BRAF mutation as a prognostic factor in clinical studies of first-line treatment of metastatic CRC.
\r\n\tAccording to the protection and control strategies in recent years; Although WHO has reduced the rates somewhat with the application of mass medication in children in places where the prevalence of roundworm is over 20%, to control morbidity and eliminate STN as a public health problem, the mathematical applications have been to apply the treatments to adults as well.
\r\n\r\n\tIn this book, roundworms transmitted through soil or arthropods; Developments in epidemiology, life cycles, pathophysiology, clinical diagnosis, management, and public health control in the world will be reviewed with the contribution of studies on this subject from past to present. In addition, this book aims to highlight the connection between helminths and autoimmune and allergic diseases: the determination, treatment, and control strategies.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-714-3",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-713-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-715-0",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"5edc96349630be8bb4e67170be677d8c",bookSignature:"Dr. Nihal Dogan",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11801.jpg",keywords:"Ascaris, Trichuris, Hookworms, Strongyloides, Wuchereria, Brugia, Onchocerca, Trichinella, Larval Infection, Visceral Larva Migrans, Cutaneous Larva Migrans, Ocular",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 23rd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 27th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 26th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 14th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 13th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A leading academic in parasitology at the Department of Microbiology at the Faculty of Medicine of Eskişehir Osmangazi University, expertise in hydatid cysts, toxoplasma, leishmania, parasitic diseases transmitted by water and intestinal parasites. She wrote numerous book chapters on infectious diseases, clinical parasitology, clinical microbiology, and medical microbiology laboratory applications and manuals.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"169552",title:"Dr.",name:"Nihal",middleName:null,surname:"Dogan",slug:"nihal-dogan",fullName:"Nihal Dogan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169552/images/system/169552.png",biography:"Prof. Dr Nihal Doğan is the leading academic in the Field of Parasitology at the Department of Microbiology at the Faculty of Medicine of Eskişehir Osmangazi University since 1993. She was granted a professorship in 2008 and has expertise in parasitology and epidemiology of parasitic diseases. She took part as an executive academic on 6 projects hydatid cysts, toxoplasma, leishmania, parasitic diseases transmitted by water and intestinal parasites. Her research is published in more than 40 national and international journals and she took part as a keynote speaker and as abstract and poster presenter in more than international and national congresses and conferences. She wrote numerous book chapters on infectious diseases, clinical parasitology, clinical microbiology and medical microbiology laboratory applications and manuals. \nShe concluded her Master and PhD Thesis at Eskişehir Anadolu University and Eskişehir Osmangazi University Medical Faculty and focused on the field of diagnosis and seroepidemiology of Toxoplasmosis. She visited the University of Virginia Department of Parasitology as a visiting researcher in 2003 for 3 months and worked on the diagnosis of Entamoeba histolytica and Universidad De Chile Faculty of Medicine as an observer researcher in 2016 for 1 month and worked on Trypanosomes.\nHer research interests include medical ethics, seroepidemiological survey; intestinal, blood, tissue and ocular parasites, vector-borne diseases, zoonotic parasites.",institutionString:"Eskisehir Osmangazi University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"13",title:"Immunology and Microbiology",slug:"immunology-and-microbiology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"466998",firstName:"Dragan",lastName:"Miljak",middleName:"Anton",title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/466998/images/21564_n.jpg",email:"dragan@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3828",title:"Application of Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"51a27e7adbfafcfedb6e9683f209cba4",slug:"application-of-nanotechnology-in-drug-delivery",bookSignature:"Ali Demir Sezer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3828.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3569",title:"Biodegradation",subtitle:"Life of Science",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb737eb528a53e5106c7e218d5f12ec6",slug:"biodegradation-life-of-science",bookSignature:"Rolando Chamy and Francisca Rosenkranz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3569.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"165784",title:"Dr.",name:"Rolando",surname:"Chamy",slug:"rolando-chamy",fullName:"Rolando Chamy"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"64803",title:"BRAF Mutation and Its Importance in Colorectal Cancer",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82571",slug:"braf-mutation-and-its-importance-in-colorectal-cancer",body:'The RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK signalling cascade, also known as the MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase) pathway, is involved in cell proliferation, differentiation, survival and apoptosis [1]. It receives input from multiple sources including internal metabolic stress and DNA damage pathways and altered protein concentrations as well as through signalling from external growth factors, cell-matrix interactions and communication from other cells [2]. This allows for a nodal point for therapeutic targeting, however, dysregulation of this pathway can also increase malignant behaviour [3].
Multiple signals activate RAS (KRAS, NRAS and HRAS), a family of GTPases. This, in turn, activates downstream RAF protein kinases (ARAF, BRAF and CRAF). The dominant substrates of RAF kinases are the MAPK/ERK kinases, MEK1 and MEK2. ERKs phosphorylate a variety of substrates, including multiple transcription factors that regulate several key cellular activities (Figure 1).
The MAPK pathway [
Mutations in RAS and RAF are the most common oncogenes in human cancer [4]. The focus of this chapter will be on BRAF mutations in colorectal cancer, in particular the V600E mutation, the clinical significance, molecular and clinical pathogenesis as well as treatment, now and into the future.
The RAF protein is made of three conserved regions: CR1, CR2 and CR3. CR1 and CR2 are situated in the N terminus. CR1 acts as the main binding domain for RAS; CR2 is the regulatory domain. CR3 is situated in the C terminus and functions as the catalytic kinase domain. CR3 contains two regions important for RAF activation: the activation segment and the regulatory region [5]. Of the RAF family of protein kinases, BRAF is the most frequently mutated and remains the most potent activator of MEK.
The BRAF protooncogene, which encodes for the BRAF protein kinase, is located on chromosome 7 (q34) and is composed of 18 exons. There have been more than thirty BRAF mutations identified to date, occurring in various frequencies. The most common is BRAF V600E mutation (MT), which corresponds to a thymine to adenine transversion at position 1799, resulting in the substitution of valine by glutamate at position 600 of the protein [5]. This lies within the activating segment of the kinase domain. It renders BRAF constitutionally active, increasing kinase activity relative to BRAF wild-type (WT) by 10 times [6]. Because of this, co-mutations in the MAPK signalling cascade offers no selective advantage for developing tumours and therefore BRAF mutations are mutually exclusive with KRAS or NRAS mutations [7].
The V600E mutation accounts for more than 85% of BRAF mutations in melanoma, more than 50% of the mutations in non-small cell lung cancer and more than 95% of mutations in cholangiocarcinoma and hairy cell leukaemia. It accounts for more than 90% of BRAF mutations in colorectal cancer (CRC) [8]. Other BRAF mutations include R461I, I462S, G463E, G463V, G465A, G465E, G465V, G468A, G468E, N580S, E585K, D593V, F594L, G595R, L596V, T598I, V599D, V599E (V600E), V599K, V599R, V600K, and A727V [9].
BRAF mutations have been found in 7–10% of patients with metastatic CRC [7, 10]. BRAF MT CRC has been associated with a particular phenotype in multiple studies and meta-analysis and specifically pertaining to the BRAF V600E mutation. BRAF tumours are more prevalent in women and in patients >70 years of age. BRAF is not associated with age at diagnosis of less than 60 years [11]. BRAF mutation is more prevalent in proximal colon tumours and is rarely found in the left colon [7]. Histopathology also differs, with 60% of BRAF MT tumours being poorly differentiated and a higher rate of mucinous pathology [12]. There is an association with larger primary tumours. BRAF MT CRC is also associated with a high rate of peritoneal metastases and less lung and liver-limited disease [13, 14, 15]. In contrast, most non-V600 mutations were more likely to be lower grade and left-sided tumours with a greater overall survival [16, 17], except for codon 601/597 mutations which behave similarly to V600E MT CRC [18].
The pathogenesis of CRC is a heterogeneous and complex process. The classic model of adenoma-carcinoma sequence was initially described by Vogelstein and accounts for approximately 80% of sporadic CRC [19]. Mutation of the tumour suppressor gene, APC, occurs early in the process and additional mutations and chromosomal instability leads to neoplastic progression [20].
The serrated neoplastic pathway is an alternative model of CRC pathogenesis with distinct morphologic and molecular characteristics. It is estimated about 20% of CRC develop via this pathway. These lesions develop from aberrant crypt foci and hyperplastic polyps (HP) into traditional serrated adenoma (TSA) and sessile serrated adenoma (SSA), with malignant potential. BRAF mutation occurs early in the pathway, shown to be present in HP, hyperplastic adenomas and SSA [21].
SSA are also characterised by the CpG island methylator phenotype (CIMP) [22]. A cytosine nucleotide followed by a guanine nucleotide (CpG dinucleotide) can be found in dense clusters (CpG islands) in the promoter regions of approximately half of all genes [23]. Aberrant hypermethylation of these CpG islands can lead to silencing of tumour suppressor genes that, in turn, lead to carcinogenesis. CIMP can be described as high, low or negative. Hypermethylation of the mismatch repair gene
MSI is implicated in 15% of sporadic CRC and >95% of Hereditary Non Polyposis Colorectal Cancer (HNPCC), also known as Lynch syndrome. It is caused by deficiency of the DNA mismatch repair (MMR) system, composed of multiple interacting proteins including MSH2, MLH1. The majority of sporadic MSI high CRC is due to the hypermethylation of the mismatch repair gene
BRAF MT CRC is strongly associated with inferior survival compared with BRAF WT disease. Randomised control trials of first line treatment of metastatic CRC demonstrate differences in OS of up to 12 months, shown in Table 1. Venderbosch et al. reported a pooled analysis of the CAIRO, CAIRO2, COIN and FOCUS studies examining mismatch repair and BRAF status [29]. BRAF MT was associated with a poor prognosis with OS of 11.4 vs. 17.2 months, and PFS of 6.2 vs. 7.7 months compared with BRAF WT. This analysis also found dMMR to indicate poor prognosis, despite significant evidence to show that MSI-high tumours confer a better prognosis. However, it is concluded that as there is no interaction between BRAF MT and dMMR, the poor prognostic value of dMMR is likely driven by BRAF MT. There was no difference in OS or PFS between dMMR BRAF MT and pMMR BRAF MT tumours. In a study examining RAS and BRAF mutations, BRAF patients had the worst overall survival. The median OS for WT, KRAS, NRAS and BRAF patients were 49.2, 36.2, 30.1 and 22.5 months, respectively [30].
Study | Treatment regimen | Key outcomes in BRAF MT disease | Prognostic finding |
---|---|---|---|
MRC FOCUS [76] | 5-FU/irinotecan or 5-FU/oxaliplatin | HR for OS 1.82 (P = 0.0002) | BRAF predicts poor OS but no difference in PFS |
MRC COIN [43] | Fluoropyrimidine/oxaliplatin ± cetuximab | OS 8.8 vs. 20.1 months | Median OS was significantly shorter in patients with BRAF, KRAS or NRAS mutations than in patients with WT KRAS, NRAS, and BRAF tumours, irrespective of treatment (P < 0.0001) |
OPUS [77] | FOLFOX ± cetuximab | Median OS, 20.7 months with cetuximab + FOLFOX | Small numbers precluded definitive conclusions |
CRYSTAL [78] | FOLFIRI ± cetuximab | Median PFS (cetuximab + FOLFIRI vs. FOLFIRI), 8.0 vs. 5.6 months (HR, 0.934; P = 0.87) Median OS, 14.1 vs. 10.3 months (HR 0.908; P = 0.74) | BRAF MT was strong indicator of poor prognosis |
NORDIC-VII [48] | FLOX ± cetuximab | BRAF MT had lower ORRs than BRAF WT (20 vs. 50%; P < 0.001) | BRAF mutations was a strong negative prognostic factor |
PRIME [42] | FOLFOX ± panitumumab | Median PFS: Panitumumab + FOLFOX vs. FOLFOX, 6.1 vs. 5.4 months Median OS: Panitumumab + FOLFOX vs. FOLFOX, 10.5 vs. 9.2 months | BRAF mutation was a negative prognostic factor |
CAIRO2 [10] | Capecitabine + oxaliplatin + bevacizumab vs. CAPOX + bevacizumab + cetuximab | Lower median PFS, 5.9 and 6.6 months in BRAF-MT vs. 12.2 and 10.4 months in BRAF WT tumours with CAPOX + bevacizumab and CAPOX + bevacizumab + cetuximab, respectively Lower median OS, 15.0 and 15.2 months in BRAF MT vs. 24.6 and 21.5 months in BRAF WT with CB and CBC, respectively | BRAF mutation was a negative prognostic marker |
AGITG MAX [79] | Capecitabine ± bevacizumab | Median OS, 20.8 months in BRAF WT vs. 8.6 months in BRAF MT tumours | BRAF mutation was a marker of poor prognosis irrespective of treatment |
BRAF mutation as a prognostic factor in clinical studies of first-line treatment of metastatic CRC.
Similarly, BRAF MT has been shown to be a negative prognostic factor in stage II and III disease. Data from the PETACC-3 was extracted, with KRAS, BRAF and MSI status examined [31]. MSI-high tumours were associated with better prognosis. BRAF MT was not prognostic of PFS. The MSI-high status appeared to attenuate the negative prognostic effect of BRAF MT on OS; BRAF MT is a negative prognostic factor in MSS CRC. However, more recently, a meta-analysis of 1164 patients with MSI-high non-metastatic CRC has shown that BRAF V600E mutation does correlate with adverse overall survival, but not disease recurrence [32].
Survival following metastasectomy is also worse for BRAF MT mCRC as demonstrated in a meta-analysis of patients undergoing resection of liver metastases. It showed the BRAF mutation was negatively associated with OS (HR 3.055, P = 0.00004) [33].
In contrast, non-V600E BRAF mutations have a different prognosis. BRAF codons 594 and 596 mutations, when compared with V600E BRAF mutations, are more frequently rectal, non-mucinous with no peritoneal spread. In a study of 10 patients, all BRAF 594 and 596 tumours were microsatellite stable. OS was significantly longer (62 vs. 12.6 months, P = 0.002) [34]. Jones et al. identified 208 metastatic CRC patients out of 9643 with non-V600E mutations. When compared with V600E BRAF mutation patients, those with non-V600E mutations were found to be younger, more likely male, and had lower grade tumours. In addition, median OS was significantly longer compared with both V600E BRAF mutant and BRAF wild-type patients (60.7 vs. 11.4 vs. 43 months respectively) [35]. This has also been demonstrated in a retrospective study of 98 patients, 6 of whom had non-V600E BRAF mutations. Although only a small sample size, OS was significantly better compared with V600E BRAF MT patients (P = 0.38) [17].
Doublet chemotherapy remains the standard of care for metastatic BRAF MT CRC in patients with appropriate performance status [36, 37]. First-line chemotherapy options include 5 fluorouracil, leucovorin and oxaliplatin (FOLFOX), 5-fluorouracil, leucovorin and irinotecan (FOLFIRI) and capecitabine plus oxaliplatin. A retrospective study reported no difference in median PFS between irinotecan-based or oxaliplatin-based chemotherapy regimens in the first line for BRAF-MT CRC [38].
A more intensive triplet chemotherapy regime has been proposed based on 5 fluorouracil, leucovorin, oxaliplatin and irinotecan with bevacizumab (FOLFOXIRI+bev). A phase II trial of FOLFOXIRI and bevacizumab in the metastatic CRC population showed a statistically significant benefit to progression free survival and trend towards improved overall survival at the expense of greater incidence of grade three toxicities [39]. An exploratory analysis of the BRAF-MT cohort (25 patients in a pooled population) reported a median PFS of 11.8 months, median OS of 24.1 months and an impressive response rate of 72%, including one patient with complete response [40]. This was followed up by the open label phase III TRIBE study comparing FOLFIRI plus bevacizumab with FOLFOXIRI with bevacizumab [41]. In the molecular subgroup analysis, 28 out of 391 cases were BRAF mutant. There was a trend towards benefit in overall survival (19.0 months in the FOLFOXIRI plus bevacizumab arm vs. 10.7 months in the FOLFIRI plus bevacizumab arm, HR 0.54); however, this was not statistically significant. This was also seen in median PFS (7.5 vs. 9.5 months, HR 0.57) and best overall response (56 vs. 42%). While not statistically significant, this regime has been proposed in the first line setting for BRAF-MT mCRC patients with good performance status given the overall survival data.
ClinicalTrials.gov number | Therapeutic strategy | Agents investigated | Study design | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
NCT02928224 | BRAF + EGFR + MEK inhibition | Encorafenib + cetuximab ± binimetinib | Phase 3, randomised, open label | Recruiting |
NCT02906059 | Chemotherapy + selective Wee 1 inhibitor | Irinotecan + AZD1775 | Phase 1b | Recruiting |
NCT01351103 | PORCN inhibitor + immunotherapy | LGK974 ± PDR001 | Phase 1 | Recruiting |
NCT01640405 | Antiangiogenesis agent + cytotoxic chemotherapy | FOLFOX + bevacizumab vs. FOLFOXIRI + bevacizumab | Phase 3 open label | Active, not recruiting |
NCT01750918 | BRAF + EGFR + MEK inhibition | Dabrafenib + panitumumab vs. dabrafenib + trametinib + panitumumab Dabrafenib + panitumumab vs. dabrafenib + trametinib + panitumumab vs. 5-fluorouracil-based chemotherapy + monoclonal antibody Trametinib + panitumumab | 4 part phase 1/2, open label | Active, not recruiting |
NCT01719380 | BRAF + EGFR + PI3K inhibition | Encorafenib + cetuximab + alpelisib | Phase 1b/2, open label, dose escalation | Active, not recruiting |
Ongoing studies investigating different treatment strategies for BRAF MT mCRC.
Updated 7th November 2018.
The epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is involved in signalling upstream of the RAS-RAF-MEK-ERK pathway. Monoclonal antibodies directed against EGFR, cetuximab and panitumumab have shown to be effective in metastatic CRC; however, KRAS mutation is a negative predictor of EGFR treatment response and upfront testing is recommended before starting treatment [36, 37].
As previously discussed, KRAS and BRAF mutations are mutually exclusive. Given the common signalling pathway, BRAF mutation has also been proposed to be a negative predictive marker of EGRF antibody treatment response. In the first line setting, the PRIME study evaluated the addition of panitumumab to FOLFOX. In BRAF-MT tumours, panitumumab added no benefit to survival (HR 0.9, P = 0.76) [42]. Similarly, the phase III MRC COIN trial showed no benefit in the addition of cetuximab to first-line oxaliplatin based chemotherapy, irrespective of KRAS or BRAF mutation status [43]. In the second line setting, the PICCOLO study reported no effect of panitumumab in combination with irinotecan on PFS, but a significant negative effect on OS (HR 1.84, P = 0.029). Cetuximab was also evaluated against best supportive care in the phase III CO.17 trial [44]. For BRAF MT tumours, there were no responses and no change to survival in the sample size of 13 (HR 0.84, P = 0.81).
Given the small numbers of BRAF-MT patients in these trials, there have been a number of meta-analyses evaluating the BRAF mutation as a predictive marker of EGFR therapy. Therkildsen et al. reviewed KRAS, NRAS, BRAF, PIK3CA and PTEN mutations in patients with KRAS exon 2 wild-type patients. Of the 1267 patients in 17 studies treated with either cetuximab or panitumumab in both first line and subsequent like therapies, 128 patients had BRAF V600E mutations [45]. There was a significant decrease in overall response rate (17 vs. 45%). BRAF mutation was also linked to shorter PFS (HR 2.95) and OS (HR 2.52) compared to BRAF wild-type tumours.
Pietrantonio et al. examined the impact of cetuximab and panitumumab on PFS, OS and overall response rate (ORR) [46]. This meta-analysis included 9 phase III trials and 1 phase II trial (across first-line, second-line and chemotherapy refractory settings). 463 RAS wild-type/BRAF MT CRC patients were identified. The addition of EGFR antibody therapy did not significantly improve PFS (HR 0.88, P = 0.33), OS (HR 0.91, P = 0.63) and ORR (relative risk 1.31, P = 0.25).
A further meta-analysis was published in 2015 but Rowland et al. [47]. It included 8 randomised control trials that had also been included in the analysis by Pietrantonio et al., but differed by excluding 2 trials; 1 by Tveit et al. [48] due to lack of OS and PFS data and Stintzing et al. [49] as the control arm included bevacizumab. In addition, the statistical analysis differed as Rowland et al. compared BRAF MT patients with BRAF wild-type. 351 patients were identified with BRAF mutation, of which 330 with the V600E mutation. The HR for PFS was 0.86 for RAS wild-type/BRAF MT compared with 0.62 for RAS wild-type/BRAF wild-type tumours with a test of interaction that nears but does not reach statistical significance (P = 0.07). There was no difference for OS either, the HR for RAS wild-type/BRAF MT tumours was 0.97 compared with 0.81 for RAS wild-type/BRAF wild-type (test of interaction, P = 0.43). It concluded that there was insufficient evidence to definitively state that RAS wild-type/BRAF MT individuals derive a different treatment benefit from EGFR antibodies compared with RAS wild-type/BRAF wild-type patients.
More recently, the triplet chemotherapy regime, FOLFOXIRI, has been studied in combination with panitumumab in the VOLFI trial [50]. This was a randomised phase II trial of patients with RAS WT, unresectable metastatic CRC. 96 patients were included, of which, 16 patients with BRAF MT disease. The primary endpoint was ORR. The addition of panitumumab significantly improved ORR in the overall population (85.7 vs. 54.5%, P = 0.0013), and in the BRAF MT population, there was trend to improved ORR (71.4 vs. 22.2%, P = 0.1262).
Thus, while there exists a significant body of evidence that suggests minimal clinical benefit of EGFR antibody treatment in BRAF MT metastatic CRC, it is not definitive and therefore remains an option for therapy in discussion with the patient. This primarily relates to anti-EGFR as the sole biological agent however anti-EGFR therapy may have a definite role when combined with additional biological agents such as BRAF inhibitors as discussed below.
BRAF represents a therapeutic target in cancer as, unlike KRAS, it is a relatively unidirectional MEK-ERK effector. Inhibition of BRAF with vemurafenib (PLX4032) has been demonstrated to significantly benefit patients with unresectable or metastatic BRAF V600E MT melanoma, improving progression free survival and OS, with a response rate of 48% [51]. In sharp contrast, BRAF inhibition in mCRC is disappointing. An expansion phase II study examined vemurafenib in patients with BRAF MT mCRC who have had at least one line of prior therapy [52]. Of the 21 patients treated, 1 patient had a partial response and 7 other patients had stable disease by RESIST criteria. The median PFS was only 2.1 months and ORR of 5%. Although there were signs of efficacy, the authors concluded that single-agent vemurafenib did not show any meaningful clinical activity in patients with BRAF V600E MT mCRC.
These results were similar to a histology-independent phase II “basket” trial of vemurafenib. 122 patients with BRAF V600 MT malignancies were enrolled into 7 prespecified cohorts, including 37 with mCRC [53]. Vemurafenib, as a single agent, was given to 10 patients with mCRC. Response was poor, with 50% having stable disease and the rest progressing on therapy. The remaining 27 patients with mCRC received combination of vemurafenib and cetuximab, and the results will be discussed later in the chapter.
There are several mechanisms of resistance identified that reduce the efficacy of BRAF inhibition in mCRC. For example Prahallad et al. identified that BRAF inhibition with vemurafenib in mCRC cells causes a rapid activation of EGFR through an ERK-dependent negative feedback loop [54]. Unlike in melanoma, CRC cell lines express high levels of activated EGFR. Blockade of EGFR with either EGFR monoclonal antibodies or small-molecule kinase inhibitors (gefitinib and erlotinib) was showed to work synergistically with BRAF inhibition.
More recently, it has been showed that BRAF inhibition can also lead to up regulation of other receptor tyrosine kinases including human epidermal growth factor receptor (HER) 2 and HER3 [55].
Activation of the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT/mTOR pathway has also been implicated in BRAF inhibition resistance [56]. PI3K signalling is activated by direct mutational activation or amplification of PIK3CA and AKT1 or loss of PTEN [57]. Approximately 40% of CRC have been shown to have alterations in 1 of 8 PI3K pathway genes, which are almost always mutually exclusive to each other [58]. Genotyping of BRAF MT CRC has showed concomitant PI3KCA and PTEN mutations [59].
The Wnt/β-catenin pathway is also involved in cell proliferation, differentiation and survival and interacts with the RAS-RAF-MEK-ERK pathway at multiple points. It has been identified as an important step in tumourigenesis and alterations in the Wnt pathway have been identified more frequently in BRAF V600E MT CRC patient samples, potentially representing an alternative pathway of tumour development when BRAF is inhibited [60].
Based on these findings, BRAF inhibition has been combined with a number of different agents in order to attempt to overcome resistance and improve response.
In the fore-mentioned phase II “basket” trial, the effect of vemurafenib and cetuximab evaluated in 27 patients with BRAF V600 MT mCRC. The result was marginally improved compared to single-agent treatment. One patient had a partial response (4% ORR) and 69% had stable disease. Median PFS was 3.7 months and median OS was 7.1 months. A pilot trial with combination panitumumab and vemurafenib included 15 patients with BRAF V600E mCRC who had received at least 1 prior line of therapy [61]. 2 patients had confirmed partial response and 6 patients had stable disease, including 2 patients with stability lasting over 6 months. The treatment was well tolerated with fatigue and rash being the most frequently observed adverse events.
Other combinations of BRAF and EGFR inhibitors have also been investigated including vemurafenib plus erlotinib [62], encorafenib (LGX818, a highly selective ATP-competitive small molecule RAF kinase inhibitor) plus cetuximab [63] and dabrafenib (a small molecule kinase BRAF inhibitor) plus panitumumab [64]. Response rates in these trials range from 4 to 23%. To improve this outcome, the combination has been combined with chemotherapy in the randomised phase 2 SWOG 1406 study [65]. Interim results of this trial were presented in 2017. The combination of irinotecan and cetuximab with or without vemurafenib was examined in 106 patients. Median PFS was significantly improved with the addition of vemurafenib (4.4 vs. 2.0 months, P < 0.001). Response rate increased from 4 to 16% (P = 0.09). However, there was an increase in grade 3 and 4 adverse events including neutropenia, anaemia and nausea. It was noted that no new safety signals. The data on median OS was immature. Based on these findings, this treatment regime has been included in treatment guidelines [36].
BRAF and MEK inhibition has been combined in melanoma with greater efficacy and so has been evaluated in the BRAF MT mCRC population. 43 patients were treated with dabrafenib and trametinib [66]. 1 patient achieved a complete response and 4 patients had a partial response (ORR 12%). 24 patients achieved stable disease (56%). During-treatment biopsies in 9 patients showed reduced levels of ERK compared with pre-treatment biopsies. It is suggested that combination BRAF and MEK inhibition could be a potential therapeutic backbone for the addition of other agents including EGFR inhibitors.
Given the role of MEK and ERK in EGFR activation leading to BRAF inhibitor resistance, the triplet combination of BRAF, MEK and EGFR inhibitors have been investigated. Corcoran et al. reported on a trial involving 3 cohorts, dabrafenib and panitumumab (n = 20), dabrafenib, trametinib and panitumumab (n = 91), and trametinib and panitumumab (n = 31) [67].
The ORR for triplet therapy was 21%, compared with 0% with trametinib and panitumumab and 10% with dabrafenib and panitumumab. With the increase in response rate, there was also a corresponding increase in adverse events. 70% of patients on triplet therapy had a grade 3 or 4 adverse event. 18% of patients had an adverse event resulting in study discontinuation, 54% had an adverse event that resulted in dose reduction, and 71% of patients had an adverse event that led to dose interruption or delay. Skin toxicity including rash and dermatitis acneiform occurred in 90% of patients, with 21% having grade 3 or 4 adverse events. Paired pre-treatment and on-treatment biopsies demonstrated that triplet combination produced greater inhibition of ERK than the dabrafenib and panitumumab doublet or the dabrafenib and panitumumab doublet.
It has been suggested that BRAF inhibitors may offset the dermatologic toxicity resulting from MEK or EGFR inhibitors. Mondaca et al. reported on a case of BRAF V600E MT metastatic CRC on clinical trial with dabrafenib, trametinib and panitumumab [68]. Dabrafenib dose reductions for neutropenia were associated with increased skin toxicity, which subsequently improved with increasing the dose. This case highlights the importance of dose intensity of BRAF inhibitors with used in combination regimens.
Current therapeutic investigations in the BRAF MT mCRC field involve multiple targeted therapies aimed at overcoming acquired resistance to MAPK pathway inhibition.
One such combination is encorafenib, cetuximab and alpelisib. Alpelisib (BYL719) specifically inhibits the alpha subunit of PI3K. A phase 1b dose escalation study included 2 arms, encorafenib plus cetuximab vs. triplet therapy with encorafenib, cetuximab and alpelisib [69]. Triplet therapy was showed to be active with an ORR of 18% and impressively a disease control rate of 92.8%. This combination has been investigated further in a phase 2 trial [63]. 102 patients with refractory BRAF MT CRC were randomised to doublet or triplet therapy. Progression free survival was the primary endpoint. Interim data following 73 events were released and showed no statistical difference between doublet and triplet therapy with HR 0.69 (P = 0.064) and median PFS of 4.2 vs. 5.4 months. Grade 3 and 4 adverse events were higher in the triplet arm, including anaemia and hyperglycaemia. Further investigations with other PI3K inhibitors are currently underway; however, the efficacy of PI3K inhibition remains unclear (NCT01337765, NCT01363232).
Other potential targets include BRAF and AKT inhibition [70], BRAF, EGFR and HER2 inhibition [55], ERK inhibition alone or in combination with BRAF inhibition [71] and Wnt/β-catenin pathway inhibition (NCT02278133) Table 2.
Immunotherapy also plays a role in the management of metastatic CRC [36]. Pembrolizumab and nivolumab are immune check point inhibitors against programmed death 1 (PD-1) that have demonstrated significant activity against MSI-high mCRC [72, 73]. Given the strong association between MSI-high and BRAF MT CRC, this represents a possible therapeutic option. The initial trial of pembrolizumab in MSI-high CRC did not include BRAF MT cases; however, a case report does suggest activity in the MSI-high BRAF MT population [74].
Nivolumab and combination nivolumab with ipilimumab (cytotoxic T-lymphocyte associated protein 4 inhibitor) in MSI-high/dMMR CRC was examined in the phase 2 CheckMate 142 study [73, 75]. 12 of the 74 patients receiving nivolumab harboured a BRAF mutation. An objective response was seen in 3 patients (25%) and 9 patients achieved disease control for greater than 12 weeks. The ORR for combination immunotherapy was greater at 55% in patients with MSI-high BRAF MT CRC, and disease control rate of 79%. Safety data was not reported by mutation status, however, appeared manageable, with 32% experiencing a grade 3 or 4 adverse event, most commonly raised AST. Discontinuation due to a treatment related adverse event was 13%.
BRAF V600E mutations are present in 7–10% of CRC. It represents a population with poor prognosis and a particular clinical phenotype, being more prevalent in women, older than 70 years of age, associated with poorly differentiated histology and right-sided tumours. Chemotherapy with the addition of anti-angiogenesis agent remains the current standard of care in the first line metastatic setting. More aggressive, triplet chemotherapy (FOLFOXIRI) may be appropriate in the selected patient. BRAF inhibition has been extensively investigated for second line therapy and beyond and when in combination with EGFR, MEK and PI3K inhibitors have increased response rates, however, PFS and OS remains poor. Ongoing research remains important to improve outcomes in BRAF MT CRC.
Do Big Data sciences require any role of the architect? Is there any merit for the dismissive attitude against architectural practice as big data knowledge based? Are the architectural institutions agile and responsive to the transformation opportunities big data sciences are bringing to the architectural education and architects? Is architecture data driven and source of data, including does graphics play any role? The chapter sets out to find the answers. In [1] computer 3D graphics, a term first coined by William Fetter in 1961 to describe his work at Boeing, have played a significant role in the design, engineering, and gaming industry. Nonetheless, the impact on 3D computer graphics, like with all architectural endeavors, of the explosion of big data fuelled by data sciences since 2000 will just be as transformative like the internet (see [2]). While earliest 3D computer graphics can be traced to late 1970s with the 3-D Art Graphics by Kazumasa Mitazawa released in June 1978 is one the earliest [3].
Graphic writing as structured visual expression is not strange in Africa as recognized in [4] “with multiple varied communication tools, including written symbols, religious objects, oral tradition, and body language” deployed in organizing “daily life, enable interactions between human and the natural and spiritual worlds, and preserve and transmit cosmological and cosmological belief systems”. Conversely, Big data is more than communication, powered by the data sciences and associated technologies. For instance, in understanding an individual (for medical or housing needs), big data will include all unstructured and structured forms [4] in addition to the individual’s medical history and other demographic details. To understand industry for operational optimization, as noted in [5] big data “is turning mobility, medical, automobile, and pharmaceutical billions of gigantic data into actionable insights to help make informed business decisions, including all significant industries. Big Data is providing every person 320 times more information provided by the third century store house of knowledge, the Library of Alexandria [2] Blockchain is providing the shared, secured holding and transparency of big data in never before accelerated ways as in video-1 [6]. Nevertheless, a “multifaceted team with complementary skills are needed to realize the full value of big data” [7].
Conversely, the construction industry seems indifferent in harnessing its big data. A few reasons are:
Lack of effective leadership [8].
The lack of understanding of the impact and purpose of data sciences in broader society [9].
Data sciences perceived narrowness, and quick testing and scrutinizing rather than engaging and inspiring has been a discouraging factor among women. Uber, the public cab transport transformer, and the construction Building Information Modeling (BIM) entered the market about the same period in 2009. Conversely, BIM regardless of the potentials beyond design and 3D modeling as buttressed in [10], it has not impacted the construction industry as much as Uber has done to transportation.
Many things have changed, but the architects’ fingers, eyes, and creative intellect are yet valuable means to ends in architecture. The sense organs capture, process, analyse, memorise as part of “database of the mind.” The same is share and enjoy or rejected as pattern, images, sounds, and alike. Depending on the creative database, architects can deliver static non-interactive alphanumeric multisensory models before the emergence of computer 3-D graphics and its rapid advancements. Conversely, the imagination, hands, and simple tools like pencil pen, rule, Set Square, and paper, for another 30 years ahead (as in [11]), the architect, will continue express and communicates aided by standard architectural graphic symbols and elements with understanding of design principles. Discussing graphics, Obina Wodike, an architect and Graphic lecturer with Port Harcourt Polytechnic, noted graphics is not new to human civilization. Wodike buttressed his point tracing graphics to the Biblical times, Egyptian Heliographic, and cited Thomson (1993). Thomson connected graphics and the era when historians, sociologists, linguists, and visual communication students produced art for commercial purposes, including mass consumption or graphic design, with 1986 marking the formation of Graphic Design Education. The importance of “origin” as a continuous influencer of the future progress validating the continuous influence of the seemingly primitive tools -architects finger, pencil, practices, and more- was further buttressed in [12]. Stating, “the origin and practice in unmasking assumptions within current forms and practice” [12] while in [13] described graphic navigation to imply the manipulation of graphic devices, including organization, hierarchy, line weights, colors, and more on a “surface” which range from a book to a highly complex computer screen. Organizations must embrace learning culture and there must be effective strategies to leverage on emerging opportunities.
Graphics: The Cambridge Dictionary gave for Graphic to mean “very clear and powerful” and “having to do with drawings and images” [14]. It is communication by means of standard elements and symbols with creative understanding and design philosophy [13].
Data: information, especially facts or numbers, collected to be examined and considered and used to help decision-making, or information in an electronic form that can be stored and used by computer (ibid) [13].
Data Sciences: “interdisciplinary field that uses scientific methods, processes, algorithm and systems to extract knowledge and insights from noisy, structured, and unstructured data, and apply the knowledge and actionable insights from data across a broad range of application domains” [15] data science is different from information science and communication. As concept the term include “statistics, data analysis, informatics, and their related methods in order to understand and analyses actual phenomena with data” [15].
Data scientist one who create programming codes and combines it with statistical knowledge to create insights from data [15].
Small Data: For centuries and up till now, small data has been and is useful. We recall experiment, production quality control, social sciences all using small sample sizes to represent the larger population in their investigations [16]. The data sample size can range from 30 to a value determined by Fisher formula [17]. Hardly over a million, relative to big data with sample size in billions and increasing. IBM Watson went through millions of file samples of a patient within few minutes to determine the unique Leukemia that have baffled doctors using relatively negligible data sample over days [18].
Big Data: Extremely large data set that that may be analyzed computationally and impossible with traditional method to reveal patters trends and association, especially relating to human behavior and interaction; supported in [19] by products, usually useless and unstructured, but insightful and useful when cleaned, labeled, structured, and stored appropriately for secure and safe retrievals.
Creators economy: An Web 3.0 which will be in sharp contrast with Web 2.0 and web 1.0. In web 3.0 the content creators are owners of what they create (see [20]) Totally different from the current work place and web 2.0 where one works for JP Morgan, Shell, Exxon, Google, Facebook to help create the mega profits, but have no strategic say in the affairs of the firms. They are paid salary- minute of profit- or noting for their creation; “content “created as it is with Google and Facebook. One man or few decide what the majority do; what to produce, where to, how to, and who gets what, and how the profit is shared.
Data Scientist From SAS, a “leader in business analytics software and services” has been a leading global business analytic and intelligence software developer since 1976. The 2021 personality survey of data scientists report in [21] identified several personalities of the data scientist. Four relevant to the chapter are: “Deliverers,” “Drivers,” “Voices,” and “Ground Breakers.” In another publication, in Towards Data Science website, Andrew Lombari (2022) discussed “7 Data Science Projects You Should do to make your resume stand out” (see [22]): Regression project, Classification project, Clustering project, Sentiment analysis project, Recommender system project, Natural Language Processing (NLP) project, Artificial neural network project. The various traits in [21, 22] of data scientist fit the architect discussed elsewhere in [9].
Like hurricane, big data inspired technologies transformations will ultimately blow across the construction industry and only the prepared, agile, and adaptive will survive it. For example:\t\t
IBM Watson machine identified a rear form of Leukemia, including treatments after analyzing millions of data of 60-year patient; that baffled doctors [18].
In the UK, a Nigerian developed algorithm that identify glaucoma more accurately and swiftly than doctors [23].
In India, the pharmaceutical industry is joining China to use AI to reduce cost, improve quality and minimize waste [24].
In Natural Language Processing (NLP) have near perfect human models like WuDao 2.0 and GPT-3 [25].
In [26] GE Additive Manufacturing (AM) is revolutionizing manufacturing or “mass production of components.” The hand tool-free AM process depends directly on CAD data. It is also called “indirect manufacturing”. MIT Additive Printing, also called 3D Printing, is a process of building an object one thin layer at a time, but with each 3D print head delivering as thermoplastic material deposit multiple layer of the build material. The order of 12000 engines with 19 fuel nozzles per engine for Boeing 737 and the Air Bus 320neo will be achieved by 3D printing (see [26]).
In animation and simulation, “the divide between the real world and the digital world is getting thinner as shown in
Nevertheless, much of these shall be changed with Quantum computing replacing traditional super computer, as quantum teleporting, and virtual world (virtual reality- VR, virtual augmentation -VA) is fully developed (see [28, 29]). Supporting the view in video-3, Professor Michio Kaku, a physicist discussed the era of “brainet” when “computer chip will cost as little as penny”. A concept beyond fiction, the “brainet” project will mark the era when, like the internet, human brains will be sending signals directly and networking with other brains [30]. In [31] hint the revolutionary changes Johnson (1984) said will occur in computer-aided architectural design process. An instance, “architects will have to learn to think in the computer’s terms.” Also, in [31] reported uploading or downloading from the human memory is not theoretical but practicable.
The architect is well trained to design buildings and processes of achieving them (see engineer’s view of the architect in [32]). Architecture ranks among topmost toughest courses in the world with students averaging 22.2 hours of study time weekly; 5.28 hours sleep per night compared to seven hours expert recommended [33]. Often called “master builder,” a phrase traced to the original meaning of the word in Greek and Roman renditions. In “English speaking world” it was traced to 1563 and in 1898 (see [34]) A significant product of the architect is architecture, including landscaping which seen in [35] to include building transformed into a living art and expression; not a style. Architecture defines the limit of the city while in [36] “urban planners influence the entire communities with decisions about how areas are developed and even where building can be placed.”
Additionally, leadership in of the building and construction industry may have been ascribed to the architect, but with new solutions from digital construction, computing and simulation, it is being challenged. Indeed, entry of more players from non-traditional construction cores, is therefore challenging the architect’s leadership. Greater burden is on the architect and related institutions if the cap must fit. New thoughts in [37] are demanding a sectional leadership such as architecture management, construction management, engineering management. Also, with concept like integrated project Development (IPD) and “profit distribution of IPD” based on “degree of participation.” Axiomatic to state, “a finished building represents the abilities of more than one individual” [37].
In another study, evidence supports a significant level of ignorance and indifference in the construction industry (see Appendix 1) [9]. All the same, the study demonstrated architect’s leadership among peers in the construction industry with a significant lead of 80 percent in participation. This is despite the equal treatment across selected clusters- architecture, engineering, management, and others [9]. Additionally, the National Building Code of Nigeria, Neufert Architects’ Data and 3D [38], ArchiCAD, AutoCAD. Apple Pencil(with iPad Pro) recently ranked among world-top 25 inventions [39], and in [40] Germany’s most beautiful hydroelectric plant, all have significant big data input of the architects. All these point to the intersection of architecture and data science. Progressing, the chapter will develop and cover the implications of poor data for cities and city users after critical reviews of over fifty purposed sampled scholarly and appropriate articles. Personal experiences and opinions of industry leaders shall be helpful.
The figures below show the survey carried out in 2021 that gave graphic portraits of both ignorance and dismissive attitude of the architect as a professional creating data and significantly with data sciences skills [9]. See appendix 1.
The design process is initially done with a pencil, a ruler, a scale rule, and paper. Then, the process takes a longer time, and relatively inaccurate and significantly limited. Yet they are marvelous works of the likes of Frank Floyd Wright, and alike. Conversely, limitations were significantly broken with new construction materials, and computer aided design (CAD) gave birth to a greater freedom evidenced in architectural expression clustered under Deconstructivism [41, 42]. Libeskind, Zaha Hadid are few Deconstructivists, see Figure 1. The use of modern technologies extends throughout the entire design with distorted surfaces, odd leanings, and fractured wall surfaces. Indeed, possible due to speed, fluidity, and accuracy delivered by CAD which significantly relieved architects of time required for complex forms; for more quality family life or creative endeavors. Also, architectural studios are looking very different compared to a decade ago [42]. In Nigeria, the studios are sluggishly adapting, see Figure 2.
A fit for Deconstructivism by Zaha Hayed. Credit UNSPLASH.
Architecture studio: sleepless nights. Credit: Allison.
Indeed, things have changed with the introduction of CAD and significant architectural practice uses CAD: few are ArchiCAD, Revit, BIM, Chief Architect, Lumen360, and Sketchup. These tools make easy the organization of data to be more meaningful visually. Thus, in use more commonly among young people who are quick to practice even as students, heavily patronized by clients seeking for cheap labor and thus, compounding the problem of quackery in Nigeria.
More, 5G, 7D are merging to further reshape the design terrains and how architects work. In [43] the symbiotic partnership (man-computer) will enable “men will set the goals, formulate the hypothesis, determine the criteria, and perform the evaluations. Computing machines will do the routinizable work that must be done to prepare the way for insights and decisions in technical and scientific thinking.” Design process is not linear, but cyclic for user experience designer because efforts are continually made satisfy the users leaving assumption behind and uncover alternative solutions” [44]. The CAD tools have made the iterative processes easy because design for real people not machines and robots imply understanding complex processes [41, 44]. Further, it empowers the client to make more informed contribution to the design process. From the lens of digital humanities and national development, 3D Computer Graphics is, for example, contributed to the restored sense of pride and patriotism among Chinese young people [45]. The regeneration of the Summer Palace from ruin has turned the once idle ruins into tourist site. With 3D computer graphics the beauty and splendor of the Summer Palace has been fully animated. The ruin site thronged with Chinese young people restored, reliving the past, appreciating the true stories of Summer Palace [45].
All above, 3D computer graphic is important, and noteworthy is the important role played by architects in identifying standardizing, creating symbols, and elements for extracted from ethnographic studies by architects in use by 3D computer graphic community. The standard elements, symbols, minimum dimensions, and other research driven data stored and published in the 680-page Neufert Architects Data authored by an architect, Ernst Neufert indeed testify to interdependent and mutually benefit from each other’s progress (see [38]). More benefits are on the horizon, with Metaverse and creator economy is one the fastest growing sector; in terms of income generation, job creation, and export earnings [20]. View supported in [46] as Internet of value ((IoV), Web3.0, discussed the “risky necessity” “datafication,” “dematerialization,” “platformisation,” in addition to social and resource value awareness” (see [44, 46]) architects as potentially key benefactor will have increasing role to play.
Architectural production includes: cities, homes, furniture, and more. In addition, it takes a minimum range of 5-6 year to be qualified to pursue full professional or chartered membership in Nigeria. Thus, architecture is a rigorous and highly educated profession [33] and in [47] architecture as toughest major in America from 2017 survey of global students’ survey by students. An architectural study is one with high incidence of sleep deprivation among students, Figure 2. While architects rely on quantitative and qualitative analysis of data to recommend and make decisions, architectures consume about 55% global electricity and contribute about 38% of total global energy related Carbon IV Oxide (CO2) waste into the environment [48]. As by-product of architecture, big data is elucidated below focusing on waste paper generated in office activities and how big data can be captured for recycling.
The consulting office is involved in design through tender processes to construction, including post-construction activities. The activities are usually accompanied the shredded waste papers which remain useless not until the following action is carried out:
The waste papers associated with the project are weighed;
Findings (associated data) standardized, labeled (like design, stage, tender stage, construction stage)
Related to the project’s scale and scope (e.g. per total floor area and project type- shopping mall, residential, and more- which data itself).
Finally, extraction of meaningful data and information
For instance, assuming the office used and trashed a ton of A4 papers from design to completion of a 1500 square meter floor areas shopping mall. Then, a useful data/information is “1 metric tons of paper wasted per 1500square meter floor area shopping mall; also, 0.67 kilogram of paper per square meter floor area.” Another data or information has environmental implications. For example, if producing A4 paper consumes 2-13 litre of clean water (as in [49]) and 52 Kilojoules of electricity in 2015 (as in [50]). Then, the hidden environmental cost of 1 metric ton of A4 paper equals: 0.4–2.6 millions liters of clean water and 10.4 million Kilojoules of electricity to produce 200000 A4 papers as trash). Further, (see Appendix 1) complex data table can be developed by substituting, one at a time, paper with electricity, gasoline, diesel, water, ink, timber off cuts, and more. Comprehensive and AI-Blockchain integrated smart table can predict, recommend, and support decisions, including climate change mitigation strategies. For example, in [51] was business case for Blockchain Carbon trading.
Methodology:
The architect’s systematic process is with a loop of thinking, making (build detailed and engaging models), breaking (open to criticism) and repeating (gathering feedback) [52]. Like all sciences, architecture has laws, principles, and theories guiding actions including the manipulations of
Principles include: balance, affordance, feedback, mapping
Theories: form follow function; architectural design as a social process.
Unstructured data like surveyor site plan dimensions, client’s demographic details (client age, income, and family size), site’s vegetation, topographic detail (slope), and ethnographic data like cultural symbols characters. Including narratives are analyzed, clean, labeled, structured, and stored securely for easy retrieval and use.
Structured
Synthesis using real data: models including bubble diagrams, zoning, 3D computer model, physical model, figure. Update data base which indicates the use of “
Supporting the claim of the science and statistic skills demanded of the architects is in [53, 54]. The use SPSS, graph and reports, of
Household income and house typographic relationship; it is important in housing studies and housing projects.
Also, regression analysis is used to determine household income, age, or occupation relationship with transit choices (car owner, mass transit, and pedestrian behavior); important for discerning group behavior and infrastructure use patterns; informed sustainable transit infrastructures spatiality in neighborhoods.
Regression analysis can also reveal motorist most probable behavior when relative to different stress levels such as in traffic, argument, extortions, and noise. It is important in giving insights and determining standards for walkway design, strength and proximity to road, including safety in spaces-places.
Finally, the architect is
Smart city
A term that has been the tonic with the political, built-up space, but most commonly the Smart city is understood to mean only a sophisticated computer driven city or even a “laboratory” in [57]. Conversely, other scholars think smart city is not all about a computer city, but that “the value lies in how this technology is used rather how much of it is used” [58]. In support, the chapter point at the intersection of using computer to identify appropriate data and use of such data appropriately. For instance, Figure 3 indicates smartness rather than poverty; knowing what is sustainable, available, and using it rather than using what is sophisticated, yet on loan, and not sustainable. In other word, to deliver responsiveness in demand, justice, sense of belonging and wellbeing among city users in addition to availability of internet is smartness. In cities, it implies shared risk, wealth, collective decision making were the individual differences of the majority are significantly respected, rather than being over ruled by a few. In [58] data availability, integrity, confidentiality, accountability and operation laws were identified as canonical. Indeed, these requirements are significantly possible by use of AI-Blockchain technologies which is inspiring the big data sciences. As in [5] so, cities’ safety and security can be preserved from detrimental behaviors by data analytics of appropriate big data (extracts of terrorists, cells, deviants). City’s infrastructures can be more responsive and preserved by citizens when infrastructures associated decisions, policy and laws are democratic in origin [59].
Ijaw stilt house: smart and simple.
Poor data can impact cities negatively as earlier demonstrated. With disadvantageous data, subjectivation of the city: (a) cities abating crimes, (b) assume wrong identity, (c) anti-citizenship. The fact, AI-Blockchain can also learn the wrong stuff, if errors are not immediately corrected. In that sense, no matter the level of computer sophistications such cities are not “smart”. Increasingly as symbols of exploitation, and battlefields of the winner take it all. Yet worsen by financialization and capitalism. Indeed, worst is the thinking of cities as “laboratory” which may justify why extremist as leaders can imagine turning cities into “radioactive ash” [60].\t\t
Leadership Failure and Impact.
Considering architects’ big data capacity, so why the disillusionment? Poor motivation. In a conversation the authors had with scholars of the Port Harcourt Polytechnic O. Wodike, G. Irighmah, C. Chendu, F. Dimabo blamed client’s unwillingness to financially commit adequately for architectural services as reason for lack “focused research” required for “every project is unique.” Thus, the attendant weak “architectural language” development, and repetitive narrative in cities. Besides, clients do not exclude the government while the “digital transformation is no longer optional” [61]. Therefore, poor data in addition to fragmented data culture in Nigeria’s construction industry has enabled the impunity and bad image of the sector. In [62] Executive Director of Project in the Niger Delta Development Commission (NDDC) created to provide infrastructural gap in the Niger Delta region, described winning NNDC contract as a winning lottery to emphasize the impunity in the sector. Politicians have hijacked the data management weakness and unrestricted entry.
Today, politicians and public officials seamlessly inflate building and construction projects with a 2021 survey reported 56,000 abandoned projects valued about N12trillion, scattered across Nigerian cities as a result [63]. The construction sector’s porosity, simulating a zero knowledge-based sector, has enable misfits into the sector’s strategic leadership. Unlike with the health (Federal Ministry of Health), and justice sectors (Federal Ministry of Justice) that allow only doctors and lawyers as ministers and commissioners to head the ministries. In Nigeria, the Ministry of Housing and Works, Ministry of Transport, and Niger Delta with huge infrastructural budget have lawyers as ministers with so much power. Expectedly, the misfit may account for the huge “debt implication”, “lambasting,’ politicizing human right (e.g. right to descent shelter), and corruption [64, 65, 66] with impunity. A misfit issue becomes important, with a disadvantageous data management system yet securing infrastructure financing loans from the likes of China [67]. Thus, the demanding leadership and accountability from the construction industry leaders as in
More details of poor performance:
The Ministry of Transport construction of a USD 1.9 billion standard gauge railway from Kano to the Niger Republic is causing uproar in the Senate, including the citizens [66]. Relative to the dreadful roads plaguing the industrial and commercial hubs, including Wes Africa largest market Onitsha (South east of Nigeria), the Kano-Niger Republic railway is economically disadvantageous; indeed a symbol of marginalization and insecurity as illustrated in Figure 3 [66]. In Guardian November 10, 2021 , the Nigerian Institute of Surveyor “Call For Subsidence Monitoring & Deformation Study of High Rise Structures” following incessant building and overpass collapses in Nigeria [63].
As matter of emphasis, it is necessary to dedicate a subsection dealing with possible IT technologies. Architects must constantly seek ways to improve their communication tools and channels to clients and all stakeholders. Thus, this subsection will offer in specific and significant detail the possible data technologies for both students and architects; now and into the future. The list of possible IT technologies cannot be exhausted as more are emerging and others evolving fast too. Below paragraph are few in use and to be use by Architecture students and architects:
Excel, Google form, Mind Mapping tools, Google Earth, others for common graphics editors are: Photoshop, Illustrator, Paint Shop Pro, CorelDRAW, cloud strorage. In addition, the Apple Photos plug-in from Macphun, Adobe Lightroom, Digital Image Suite, Canva, and related programs. For designs and animation, 3D data works are Revit, ArchiCAD, BIM, Sketchup, and Mind Mapping software (e.g. Microsoft Mesiere, Yed, see Figure 4). While the aforementioned are already in use, the future increasing immersion and free-hand experiences have Microsoft HoloLens 2, SketchUpViewer, demonstrated in Vieo-6. Blockchain, NLP, 7D, 6G, and Digital Twins (DT) as IT technologies the architects will depend in everyday service delivery. A few technologies are discussed next (Figure 5).
Bubble diagram achieved by 3D computer graphics with arrows indicating human circulation. Credit: Anita Bala.
3D graphics and Data use is serving as an essential component of computer-assisted learning system. Mix-reality, a future .But current in market at USD45000 with Microsoft HoloLens 2 which is mix- reality headset will be increasingly use for interaction.
In [69] is “a software program created by Microsoft that uses spreadsheets to organize numbers and data with formulas and functions,” according to Corporate Finance Institute (CFI). In [70] Excel was described “as a way to create nice looking tables of data – things like building programs or drawing lists.” Also, it has mathematical formulas with capacity to analyzing and computing data. ArchiDaily, in the same [70] listed twelve useful Excel formulas for architects few are: SUM, IF, SUMIF, COUNTCOUNTIF, COUNTBLANK, AVERAGE, and more. SUM will enable the performance of mathematical operations on data (i.e. parametric data). “IF” will enable architecture student perform conditional analysis, e.g. IF income is income higher than N300000 monthly group data as “middle income.” SUMIF will enable addition of specific group of data if specific condition if fulfilled, e.g. SUM the number clients, IF income is above N300000monthly. The COUNT function counts specified element in cells, like none parametric data- “Female”, “Married” and as such. In addition, Excel makes easy the non-pleasurable aspects in real estate. For instance, the management of land related complex and multiple sales demands involve keeping track of different measurable areas, associated varied facilities, areas for outright and installment purchases, and lease areas.
Kilkelly further acknowledged, Excel offered, “a lean and mean Excel spreadsheet accurately calculated the leasable area. Using the formulas I had built, we could quickly play out scenarios for our client” [70]. The point is, Excel is suitable for: Data input, Data management, Accounting, Financial analysis and analytics, Charting and graphing, Programming, Time management, and Task management (as in [69]).
Tablet and Digital Art
Other than desktop, Laptop, powerful tablets have emerged to take make digital arts easy and handy. Apple Pencil, Gamon PD1560 15.6, Wacom Cintiq 22, Xp-Pen Artist Display 22R Pro, HuionKamvas Pro-Pro 22, while in [71] listed top ten “architecture apps (that) have completely altered the working habits of architects” to include: (a) DroneDeploy “developed to care to the growing need for aerial site intelligent software,” (b) “ArchiSnapper is a field reporting App that allows users to efficiently draft a report during site visits- users can take photo, draft and comment and the app generates seamlessly the report,”[71] others are Shapr3D(IOS), and RoomScan Pro. The 3D modeling process produces a digital object of value that can be sold, hired for fee, transferred as valuable gift. One of such object as None Fungible Token (NFT) like rear art can be sold for thousands to millions of dollars. In [72], for instance, the “Artist Beeple’s Crossroad fetched $6.6 million on Nifty.” Few architects are now specializing in building NFTs: owning virtual estates, including cartoon characters, and football stadium, like in the real world.
Blockchain
Looking at HoloLens 2 and SketchUpViewer demonstration, blockchain value emerges as it can permanently keep track of all changes, clients approvals, and serve as basis for undertaking contract. Thus eliminating copyright violation issue, and providing evidence for contract violation. In future, a combination Microsoft Hololens 2, SketchUpViewer, digital twin (DT) technologies, and additive manufacturing or printing all on Blockchain would make it impossible to violate construction in terms of design and specifications. A very common trend in Nigeria: roads built without drainage, kerb removed, and asphalt thickness highly compromised.
Photoshop, Lightroom, and Adobe Illustrator.
Architectural profession involve the use of photography which good marketing tools and skill. Students are taught photography as core course. It is important in content creation for books, magazines, gallery, and graphical objects enhancement. A picture “is a thousand word” declared wisdom; even so, the quality matters. Adobe Photoshop is one such powerful tool for high quality photo editing. The Lightroom as an editor and organizer is judged much better than most photo editing alternatives tools, including photoshop for easy and light manipulations. For example, with over 100 possible different filters settings Lightroom can improve a given poor quality image to great photograph for different themes: landscape, food, city view at night day, construction sites, presentations, and more. Nevertheless, alternatives to photoshop are many. Adobe Illustrator, according to the Graphic Design Institute’s publication also facilitates creating stunning art.
Looking at the future, some technologies are already in the market including payment systems. Before considering Hololens 2, that chapter will present a case that may support the invalidation of fear by architects over losing jobs to computers; the case of Web 3.0 and None Fungible Tokens (NFTs).
None Fungible Token (NFT):
Which are digital objects of unique kind- two cannot exit. Paola Tasca, the Executive Director, UCL Centre for Blockchain Technologies in [73] recommended “tokenise business model,” “tokenised economy” “tokenization of everything” [74]. Architecture students’ photos can be digitized. Then, using algorithm converted into NFTs. Original outstanding architecture sketches, hand drawn inclusive, can all be tokenized. There increasing importance is not in doubt with the emerging Web3.0. Indeed, 3D objects are vital in character animation and special effects processes because they can be animated. Described as digital artwork, and “unique cryptographic token” (NFT), Sharma quoted JPMorgan analysts: “the monthly sales of digital tokens (NFT) ‘hovers’ at around $2 billion” [72]. In [73] recommended “tokenise business model,” “tokenised economy” “tokenization of everything” [74]. “The collapse of Moore’s Law” [75, 76], in addition, educational systems and business enterprises are adopting computer graphics for data visualization, graphical data processing, interactive learning, immersive learning, virtual and augmented reality, presentations” [77].
Microsoft HoloLens-2.
Introduced in 2019, the Microsoft HoloLens-2 is a pair of mixed-reality smartglasses developed and manufactured by Microsoft, Figure 6. It unveils the future of the free-hand computer. It has Bluetooth, camera, CPU, sound, and holographic lenses. The tool enables students to pull out the 3D graphics design and virtual tools from the computer into the real world or project site. With free hands -not mouse, or pen – any objects can be manipulated like in the real world. Architects, engineers, and clients can with their hands measure headroom, touch, move things to desired positions- life size or reduced scale of things. In more realistic ways, the Hololens-2 saves architects (AEC professionals) the stress of many explanations of ideas by providing the same capabilities of the real world into the virtual world (mix-reality). Microsoft demonstrated possibilities of Holocene-2 is in [78] video-6, in [79]
Digital Twin (DT).
Microsoft HoloLens-2 introduced in Spain at the Mobile world congress in February 24, 2019 with USD3500 pre-order value. While picture speaks 1000 words, a walkthrough video speaks a thousand pictures. Credit: Anita to AJP.
Yet another interesting and possible IT technology for architectural uses is DT; which enables architects, students, and schools to collaborate like never before in real time, with real world experiences. In [80] DT will enable sharing the power of super computers hosted in cloud as algorithm; used for complex computation and visual simulations. For instance, building performance in earthquake, flood, and high genetic impact: such as accident or terrorist attacks. Also, in additive printing with powerful sensors, DT can enable changes in CAD drawings to be automatically updated and reflected physically at construction site. Today, such is not possible as changes in CAD drawing may take days and weeks to be implemented at construction site.
Ordinarily, a significant number of tertiary institutions of architecture and engineering in Nigeria can only dream of such super computer hardware, but with DT the narrative may be different. DT of such hardware computer is affordable yet without compromising performance quality relative to that of the corresponding hardware (physical twin). Amazing opportunities of instinctual interactions, collaboration of students and lecturers across national borders can best be imagined [81]. For example, imagine MIT, Harvard and Port Harcourt Polytechnic sharing the same equipment, faculty members in real time without need for travel. Internet of Things (IoT), Industrial internet of (IIoT), and Internet of Value (IoV) powered by powerful sensors are fore runner of DT technologies opportunities.
SketchUpViewer.
SketchUp is architectural software like ArchiCAD, with many use savvy students. Collaboration with Microsoft to release SketchUpViewer that is compatible Holocene-2 is game changer: see video 6. So, students can draw with the computer, but also can pull-out the designs into the real world before construction- mix reality. The point is, 3D data interaction are getting better giving students and architects more free time for more creative none stereotype activities. Also, greening the process by eliminating work travel need, waste, and enabling one-to-one interactions of human-to-human, human-to-machine, including the virtual-to-reality [81].
Educationally:
Interactive learning software, multimedia software, online courses and many other applications have received much attention. A view supported in [77] stating, “It touches many facets of everyday activities: online or offline digital content”. Others like in [82] stressed play is essential to learning: “Literacy and numeracy development”. The chapter recommended the use of 3D computer graphic strategy and tactics used to engage players to be used for development of instructions for architecture students; a potentially significant and educational application area. Indeed, 3D Computer Graphics and Data use is serving as an essential component of computer-assisted learning system [82]. The statistics associated with the use of the 3D data technologies are impressive. For instance, in [83] “83 % Decrease in training time. Northeastern University has reduced a 3-hour lesson plan into less than 30-minute. 50 % Better student scores Case Western students in the HoloLens lab scored 50% better on retention and required 40% less class time”. Indeed, 3D data technologies can “improve learning result and revolutionize curriculum with hands on lesson plans that convey complex concepts in 3D. With HoloLens2, students can learn-by-doing from anywhere with holographic instructions and assessments” [84].
Considering the fast pace of development, highlighted challenges have been discussed. A case for architects, engineers and construction (AEC) professionals having well integrated and shared data management structure has been established. A database for comparison and control projects cost inflation in public projects. Architects’ duty and obligations include building liveable communities. Thus, the chapter is also interest in pollutions in neighborhoods and communities. Therefore, architectural educators should be passionate in data sciences with a goal of establishing a Construction Blockchain (see [69, 81, 85]).
It demands more openness and agility. It demands improvement of career options in architecture to attract young people interested in creative discipline (e.g. architecture) and trending high-tech jobs with good pay and prestige. While calculus, mathematics, statistics, algebra are core of data sciences in [70, 85, 86], it is very encouraging that coding and programming language like Python do not require mathematics, or even an engineering degree, but critical thinking, little play, and design principles. The authors are architect yet good in Microsoft Excel, coding, and python. Furthermore, with Additive Manufacturing and printing as the future of construction and manufacturing, including Microsoft Hololen, 7D AR and powerful sensors, it is imperative for educators and institutions to build capacities aligned to working with CAD transformative experiences and methods (see
Building compelling strategies and tactics can include incentive (e.g. scholarships), explore and exploit full potential of data sciences skills by sensitisation. For example, making high school Data Sciences Credit pass (General Certificate Education, or West Africa School Certificate) as Physics alternate course requirement for admission into architecture in polytechnics and universities. Next, is to move people into result-oriented actions by positive influence. However, in [88] influence can be animated by making real changes across relationships. Scholars agree, influence is magnetic and can pull people into the institution’s orbit with the power to make real global changes across relationships. In [89], the wisdom to overcome barriers was revealed: colleges and universities should invest in digital transformation for more accessibility, flexibility, and affordability. They must overcome tendency of being just owners of hardware equipment or DT by becoming enabler of processes delivering:
Distinguished skill for their students,
Advance working performance,
Further their mission.
In [90] was the insightful demand on AEC professionals’ educators. That “Construction industry: more needs to be done.” For example, the importance or reliability of psychometric is yet questionable, [91] so, the use of drawing boards. Yet both are compulsory with Psychometric test pass being mandatory for graduation in Nigerian polytechnics. However, such policy is not strategic to the AEC professional development and learning experiences. For instance, many young vibrant students are discouraged seeing Psychometric course as more like an ambush and exploitations. Moreover, time is scarce for required courses. In significant number of schools in the Niger Delta, there is lack of competent staff with centralisation as a problem. For example, in some cases, much as 50 percent of students psychometric test results are delayed yet mandatory for graduation. Students have suffered additional session and associated extra fees.
Institutions should build citizenship and raise the knowledge base of the construction industry, purposefully. Construction Blockchain can provide a platform for team growth, accountability, and trust. While studios should be more conducive, collaboration is required between architectural faculty and data sciences. In [92] is the call to “upsize your strategic practices, implement new marketing, including finding new ways to build the students and faculties strategies (e.g. careers and curriculum options, lowering entry barriers for women, image improvement). As investors and decisions are increasingly influenced by big data, educators must increasingly embrace big data-driven decision making and develop competence in these areas, in addition to gradually downplaying the traditional methods. Blockchain and metaverse are good direction to prepare architects to lunch into the virtual world. The architect’s creativity and expression through various media is not in doubt, Figure 7. Web 3.0, IoT, IoV are rather consoling and basis for confidence building among architectural educators and curriculum developers; rather than the fear of becoming obsolete. They represent opportunities and benefits from ownership of NFTs in a “tokenize economy” [93]. Architects can be significant contributors and virtual estate owners by embracing Web3.0, AI, Blockchain, and animations technologies. Currently, “fintech firms are using Bitcoin blockchain and mobile technologies to create the internet of value” [94].
Analytical presentation and communication skills: Architecture student presentations and graphic communication through various media: Project design night Club.
The chapter has demonstrated similarity between the architecture and data scientists in terms of personality traits, educational skills requirements, and use of data. Architecture and its productions are scientific derivations involving multiple professionals with enormous as big data as by product. 3D computer graphics maintain symbiotic relationship with architect and architecture was explained. Further, the impact of disadvantageous data on the construction industry and the city were discussed. The fear of machines taking over the job of the architect was invalidated, because there are new opportunities in the creative economy. Indeed, there is limit as what computer can do. On career and image, Data science is a compatible as career option for young architects seeking trending high-tech and high in demand yet creative profession. Collaboration is canonical and such will add unique value to the data scientists’ community. Data science can help enforce transparency, accountability and create a new wealth economy for all. Big data creation and use in the construction industry and Blockchain are critical to the desired transformation; particularly for Nigeria. The implications of policy, design, and education were also highlighted. Finally, the uncertainty demands the adoption with strategy for the organic development of the data sciences and technologies as appropriate. In Particular, Blockchain in risk free area to build capacity.
Recommendation:
The educator must share an interest in the underlying technologies industry 4.0, web 3.0.
Educators must understand what different levels of workers want to use the technologies in accomplishing
Building the strategic responsiveness space distinct capability or core competence to protect the knowledge-based construction industry leadership from being open to all.
Complete control and liability of public relevant ministry on the institute and regulatory bodies which hitherto create barriers to both imitation and mobility
Promote synergistic cooperation among the industry professionals towards building a shared and distributed pool of big data.
The organic development of the data sciences and related technologies like AI and Blockchain.
Finally, the imperative also Blockchain adoptions in risk free areas, as follows: (a) The legislators must demonstrate interest and political support by creating the enabling laws to give Blockchain driving big data sciences the required legal backing in Nigeria. (b) The law enforcement agencies must demonstrate interest and learn about the technologies to collaborate with the self-governing system.
Everyone who contributed the article success peer-reviewers, UNSPLASH, my wife, Peace J. Allison, for typing and Love and Unity Humanitarian Foundation non-obligatory support grant.
There is no conflict of interest, whatsoever.
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Plastino",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10674.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"125424",title:"Prof.",name:"Sergio",middleName:null,surname:"Curilef",slug:"sergio-curilef",fullName:"Sergio Curilef"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10205",title:"Quantum Chromodynamic",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0d9403b5c874f6e63b0686cd7c432e00",slug:"quantum-chromodynamic",bookSignature:"Zbigniew Piotr Szadkowski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10205.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67836",title:"Prof.",name:"Zbigniew Piotr",middleName:null,surname:"Szadkowski",slug:"zbigniew-piotr-szadkowski",fullName:"Zbigniew Piotr Szadkowski"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10767",title:"Fiber Optics",subtitle:"Technology and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f6624b8ef72a4a369383a4b719bba2a4",slug:"fiber-optics-technology-and-applications",bookSignature:"Guillermo Huerta-Cuellar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10767.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"237167",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Huerta-Cuellar",slug:"guillermo-huerta-cuellar",fullName:"Guillermo Huerta-Cuellar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10481",title:"Practical Applications of Laser Ablation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e9f235e98a88813c08a9dba80525b195",slug:"practical-applications-of-laser-ablation",bookSignature:"Dongfang Yang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10481.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"177814",title:"Dr.",name:"Dongfang",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"dongfang-yang",fullName:"Dongfang Yang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10017",title:"Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e20f25706d03f0c52ac852f7fa2375e7",slug:"optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Mike Haidar Shahine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10017.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"102474",title:"Dr.",name:"Mike Haidar",middleName:null,surname:"Shahine",slug:"mike-haidar-shahine",fullName:"Mike Haidar Shahine"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:156,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"32842",doi:"10.5772/34901",title:"Sterilization by Gamma Irradiation",slug:"sterilization-by-gamma-irradiation",totalDownloads:74812,totalCrossrefCites:37,totalDimensionsCites:85,abstract:null,book:{id:"1590",slug:"gamma-radiation",title:"Gamma Radiation",fullTitle:"Gamma Radiation"},signatures:"Kátia Aparecida da Silva Aquino",authors:[{id:"102109",title:"Dr.",name:"Katia",middleName:"Aparecida Da S.",surname:"Aquino",slug:"katia-aquino",fullName:"Katia Aquino"}]},{id:"49652",doi:"10.5772/61720",title:"Sample Preparations for Scanning Electron Microscopy – Life Sciences",slug:"sample-preparations-for-scanning-electron-microscopy-life-sciences",totalDownloads:8753,totalCrossrefCites:37,totalDimensionsCites:84,abstract:"Sample preparations are essential in scanning electron microscopy. Flawed sample preparations can undermine the quality of results and lead to false conclusions. Thus, the aim of this chapter is to equip researchers, post graduate students and technicians with essential knowledge required to prepare samples for scanning electron microscopy (SEM) investigations in the life sciences.",book:{id:"5075",slug:"modern-electron-microscopy-in-physical-and-life-sciences",title:"Modern Electron Microscopy in Physical and Life Sciences",fullTitle:"Modern Electron Microscopy in Physical and Life Sciences"},signatures:"Mogana Das Murtey and Patchamuthu Ramasamy",authors:[{id:"176330",title:"Dr.",name:"Mogana",middleName:"Das",surname:"Murtey",slug:"mogana-murtey",fullName:"Mogana Murtey"},{id:"181159",title:"Mr.",name:"Patchamuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Ramasamy",slug:"patchamuthu-ramasamy",fullName:"Patchamuthu Ramasamy"}]},{id:"26791",doi:"10.5772/28067",title:"Optical Vortices in a Fiber: Mode Division Multiplexing and Multimode Self-Imaging",slug:"optical-vortices-in-a-fiber-mode-division-multiplexing-and-multimode-self-reproducing",totalDownloads:4549,totalCrossrefCites:30,totalDimensionsCites:49,abstract:null,book:{id:"2018",slug:"recent-progress-in-optical-fiber-research",title:"Recent Progress in Optical Fiber Research",fullTitle:"Recent Progress in Optical Fiber Research"},signatures:"S.N. Khonina, N.L. Kazanskiy and V.A. Soifer",authors:[{id:"72613",title:"Prof.",name:"Svetlana",middleName:null,surname:"Khonina",slug:"svetlana-khonina",fullName:"Svetlana Khonina"}]},{id:"30963",doi:"10.5772/34176",title:"Microstructural and Mineralogical Characterization of Clay Stabilized Using Calcium-Based Stabilizers",slug:"microstructural-and-mineralogical-characterization-of-clay-stabilized-using-calcium-based-stabilizer",totalDownloads:6801,totalCrossrefCites:29,totalDimensionsCites:48,abstract:null,book:{id:"1505",slug:"scanning-electron-microscopy",title:"Scanning Electron Microscopy",fullTitle:"Scanning Electron Microscopy"},signatures:"Pranshoo Solanki and Musharraf Zaman",authors:[{id:"20942",title:"Prof.",name:"Pranshoo",middleName:null,surname:"Solanki",slug:"pranshoo-solanki",fullName:"Pranshoo Solanki"},{id:"20945",title:"Prof.",name:"Musharraf",middleName:null,surname:"Zaman",slug:"musharraf-zaman",fullName:"Musharraf Zaman"}]},{id:"49655",doi:"10.5772/61830",title:"Electrical Discharge in Water Treatment Technology for Micropollutant Decomposition",slug:"electrical-discharge-in-water-treatment-technology-for-micropollutant-decomposition",totalDownloads:5019,totalCrossrefCites:32,totalDimensionsCites:44,abstract:"Hazardous micropollutants are increasingly detected worldwide in wastewater treatment plant effluent. As this indicates, their removal is insufficient by means of conventional modern water treatment techniques. In the search for a cost-effective solution, advanced oxidation processes have recently gained more attention since they are the most effective available techniques to decompose biorecalcitrant organics. As a main drawback, however, their energy costs are high up to now, preventing their implementation on large scale. For the specific case of water treatment by means of electrical discharge, further optimization is a complex task due to the wide variety in reactor design and materials, discharge types, and operational parameters. In this chapter, an extended overview is given on plasma reactor types, based on their design and materials. Influence of design and materials on energy efficiency is investigated, as well as the influence of operational parameters. The collected data can be used for the optimization of existing reactor types and for development of novel reactors.",book:{id:"5093",slug:"plasma-science-and-technology-progress-in-physical-states-and-chemical-reactions",title:"Plasma Science and Technology",fullTitle:"Plasma Science and Technology - Progress in Physical States and Chemical Reactions"},signatures:"Patrick Vanraes, Anton Y. Nikiforov and Christophe Leys",authors:[{id:"49112",title:"Prof.",name:"Christophe",middleName:null,surname:"Leys",slug:"christophe-leys",fullName:"Christophe Leys"},{id:"176861",title:"Dr.",name:"Anton",middleName:null,surname:"Nikiforov",slug:"anton-nikiforov",fullName:"Anton Nikiforov"},{id:"176862",title:"Mr.",name:"Patrick",middleName:null,surname:"Vanraes",slug:"patrick-vanraes",fullName:"Patrick Vanraes"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"49562",title:"Laser-Induced Plasma and its Applications",slug:"laser-induced-plasma-and-its-applications",totalDownloads:4805,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:"The laser irradiation have shown a range of applications from fabricating, melting, and evaporating nanoparticles to changing their shape, structure, size, and size distribution. Laser induced plasma has used for different diagnostic and technological applications as detection, thin film deposition, and elemental identification. The possible interferences of atomic or molecular species are used to specify organic, inorganic or biological materials which allows critical applications in defense (landmines, explosive, forensic (trace of explosive or organic materials), public health (toxic substances pharmaceutical products), or environment (organic wastes). Laser induced plasma for organic material potentially provide fast sensor systems for explosive trace and pathogen biological agent detection and analysis. The laser ablation process starts with electronic energy absorption (~fs) and ends at particle recondensation (~ms). Then, the ablation process can be governed by thermal, non-thermal processes or a combination of both. There are several types of models, i.e., thermal, mechanical, photophysical, photochemical and defect models, which describe the ablation process by one dominant mechanism only. Plasma ignition process includes bond breaking and plasma shielding during the laser pulse. Bond breaking mechanisms influence the quantity and form of energy (kinetic, ionization and excitation) that atoms and ions can acquire. Plasma expansion depends on the initial mass and energy in the plume. The process is governed by initial plasma properties (electron density, temperature, velocity) after the laser pulse and the expansion medium. During first microsecond after the laser pulse, plume expansion is adiabatic afterwards line radiation becomes the dominant mechanism of energy loss.",book:{id:"5093",slug:"plasma-science-and-technology-progress-in-physical-states-and-chemical-reactions",title:"Plasma Science and Technology",fullTitle:"Plasma Science and Technology - Progress in Physical States and Chemical Reactions"},signatures:"Kashif Chaudhary, Syed Zuhaib Haider Rizvi and Jalil Ali",authors:[{id:"176684",title:"Dr.",name:"Kashif Tufail",middleName:null,surname:"Chaudhary",slug:"kashif-tufail-chaudhary",fullName:"Kashif Tufail Chaudhary"},{id:"176867",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Zuhaib",middleName:null,surname:"Haider Rizivi",slug:"syed-zuhaib-haider-rizivi",fullName:"Syed Zuhaib Haider Rizivi"},{id:"176868",title:"Prof.",name:"Jalil",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",slug:"jalil-ali",fullName:"Jalil Ali"}]},{id:"52164",title:"An Overview on Quantum Cascade Lasers: Origins and Development",slug:"an-overview-on-quantum-cascade-lasers-origins-and-development",totalDownloads:3255,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"This chapter presents an introductory review on quantum cascade lasers (QCLs). An overview is prefaced, including a brief description of their beginnings and operating basics. Materials used, as well as growth methods, are also described. The possibility of developing GaN-based QCLs is also shown. Summarizing, the applications of these structures cover a broad range, including spectroscopy, free-space communication, as well as applications to near-space radar and chemical/biological detection. Furthermore, a number of state-of-the-art applications are described in different fields, and finally a brief assessment of the possibilities of volume production and the overall state of the art in QCLs research are elaborated.",book:{id:"5389",slug:"quantum-cascade-lasers",title:"Quantum Cascade Lasers",fullTitle:"Quantum Cascade Lasers"},signatures:"Raúl Pecharromán-Gallego",authors:[{id:"188866",title:"Dr.",name:"Raúl",middleName:null,surname:"Pecharromán-Gallego",slug:"raul-pecharroman-gallego",fullName:"Raúl Pecharromán-Gallego"}]},{id:"49526",title:"Focused Ion Beams (FIB) — Novel Methodologies and Recent Applications for Multidisciplinary Sciences",slug:"focused-ion-beams-fib-novel-methodologies-and-recent-applications-for-multidisciplinary-sciences",totalDownloads:4325,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Considered as the newest field of electron microscopy, focused ion beam (FIB) technologies are used in many fields of science for site-specific analysis, imaging, milling, deposition, micromachining, and manipulation. Dual-beam platforms, combining a high-resolution scanning electron microscope (HR-SEM) and an FIB column, additionally equipped with precursor-based gas injection systems (GIS), micromanipulators, and chemical analysis tools (such as energy-dispersive spectra (EDS) or wavelength-dispersive spectra (WDS)), serve as multifunctional tools for direct lithography in terms of nano-machining and nano-prototyping, while advanced specimen preparation for transmission electron microscopy (TEM) can practically be carried out with ultrahigh precision. Especially, when hard materials and material systems with hard substrates are concerned, FIB is the only technique for site-specific micro- and nanostructuring. Moreover, FIB sectioning and sampling techniques are frequently used for revealing the structural and morphological distribution of material systems with three-dimensional (3D) network at micro-/nanoscale.This book chapter includes many examples on conventional and novel processes of FIB technologies, ranging from analysis of semiconductors to electron tomography-based imaging of hard materials such as nanoporous ceramics and composites. In addition, recent studies concerning the active use of dual-beam platforms are mentioned",book:{id:"5075",slug:"modern-electron-microscopy-in-physical-and-life-sciences",title:"Modern Electron Microscopy in Physical and Life Sciences",fullTitle:"Modern Electron Microscopy in Physical and Life Sciences"},signatures:"Meltem Sezen",authors:[{id:"176338",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Meltem",middleName:null,surname:"Sezen",slug:"meltem-sezen",fullName:"Meltem Sezen"}]},{id:"50866",title:"Effects of Different Laser Pulse Regimes (Nanosecond, Picosecond and Femtosecond) on the Ablation of Materials for Production of Nanoparticles in Liquid Solution",slug:"effects-of-different-laser-pulse-regimes-nanosecond-picosecond-and-femtosecond-on-the-ablation-of-ma",totalDownloads:6112,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:36,abstract:"Ultra-short laser pulse interaction with materials has received much attention from researchers in micro- and nanomachining, especially for the generation of nanoparticles in liquid environments, because of the straightforward method and direct application for organic solvents. In addition, the colloidal nanoparticles produced by laser ablation have very high purity—they are free from surfactants and reaction products or by-products. In this chapter, nanosecond, picosecond and femtosecond laser pulse durations are compared in laser material processing. Due to the unique properties of the short and ultra-short laser pulse durations in material processing, they are more apparent in the production of precision material processing and generation of nanoparticles in liquid environments.",book:{id:"5236",slug:"high-energy-and-short-pulse-lasers",title:"High Energy and Short Pulse Lasers",fullTitle:"High Energy and Short Pulse Lasers"},signatures:"Abubaker Hassan Hamad",authors:[{id:"183494",title:"Dr.",name:"Abubaker",middleName:"Hassan",surname:"Hamad",slug:"abubaker-hamad",fullName:"Abubaker Hamad"}]},{id:"49537",title:"Electron Diffraction",slug:"electron-diffraction",totalDownloads:10155,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:33,abstract:"Electron microscopes are usually supplied with equipment for obtaining diffraction patterns and micrographs from the same area of a specimen and the best results are attained if the complete use is to be made of these combined facilities. Electron diffraction patterns are used to obtain quantitative data including phase identification, orientation relationship and crystal defects in materials, etc. At first, a general introduction including a geometrical and quantitative approach to electron diffraction from a crystalline specimen, the reciprocal lattice and electron diffraction in the electron microscope are presented. The scattering process by an individual atom as well as a crystal, the Bragg law, Laue conditions and structure factor are also discussed. Types of diffraction patterns such as ring pattern, spot pattern and Kikuchi pattern, and general and unique indexing diffraction patterns are explained. The procedure for indexing simple, complicated and imperfect patterns as well as Kikuchi lines and a combination of Kikuchi lines and spots is outlined. The known and unknown materials are identified by indexing patterns. Practical comparisons between various methods of analysing diffraction patterns are also described. The basic diffraction patterns and the fine structure in the patterns including specimen tilting experiments, orientation relationship determination, phase identification, twinning, second phases, crystallographic information, dislocation, preferred orientation and texture, extra spots and streaks are described in detail. Finally, electron diffraction patterns of new materials are investigated.",book:{id:"5075",slug:"modern-electron-microscopy-in-physical-and-life-sciences",title:"Modern Electron Microscopy in Physical and Life Sciences",fullTitle:"Modern Electron Microscopy in Physical and Life Sciences"},signatures:"Mohsen Asadi Asadabad and Mohammad Jafari Eskandari",authors:[{id:"176352",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohsen",middleName:null,surname:"Asadi Asadabad",slug:"mohsen-asadi-asadabad",fullName:"Mohsen Asadi Asadabad"},{id:"177600",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Jafari Eskandari",slug:"mohammad-jafari-eskandari",fullName:"Mohammad Jafari Eskandari"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"20",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82973",title:"Compact Incoherent Multidimensional Imaging Systems Using Static Diffractive Coded Apertures",slug:"compact-incoherent-multidimensional-imaging-systems-using-static-diffractive-coded-apertures",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105864",abstract:"Incoherent holographic imaging technologies, in general, involve multiple optical components for beam splitting—combining and shaping—and in most cases, require an active optical device such as a spatial light modulator (SLM) for generating multiple phase-shifted holograms in time. The above requirements made the realization of holography-based products expensive, heavy, large, and slow. To successfully transfer the holography capabilities discussed in research articles to products, it is necessary to find methods to simplify holography architectures. In this book chapter, two important incoherent holography techniques, namely interference-based Fresnel incoherent correlation holography (FINCH) and interferenceless coded aperture correlation holography (I-COACH), have been successfully simplified in space and time using advanced manufacturing methods and nonlinear reconstruction, respectively. Both techniques have been realized in compact optical architectures using a single static diffractive optical element manufactured using lithography technologies. Randomly multiplexed diffractive lenses were manufactured using electron beam lithography for FINCH. A quasi-random lens and a mask containing a quasi-random array of pinholes were manufactured using electron beam lithography and photolithography, respectively, for I-COACH. In both cases, the compactification has been achieved without sacrificing the performances. The design, fabrication, and experiments of FINCH and I-COACH with static diffractive optical elements are presented in details.",book:{id:"11860",title:"Holography - Recent Advances and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11860.jpg"},signatures:"Vijayakumar Anand, Soon Hock Ng, Tomas Katkus, Daniel Smith, Vinoth Balasubramani, Denver P. Linklater, Pierre J. Magistretti, Christian Depeursinge, Elena P. Ivanova and Saulius Juodkazis"},{id:"82958",title:"Electromagnetic Relations between Materials and Fields for Microwave Chemistry",slug:"electromagnetic-relations-between-materials-and-fields-for-microwave-chemistry",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106257",abstract:"We consider the application of microwave energy to a material. The effects of the electromagnetic field on the material and of the material on the electromagnetic field will be described, focusing on the dielectric relaxation phenomenon of the liquid. The dielectric permittivity of mixtures is discussed by extending Debye relaxation to explain how the material behaves with respect to an electric field. We will also consider the energy that the electric field imparts to the material, both thermally and nonthermally. We will develop this relation and describe what form it should take if there is a nonthermal effect in the chemical reaction field under microwave irradiation.",book:{id:"11494",title:"Electric Field in Advancing Science and Technology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11494.jpg"},signatures:"Sugiyama Jun-ichi, Sugiyama Hayato, Sato Chika and Morizumi Maki"},{id:"82961",title:"Mixed Reality Applications in Business Contexts",slug:"mixed-reality-applications-in-business-contexts",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106582",abstract:"Mixed reality is becoming increasingly relevant in business. In the corporate environment, such as logistics or maintenance, the use of data glasses allows extensive possibilities for process optimization and quality assurance. In the area of construction, virtual models either as augmentation of reality or mapped in virtual reality offer new approaches to experience ability. The goal of this paper is to show the manifold possibilities of mixed reality in the enterprise environment. For this purpose, selected application scenarios with corresponding realization stages will be shown and analyzed regarding their added value.",book:{id:"11860",title:"Holography - Recent Advances and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11860.jpg"},signatures:"Anett Mehler-Bicher, Lothar Steiger and Dirk Weitzel"},{id:"82951",title:"Decoupling Techniques for Coupled PDE Models in Fluid Dynamics",slug:"decoupling-techniques-for-coupled-pde-models-in-fluid-dynamics",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105997",abstract:"We review decoupling techniques for coupled PDE models in fluid dynamics. In particular, we are interested in the coupled models for fluid flow interacting with porous media flow and the fluid structure interaction (FSI) models. For coupled models for fluid flow interacting with porous media flow, we present decoupled preconditioning techniques, two-level and multilevel methods, Newton-type linearization-based two-level and multilevel algorithms, and partitioned time-stepping methods. The main theory and some numerical experiments are given to illustrate the effectiveness and efficiency of these methods. For the FSI models, partitioned time-stepping algorithms and a multirate time-stepping algorithm are carefully studied and analyzed. Numerical experiments are presented to highlight the advantages of these methods.",book:{id:"11862",title:"The Essence of Large-Eddy Simulations",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11862.jpg"},signatures:"Mingchao Cai, Mo Mu and Lian Zhang"},{id:"82787",title:"Spinor Fields",slug:"spinor-fields",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105569",abstract:"A spinor representation of the generalized energy-momentum density 4-vector is proposed, and examples of such representations for various particles and fields are given. This representation corresponds to the classical representation of the particle’s own rotation, which is described by the diagonal matrix of the moment of inertia. The concept of self-angular rotation of a particle is defined as a spatial characteristic of the field, at each point of which there is a local vortex rotation with an angular velocity Ω – a spinor field. The matrix representation of the vortex rotation Ω (spinor) and the values of the components of such a representation are derived from the matrix representation of the Lorentz transformation. The traditional concept of spin-orbit interaction, as the interaction of the magnetic moment of a particle with the magnetic field of orbital motion, is presented as the interaction of a charged particle with a spinor field. Solutions to the problems of particle motion in an external spinor field in the case of a hydrogen-like atom and planetary motion, splitting of the electron energy levels of an atom in an external magnetic field, deflection of a photon by the gravitational field, and representations in metric spaces are presented.",book:{id:"11496",title:"Quantum Field Theory",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11496.jpg"},signatures:"Vahram Mekhitarian"},{id:"82739",title:"Experimental Breeder Reactor II",slug:"experimental-breeder-reactor-ii",totalDownloads:11,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105800",abstract:"The Experimental Breeder Reactor II (EBR-II) operated from 1964 to 1994. EBR-II was a sodium-cooled fast reactor operating at 69 MWth producing 19 MWe. Rather than using a loop approach for the coolant, EBR-II used a pool arrangement where the reactor core, primary coolant piping, and primary reactor coolant pumps were contained within the pool of sodium. Also contained within the pool was a heat exchanger where primary coolant, which is radioactive, transferred heat to secondary, nonradioactive, sodium. The nuclear power plant included a sodium boiler building where heat from the secondary sodium generated superheated steam, which was delivered to a turbine/generator for electricity production. EBR-II fuel was metallic uranium alloyed with various metals providing significant performance and safety enhancements over oxide fuel. The most significant EBR-II experiments occurred in April 1986. Relying on inherent physical properties of the reactor, two experiments were performed subjecting the reactor to loss of primary coolant flow without reactor SCRAM and loss of the secondary system heat removal without reactor SCRAM. In both experiments, the reactor experienced no damage. 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