hydroxyl and amide) can be used as absorbents for metal ions removal via the interaction between the metal ions and these groups [18].
Ion exchange resins are classified as cation exchangers, which have positively charged mobile ions available for exchange, and anion exchangers, whose exchangeable ions are negatively charged. Both anion and cation resins are produced from the same basic organic polymers. Classification of ion exchange resins based on their sources is illustrated in Figure 1.
Classifications of ion exchange resins.
In the early 1800s, several scientists discovered the ion exchange process. The ion exchange industry in the United States was born in the early 1900s when cation exchangers were first synthesized. Ion exchange resins are used for many water treatment applications. Of these applications, in terms of the volume of resins used, water softening and demineralization of water are the most significant. In 1905, the German chemist Gans used sodium aluminosilicate materials (
Water softening has been practiced commercially for a century or more, making use of a wide range of natural and synthetic products. As the variety of uses for purified water has increased, so has the need to soften and demineralize water. Demineralization has only been practiced since the discovery of synthetic anion exchange resins in the 1920s. Their usefulness increased greatly with the invention of strongly basic anion exchange resins, which can remove weakly acidic compounds such as silica and carbon dioxide, as well as mineral acids. This process of ion exchange can be used as a simple method to produce water of very high purity. In general, as industrial and domestic requirements have grown, specifications for water quality have become progressively more stringent, and regulations to enforce these have become more strict. Hence the choice of resin types for a particular application becomes increasingly complex [20].
The ion exchange (IX) technology, an already existing technology, is considered an economical and and environmentally sustainable method for removing hardness (Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions removal) [21]. The theory behind the ion exchange (electro-chemical process) is to exchange positive and negative ions in water with hydronium (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH−). In order for this process to work, a 1-mm porous bed compromising of insoluble polymers and countless ion exchange sites must be used. When water passes through the bed, positive metallic ions (such as sodium, calcium and aluminum) are exchanged with H+, while others such as chloride, nitrate and sulfate will be replaced by OH− [22]. It can also be used to remove nitrates [23], arsenic [24], dissolved organic carbon (DOC) [25] and other heavy metal like cobalt [26], nickel, silver zinc and copper [27]. In general, the ion exchange method is vastly adequate in its ability to purify and separate a wide range of chemical compounds in the water treatment field. The medium used in most cases are IX polymer resin that is made of organic polymer structures [21]. Ion exchange process is considered a cost-effective solution and can remove microscale ion particles. However, it does not remove bacteria or pyrogens, and once all exchange sites are used up no ion exchange will occur. Furthermore, any ion exchange unit consists of two main types of resins: Cation exchange resins (CER) and Anion exchange resins (AER). CERs are used to remove cations from water and wastewater, particularly calcium and magnesium ions which are the two main contributors to water hardness [28].
The water from the main water supply enters the softening system and essentially flows through the bed of resin; the working principle of the system is such that the positively charged Ca and Mg ions are attracted to the resin beads [8]. An ion exchange then takes place wherein the Ca and Mg ions are replaced by weaker Na ions. Once the “hard” minerals are fully extracted, the water is termed as “soft” water [29]. As time goes by, the resin beads become saturated with hard ions and need to be regenerated to continue the ion exchange process [29]. Conventionally, the resins are made up of cross-linked polymer chains with ionically active sites and are usually in a bead-like form [30]. The cationic membranes are charged with a bulk of negative ions and available positive counter ions for the ion exchange process [30]. Characterization of these ionic exchange membranes and relating this to their different structures, including their physiochemical properties are reported elsewhere [31]; this involved procuring different types of ion-exchange membranes from different companies namely, Russia, Japan, USA and China. In addition, laboratory samples were also prepared from aromatic polymers and several perflourinated compounds [32]. The chemical characteristics of the ion-exchange resins are demonstrated by studying the kinetics of a sodium-hydrogen ion exchanger on sulphonated cross-linked polystyrenes [33]. The rate of exchange was measured using an indicator and the results showed a higher rate of ion exchange at a Na+ concentration greater than 1 N; however, at very high concentrations, the rate of exchange was found to be independent of the sodium concentration and inversely proportional to the particle radius [33].
Ion-exchange provides several advantages over other water treatment methods. Ion exchange process is environmentally friendly, is low-cost since the resin can be fervently regenerated and produces high output [34]. However, it has some disadvantages as well, adsorption of organic matter and calcium sulfate fouling are the most important ones [34]. Calcium sulfate precipitate blocks the resin beads and may also cause blocking of pipes in the system; adsorption of organic matter may reduce resin efficiency, and thus reducing quality of water. Therefore, eventually at one point the resin becomes saturated and ineffective in exchanging ions, and thus must be recharged or regenerated.
Regeneration is the process at which ion exchanging capabilities of saturated resins are recovered. Available regenerators may include salts like NaCl and KCl, acids such as acetic and citric acids, and alkalis including NaOH and KOH. One of the methods to maximize the efficiency of the regeneration process is the flow pattern, in which the regenerator can be introduced from the bottom to the upper side of the ion exchange bed. As a result, the resins at the bottom are cleaner as they undergo more regeneration than the resins in the upper side of the ion exchange unit. Thus, the treated water leaving the exchanger (downward flow) will be in contact with cleaner less saturated resin, which increases the ion exchange efficiency and results in purer water [35]. Ion regeneration is the removal of the ions that block or plug the internal exchange sites on resins; it includes the following three main steps: backwashing, regeneration and rinsing. The regeneration process is capable of restoring only 60–80% of the resin capacity, as some ions and hardness are retained on the resins. When service starts, these ions might leach off the resin and leave the bed with the treated water effluent, this case is known as leakage [36]. Thus, the regeneration cycle continues until the ions that were removed from the feed water during the service process are recovered from the resins or meet the allowable limits. This can be monitored by electrical conductivity measurements, where the change of electrical conductivity is measured at different volumes of rinsed water during succeeding resin washing cycles. It is expected that after each washing cycle, the electrical conductivity of water will decrease until it reaches distilled water conductivity [37].
Brining process referred to the one when a sodium cycle is used to soften water, where concentrated sodium chloride (NaCl) is passed through the bed to remove calcium and magnesium ions. It can be done in up flow or down flow mode. If sodium cycle is employed to soften water containing the iron ions, this may lead to lowering the resin capacity. This is because iron will be oxidized to the ferric insoluble form in which it blocks the exchange sites on the resin. This can be minimized by performing more frequent and quick regeneration so that iron would not have enough time to oxidize and blocks the sites. Moreover, the process can be enhanced by mixing sodium bisulfate with sodium chloride. This will reduce the insoluble ferric ion to its soluble form [38].
Deionized water has many applications: it can be used as a cooling medium, an agent for lab testing, in car engines and many more other applications [39]. In this work, tap water was deionized using HCl and NaOH as regeneration agents for the cathodic resin and the anodic resin, respectively. The effect of acid and concentrations, amount of water treated and mass of resins on the deionization process will be considered in this work.
The CE 300 Ion exchange demonstration unit (Gunt Hamburg, Germany) is used in this work. The apparatus facilitates tests relating to water softening and demineralization; it is equipped with both cation and anion exchangers with strong and weak basic or acidic contents. The unit layout is illustrated in Figure 2. CE 300 enables water deionization with the aid of cation and anion exchangers. The raw water is pumped from the tank into the top of the cation exchanger. In the softening process the water flows from there back into the collecting tank. To desalinate the raw water, it is then additionally routed through the anion exchanger. From there the treated water passes into the collecting tank. In the regeneration process, acid or caustic is fed into the ion exchangers from below using the same pump. The acid and caustic used is collected in the collecting tank. The flow rate of the pump is adjustable, and can be read from a flow meter before it enters the first ion exchanger. For continuous evaluation of the process, a conductivity sensor is installed upstream of the inlet into the collecting tank. The measured values can be read from a conductivity meter. Samples can be taken at all relevant points. Tap water can be used as raw water.
CE300 unit diagram: Flow path with the two ion exchangers configured in series (desalination): 1 collecting tank, 2 anion exchanger, 3 cation exchanger, 4 pump, 5 raw water tank; E conductivity, F flow rate.
Commercial cation and anion exchangers were provided by Gunt Hamburg (Germany). The strong acidic cation polymeric exchanger resin is commercially called MERCK 104765 cation exchanger IV with capacity greater than 3.2 mmol/ml; while the strong basic anion polymeric exchanger resin is commercially called MERCK 104767 anion exchanger III with capacities greater than 1.0 mmol/ml.
The set-up was prepared by opening/closing valves as described. Solutions of 5 vol% of HCl and 0.1 vol% of NaOH each in 100 mL distilled water were prepared. The cation tube was filled with the 5% HCl solution and the anion tube with the 0.1% NaOH solution; each containing 20 g polymeric resin. The process started by pumping the hard water through the column, and water was allowed to pass through the outlet tubes. Once a steady flow is passing through the outlet, the conductivity of the water at the outlet was recorded at time intervals of 10 seconds. The pump turned off when the conductivity values start to increase until reaching a steady state. The experiment was repeated with other concentrations of HCl and NaOH with 0.5 and 0.1 increments, respectively.
For the purpose of studying the effect of amount of water treated, the process was repeated at certain concentrations of HCl and NaOH with the tubes filled with different amounts of hard water. Also, the effect of amount of resin used was studied by pacing different amounts of resin at the different runs for given concentrations of HCl and NaOH.
Resin generation is important from cost point of view as well as minimizing solid waste. In this work, resin regeneration using different combinations of acid in the cationic resin and base in the anionic resin, each at different concentrations, was accomplished. Each bed was fed with 20 g of polymeric resin and each filled with 2 L of hard water. The hard water is municipality tab water with a hardness conductivity of 100,000 μS and a TDS of 600 mg/L. The experiment was started off by putting 0.5 vol% HCl and 0.1 vol% NaOH in the cathodic and anodic resin tubes, respectively; and in every different run the vol% was increased by 0.5 and 0.1 for each of the aforementioned resins. The results for water conductivity at different combinations of acid-base are shown in Figure 2, having in mind that the conductivity of purely deionized water is 1.1 micro Siemens (μS).
The experiment was started off by using 1-vol% NaOH and 5-vol% HCl in the cathodic and anodic resin tubes, respectively. It is seen (Figure 3) that conductivity starts to decrease indicating that the resin is deionizing the water until a point is reached where the conductivity starts to increase again, indicating that the resins have reached accumulation point. Accumulation point was reached after 5 seconds of running the experiment, and the maximum value of regeneration was found to be 1550 μS. When 0.9 vol% and 4.5 vol% of NaOH and HCl, respectively, were used the conductivity kept decreasing until a value of 1076 μS was reached in 45 seconds. The same trend was noticed when the NaOH and HCl vol% were decreased to 0.8 and 4% respectively; however, in this run a higher conductivity of 2270 was obtained in 45 seconds. This shows that as the amount of resin decreases, the conductivity of water increases indicating that fewer ions were removed. In Figure 3, a conductivity of 2140 μS was obtained at 45 seconds, when 0.9 and 4.5% NaOH and HCl, respectively, are used. More time was required to deionize the water for the case of 0.9 and 4.5% NaOH and HCl, respectively; at 45 seconds the conductivity was found to be 2360 μS. Furthermore, the conductivity was found to be 2260 μS at 45 seconds for the case 0.6 and 3.0% NaOH and HCl, respectively. Furthermore, as the vol% decreased, the conductivity started giving similar results at 45 seconds. For example, for the cases of 0.3% NaOH—1.5% HCl, 0.2% NaOH—1.0% HCl, and 0.1% NaOH—0.5% HCl, the conductivity was found to be 2300, 2100, and 1867 μS, respectively, which are close to each other. In conclusion, to have best results, the resin vol% should be high.
Effect of acid-base concentrations on resin regeneration; resin amount: 20 g in both tubes; volume treated: 2 L.
Effect of treated voume of water was also investigated using same amount of resins in each bed (20 g) and same eluants concentrations in the cationic and anionic resins (5 vol% HCl and and 1 vol% NaOH, respectively). The results for water conductivity at different amounts of treated water are shown in Figure 4. As shown in Figure 3 for the case of 1 L, the conductivity started to decrease indicating that the resins are deionizing the passing water. It started off with a conductivity of 864 μS which is the conductivity of tap water and ended with a conductivity of 73.19 μS. When the volume increased to 2 L, the lowest conductivity was found to be 70 μS after 140 seconds have passed. On the other hand, when 3 L of water was added, 1.14 L of water was treated and the lowest conductivity was found to be around 77.2 μS; after this point, the conductivity increased again and that happened at 70 seconds (Figure 4). For the case of 4 L of water being added, an amount of 1.63 L of water was treated. The lowest conductivity was found to be 242 μS and then it started to increase at 70 seconds. This shows that as more water is being treated, the conductivity increases.
Effect treated water on resin regeneration; resin amount: 20 g in both tubes; 5 vol% HCl—1 vol% NaOH.
The effect of amount of resin used in cationic anionic resin tubes on deionixation is also studied by putting different amounts of resins in each tube with different volumes of hard water as 3 using 5 vol% HCl in the cationic resin tube and 1 vol% NaOH in anionic resin tube. The results are shown in Figure 5. The case of 20 g resin is the same as the described in the previous section. When the amount of resin was increased to 40 g, the same trend was obtained as that of the 20 g resin. However, more water was deionized in this case because more resin was used. In other words, it required around 480 seconds to saturate the resin and to stop the deionization process. This shows that increasing the resin amount, helps in increasing the deionization efficiency. The resin amount was again increased to 60 g. The water was being deionized until 560 seconds were reached and a conductivity of 19.8 μS was obtained. After this point, the conductivity started to increase again indicating that the resin has been saturated. As the resin amount increased, the apparatus was able to give better results in terms of removing more ions from the water. For example, at 500 seconds the conductivity was found to be 38.6 and 20.4 μS for the 40 and 60 g, respectively. This shows that the amount of resin is related to the deionization efficiency. As the amount of resin increases, more ions are removed.
Effect amount of resins on resin regeneration using 5-vol% HCl in cationic resin tube and 1-vol% NaOH in anionic resin tube.
Water conductivity decreases with the increase in resins concentrations; the lowest conductivity is achieved when using 1-vol% NaOH and 5-vol% HCl in the cathodic and anodic resin tubes, respectively. The results of this work show that water conductivity increases with the increase in the amount of water being used. The amount of resin significantly impacts the deionization efficiency; more ions are removed as the amount of resin increases. The optimization implemented in this work is considered superior compared to other deionization techniques due to life time and efficiency of the reused resins.
The work in this book chapter was supported, in part, by the Open Access Program from the American University of Sharjah.
This book chapter represents the opinions of the author(s) and does not mean to represent the position or opinions of the American University of Sharjah.
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Abu-Eishah"}]},{id:"13747",doi:"10.5772/14702",title:"Application of Room Temperature Ionic Liquids in Electrochemical Sensors and Biosensors",slug:"application-of-room-temperature-ionic-liquids-in-electrochemical-sensors-and-biosensors",totalDownloads:9795,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:31,abstract:null,book:{id:"1373",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",title:"Ionic Liquids",fullTitle:"Ionic Liquids: Applications and Perspectives"},signatures:"Farnoush Faridbod, Mohammad Reza Ganjali, Parviz Norouzi, Siavash Riahi, and Hamid Rashedi",authors:[{id:"18565",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Ganjali",slug:"mohammad-reza-ganjali",fullName:"Mohammad Reza Ganjali"},{id:"20605",title:"Dr.",name:"Parviz",middleName:null,surname:"Norouzi",slug:"parviz-norouzi",fullName:"Parviz Norouzi"},{id:"20606",title:"Dr.",name:"Farnoush",middleName:null,surname:"Faridbod",slug:"farnoush-faridbod",fullName:"Farnoush Faridbod"},{id:"20607",title:"Dr.",name:"Siavash",middleName:null,surname:"Riahi",slug:"siavash-riahi",fullName:"Siavash Riahi"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"20532",title:"1,2,3-Triazolium Salts as a Versatile New Class of Ionic Liquids",slug:"1-2-3-triazolium-salts-as-a-versatile-new-class-of-ionic-liquids",totalDownloads:6032,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:null,book:{id:"327",slug:"ionic-liquids-classes-and-properties",title:"Ionic Liquids",fullTitle:"Ionic Liquids - Classes and Properties"},signatures:"Zekarias Yacob and Jürgen Liebscher",authors:[{id:"52686",title:"Prof.",name:"Jürgen",middleName:null,surname:"Liebscher",slug:"jurgen-liebscher",fullName:"Jürgen Liebscher"},{id:"56807",title:"Prof.",name:"Zekarias Yacob",middleName:null,surname:"Fundusa",slug:"zekarias-yacob-fundusa",fullName:"Zekarias Yacob Fundusa"}]},{id:"72530",title:"Application of Vortex Control Principle at Pump Intake",slug:"application-of-vortex-control-principle-at-pump-intake",totalDownloads:1008,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Vortex flow in a pump intake could affect a pump operation significantly if not treated appropriately. Many researches have been conducted to determine the best control method for vortex flow in pump sumps so that the pump lifespan can be maximized. In this study, a vortex control principle designed to minimize the impact of submerged vortex flow in pump sump on major pump components is presented. This principle employs a device called the plate type floor splitter which serves the function of eliminating vortices formed on the sump floor and reduces the intensity of swirling motion in the intake flow. A pump sump model was built to carry out the study by installing a floor splitter plate sample under the pump suction inlet and the corresponding parameters used to quantify the swirl intensity known as the swirl angle was measured. Procedures for the measurement were conducted based on ANSI/HI 9.8-2018 standard. A numerical simulation was performed to study the flow in a full-scale pump sump. The results showed that the installation of floor splitter plate can eliminate vortices efficiently and reduce swirl angle significantly. However, optimization of floor splitter design is needed to achieve a reduction effect that can reduce swirl angles to an acceptable value of lower than 5° according to ANSI/HI 9.8-2018 standard.",book:{id:"10080",slug:"vortex-dynamics-theories-and-applications",title:"Vortex Dynamics Theories and Applications",fullTitle:"Vortex Dynamics Theories and Applications"},signatures:"Zambri Harun, Tajul Ariffin Norizan and Wan Hanna Melini Wan Mohtar",authors:[{id:"243152",title:"Dr.",name:"Zambri",middleName:null,surname:"Harun",slug:"zambri-harun",fullName:"Zambri Harun"},{id:"313310",title:"Mr.",name:"Tajul Ariffin",middleName:null,surname:"Norizan",slug:"tajul-ariffin-norizan",fullName:"Tajul Ariffin Norizan"},{id:"317421",title:"Dr.",name:"Wan Hanna Melini",middleName:null,surname:"Wan Mohtar",slug:"wan-hanna-melini-wan-mohtar",fullName:"Wan Hanna Melini Wan Mohtar"}]},{id:"20216",title:"Ionic Liquids in Separation Techniques",slug:"ionic-liquids-in-separation-techniques",totalDownloads:8523,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1300",slug:"applications-of-ionic-liquids-in-science-and-technology",title:"Applications of Ionic Liquids in Science and Technology",fullTitle:"Applications of Ionic Liquids in Science and Technology"},signatures:"Jolanta Flieger and Anna Czajkowska-Żelazko",authors:[{id:"20797",title:"Dr.",name:"Jolanta",middleName:null,surname:"Flieger",slug:"jolanta-flieger",fullName:"Jolanta Flieger"},{id:"136020",title:"Prof.",name:"Czajkowska",middleName:null,surname:"Żelazko",slug:"czajkowska-zelazko",fullName:"Czajkowska Żelazko"}]},{id:"71403",title:"Supercritical-Fluids Thermophysical Properties and Heat Transfer in Power-Engineering Applications",slug:"supercritical-fluids-thermophysical-properties-and-heat-transfer-in-power-engineering-applications",totalDownloads:1135,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Researches on specifics of thermophysical properties and heat transfer at supercritical pressures (SCPs) started as early as the 1930s with the study on free-convection heat transfer to fluids at a near-critical point. In the 1950s, the concept of using SC “steam” to increase thermal efficiency of coal-fired thermal power plants became an attractive option. Germany, USA, the former USSR, and some other countries extensively studied heat transfer to SC fluids (SCFs) during the 1950s till the 1980s. This research was primarily focused on bare circular tubes cooled with SC water (SCW). However, some studies were performed with modeling fluids such as SC carbon dioxide and refrigerants instead of SCW. Currently, the use of SC “steam” in coal-fired thermal power plants is the largest industrial application of fluids at SCPs. Near the end of the 1950s and at the beginning of the 1960s, several studies were conducted to investigate a possibility of using SCW as a coolant in nuclear reactors with the objective to increase thermal efficiency of nuclear power plants (NPPs) equipped with water-cooled reactors. However, these research activities were abandoned for some time and regained momentum in the 1990s. In support of the development of SCW-cooled nuclear-power reactor (SCWR) concepts, first experiments have been started in annular and various bundle flow geometries. At the same time, more numerical and CFD studies have been performed in support of our limited knowledge on specifics of heat transfer at SCPs in various flow geometries. As the first step in this process, heat transfer to SCW in vertical bare tubes can be investigated as a conservative approach (in general, heat transfer in fuel bundles will be enhanced with various types of appendages, that is, grids, end plates, spacers, bearing pads, fins, ribs, etc.). New experiments in the 1990–2000s were triggered by several reasons: (1) thermophysical properties of SCW and other SCFs have been updated from the 1950s–1970s, for example, a peak in thermal conductivity in the critical/pseudocritical points was “officially” introduced in 1990s; (2) experimental techniques have been improved; (3) in SCWRs, various bundle flow geometries will be used instead of bare-tube geometry; (4) in SC “steam” generators of thermal power plants, larger diameter tubes/pipes (20–40 mm) are used, however in SCWRs hydraulic-equivalent diameters of proposed bundles will be within 5–12 mm; (5) with Research and Development (R&D) of next-generation or Generation-IV nuclear-power-reactor concepts, new areas of application for SCFs have appeared—for example, SCP helium was proposed to be used as a reactor coolant, SCP Brayton and Rankine cycles with SC carbon dioxide as a working fluid are being developed, etc. A comparison of thermophysical properties of SCFs with those of subcritical-pressure fluids showed that SCFs as single-phase fluids have unique properties, which are close to “liquid-like” behavior below critical or pseudocritical points and are quite similar to the behavior of “gas-like” substances above these points. A comparison of selected SCW heat transfer correlations has shown that their results may differ from one to another by more than 200%. Based on these comparisons, it became evident that there is a need for reliable, accurate, and wide-range SCW heat transfer correlation(s) to be developed and verified. Therefore, the objective of this chapter is to summarize in concise form specifics of supercritical-fluids thermophysical properties and heat transfer in power-engineering applications.",book:{id:"9201",slug:"advanced-supercritical-fluids-technologies",title:"Advanced Supercritical Fluids Technologies",fullTitle:"Advanced Supercritical Fluids Technologies"},signatures:"Igor L. 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In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"95",type:"subseries",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",keywords:"Circular economy, Contingency planning and response to disasters, Ecosystem services, Integrated urban water management, Nature-based solutions, Sustainable urban development, Urban green spaces",scope:"