\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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This means that HR has moved beyond the common roles of hiring and firing to more complex roles that directly influence the performance of the organization [2]. Consequently, the HR role is more demanding and requires extensive knowledge and skills to ensure that all these organizational needs are met. Crisis management is among the areas of management in which the HR is expected to participate in, with a view of ensuring that employees needs, during and after a crisis, are given consideration during the development of crisis management plans [3].
The prevalence of crises within organizations has increased significantly in the contemporary times as different kinds of threats emerge within and outside the working environment [4]. This calls for increased awareness of such threats and the inclusion of mitigating actions to address crises when they occur. Accordingly, crisis management can be considered an imperative role of the HR and which should be given significant priority. Crisis management refers to the process of anticipating, identifying, preventing and managing potential disasters by putting in place plans to deal with crises when they occur [5]. The HR has an impacting role in crisis management through planning and training to ensure employees are capable of navigating through turbulent times. The role of HR in crisis management is to enhance preparedness among personnel and thus ensure effective disaster planning. Through including the human side in crisis management, it has been established that organizations are in a better position to deal with crises when they occur.
This chapter focuses on the HR’s role in planning and training for crisis management. It addresses the HR function as a crisis management function and strives to establish the role played by HR in ensuring that the organization is well prepared and that personnel are well trained to deal with crises when they occur.
A crisis is defined as any partial or total disruption of a business’ key operations as a result of damage of property or equipment, harm to people, destroyed relationships, environmental destruction or stakeholder negative perception and influence among other factors [6]. The Human Resource Management Association [7] defines it as “a low probability, high-impact occurrence that is often unexpected and unfamiliar, occasioned by organizational structures, people, technology, economics, natural disasters among others.” Consequently, this may affect the business’s performance, reputation, and employee productivity resulting in disastrous impact on the business. Given that crises can occur at any time, crisis management which involves the identification, prevention, and management of potential crises has increasingly gained importance in the managerial spheres [6]. The goal is to ensure that in the event of a crisis, the minimum damage is incurred and that the organization can return to its original position as fast as possible. Crisis management refers to a series of processes through which the organization ensures that the business operations can be sustained or resumed with the minimum impact on the stakeholders and where lessons learnt can be used to improve current practices [7]. Crisis management is thus considered a critical process in enhancing business sustainability.
Various explanations have been put forth in a bid to explain the processes involved in crisis management within organizations.
According to Andrianopoulos [8], crisis management may be subdivided into three major steps namely: pre-crisis, crisis, and post-crisis. Pre-crisis refers to the period before the crisis, where the organization undertakes activities aimed at identifying potential crises and developing plans on how they can be addressed. The crisis stage refers to the period during which the crisis occurs. This stage presents an opportunity for the organization to implement the crisis management plan developed in the pre-crisis stage in order to reduce or eliminate negative impact on the crisis. The post-crisis stage is the period following a crisis and includes recovery actions to get the organization back to its original state. Each of these stages is considered significantly important because they all determine how effectively an organization can deal with a crisis when it occurs.
Christina [9] explains the major steps involved in crisis management, noting that each step influences the company’s ability to recover when faced by a crisis. The first step toward effective crisis management is the identification of potential crises facing the organization. This involves scanning the business’ internal and external environment to establish the kind of threats that a company faces in the course of its operations [9]. Crises may range from failed organizational processes to bad publicity in the internal environment, and natural disasters and man-made disasters in the external environment. The second step involves the identification of the impact that crises may have on the organization. This involves the impact of the crisis on processes, operations, organization’s assets, public image, and employee performance. Once this has been achieved, the next step is to identify the best approaches toward resolving the crisis when they occur. This involves the development of a crisis management plan, which consists of the procedures to be followed in the event of a crisis.
Mitroff [19] provides a framework that effectively explains what consists of crisis management in organizations [7]. This is explained in Figure 1.
Crisis management process.
Crisis management in organizations is often manifested in the focus on operations, system reinforcement, infrastructure development, and public relations [5]. All these activities are aimed at building the organization’s resilience and hence promote sustainability. However, there is a notable tendency of concentrating on these aspects of crisis management, such that the human resource aspect is sidelined [9]. Employees who are likely to be hurt, both physically and emotionally are often neglected during the crisis management efforts, such that crisis management plans rarely provide adequate measures for the protection of employees [5]. Furthermore, employees are the main contributors in the recovery process and their welfare is critical in ensuring effective recovery. In the contemporary times, however, it has become critical for organizations to place priority on the protection of their human resources, hence the increased focus on employee preparedness when it comes to crises [5]. This is because in a world where the information and knowledge is increasingly thriving, organizations have become increasingly reliant on human capital in promoting competitive advantage as opposed to equipment, systems, and technology. Employees are currently considered the most important assets within the organization, and hence there is a need for them to safeguard the safety of their employees. Organizations are required to pay greater attention to the impact of crises on employees, relatives and the community in general in order to successfully achieve effective crisis management. It is for this reason that the HR has been vested the role of crisis management within the organization to ensure that employees are well prepared and that they can survive and recover following unfortunate events. The HR has a duty to ensure that staff are included in all business continuity and crisis management plans.
As the custodian of staff welfare, the HR has an important role to play in ensuring that human capital within the organization is protected and that employees can continue to provide value for the organization beyond the crisis [5]. The HR is best positioned to offer disaster preparedness and crisis management training to employees to ensure that they are in a position to handle crises when they occur. Accordingly, the role of HR in managing crisis becomes extremely important for any organization that seeks to maintain brand reputation and stakeholder trust and loyalty.
The HR undertakes key roles in crisis management from the pre-crisis to the post-crisis stages. The HR’s role is to protect the welfare of employees while at the same time ensuring that they contribute to the organization’s sustainability, through doing their part in times of disaster. The role of the HR is to ensure that staff are adequately prepared for crises through training, effective leadership and empowerment, ensuring that security and safety initiatives are taken to protect employees in the event of a crisis and developing communication plans necessary in promoting crisis management [10]. The roles of HR in crisis management are varied and can be classified into different themes as follows.
This is the process through which an organization makes plans on how to deal with crises, including crisis prevention, impact reduction, and crisis recovery [11]. Crisis management planning enhances the company’s ability to deal with crises and ensures faster recovery when an organization is faced by a crisis. Crisis management planning is an imperative process in crisis management because it provides guidelines on preventing or averting crises, dealing with crises and the recovery process.
An imperative role of HR in crisis management, training ensures that employees can effectively implement the crisis management plan. Training and talent development provide employees with knowledge and skills necessary to enhance the recovery process. The HR is expected to lead or participate in training aimed at mentally preparing employees for possible crisis events [12]. This involves the development of a training plan in which employees are provided with knowledge and skills on how to deal with crises. The training should also involve simulation exercises to provide a practical feel about how to deal with real crises. This is discussed in more detail under the topic “Training for crisis management.”
The HR has a key responsibility to ensure that employees are aware of vulnerabilities and potential threats. This involves identifying and communicating all possible threats within and outside the organization to the employees. Effective communication ensures that employees are physically, emotionally, and intellectually prepared, such that it becomes easier to handle the crisis [9]. Besides providing such information, the HR is expected to develop a crisis communication plan that should be shared among employees to help them in identifying channels of communication in the face of a crisis. Ronez [5] noted that the HR is a strategic partner when it comes to human resource management and should therefore understand the crisis management language, enough to lead preparedness and recovery.
The HR has a key role to play in crisis management and consequently promoting sustainability preparedness in an organization. Notably, disasters both within and outside the working environment are likely to impact the organization and its employees is a significant manner, such that there is a need to design preparedness measures to promote sustainability. The role of the HR is based on the premise that when employees are affected by a crisis, the organization becomes vulnerable. Second, people within the organization are considered the solution to the challenges faced by the organization in the face of a crisis, such that preparing them for disaster is considered an imperative aspect of business management.
The HR is responsible for providing necessary manpower within the organization and also ensuring that employees use their skills to contribute to organizational development. This means that HR can contribute to crisis management through motivating employees to contribute to the crisis management plan execution. It is notable that staff are of great significance, both before and after the crisis, and the HR professionals are best placed at facilitating their participation in crisis management. Through training and motivation, an organization can ensure that its crisis management efforts are fruitful by actively engaging employees in the process.
The other way in which the HR influences crisis management is through influencing the organizational culture. Lockwood [12] defines organizational culture as the shared behaviors within an organization and which determine how members of the organization interact and execute their duties as influenced by organizational values and norms. This insinuates that the manner in which employees within an organization respond to crises is highly dependent on the organizational culture. The HR can influence culture within the organization, with aspects such as leadership capabilities and resilience being emphasized as a means to enhancing crisis management [13]. When skills such as problem solving are ingrained in an organization’s culture, it is possible that staff will be better positioned to survive the crisis.
Besides the organizational crisis plan, a small-scale crisis plan that addresses the human aspect of crisis should be developed by the HR. This involves identifying vulnerability to HR functions and processes and developing mitigation plans [5]. Examples may include protecting HR records such as backing up data and having a plan regarding work continuity in the event of loss of staff. This mini plan should also include publicizing crisis management efforts with employees and management in order to encourage better crisis management. The goal is for the HR to proactively identify ways of solving problems within the HR department and hence promote competency. This also ensures that the HR department is recognized for its role in crisis management, hence promoting more inclusion in strategic management.
It is notable that a majority of organizations tend to focus on safeguarding their operations, systems, infrastructure and public relations when it comes to crisis management [11]. This leaves out the human side of crisis management, which may be catastrophic for the organization. There are various reasons why an organization should focus on developing a HR crisis plan. To begin with, having a HR crisis plan prevents the loss of key staff and thus preserves an organization’s knowledge hub. When crises occur, there is a risk of losing staff due to injury or the need to move to other organizations that focus on employee welfare. By developing a HR crisis plan, an organization ensures that it protects its human resources and hence promotes continuity of the business. The second factor is that a HR crisis plan reduces high turnover and absenteeism in the event of a crisis [6]. Crises tend to disrupt the normal activities of the organization and unless there is a solid crisis plan to guide employees on actions to take following a crisis, it is likely that they may abandon their jobs or fail to report to work as expected. The third factor is that failure to pay attention to employees also leads to low morale and motivation, such that employees do not perform to their best ability [6]. A fourth consideration in promoting crisis management is that crises may result in an increased in health benefits costs, which would cost the company significantly. Accordingly, training employees on crisis management ensure that injuries are reduced and that such costs are reduced. Poor HR crisis management could also lead to a damaged reputation and negative publicity. This is because the company appears as one that is not concerned about the welfare of their employees. A notable justification for HR crisis management is that it helps employees to handle emergencies better, such that losses and injuries are minimized [6]. This makes it easier for the organization to recover from the crisis as compared to where there is no crisis management plan.
Corporations are made up of people and under any circumstances, employees are significantly affected when an organization is faced by a crisis. Furthermore, employees are responsible for implementing the crisis management plan whenever a crisis occurs. This essentially means that employees play an imperative role in the crisis management process, and their role should be recognized when developing crisis management plans. The HR is mandated with the role of development and implementation of policies and procedures related to employees. The HR is also responsible for communicating policies and procedures with staff, as well as duties and responsibilities required of them in the organization [14]. This explains why the HR’s participation in crisis management is of great significance within the organization, given that it provides guidance on policies and procedures for dealing with emergencies and crises. The HR can also include crisis management as one of the roles for staff when they are recruited by the company, this creating increased ownership in the project. Secondly, the HR plays the role of an intermediary between the management and employees. The fact that employees are the direct executors of crisis management plans requires that the HR is directly involved in order to ensure that employee rights and needs are protected. Involvement of the HR in crisis management planning also ensures that contents of the plan can be effectively communicated. This is best achieved when the HR is part of the planning team, thus making it easy to accurately communicate to staff on what is required of them in the event of a crisis. Direct involvement of the HR also ensures that crisis management training is done more effectively because HR understands dynamics and foundation of the crisis management plan. This is effective in promoting understanding among employees and creating ownership of the crisis management plan.
Crisis management is about creating value for the company through minimizing downtime and potential damages from crises. Accordingly, crisis management must begin by recognition of the organization’s vulnerability and how this can be overcome through the effective engagement of employees. This is followed by the identification of the danger to employees and therefore design possible crisis scenarios that may affect employees. The HR then defines guidelines and HR policies aimed at protecting employees, avoiding panic and ad hoc actions such that the physical and psychological health of employees is preserved [15]. This calls for HR’s involvement in crisis management through training and preparation of employees to handle potential crises. In order for HR crisis management to be effective, HR must work in collaboration with other organizational functions. This ensures effective integration of the human aspect of crisis management into the overall crisis management plan.
Planning is an important aspect of crisis management, and HR involvement plays a critical role in ensuring successful management of crises. In this regard, the HR should get involved in crisis management from the planning stage in order to ensure that the needs of employees are included in the crisis management plan [16]. This involves providing information on what the role of employees in the organization is and the roles they should play in crisis management. The HR provides vital information including staff capabilities and the kind of training necessary for effective crisis management. The HR also provides information on employee needs, ensuring that the welfare of employees is given priority. Lack of HR involvement would mean that the human aspect of crisis management is undermined, thus bringing in challenges in dealing with crises.
The HR is best placed in understanding the kind of impact that a crisis is likely to have on employees based on their knowledge on physical and psychological influences of employee performance. This means that the HR provides insightful information that will ensure that a wholesome plan is developed. This ensures that the safety of employees is given priority due to the understanding of the impact of crises on employees and their families [5]. In achieving effective planning, employee involvement may be beneficial for HR because it provides valuable information on crisis management through employees’ perspective. As the department is responsible for promoting employee welfare in the organization, HR can enhance the crisis management planning process by incorporating employee contribution, which in turn promotes the ownership of the plan by employees. This increases the probability of success during implementation.
Training plays a major role in enhancing preparedness through ensuring that employees have the right knowledge and skills to guide them during times of crisis. As the department designated with providing training for employees, the HR department has a mandate to offer training on crisis management [5]. This should be done professionally in order to ensure that employees are effectively prepared for crises that may occur both within and outside the work environment.
The crisis management plan is normally a lengthy document documenting the processes to be followed in the event of a disaster. While it may be considered effective and appropriate for the organization, its implementation may not be actualized if the employees do not receive adequate training on disaster management. Training enhances awareness among employees and also heightens support for the program. Training is effective in ensuring that the crisis management recovery teams are familiar with the recovery processes and procedures, thus making it easy to implement them when there is a disaster [17]. Leaders should be in a position to identify when and how to activate a disaster plan, manage teams, communicate across the organization, and assemble teams to ensure safety during and after the crisis [11]. They also need knowledge to effectively execute the crisis management plan to ensure that the risk is minimized or contained.
The HR undertakes various training activities in relation to crisis management. The most important role of the HR is to understand the crisis management plan in order to effectively develop a training program for staff. This ensures that accuracy is enhanced and that employees are given the right training. The second aspect of training is to develop the training program to be used. This is a rigorous process that involves developing a curriculum and plan for training based on the organizational disaster plan [17]. The process also involves developing a training program to ensure that all relevant employees are trained. Special focus should be given to team leaders to ensure that they have adequate knowledge to handle potential crises. A third aspect of training is follow-up and continuous trainings to ensure that employees are still conversant with previous training given [4]. This ensures that they remain ready for a crisis and that the organization is better placed at handling crises.
There are various areas of training that the HR can focus with regard to crisis management as discussed in the following sections.
An important aspect in crisis management is being able to predict or speculate on possible threats. Threat and risk assessment play a key role in promoting preparedness through the identification of potential crises that may affect the organization and hence taking relevant measures to ensure that the organization is prepared for such risks [5]. Training on threat and risk assessment involves training of employees on how to detect threats in the business environment by providing them with knowledge and skills in environment scanning. This should be a continuous process where employees in the course of their work consistently identify potential threats to the business and report the same through their supervisors. The HR department should also work toward developing a department for crisis management, and threat and risk assessment is given priority to protect the business from potential losses. Therefore, the HR has a significant contribution to make as far as preventing threats within the organization is concerned.
Business continuity comprises of activities aimed at ensuring that business operations continue like before the crisis occurred. The goal is to ensure that the organization can resume its original position as fast as possible and thus enhance continuation of normal business processes [4]. This is an important aspect of the training process because it provides staff with information on continuity planning, such that it becomes easier for the organization to recover. Business continuity planning may cover aspects such as technology innovation to prevent loss and recovery of data, effective communication to promote normalization of organizational activities after the disaster, and to maintain good relationships with stakeholders. When staff are well trained on organization’s business continuity plan, they are better placed to help in the recovery process after a disaster as opposed to where they do not have adequate knowledge and therefore do not adopt strategies necessary to promote effective business continuity planning.
The process of disaster recovery depends on the ability of the organization to respond to the disaster and the level of knowledge and skills possessed by its employees. The HR has a mandate to train employees on disaster recovery processes including what to do after a disaster, how to handle disasters, and how to survive from the disaster. The disaster recovery process as related to the employee may include training on how to handle physical and psychological trauma following a crisis as well as how employees can help the organization return to its position before the crisis. Crises may lead to significant losses such as loss of data, physical assets, technology, processes, and customers among others. Employees need training on how best to recover from such losses and hence promote performance of the organization.
The process of business recovery after a crisis requires extensive knowledge and effective strategies to ensure that the business can regain its lost glory. This is done through performing a business impact analysis, to determine how the business was affected by the disaster. Accurate impact analysis helps in the recovery process because it helps in establishing the loss involved, such that the organization can work out strategies to recover what it has lost. In order to achieve this, the input of employees is of great significance because they are best placed at identifying the impact that the crisis had on the business. By training employees how to effectively quantify the impact of crises on a business, the organization is able to plan better and improve the recovery process.
While crises and disasters are highly unique, performing simulation exercises is an effective way of helping employees to understand how they can react in various scenarios. Simulation is a practical imitation or replication of an actual crisis, where employees are required to react as if the crisis has happened in real life [18]. This is mostly done after extensive training on crisis management, such that a practical session is aimed at testing their understanding and interpretation ability. During the simulation, employees perform an act on how they would have responded if there was indeed a crisis. The simulation exercise may involve brainstorming sessions whereby the employees exchange ideas on how best to handle certain scenarios. The trainer should then provide the ideal position in order to ensure that the employees are in sync in case they are faced with a similar situation.
An important factor in HR crisis management is to ensure the safety of employees through promoting their physical and psychological well-being. This means that the HR in crisis management training should focus on training employees on how to survive in the event of a disaster [18]. This includes training on communication, risk avoidance, first aid, importance of protective wear when handling risky assignments, and emergency sources of help among others. When employees are well versed with survival techniques, they are more likely to survive from a disaster, which ensures that the organization’s knowledge hub is maintained. The information can further be shared with their connections such as family and friends. This ensures that the stability of employees is enhanced because employees are likely to be affected when crises face their immediate family.
This chapter focuses on the relevance of HR in crisis management, with particular focus on planning and training for crisis management. It is established that while traditional crisis management efforts have dwelled on protecting the organization’s resources, processes, technology and reputation, the human side often ends up being neglected. This calls for increased participation of HR is crisis management in order to ensure that employees are effectively engaged in the process. The chapter provides various justifications for increased participation of HR in the organization’s crisis management planning process. Among the most important aspects is that employees make up the organization’s most valuable resources and that they are also responsible for the implementation of crisis management plans when they fall due. Accordingly, they are considered a key stakeholder in the crisis management process, and the HR should therefore be proactive in this process.
The HR in any organization must move from the traditional roles and embrace more contemporary aspects of HR including participation in crisis management. This will ensure that employees are better prepared to handle crises and also promote the employee retention in the organization. There are various aspects of planning and training that the HR can participate in and take control of in the organization. These include identification of potential threats within the organization, developing departmental crisis management plan, participation in the development of the organizational crisis management plan, training employees on threat and risk management, business continuity planning, crisis impact assessment, and practical lessons in handling crises when they occur. Through HR participation in planning and training, performance of organizations can be enhanced, thus promoting the bottom-line and ability to deal with future crises.
This book chapter was sponsored by the Deanship of Scientific Research and Graduate Studies at Yarmouk University, Irbid Jordan.
The noun
The notions about the Latin
Tropaeum Alpium (or
The building was built in honor of Emperor Augustus in 7/6 B.C. The emperor’s motive for erecting the monument was constituted by the alpine military campaign from 15 B.C. in which Drusus and Tiberius conquered a total of 46 tribes, this significant event being recorded by Plinius the Elder as a historical source. The building was rebuilt by Jean-Camille Formigé at the beginning of the twentieth century so that at least the original Roman construction became recognizable [2, 3, 4, 5] (Figures 1 and 2).
Tropaeum Augusti (trophy of the Alps), from La Turbie, Department of the Maritime Alps (France).
Reproduction of the Romanian trophy in the La Turbie Museum.
The construction, a
Between the columns were niches, in which the statues of the participating commanders were arranged, for example, of Drusus. The dome carried by columns narrowed up in the form of steps and was crowned by a colossal statue of Augustus.
In ancient times, the building as a whole had a height of almost 50 m. According to the records, the podium was in the shape of a square with a side of 32.5 m and height of 12 m, on which the inscription is in Latin, flanked by two victories (an aspect that makes it look more like the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus) [7].
The second level, accessible by stairs, consisted of a covered circular colonnade. Between the 24 columns, statues of different commanders could be seen. Its height was 35 m. On the tip of a cone, up to the height of 49 m from the ground level was the statue of Augustus. The golden components were visible from a great distance and would have been a beacon for the ships. By its greatness the monument was unique in the Roman Empire. The monument was made of local stone; the quarry, which is located approximately 600 m northwest of the monument, is still in use. Today the cone and statue are missing; the debris reaches only a height of 35 m.
In the Middle Ages, the triumphal monument was transformed into a fortification with a watchtower, the remains of which could still be seen in the upper part of the building until 1705 when under the order of King Louis XIV, it was mined and later used as much as a stone quarry, under the open sky, an aspect evidenced by the blocks and fragments reused at the construction of the Saint Michael church at that time, as well as at several residential constructions in the area [8].
At the reconstruction and the partial restoration, no more than four columns could be completely erected, and only the western facade with the inscription was completely restored; the rest of the fragments are kept in the local museum.
The inscribed block is framed by two large marble reliefs. On them is recognized a trophy, namely, the captured weapons, which are hung by a tree trunk. At the foot of the
During all this time, 1858 can be noted as important for the monument, because the Royal House of Savoy made its decision to consolidate it, and in 1865, shortly after the Nice area became part of France, the building was classified Historical Monument.
The restoration works carried out at the Tropaeum Augusti monument, located in La Turbie, are representative through the procedure and technologies adopted. The restoration engineers in Sardinia proposed a strict consolidation in the existing composition, while Viollet-le-Duc and his followers adopted the procedure of restoration by anastylosis. The complete change of the restoration doctrine is coupled with the change of the historical stage.
Indeed, the archeological monuments and sites of Nice are integrated before 1860 in the initiative of the Savoy dynasty, which has been committed since 1848 to build a unique Italy.
The problem of styles had a great political dimension in northern Italy, where the architects tried to transform historicism into a national architecture for the new Italy.
At the time of the first laws and institutions for the protection of the monumental heritage between 1830 and 1860, France and the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia developed the heritage policy concurrently. The buildings and sites of Nice experienced two administrations of the cults and two services of the historical monuments due to the transfer of sovereignty in 1860. These political changes contributed to the illustration of two national histories, the one of Piedmont, later that of France after 1860, when
At that time, four categories of buildings classified as monument were identified: the buildings of the old Cimiez amphitheater, the trophy of the Alps in La Turbie and two medieval buildings, the TENDA College and the Utelle parish church.
The prioritizing of the ancient remains of the Cimiez amphitheater and of the Augustus trophy in La Turbie in 1865 is the first application in the Nice area of the French system of protection of historical monuments (Figure 3).
Augustus trophy from La Turbie 1880/1915, Ministry of Culture in France-archive of historical monuments and heritage, photos taken from the Jean Gilletta collection [
The restoration work was resumed at the beginning of the twentieth century when the French Archeology Society gave Philippe Casimir, a teacher, the extensive responsibility for these sites (1905–1908).
The campaign continues under the leadership of Jean-Camille Formigé and Jules Formigé, chief architects appointed to restore the Historical Monuments, who are the authors of the reconstruction of a part of the building. Initially, the works were financed by the French state (1908–1909) and then by American owner Edward Tuck, who assumes most of the reconstruction (1929–1933) [12].
The two architects, Jean-Camille Formigé and Jules Formigé, are trying to restore the original appearance of the monument by reconstructing the western facade (towards the village) with old fragments, supplemented with contemporary materials.
According to the reconstruction, the building is provided with a double square base superimposed by a circular plan with Doric-Tuscan elements. On the high square basement, there is the famous inscription, flanked by victories and sculptures that present trophies of weapons to which the captives are chained. Several hundred ancient blocks are incorporated at this altitude, the missing parts being restored and the sculptures integrated as half-finished. On the circular plate, where several columns are erected, some fragments that probably belong to statues of general are hung on the wall, behind the colonnade. The metopes of the limestone frieze are adorned with various motifs: armor (heroic representations in Roman sculpture/armor), the bow of the ship, and the head of the cattle adorned with strips.
The facade has been partially reconstructed. Behind it, the monument remained open and reveals the original state. In this area there is a massive structure, composed of strong walls and a huge amount of mortar commonly used in Roman architecture. The central cylinder composed of radial pillars, which constitute the foundations of the columns of the circular plate, is clearly delimited. These materials are extracted from the trophy quarries. For decoration, sculptures, and inscription, the marble was imported from Carrara, in Liguria.
The reconstruction of the Trophy of the Alps was achieved by integrating the pieces, which led to completing the overall image, significantly altering the conical part and the roof, to support the statues of Augustus and the two captives positioned at his feet. The new reconstruction significantly modifies the conical part and the roof surmounted by a hexagonal floor with a circular base, to support the statues of Augustus and the two captives at his feet. Thus reconstructed, the monument in the locality of La Turbie shows a great resemblance of the outline architectural lines with the triumphal monument of Adamclisi. Even J. Formigé points out that in the reconstruction of the La Turbie monument, it was attracted by the architecture of the Adamclisi monument.
The Trophy of the Alps that has dominated over time and so far dominates the Principality of Monaco is an exceptional symbol dedicated to Augustus, which he honors as a god. His position, which seems to be derived from Greek mythology, from the life of Hercules, is the expression of the deity of the emperor as the son of God, promised to be deified. Augustus also goes after the great conquerors Domitius Ahenobarbus, Pompeii and Caesar, and even, before them, Hannibal.
Although located in a somewhat more difficult environment, this monument has always attracted the visiting public—Romans, barbarians, poets, and tourists. The commune La Turbie is proud to own one of the two Roman monuments, the one dedicated to the first Roman emperor, Augustus, located at the ends of Europe. The second, dedicated to Emperor Trajan, is in Romania [13].
This extremely impressive and important monument signifies for France also the monumental proof of the trace of the border between Gaul and Italy on the ridge of the Alps. Recovering its monumentality, the trophy becomes the signal monument of origin, which marks the border of the Alps at the same time as it affirms peace. The intention and success of the restoration of the monument and its inclusion in the French national heritage support the highlight of the interest of the states of Europe to encourage the writing of their national history. Archeology and monumental heritage are promoted as illustration or proof. The monument becomes the signal of national history in the landscape [14].
At the beginning of the twentieth century, an archeological complex of great significance was discovered in Romania, one of the most valuable ancient Roman monuments on the Romanian territory [15].
They are the ruins of the triumphal monument [16, 17, 18, 19] and of the fortress of Tropaeum Traiani, located in the present locality Adamclisi, Constanța county, in Dobrogea. Here, in the winter of 101/102 A.D., the battles took place between Romans and Dacians (allies with the Sarmatians) [20].
The triumphal monument from Adamclisi is part of the category of military construction works raised in gratitude for the Roman conquests led by Trajan. During this period, the conquest of Dacia represented the triumph of Emperor Trajan. The specialized literature records the fact that during the years 98–103 A.D., the Romans concentrated on the Danube specialists in engineering works that raised the bridge over the Danube, moved the Danube riverbed, and restored roads, and the triumph over the Dacians determined the erection of a monument as a sign of the victories gained, a monument paved with drawings on panels that were scenes during the battles [21].
The Adamclisi monument is located on the highest hill in the area, a specific location in the ancient world. This monument represents a combination of the architectural relationship with the structural composition accompanied by narrative and iconographic elements. It can be appreciated that, from an architectural point of view, the elements of the monument were made by the same architect, Apolodor from Damascus [21].
It is not known how long the triumphal monument has been unbroken. It seems that in the second and third centuries A.D., it suffered degradation caused by earthquakes or human activity. In 170 A.D. the citadel of Tropaeum Traiani was subjected to the attacks of the Goths.
Its state leads to the hypothesis that it was either attacked or destroyed by an earthquake until 316 A.D.
The impressive monument, circular in shape (Figures 4 and 5), was erected from the disposition of Roman Emperor Trajan in 109 A.D. The battle scenes were carved in bas-reliefs on large blocks of stone (metopes), which surrounded like a wide belt the monument. Around it, the monument had seven rows of stone steps, and above it stood a pedestal bearing the carved statue of a warrior dressed in armor. Only the central part, like a huge earthen mound, has been preserved from the monument. The ruins of the fortress Tropaeum Traiani, one of the largest Roman civil settlements in Dobrogea, stand on a nearby hill.
Tropaeum Traiani, Adamclisi, Constanța county (Romania).
Tropaeum Traiani reconstruction [
Thus, the Tropaeum Traiani is a Roman monument, built in honor of Trajan between 106 and 109 A.D. to celebrate the Roman victory over the Dacians in 102 A.D. He was rebuilt in 1974–1977, after one of the hypothetical models of the old monument in ruins. Parts of the original can be found in the museum housed inside it.
The first excavations were undertaken in 1882 by Grigore Tocilescu.
The monument, which was reconstructed by archeologists, consists of a cylindrical base, based on several rows of circular steps, and at the top a conical roof, with scales on concentric rows of stone, from which the hexagonal superstructure rises. At the top is the bifacial trophy, featuring an armor with four cylindrical shields. At the base of the trophy are two statuary groups.
The height of the monument together with the trophy is approximately equal to the diameter of the base, that is to say about 40 m. Around, the 54 metopes of the limestone of Deleni depict war scenes in bas-relief. The metopes were rectangular slabs with a height of 1.48–1.49 m. Of the 54 initial metopes, 48 are still preserved.
Above the metopes is a frieze with 26 battlements, of which only 23 were preserved, also carved in bas-relief, which make up the crown of the circular core.
The ensemble also contained a funerary altar, the walls of which were inscribed with the names of the approximately 3800 Roman soldiers probably fallen in the Adamclisi battle, and also a concentric wall with 3 concentric walls, where it appears that the commander (
At 2 km west, the Roman fortress Tropaeum Traiani was founded by Trajan, which is mentioned in the inscriptions for the first time as a municipality in 170 A.D.
Under the ruins of the monument, the remains of martyrs in the name of Christianity have been hidden for millennia [17].
The only evidence regarding the configuration of the Adamclisi monument appears to be sketched on the Tomitan coins of Trajan’s time. These numismatic documents can be another proof that the work was completed in the period 108–109 A.D. [22].
After a long period, in the nineteenth century, the monument appears destroyed about a third of the height and uncovered the entire architectural envelope. There is the hypothesis of its destruction in the first stage of earthquakes of the second and third centuries. The monument as a whole was composed of the triumphal monument, altar, and tumulus. It is known that in 170 A.D., the city of Tropaeum Traiani was subjected to the unleashed attacks of the migratory peoples (the Goths). It is possible that some of the damage also belongs to this period [21].
Since the fourth century, the Christian religion is officialized, which is why there are a number of offenses by people who still shared the pagan philosophy against the ancient cults represented by sculptures and images. The notes from the “Life of St. Honoratus” highlight the fact that there was an action initiated by him for the demolition of the statues on the top of the similar monument built in France, in La Turbie. Probably a similar attitude existed for the Adamclisi monument. Towards the end of the fifth century A.D., more precisely in the year 477, there was a great earthquake [23] which led to the inclination of the edifice, found by the topographic elevations carried out later [21].
The location of the monument is characterized by a loessoid terrain but also by a seismic sensitivity, considering the proximity to the Silistra-Varna region. The archeological studies carried out in the field have found fragments from the inscriptions of the triumphal monument and of the altar used as a building stone in the late Roman era [24].
Therefore it can be considered that the upper part of the monument from the cone trunk of the roof upwards was destroyed by a great earthquake, after which there was a period when the inhabitants of the city of Tropaeum took this monument stone, even some slabs with inscription to repair the enclosure wall but also to erect other buildings.
Thus, it can be appreciated that the scattering of fragments took place between the fifth century and the beginning of the nineteenth century. During this time, after establishing the capital of the Ottoman empire in Constantinople (today Istanbul) in 1453, the specialized literature records that in the Dobrogean area, a Turkish general arrives, who mentions in writing for the first time the presence of a special monument, extracting and sending to Constantinople a sculpted metope.
If these stones of the monument were partially found again, the specialized literature records that the stone scales that made up the monument’s cover were no longer found during the archeological excavations carried out between 1882 and 1890.
In 1801, Lord William Bentinck, passing from Egypt to Constantinople, made a relief of the monument with a brief description, appreciating that it was made of brick plated with decorations from the battles fought. A similar description is made by the Prussian officer Karl von Vincke-Olbendorf [21, 25].
In 1855, engineer Jules Michel, a member of the French mission Lalanne, being appointed with the accomplishment of a road and railway in the Dobrogea area, visited the monument and made a brief description of the ruin. And he, like the other visitors, appreciated that the monument has a Roman character.
The first records in Romanian about the triumphal monument from Adamclisi appeared in the newspaper
Research carried out between 1882 and 1890 revealed about 1680 stones removed from the ruins, including fragments of stone lions, pieces of friezes, pilasters, stone scales, and some inscribed tiles. In the structure of the foundation was identified a layer of 1.48-m-thick concrete on which the pedestal was placed [21].
The Adamclisi monument is not only a work dedicated to the battles but also a summit of the scientific thinking of the respective period applied in the art of construction. The Romans had knowledge about the quality of the foundation lands, about the loess, which explains the construction of the concrete pavement and at the same time that they knew the dosage and composition of the concrete. From the study of the elements of the construction, it appears that the ancient architects and engineers observed the existing principles synthesized by Vitruvius Pollio in
The technique of building the triumphal monument, the dry masonry, and the very fine-processed stone blocks highlight the preparation and the level of knowledge of the colossal blocks at that time.
The wall of the Adamclisi monument is worked in the
With reference to the architectural conception, the triumphal monument appears as a creation of the era of Trajan. It can be appreciated that the architect who made the initial plans was Apollodor of Damascus who in the same period also made the bridge over the Danube.
The development of the volumetric registers vertically, the construction of the base to support the weight of the top statue, required a design “in floors,” which led to a construction with a diameter of about 40 m and a height of 40 m.
It is noteworthy that A. Furtwangler [7, 21] considers the alternation of the different floors of the constructions from Tropaeum Traiani and from La Turbie. In support of these theories, he refers to the lighthouse in Alexandria, which was built between 300 and 280 B.C., kept in its original form until the eighth century A.D. and which consists of three floors. The Adamclisi monument can be considered a Roman art monument from the time of Trajan, as an expression of the Hellenistic tradition.
The first archeological excavations were carried out by a team led by G. Tocilescu (the first Romanian archeologist), who began to research the Adamclisi ruins in 1882, following four other campaigns in 1883, 1884, and 1890, the archeological research being carried out by the Romanian archeologist in collaboration with Otto Benndorf and George Niemann [26].
In 1895 appears the work
The excavations highlighted fragments from the monument’s inscriptions used as a building stone from the late Roman era. A specialized literature (William Bentinck’s
In 1856 C.W. Wutzer, a surgeon, professor at the University of Bonn, makes a presentation of the monument, describing even some pieces of architecture that were scattered on the floor.
In 1864 Karl Ferdinand Peters, a professor at the University of Graz, who came to document the geology and mineralogy of Dobrogea, made a detailed sketch of the monument.
From all these descriptions, it turns out that at that time, the monument was a huge dome-shaped masonry surrounded by massive deposits of earth and debris, where shrubs had grown, among which were carved stones.
After 1878 the archeological research in Dobrogea began, in 1882, under the leadership of G. Tocilescu (at that time director of the National Museum of Antiquities in Bucharest), excavation works began, finding that there are deposits with the thickness of 3–4 m. In the following period, the ruin was completely revealed, recovering from the ruins a large number of architectural pieces and sculptural elements that had once formed the shell of the monument.
With the beginning of archeological research around 1890, this monument was still imposing and stood out. Then, in 1890, from all the monuments, the aftermath of a massive construction was only seen, 16 m high, built of limestone boulders linked with mortar and surrounded by nine rows of steps of which seven are visible. Research has shown that at the top was a prismatic construction of large shaped blocks, a tower with a quadrilateral section with slightly uneven sides. This tower with the quadrilateral section with slightly uneven sides is placed in the middle of the monolithic nucleus of the cylindrical body, and this is reported in the writings of Vincke and Moltke.
The first graphic reconstruction of the trophy was made by the Viennese architect George Niemann and designed by him as it was in his opinion during Trajan’s time.
According to the aforementioned project, the trophy contained a lot of registers which, from bottom to top, were arranged as follows:
The ladder is composed of nine rows of steps, the only element in the clothing exterior of the monument, which was preserved almost entirely on the original site, the small displacements being due to the settlement of the earth and the tectonic movements [7].
The platform promenade consists of a 1.75-m-wide platform, consisting of sculpted elements (alternating piles of metopes).
The socket from the base of the cylinder is represented by a row of blocks (height of 0.56 m) connected to each other by folded metal plates.
The wall is represented by six rows of non-ornamental blocks, with a height of 0.59 m and a length varying between 0.95 and 1.20 m.
The lower frieze is the first ornamented architectural element consisting of parallelepiped blocks.
The upper frieze is formed by blocks of 0.67 m height.
The cornice is based on a torus worked in the form of a spiral (
The crenelated parapets are made of rectangular slabs, and each captive is carved with a captive tied to a tree. Of the 26 battlements, almost 23 were kept in front. In front of the crenelated parapet were two carved lions placed from the same limestone from which the water flows from the roof; the roof had, according to Niemann’s calculations, a slope inclination of 30 degrees.
The hexagonal construction was on two floors supporting the trophy itself. The correct reconstruction of this part of the trophy was performed by the Munich archeologist A. Furtwangler [7, 21].
This was the Adamclisi Trophy after the reconstruction of Niemann and Tocilescu. The quarries from which the stone for the construction was extracted are located on the Enigea valley, about 4 km away from Adamclisi, and the research carried out in the 1970s proved the truthfulness of Tocilescu’s words.
The sculptures of the monument can be grouped into two categories [27]:
Ornate sculptures
Figurative sculptures
The upper frieze forms a pendant with the lower frieze. The blocks were 67 cm higher than those of the lower frieze. The ornament consists of braided spirals like some ropes, alternating with palmettes. The blocks were shorter than the two strips but wider. The crenelated parapet forms the decoration of the upper part of the cylindrical body.
The battlements were formed by the succession of rectangular slabs; on the outer surface of each crenel is carved a defeated one tied to a tree. Behind the crenelated parapet was the conical roof made of stone slabs, in the form of scales, arranged in 25 concentric rows; the scales were higher in the first rows gradually decreasing at the top.
On the inner tower in the center of the cylindrical body, constructed of molded blocks, a hexagonal construction was supported on two floors, which supported the trophy itself.
The metopes were rectangular slabs as high as the pilasters (1.48–1.49 m). Of the 54 metopes, 49 whole or fragmented pieces were recovered, today having a corroded relief so that the content of the scenes can hardly be distinguished.
A group of metopes represents Trajan. Another metope group represents the Roman soldiers in the march, standing still. Most of them depict battle scenes, by representing the bravery of the Roman army, and in many scenes wounded and dead are seen only between the Dacians and their allies. A special two-piece group reveals a Roman legionary who pierces a man with a spear, the woman stands with her arms outstretched, and a child runs around the chariot. The last group of metopes portrays the end of the battles, the victory of the Romans, and the taking of prisoners (in chains) of Dacian men and women.
The first variant on the positioning of the metopes belongs to Tocilescu-Benndorf, recorded in the monograph published in 1895. According to these records, the arrangement of the metopes could have been according to those carved on Trajan’s Column, which sought to reconstruct the narration of the two Dacian-Roman wars, divided into two equal segments for each war and for half of the number of metopes, respectively 27 [28].
In addition to the carved metopes can be found other carved elements such as battlements with captives, where in each battlement there is carving of a prisoner tied to a tree.
A very important factor in the construction of these metopes also had the fact that they were carved by groups of different master craftsmen (five groups) according to the degree of professional mastery (some made human sculptures in a clumsy way, but others were very knowledgeable of the proportions of the human body).
The analysis of the architectural composition shows that the architect who elaborated the project of the triumphal monument from the Tropaeum Traiani was aware of all the monuments of the time: Eastern, Greek, and Roman from the Mediterranean. G. Tocilescu calls the cylindrical body with the truncated roof “tumulus.” In this context, he considered the resemblance of this monument to the funeral monuments in Italy. Therefore, the presence of the cylindrical body with grooved edge and conical roof is of Italian inspiration. The type of monument with a cylindrical drum and the circular base on which a statuary group is placed resembles that of La Turbie from this point of view. It can be appreciated that in the case of the Adamclisi monument, the architect was inspired by the cylindrical body of the Italian funeral monument drum.
The hexagonal base existing above the structure, composed of two floors, also has components from the monuments of Italy, but the monuments created in the Hellenistic era, which had trophies on a polygonal plane, are not excluded.
The last architectural part of the Adamclisi monument is the
The research carried out during the period 1960–1963, in the area of the steps and the foundations, revealed the existence of a modular frame of the triumphal monument. It is worth noting that the height of both monuments is 6 Roman feet, respectively, 6 × 17,742 m (the latter represented the standard in the Roman army for a Roman legionary soldier).
After the 1960 research, the diameter of the construction was recorded as 40.21 m, which represented 136 feet and 22 modules, and what exceeds this dimension belongs to the foundations and sidewalks. The perimeter corresponding to the base step is 126.26 m or 427 feet, so 71 modules in 1/6 ratio. From the center of the monument to the fourth step is 18.63 m, respectively, the sum between the radius of the wall 15.26 m and the upper 3.37 m [21].
The modular network of the monument is preserved 1.7742 (6 feet = one module) and forms the basis of the constructive system.
The diameter of the foundation is 42.58 m, respectively, 144 feet and 24 modules.
The angles alternate between 30 and 60 degrees.
Inside the cylindrical drum, there is a square-shaped masonry core which represents the center of the monument and whose depth in the ground can be appreciated to 1/3 of the height of the monument [21].
With reference to the architectural conception, the triumphal monument appears as a creation of the era of Trajan. The development of the volumetric registers vertically, the construction of the base to support the weight of the top statue, required a design “in floors,” which led to a construction with a diameter of about 40 m and a height of 40 m.
After the reconstruction of this triumphal monument Tropaeum Traiani from Adamclisi appears in Vienna, in 1895, the work
The project of restoration of the monument in Bucharest, as it results from the records of archeologist Adrian Rădulescu, has dragged on for many years. The transfer of the pieces is blocked in 1909, when a considerable number of pieces with many transhipments from the old ones that were already transported in ships wagons and then deposited first at the university, from where they were transported to the National Museum of Antiquities, after which in the Freedom Park where they remain until 1948. In 1948, thanks to Horia Teodoru, Professor at the Faculty of Architecture, the sculpted pieces including the statue are deposited at the History Museum in Bucharest.
However, the desire to restore and rehabilitate the monument even in Dobrogea is reinstated in the period 1957–1969 when Vasile Caranache organizes the Dobrogea Archeology Museum, which also includes the Tropaeum Traiani. Contemporary with this period, A. Rădulescu reports on the difficult road of implementation of the project of historical reconstruction of the glorious monument to the place where it was born 2000 years ago (Figures 6 and 7) [29].
Images during the work of reconstruction [
The restored monument [
Even if authenticity could be interpreted as illusory, historical expressiveness was undeniable. In 1960 there is a first debate followed by many others, by which the specialists propose two variants: the first solution was to restore the pieces from Bucharest to Adamclisi and the reconstruction of the missing ones, and the second solution was to keep the original pieces at the History Museum in Bucharest and the creation of a copy that respects the architectural lines, the geometry, and the volumetry of the monument but with copies made of stone according to the original ones. After long debates, the second version was approved, and it became applicable only after 12 years. In 1973 the works begin so that in the year of the centenary, 1978 (100 years after Dobrogea’s joining the Romanian State), the monument was rebuilt with new technology using a metal structure clad with stone pieces from the same quarry exploited 2000 years ago, which recreates the conditions for cultivating the historical heritage. All these stages are fully presented in publications published after 1960 (Figure 7).
They were published on this occasion, papers comprising the research results, both in PONTICA magazine, e.g., the works of the
They were published on this occasion, papers comprising the research results, both in PONTICA magazine, e.g., the works of the
The Roman triumphal monuments from La Turbie and Adamclisi show both
The triumphal monuments signify the military victory of the Roman empire over some foreign and distant territories and peoples, Gaul and Dacia, respectively.
Both monuments are cylindrical in shape and are inscribed and decorated.
The buildings, with their surroundings of historical importance and with the related archeological discoveries, continue to appear in the contemporary tourist circuits, increasing the prestige and importance of the respective historical and archeological sites, with their documentary, cultural, and spiritual load.
Monuments belong to the category of military construction works raised in gratitude for the Roman conquests led by emperors Trajan and Augustus.
Both monuments are located in a high, representative position, with specific visibility as well as the ancient world.
The great height of the two monuments served not only the constructive purpose but more for the successive and gradual embodiment of the Roman idea of triumph, respectively: the victory is described by plastic through the register of metopes, the submission of the defeated ones in the images carved on battlements that are finalized with the materialized triumph, and the trophy with top weapons that crown the monument.
Both monuments were destroyed and restored.
Both monuments date from the Roman era, and methodologically the geometric principles of architectural composition were applied.
It is noteworthy that A. Furtwangler considers the alternation of the different stages of the trophies at La Turbie and Adamclisi as similarity. In support of these theories, he refers to the lighthouse in Alexandria, which was built between 300 and 280 B.C., kept in authentic form until the eighth century A.D. and which consisted of three floors. The Adamclisi monument and in fact also the La Turbie one can be framed as an expression of the Hellenistic tradition in a Roman art monument of the time of Augustus and Trajan, respectively.
The shape and dimensions of the two monuments are comparable and strikingly similar to one of the Seven Wonders of the World–the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus (completed in 350 B.C. and which collapsed after 850 years). The latter has a configuration similar to the monument of La Turbie–the square base with the height of the base of 12 m and a total height of the monument of 49 m, respectively.
The same architectural composition of the base is found as in the monument in France, built at La Turbie, at the Tivoli temple. And in the Orient, there is the architectural composition described, isolated at the Roman mausoleum in Adalia (Delik Tas), and located on the coast of Asia Minor (historical research records locate this last monument somewhere in the second century, an aspect that excludes it from the category of the two compared monuments).
The type of monument with cylindrical drum and with circular base can be found in La Turbie. Another architectural component of the Adamclisi monument is the hexagonal base on the structure, composed of two floors, an element that corresponds to numerous monuments in Italy.
From an architectural point of view, also at the Adamclisi monument, it can be identified the circular base, the cylindrical drum, and a hexagonal structure, on which the trophy is placed, an expression of the repertoire of the Roman architecture. The existence of the steps around the circular base is the expression of the Greek architecture which at that time intersected with the monumental Roman architecture.
Both monuments have the main register consisting of metopes and pilasters. The upper friezes form a pendant with the lower friezes. The lower friezes of both monuments represent the first ornamental architectural element.
Jules Formigé notes that in the main part of the Adamclisi monument, the architectural forms from La Turbie would be reproduced, and he also notes other similarities among which the hexagonal base that supports the statues, two captives, the height of the cylindrical drum heights, a.o.
Both monuments were subjected to the destruction and reconstruction during about 2000 years.
The image of the Alps monument has been reconstructed graphically three times: by architect and archeologist George Niemann, by J.C. Formigé, and by Jules Formigé (father and son) who, following archeological research, collected over 3000 fragments of stone and marble that came from the building. After G. Niemann collaborated in the reconstruction of the triumphal monument at Adamclisi from 1890 to 1895, under the guidance of G. Tocilescu and with O. Benndorf, he also helped to reconstruct the triumphal monument in the Alps.
Roman builders have appealed since the third century B.C., at
The monument of La Turbie is mentioned in a poem from the thirteenth century, which refers to the monument called “La Tor del jayan” (Tower of the Giants), about which the destruction of the statues of the peak, considered as representing idols, is recorded, and the trophy of Trajan was mentioned timidly in the fifteenth century and after only another 400 years later.
Tropaeum Augusti was built in the year 6 B.C. in honor of Roman Emperor Augustus to celebrate the definitive victory over the 45 Alpine tribes, and Tropaeum Traiani was raised in honor of Roman Emperor Trajan between 106 and 109 A.D. to highlight the definitive victory over the Dacians in 102 A.D.
Currently, the two monuments illustrate two different conceptions and ways of reconstruction: Tropaeum Augusti preserves the original ancient construction consolidated, thus having an incomplete aspect of the edifice, while Tropaeum Traiani was subsequently renovated, presenting a complete aspect of the edifice.
The monuments contain different constructive, structural, and decorative elements.
From the point of view of the restoration solutions, it can be appreciated that by the restoration solutions applied to the two monuments, they differ, motivated by the fact that:
The reconstruction of the trophy in La Turbie Alps was achieved by integration of the original pieces and partly by reconstruction, which led to the complete image of the whole, while preserving the authenticity of the monument, noticeably altering the conical part, the roof, to support the statues of Augustus and the two captives positioned at his feet. Very little restored, combining anastylosis with reconstruction, the facade allows to understand the structure of the monument as well as the techniques applied by the Romans. Quite remarkable constructors, the Romanians have combined in their constructions rationality and greatness.
The reconstruction of the triumphal monument from Adamclisi respects the architecture and the geometry of the original monument but was made in exchange from new materials, so that the authenticity is no longer preserved.
For both countries, France and Romania, the restoration of these two monuments represents a national and patriotic desire, charged with historical substance, and represents the stone chronicle of the great warrior epics of the two countries.
The monuments of Tropaeum Augusti and Tropaeum Traiani constitute by their designation and symbolism the birth certificates in stone and attest the Latin origin of the French and Romanian peoples and languages.
The durability of these imposing buildings over time represents the guarantee of the inheritance of Romanity and Latinity in the two European extremities, western and eastern, respectively.
The quite remarkable achievements of the Roman architecture and engineering have kept their tourist interest until now, appearing in most of the touristic circuits organized in the two maritime areas, the Maritime Alps (France)/Monaco Principality and Dobrogea/Constanța (Romania), respectively.
As shown, both monuments at La Turbie and Adamclisi represent the historical expression of the bravery of the Roman people, using art in conception, sciences in structure composition/structure geometry, and science and technology of materials and sculpture.
These monuments represent not only an ancient work dedicated to the victories but also a summit of the scientific thinking of the era applied in the art of construction.
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'At IntechOpen, the majority of OAPFs are paid by an Author’s institution or funding agency - Institutions (73%) vs. Authors (23%).
\n\nThe first step in obtaining funds for your Open Access publication begins with your institution or library. IntechOpen’s publishing standards align with most institutional funding programs. Our advice is to petition your institution for help in financing your Open Access publication.
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However, with the increasing amounts of their usage, concern about their adverse effects on nontarget organisms, including human beings, has also grown. The purpose of this publication is to explain the nature of pesticides and their history, classification, risks, and effects on health and the environment.",book:{id:"5184",slug:"environmental-health-risk-hazardous-factors-to-living-species",title:"Environmental Health Risk",fullTitle:"Environmental Health Risk - Hazardous Factors to Living Species"},signatures:"Arzu Özkara, Dilek Akyıl and Muhsin Konuk",authors:[{id:"5974",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhsin",middleName:null,surname:"Konuk",slug:"muhsin-konuk",fullName:"Muhsin Konuk"},{id:"179732",title:"Dr.",name:"Dilek",middleName:null,surname:"Akyıl",slug:"dilek-akyil",fullName:"Dilek Akyıl"},{id:"179733",title:"Dr.",name:"Arzu",middleName:null,surname:"Özkara",slug:"arzu-ozkara",fullName:"Arzu Özkara"}]},{id:"18642",doi:"10.5772/17660",title:"The Effects of Air Pollutants on Vegetation and the Role of Vegetation in Reducing Atmospheric Pollution",slug:"the-effects-of-air-pollutants-on-vegetation-and-the-role-of-vegetation-in-reducing-atmospheric-pollu",totalDownloads:18870,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:74,abstract:null,book:{id:"489",slug:"the-impact-of-air-pollution-on-health-economy-environment-and-agricultural-sources",title:"The Impact of Air Pollution on Health, Economy, Environment and Agricultural Sources",fullTitle:"The Impact of Air Pollution on Health, Economy, Environment and Agricultural Sources"},signatures:"Iuliana Florentina Gheorghe and Barbu Ion",authors:[{id:"29040",title:"Prof.",name:"Iuliana",middleName:"Florentina",surname:"Gheorghe",slug:"iuliana-gheorghe",fullName:"Iuliana Gheorghe"},{id:"40380",title:"Mr.",name:"Ion",middleName:null,surname:"Barbu",slug:"ion-barbu",fullName:"Ion Barbu"},{id:"127558",title:"Prof.",name:"Iuliana Florentina",middleName:null,surname:"Gheorghe",slug:"iuliana-florentina-gheorghe",fullName:"Iuliana Florentina Gheorghe"}]},{id:"16332",doi:"10.5772/18600",title:"Air Change Measurements Using Tracer Gases: Methods and Results. 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In water, it is rapidly degraded by biotic and abiotic factors, yielding different intermediate products; these are suspected of being more resistant to degradation, and potentially more toxic, than the parent compound. In the water bodies, these compounds may produce toxic effects on the aquatic organisms from different trophic levels and produce an ecological imbalance. Amoxicillin may bioaccumulate in fish muscle tissues, with the possibility of the occurrence of these drugs in food, leading to a passive consumption of this antibiotic resulting in undesirable effects on consumer health such as immunoallergic responses. However, the main problem related with the presence of this antimicrobial compounds in fish tissues is the possibility of inducing bacterial resistance genes. 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When it comes to workplace health, there are seven key performance indicators to consider. These include physical fitness, physical comfort, physical nourishment, cognitive well-being, social well-being, emotional well-being, and environmental well-being. Various environmental attributes in these seven KPIs in the workplace affect not only health but also performance and engagement of employees via their physical, mental, and social interactions within the environment. For instance, ergonomics, acoustics, lighting, thermal comfort, and olfactory comfort address the overall physical comfort while biophilic components contribute to employee cognitive functions as well as their capacity to cope with mental stress and fatigue. These seven KPIs of workplace health ultimately contribute to five positive organizational outcomes, including healthy organizational culture, higher productivity, improved individual health and safety, financial savings, and enhanced reputation of the organization. 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Chemical analyses measure the contaminants present in the biota but do not necessarily reveal potential biological effects. Therefore, the need to detect and assess the effects of contaminants, especially at low concentrations, has led to the development of molecular markers of contaminant effects called biomarkers. Owing to their short time of response, biomarkers in marine bivalves are used as early warning signals of biological effects caused by environmental pollutants. Research into the development and application of accurate biomarker-based monitoring tools for the environmental contaminants has been intensified in several developed countries.",book:{id:"6728",slug:"trace-elements-human-health-and-environment",title:"Trace Elements",fullTitle:"Trace Elements - Human Health and Environment"},signatures:"Periyadan K. Krishnakumar, Mohammad A. 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Within 1 nm–100 μm size, these are carried to long distances through various external agents. Identified as potential pathogens, they bring forth substantial economic losses in many parts of the world. Despite these shortcomings, bio-aerosols play a vital role in cloud condensation, ice nucleation, precipitation and various atmospheric processes affecting the hydrological cycle in general. Furthermore, bio-aerosols play a decisive role in the dispersal of reproductive plant parts and fungal spores, which play important roles in the evolution and sustenance of ecosystems. However, there remains substantial knowledge on air micro-biome with respect to their occurrence, transformation, role in climate change, interaction and impact on living organisms, agriculture and ecosystem. The current COVID-19 pandemic is a wakeup call for retrospective analysis of airborne particles to reduce their emission, transmission and health risk hazards while understanding their impact on various atmospheric processes. This chapter identifies the various types of bio-aerosols and systematically includes their prime role in the climatic processes, pathogenicity to the exposed flora and fauna along with an exclusive interrogation into their types and characterisation over the Indian subcontinent with a hugely diverging population and pollution panorama.",book:{id:"11231",title:"Air Quality and Health",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11231.jpg"},signatures:"Minati Behera, Jyotishree Nath, Sony Pandey, Ramasamy Boopathy and Trupti Das"},{id:"80743",title:"Air Quality and Health in West Africa",slug:"air-quality-and-health-in-west-africa",totalDownloads:11,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102706",abstract:"One of the most important elements for survival is air. Its significance cannot be overstated, necessitating proactive measures and regulations to ensure clean air in our atmosphere. Africa is one of the continents with the worst air quality. According to NASA modelling research, air pollution causes approximately 780,000 premature deaths per year in Africa. Experiments were carried out by the European-African consortium DACCIWA to investigate the causes and effects of air pollution by looking at the entire chain of natural and human-made emissions, from formation to dispersion to repercussions. The findings suggest that air pollution has already reached a dangerous threshold for human health in most West African countries. The aim of this chapter is to highlight and increase awareness about the severe risk that air pollution poses to the health of inhabitants of West African countries.",book:{id:"11231",title:"Air Quality and Health",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11231.jpg"},signatures:"Odubanjo D. 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For long recognised to be a high-risk factor for several respiratory-related diseases and conditions, air pollution seems to be a risk factor for COVID-19 too. This finding suggests the detrimental impact climate change will have on the trajectory of future respiratory epidemics. Previous Asian epidemics and the Ebola have brought forward evidence of the natural causes of zoonoses which have become more threatening due to land-use change, ensued lack of a buffer zone between the cities and the forests, and our closer proximity to wild pathogens. 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On Sunday 1 February 2015, İstanbul experienced an episode of extreme Sahara dust event, which increased the particulate matter concentrations greatly compared to the average values of the city. In this study, we examined the relationship between particulate matter (PM10, PM2.5) concentrations and emergency attendances for asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and acute bronchitis on the episode day to better understand the association between an extreme dust event and emergency attendances for respiratory health in the city. Analyses showed that there was no significant effect of the Saharan dust event on emergency attendances for asthma and COPD in İstanbul compared to average emergency attendance numbers of the city. However, emergency attendances for acute bronchitis significantly increased on the episode day. This study revealed, extreme Saharan dust events can considerably increase the risk of visiting hospital for acute bronchitis in İstanbul during a severe dust episode.",book:{id:"11231",title:"Air Quality and Health",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11231.jpg"},signatures:"Özkan Çapraz and Ali Deniz"},{id:"80573",title:"Impacts of the Indoor Air Quality on the Health of the Employee and Protection against These Impacts",slug:"impacts-of-the-indoor-air-quality-on-the-health-of-the-employee-and-protection-against-these-impacts",totalDownloads:54,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102708",abstract:"Workplace indoor factors are among the factor which affect the health of workers most in all sectors. Another important one of these factors is the air quality of the workplace. There are three main groups of workplace indoor pollutants: biological ones, chemical ones and particles (non-biological). They were grouped as asbestos, biological pollutants, carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), formaldehyde/pressed wooden products, lead (Pb), nitrogen dioxide, (NO2), Radon (Rn), indoor particle substances, environmental tobacco smoke, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), humidity, odor and wood smoke. The workplace indoor air pollutants are among the primary indoor air pollutants with serious effects on health and the potential to deteriorate the workers’ health. Healthy indoor air quality is defined as the indoor air which does not contain hazardous substances and does not create sense of discomfort in at least 80% of the workers in the workplace. 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Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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