Classification of fuels [11].
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"45115",title:"Review of the New Combustion Technologies in Modern Gas Turbines",doi:"10.5772/54403",slug:"review-of-the-new-combustion-technologies-in-modern-gas-turbines",body:'\nThe combustion chamber is the most critical part of a gas turbine. The chamber had to be designed so that the combustion process to sustain itself in a continuous manner and the temperature of the products is sufficiently below the maximum working temperature in the turbine. In the conventional industrial gas turbine combustion systems, the combustion chamber can be divided into two areas: the primary zone and the secondary zone. The primary zone is where the majority of the fuel combustion takes place. The fuel must be mixed with the correct amount of air so that a stoichiometric mixture is present. In the secondary zone, unburned air is mixed with the combustion products to cool the mixture before it enters the turbine. In some design, there is an intermediate zone where help secondary zone to eliminate the dissociation products and burn-out soot.
\nThe majority of the combustors are developed base on diffusion flames as they are very stable and fuel flexibility option. In a diffusion flame, there will be always stoichiometric regions regardless of overall stoichiometry. The main disadvantage of diffusion-type combustor is the emission as high temperature of the primary zone produced larger than 70 ppm NOx in burning natural gas and more than 100 ppm for liquid fuel [1]. Several techniques have been tried in order to reduce the amount of NOx produced in conventional combustors. In general, it is difficult to reduce NOx emissions while maintaining a high combustion efficiency as there is a tradeoff between NOx production and CO/UHC production.
\nIn some recent installations, the premixed type of combustion has been selected to reduce NOx emissions bellow 10 ppm. Apart from the flame type change, there are some method such as “wet diffusion combustion”, FGR[1] - and SCR[1] -. In an example of wet combustion, a nuzzle through which steam is injected is provided in the vicinity of the fuel injector. The level of NOx emission is controlled by the amount of steam. However, there is a limit on the increasing the steam flow rate as cause corresponding considerable CO emission. Furthermore, preparing pure steam in the required injection condition increases operational costs. Nowadays, wet combustion rarely applies due to water consumption and the penalty of reduced efficiency. Post Combustion treatments such as SCR are those which convert NOx compounds to nitrogen or absorb them from flue gas. These methods are relatively inexpensive to install but does not achieve NOx removal levels better than modern gas turbine combustor.
\nIn this chapter, a short introduction of combustion process and then a description of some new pioneer combustor have been presented. As gas turbine manufacturers are looking for continuous operation or stable combustion, satisfactory emission level, minimum pressure loss and durability or life. Hence, the advanced combustor might include all of these criteria, so some of them are selected to discuss in details.
\nThe diffusion and premixed flame are two main type of combustion, which are using in gas turbines. Apart from type of flame, there are two kind of combustor design, annular and tubular. The annular type mostly recommended in the propulsion of aircraft when small cross section and low weight are important parameters. Can or tubular combustors are cheaper and several of them can be adjusted for an industrial engine identically. Although there are different types of combustors, but generally, all combustion chambers have a diffuser, a casing, a liner, a fuel injector and a cooling arrangement. An entire common layout is visualized in figure 1.
\nThe layout of the combustion chamber.
After the fuel has been injected into the air flow, the flow will enter the flame region. It does this with quite a high velocity, so to make sure the flame isn’t blown away; suitable flame stabilization techniques must be applied. First, the high velocity of flow will be responsible for a pressure drop[1] -. Secondly, the flame in the combustion chamber cannot survive if the air has a high velocity. So combustion chambers benefit from diffusers to slow down the air flow. There are two normal kinds of flame stabilizers: bluff-body flame holders and swirlers.
\nThe shape of the bluff–body flame holder affects the flow stability characteristics through the influence on the size and shape of the wake region. Since the flame stabilization depends on size of the zone of recirculation behind the bluff–body, different geometries such as triangular, rectangular, circular and more complex shapes are being use. One of the basic problem of bluff-body flame holders is a considerable effect on pressure loss. Figure 2 shows a high speed image of three flame holders in atmospheric condition.
\nHigh speed images of the circular cylinder (top), square cylinder (middle) and V gutter (bottom) at Re = 30,000 and stoichiometric mixture [2].
Flow reversal can be applied in the primary zone. The best way to reverse the flow is to swirl it through using swirlers. The two most important types of swirlers are axial and radial. The advantage of flow reversal is that the flow speed varies a lot. So there will be a point at which the airflow velocity matches the flame speed where a flame could be stabilized. The degree of swirl in the flow is quantified by the dimensionless parameter, Sn known as the swirl number which is defined as:
\nWhere:
\n\n \n
As this equation requires velocity and pressure profile of fluid, researchers proposed various expressions for calculating the swirl number. Indeed, the swirl number is a non-dimensional number representing the ratio of axial flux of angular momentum to the axial flux of axial momentum times the equivalent nozzle radius [3]. Tangential entry, guided vanes and direct rotation are three principal methods for generating swirl flow.
\nPhoto of 60° flat guided vane swirler [4].
Most of the literatures divide combustible mixture into three categories as premixed, non-premixed and partially premixed combustion. If fuel and oxidizer are mixed prior ignition, then premixed flame will propagate into the unburned reactants. If fuel and air mix at the same time and same place as they react, the diffusion or non-premixed combustion will appear. Partially premixed combustion systems are premixed flames with non-uniform fuel-oxidizer mixtures.
\nGas turbines\' manufacturers traditionally tend to use diffusion flame where fuel mixes with air by turbulent diffusion and the flame front stabilized in the locus of the stoichiometric mixture. The temperature of reactant is as high as 2000 ○C, so the acceptable temperature at the combustor walls and turbine blades would be provide by diluted air. Although the non-premixed mixture in gas turbine combustors shows more stability in operation than premixed mixtures, but their shortcoming is high level of nitrogen oxide emission. Two most common ways of emission reduction are water injection and catalytic converter. However, the former technique is not capable of reducing NOx to the expected level at many sites, while SCR adds complexity and expense to any project.
\nOperating range of premixed flames [5].
The idea of Dry Low NOx (DLN) systems proposed base on lean premixed combustion to reduce flame temperature by a non-stoichiometric mixture. Premixed systems can be operated at a much lower equivalence ratio such that the flame temperature and thermal NOx production throughout the system are decreased comparing with a diffusion system. The disadvantage of premixed systems is flame stability, especially at low equivalence ratios. Also, there is a tendency for the flame to flashback. Indeed, the current challenge of GT’s developers is proposing a fuel flexible combustor for a stable combustion in all engine loads. The narrow range of fuel/air mixtures between the production of excessive NOx and excessive CO is illustrated in figure 4. NOx reduces by lowering flame temperature in a leaner mixture but CO, and unburned hydrocarbons (UHC) would increase contradictorily.
\nBy increasing combustion residence time (volume) and preventing local quenching, CO and UHC will dissociate to CO2 and the other products. CO burns away more slowly than the other radicals, so to obtain very low level emission such as 10 ppm; it requires over 4 ms. As shown in figure 5, below 1100 ○C the CO reaction becomes too slow to effectively remove the CO in an improved combustion chamber. The residence time usually does not change much on part-load because the normalized flow approximately remains constant with a variable loading.
\nWhere \n
Calculated reaction time to achieve a CO concentration of 10 ppm in a commercial gas turbine exhaust [6].
One of the features of heavy-duty gas turbines is a wide fuel capability. They can operate with vast series of commercial and process by-product fuels such as natural gas, petroleum distillates, gasified coal or biomass, gas condensates, alcohols, ash-forming fuels. In a review article, Molière offered essential aspects of fuel/machine interactions in thermodynamic performance, combustion and gaseous emission [7]. To sequester and store the CO2 of fossil fuel, some new research projects aim to assess the combustion performances of alternative fuels for clean and efficient energy production by gas turbines. Another objective is to extend the capability of dry low emission gas turbine technologies to low heat value fuels produced by gasification of biomass and H2 enriched fuels [8-10]. Significant quantity of hydrogen in fuel has the benefit of high calorific value, but the disadvantage of high flame speed and very fast chemical times. To classify gas turbine’s fuels, a common way is to split them between gas and liquid fuels, and within the gaseous fuels, to split by their calorific value as shown in table 1.
\n\n | \n Typical composition\n | \n\n Lower Heating Value kJ/Nm3\n \n | \n\n Typical specific fuels\n | \n
\n Ultra/Low LHV gaseous fuels\n | \nH2 < 10% | \n< 11,200 (< 300) | \nBlast furnace gas (BFG), Air blown IGCC, Biomass gasification | \n
CH4 < 10% | \n|||
N2+CO > 40% | \n|||
\n High hydrogen gaseous fuels\n | \nH2 > 50% | \n5,500-11,200 (150-300) | \nRefinery gas, Petrochemical gas, Hydrogen power | \n
CxHy = 0-40% | \n|||
\n Medium LHV gaseous fuels\n | \nCH4 < 60% | \n11,200-30,000 | \nWeak natural gas, Landfill gas, Coke oven gas, Corex gas | \n
N2+CO2 = 30-50% | \n|||
H2 = 10-50% | \n|||
\n Natural gas\n | \nCH4 = 90% | \n30,000-45,000 | \nNatural gas Liquefied natural gas | \n
CxHy = 5% | \n|||
Inert = 5% | \n|||
\n High LHV gaseous fuels\n | \nCH4 and higher hydrocarbons | \n45,000-190,000 | \nLiquid petroleum gas (butane, propane) Refinery off-gas | \n
CxHy > 10% | \n|||
\n Liquid fuels\n | \nCxHy, with x > 6 | \n32,000-45,000 | \nDiesel oil, Naphtha Crude oils, Residual oils, Bio-liquids | \n
Classification of fuels [11].
Next-generation gas turbines will operate at higher pressure ratios and hotter turbine inlet temperatures conditions that will tend to increase nitrogen oxide emissions. To conform to future air quality requirements, lower-emitting combustion technology will be required. In this section, a number of new combustion systems have been introduced where some of them could be found in the market, and the others are under development.
\nThe trapped vortex combustor (TVC) may be considered as a promising technology for both pollutant emissions and pressure drop reduction. TVC is based on mixing hot combustion products and reactants at a high rate by a cavity stabilization concept. The trapped vortex combustion concept has been under investigation since the early 1990’s. The earlier studies of TVC have been concentrated on liquid fuel applications for aircraft combustors [12].
\nThe trapped vortex technology offers several advantages as gas turbines burner:
\nIt is possible to burn a variety of fuels with medium and low calorific value.
It is possible to operate at high excess air premixed regime, given the ability to support high-speed injections, which avoids flashback.
NOx emissions reach extremely low levels without dilution or post-combustion treatments.
Produces the extension of the flammability limits and improves flame stability.
Flame stability is achieved through the use of recirculation zones to provide a continuous ignition source which facilitates the mixing of hot combustion products with the incoming fuel and air mixture [13]. Turbulence occurring in a TVC combustion chamber is “trapped” within a cavity where reactants are injected and efficiently mixed. Since part of the combustion occurs within the recirculation zone, a “typically” flameless regime can be achieved, while a trapped turbulent vortex may provide significant pressure drop reduction [14]. Besides this, TVC is having the capability of operating as a staged combustor if the fuel is injected into both the cavities and the main airflow. Generally, staged combustion systems are having the potential of achieving about 10 to 40% reduction in NOx emissions [15]. It can also be operated as a rich-burn, quick-quench lean-burn (RQL) combustor when all of the fuel is injected into the cavities [16].
\nTrapped vortex combustor schematic.
An experiment in NASA with water injected TVC demonstrated a reduction in NOx by a factor three in a natural gas fueled and up to two in a liquid JP-8 fueled over a range in water/fuel and fuel/air ratios [17]. Replacement of natural gas fuel with syngas and hydrogen fuels has been studied numerically by Ghenai et al. [18]. The effects of secondary air jet momentum on cavity flow structure of TVC have been studied recently by Kumar and Mishra [19]. Although the actual stabilization mechanism facilitated by the TVC is relatively simple, a number of experiments and numerical simulations have been performed to enhance the stability of reacting flow inside trapped vortex. Xing et al. experimentally investigated lean blow-out of several combustors and the performance of slight temperature-raise in a single trapped vortex [20, 21]. In an experimental laboratory research, Bucher et al. proposed a new design for lean-premixed trapped vortex combustor [22].
\nLean direct injection (LDI) and rich-burn/quick-quench/lean-burn (RQL) are two of the prominent low-emissions concepts for gas turbines. LDI operates the primary combustion region lean, hence, adequate flame stabilization has to be ensured; RQL is rich in the primary zone with a transition to lean combustion by rapid mixing with secondary air downstream. Hence, both concepts avoid stoichiometric combustion as much as possible, but flame stabilization and combustion in the main heat release region are entirely different. Relative to aviation engines, the need for reliability and safety has led to a focus on LDI of liquid fuels [23]. However, RQL combustor technology is of growing interest for stationary gas turbines due to the attributes of more effectively processing of fuels with complex composition. The concept of RQL was proposed in 1980 as a significant effort for reducing NOx emission [24].
\nIt is known that the primary zone of a gas turbine combustor operates most effectively with rich mixture ratios so, a “rich-burn” condition in the primary zone enhances the stability of the combustion reaction by producing and sustaining a high concentration of energetic hydrogen and hydrocarbon radical species. Secondly, rich burn conditions minimize the production of nitrogen oxides due to the relative low temperatures and low population of oxygen containing intermediate species. Critical factors of a RQL that need to be considered are careful tailoring of rich and lean equivalence ratios and very fast cooling rates. So the combustion regime shifts rapidly from rich to lean without going through the high NOx route as shown in figure 7. The drawback of this technology is increased hardware and complexity of the system.
\nThe mixing of the injected air takes the reaction to the lean-burn zone and rapidly reduces their temperature as well. On the other hand, the temperature must be high enough to burn CO and UHC. Thus, the equivalence ratio for the lean-burn zone must be carefully selected to satisfy all emissions requirements. Typically the equivalence ratio of fuel-rich primary zone is 1.2 to 1.6 and lean-burn combustion occurs between 0.5 and 0.7 [25].
\nTurbulent jet in a cross-flow is an important characteristic of RQL; so many researches have been conducted to improve it. The mixing limitation in a design of RQL/TVC combustion system addressed by Straub et al. [26]. Coaxial swirling air discussed experimentally by Cozzi and Coghe [27]. Furthermore, an experimental study of the effects of elevated pressure and temperature on jet mixing and emissions in an RQL reported by Jermakian et al. [28]. Fuel flexible combustion with RQL system is an interest of turbine manufacturer. GE reported results of a RQL test stand in their integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) power plants program [29, 30]. The test of Siemens-Westinghouse Multi-Annular Swirl Burner (MASB) was successfully performed at the University of Tennessee Space Institute in Tullahoma [31]. Others, such as references [32-35] utilize CFD to investigate the performance of RQL combustor.
\nRich-Burn, Quick-Mix, Lean-Burn combustor.
The COSTAIR[1] - combustion concept uses continuously staged air and internal recirculation within the combustion chamber to obtain a stable combustion with low NOX and CO emissions. Research work on staged combustors started in the early 1970s under of the Energy Efficient Engine (E3) Program in the USA [36] and now widely used in industrial engines burning gaseous fuels, in both axial and radial configurations. The aero-derived GE LM6000 and CFM56-5B as well as RR211 DLE industrial engine employ staged combustion of premixed gaseous fuel/air mixtures. Recently, a research project proposed a COSTAIR burner system optimized for low calorific gases within a micro gas turbine [37].
\nThe principle of staged air combustion is illustrated in Figure 8. It consists of a coaxial tube; the combustion air flows through the inner tube and the fuel through the outer cylinder ring. The combustion air is continually distributed throughout the combustion chamber by an air distributor with numerous openings on its contour, and fuel enters by several jets arranged around the air distributor.
\nThe COSTAIR burner has the advantages of operating in full diffusion mode or in partially premixed mode. The heat is released more uniformly throughout the combustion chamber also the recirculated gas absorb some of the heat of combustion. It capable to work stable at cold combustor walls as well as high air ratio. Experimental measurements show that this combustion system allows clean exhaust. For instance, in an experimental research project of European Commission [39], NOx emission values was in the range of 2-4 ppm at an air ratio of 2.5 over different loading. Furthermore, the corresponding CO emission was less than 7 ppm.
\nCOSTAIR combustion concept [38].
Staged combustion can occur in either a radial or axial pattern, but in either case the goal is to design each stage to optimize particular performance aspects. The main advantages or major drawbacks of each type have been discussed by Lefebvre [25].
\nHeat recirculating combustion was clearly described by Weinberg as a concept for improving the thermal efficiency [40]. In 1989, a surprising phenomenon was observed during experiments with a self-recuperative burner. At furnace temperatures of 1000°C and about 650°C air preheated temperature; no flame could be seen, but the fuel was completely burnt. Furthermore, the CO and NOx emissions from the furnace were considerably low [41]. Different combustion zones against rate of dilution and oxygen content is shown in figure 9. In flameless combustion, the oxidation of fuel occurs with a very limited oxygen supply at a very high temperature. Spontaneous ignition occurs and progresses with no visible or audible signs of the flames usually associated with burning. The chemical reaction zone is quite diffuse, and this leads to almost uniform heat release and a smooth temperature profile. All these factors could result in a much more efficient process as well as reducing emissions.
\nDifferent combustion regimes [64].
Flameless combustion is defined where the reactants exceed self-ignition temperature as well as entrain enough inert combustion products to reduce the final reaction temperature [42]. In the other word, the essence of this technology is that fuel is oxidized in an environment that contains a substantial amount of inert (flue) gases and some, typically not more than 3–5%, oxygen. Several different expressions are used to identify similar though such as HiTAC[1] -, HiCOT[1] -, MILD[1] - combustion, FLOX[1] - and CDC[1] -. HiTAC refers to increase the air temperature by preheating systems such as regenerators. HiCOT commonly belongs to the wider sense, which exploits high-temperature reactants; therefore, it is not limited to air. A combustion process is named FLOX or MILD when the inlet temperature of the main reactant flow is higher than mixture autoignition temperature and the maximum allowable temperature increase during combustion is lower than mixture autoignition temperature, due to dilution [42]. The common key feature to achieve reactions in CDC mode (non-premixed conditions) is the separation and controlled mixing of higher momentum air jet and the lower momentum fuel jet, large amount of gas recirculation and higher turbulent mixing rates to achieve spontaneous ignition of the fuel to provide distributed combustion reactions [43]. Figure 10 schematically shows a comparison between conventional burner and flameless combustion.
\nTo recap, the main characteristics of flameless oxidation combustion are:
\nRecirculation of combustion products at high temperature (normally > 1000 ○C),
Reduced oxygen concentration at the reactance,
Low Damköhler number (Da[1] -),
Low stable adiabatic flame temperature,
Reduce temperature peaks,
Highly transparent flame,
Low acoustic oscillation and
Low NOx and CO emissions.
Flame (left) and flameless (right) firing.
In spite of a number of activities for industrial furnaces, the application of flameless combustion in the gas-turbine combustion system is in the preliminary phase [44]. The results from techno-economic analysis of Wang et al. showed that the COSTAIR and FLOX cases had technical and economic advantages over SCR [45]. Luckerath, R., et al., investigated flameless combustion in forward flow configuration in elevated pressure up to 20atm for application to gas turbine combustors [44, 46]. In a novel design of Levy et al. that named FLOXCOM, flameless concept has been proposed for gas turbines by establishing large recirculation zone in the combustion chamber [47, 48]. Lammel et al. developed a FLOX combustion at high power density and achieved low NOx and CO levels [49]. The concept of colorless distributed combustion has been demonstrated by Gupta et al. for gas turbine application in a number of publications [43, 50-55].
\nOne specification of gas turbine combustor is higher thermal intensity range (at least 5 MW/m3-atm) than industrial furnaces which operate at thermal intensity of less than 1 MW/m3-atm. Therefore, designs of gas turbine’s combustors are based on turbulent flow concept, except a technology named NanoSTAR from Alzeta Corporation. Alzeta reported the proof-of-concept of high thermal intensity laminar surface stabilized flame by using a porous metal-fiber mat since 2001 [56-58]. Lean premixed combustion technology is limited by the apparition of combustion instabilities, which induce high pressure fluctuations, which can produce turbine damage, flame extinction, and CO emissions [59]. However, full scale test of NanoSTAR demonstrated low emissions performance, robust ignition and extended turndown ratio [60]. In particular, the following characteristics form the key specifications of NanoSTAR for distributed power generation gas turbine combustors [61]:
\nThe combustor fuel is limited to natural gas.
Total combustor pressure drop limited to 2-4% of the system pressure.
Operation at combustion air preheat temperatures up to 1150°F.
Volumetric firing rates approaching 2 MMBtu/hr/atm/ft³.
Turbine Rotor Inlet Temperatures (TRIT) over 2200°F (valid for the Mercury 50, although Allison has operated combustors at 2600°F).
Operation with axial combustors or external can combustors.
Expected component lifetimes of 30,000 hours for industrial turbines.
A single prototype burner Porous burner which sized to fit inside an annular combustion liner (about 2.5 inches in diameter by 7 inches in length) is shown in figure 11 with its arrangement in a typical combustor.
\nNanoSTAR burner and its arrangement in a canted combustion system [62].
The operation of this type of surface stabilized combustion is characterized by the schematic in Figure 12(left), which shows premixed fuel and air passing through the metal fiber mat in two distinct zones. Premixed fuel comes through the low conductivity porous and burns in narrow zones, A, as it leaves the surface. Under lean conditions this will manifest as very short laminar flamelets, but under rich conditions the surface combustion will become a diffusion dominated reaction stabilized just over a millimeter above the metal matrix, which proceeds without visible flame and heats the outer surface of the mat to incandescence. Secondly, adjacent to these radiant zones, the porous plate is perforated to allow a high flow of the premixed fuel and air. This flow forms a high intensity flame, B, stabilized by the radiant zones so, it is possible to achieve very high fluxes of energy, up to 2MMBtu/hr/ft² [63]. A picture of an atmospheric burner in operation clearly shows the technology in action (right of figure 12).
\nSurface stabilized burner pad firing at atmospheric conditions.
The specific perforation arrangement and pattern control the size and shape of the laminar flamelets. The perforated zones operate at flow velocities of up to 10 times the laminar flame speed producing a factor of ten stretch of the flame surface and resulting in a large laminar flamelets. The alternating arrangement of laminar blue flames and surface combustion, allows high firing rates to be achieved before flame liftoff occurs, with the surface combustion stabilizing the long laminar flames by providing a pool of hot combustion radicals at the flame edges.
\nA review of technologies for reducing NOx emissions as well as increasing thermal efficiency and improving combustion stability has been reported here. Trade-offs when installing low NOx burners in gas turbines include the potential for decreased flame stability, reduced operating range and more strict fuel quality specifications. In the other word, although, the turbine inlet temperature is the major factor determining the overall efficiency of the gas turbine but higher inlet temperatures will result in larger NOx emissions. So the essential requirement of new combustor design is a trade-off between low NOx and improved efficiency.
\nIncreasingly, cities are faced with various natural hazards. Urban flooding has increased in frequency and caused loss of life and infrastructure all over the world. Rapid urbanization and increased anthropogenic activities have led to haphazard development on eco-sensitive areas. Changing climate scenario has put livelihood of many vulnerable people at risk. Hyderabad has also faced increasing flooding event over the years. While flooding in 2000 was most destructive for the city in recent times, it has also faced the disruptive floods in 2008 and more recently in 2016 and 2017. Urban governance plays a key role in shaping various processes of disaster risk reduction (DRR) and flood resilience. Primarily, flood mitigation measures can be approached as structural and nonstructural measures. Structural measures include flood defense construction, and nonstructural measures include policy changes, flood awareness programs, and so on. Increasingly, the focus has been shifting from structural to nonstructural measures, which have more long-term impact on flood preparedness and mitigation.
\nFor effective nonstructural measures, we need to strengthen our understanding of root causes behind the urban flooding, for which along with technical knowledge of urban growth, we need deeper understanding of urbanization processes and land use changes. Such an endeavor requires deciphering of power relations between various stakeholders. Urban space is laden with constant negotiations and power conflicts. Sociopolitical tensions and socioeconomic conditions of city dwellers are reflected in socionatural changes in land use. Urban environmental change is the result of deliberate efforts of appropriation of resources by the dominant vested interests, which maintain status quo through fragmented role of institutions and agencies [1]. Hence, governance of socioecological changes cannot be looked in silos but occurs in the highly politicized urban space [2].
\n‘The prevalent flood governance strategies rely on hybrid forms of neoliberal governance, where technological risk prevention is linked to programs that promote social resilience and cultural adaptation’ [3]. Neoliberalism has a powerful influence on current urban governance and development by defining policy formulations, limiting democratic participation, and managing dissent and counter narratives by proclaiming new futuristic visions of the city [4]. Neoliberalism anchored in supralocal forces of capital accumulation, and there collaborations with state power have managed to engulf cities in market-driven governance regimes.
\nThe neoliberal ideology gives primacy to market forces and motivation to maximize material benefits over the government’s role as a responsible representative of people [5]. The emerging neoliberal self is driven by individualism and consumerism, which comes in conflict with sustainable development [6]. In Indian cities, neoliberal policies had most debilitating effects on economically weaker sections such as forced eviction or displacement of slum dwellers for urban mega projects [7]. The supralocal forces and parastatal agencies behind such mega projects interact with native sociopolitical narratives to produce a complex urban space. Scholars have investigated urban flooding to reveal contradictory nature of neoliberal urban policies such as (see [8]) the study on storm drainage network in Bangalore to bring the socionature intricacies of flow and fixity of water and storm drains, respectively. Another study on Surat highlighted the overlapping nature of risks in the city [9].
\nIn context of Hyderabad, there are few studies examining urban flooding. Most studies are technical in nature, which use GIS tools for presenting land use change, vulnerability, and flood prone areas. Theoretical studies analyzing the policy changes and its implementation are scarce. Among policy-oriented studies, some have explored the increasing pollution and vanishing of the water bodies. And others have looked at urbanization processes, broad governance issues at the municipal level, and financing of various government projects in the city. While investigating the urban flooding, the present study is also an attempt to integrate the relevant literature in informing urban flood resilience in Hyderabad.
\nFollowing above theoretical framework, the next section elaborates the methodology, Section 3 describes the way urban development activities have contributed to flooding. Section 4 presents an analysis of policy, implementation, and existing barriers. Section 5 discusses the ways to overcome the barriers to urban flood resilience. And final section gives the concluding remarks.
\nUnplanned development and growth of the city pose not only the ecological risk but also risks the sustainability of city itself. Policy framing and implementation give a more organized platform for a restrictive and planned process for city growth. It plays an important role in the regulation of land use change, building resilience and mitigation of hazards as urban flooding. Environmental acts, building regulations, and realizing the ground implementation of policy documents have a key role in flood management in the city. Hence, in cities frequently faced with hazards, it becomes essential to critical analyze both the policy framing and its implementation. Therefore, in the present study, various official documents such as government orders, municipal laws, environmental policies, court orders, civil society engagement, and existing research literature are analyzed to understand the present flood vulnerability in Hyderabad (Figure 1). Also, the focus has been to look at policy gaps in two ways. One is the gap in terms of conception of the policy whereby policy documents itself fail to recognize the complexity of the challenges of environmental hazard faced by the city. And second is the gap in policy conception and implementation whereby policy documents may be ideal to follow, but implementation has lag behind in releasing the vision of such policies.
\nLocation of study area.
First, digital elevation model (DEM) of the area under Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation (GHMC) was prepared to have better understanding of the topography of the study area. DEM represents the land surface and helps to visualize the terrain of an area. DEM for Hyderabad city was obtained from Bhuvan Cartosat. It was clipped using mask layer of shape file of the city and processed in QGIS. Second, to analyze the policy and implementation, this study employs heuristic framework of reflexive governance. This framework analyzes in terms of policy, polity, and politics with three levels of governance at macro, meso, and micro. In adapting the framework for the current study, the policy aspect highlights the problem at hand. Polity aspects elaborate on formal instruments and key institutions such as master plans, disaster management acts, and so on. Finally, the political aspects focus on barriers in improved governance and interaction among various stakeholders.
\nHeuristic framework can be applied to understand the interaction among the key interest groups and its impact on land use change and flood management [1]. Framework is useful in discerning blind spots and prevailing narratives to address shortcomings in governance. It draws attention to the power relations among various actors influencing the urban change to fulfill particular interests [10]. The main documents that have referred in the present study at macro level are disaster management act 2005, disaster management policy 2016, role of national disaster management authority (NDMA), and its plans/guidelines. At meso level, role of state disaster management authority (SDMA), Telangana climate change plan, state level urban policies, and urban mega projects have been analyzed. Lastly, at micro level, the main focus was on the master plans, building by laws, municipal governance, and their impact on the city sustainability and flood vulnerability.
\nRole of anthropogenic activities that have been responsible for increased flood vulnerability in Hyderabad is discussed in this section. An attempt was made to bring the entire study area into a DEM for better understanding and evaluation (Figure 2). Thus, from the terrain elevation model, it can be observed that the maximum elevation is in the western part, whereas the minimum elevation is seen towards south east of the city. The low lying areas particularly surrounding water bodies as lakes and rivers are not favorable for habitation. And any extension of built up area around these sites must be with some precautionary measures and at best avoided. But most of such areas have already been covered by dense population. As per the census, population of Hyderabad increased rapidly from 3.05 million in 1991 to 3.64 million in 2001. And after creation of GHMC in 2007, it reached to 6.81 million on 2011. Most vulnerable to urban flooding is the population with minimum socioeconomic resources to cope with disasters. As per the last census 2011, there were 2.29 million people residing in slum and squatter settlements in Hyderabad. As per GHMC’s own estimation, there are 13,509 families directly vulnerable to flooding in the city.
\nDigital elevation model of Hyderabad.
The maximum mean monthly rainfall in last decade has been recorded 544 mm in August 2000. The lowest rainfall is mostly in the months from December to March. Highest average rainfall for 100 years (1908–2008) in Hyderabad is observed in the month of July (192 mm) followed closely by August (182 mm) and September (180 mm), that is, during southwest monsoon. In August 2000, Hyderabad recorded a rainfall of 240 mm in a day, consequent flooding affected 35,693 homes and 26 people lost their lives along with estimated property loss of Rs. 13.5 million. In August 2008, 237 mm rainfall in 36 hours resulted in property loss of Rs. 4.9 million [11]. But even small rainfall presents the challenges in the city such as with just 50–60 mm rainfall in July 2005, transport came to standstill, and there were deaths from being swept into the manholes. In recent flooding in 2016 and 2017, there were many reports of death due to collapse of walls, roofs, and buildings after rainfall. In some localities, National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) has to be called in for rescue and relief operations.
\nConcretization cover has increased rapidly over the year’s throughput the city. Total build up was 17,092 ha in 1964, which increased to 26,312 ha in 1974 and 45,550 ha in 1990. Area under the river/streams changed from 762 ha in 1964 to 512 ha in 1974 and further to 312 ha in 1990 [12]. It is the low-density area that has continuously contributed to high-density urban area growth in the city. Total urban built up area of low- and high-density area has grown by 43,607 ha between 1989 and 2011 [13]. Total built up area in 2015 for Hyderabad urban agglomeration increased to 86,535 ha.
\nWater bodies have been worst affected by such rapid haphazard urbanization. Construction activities on lake and river bed have pushed more people toward high vulnerability to floods. Water bodies in the area are reduced from 2.28 to 1.64% from 2001 to 2016 [14]. Area under water bodies reduced from 5949.28 ha in 2001 to 4764.73 ha in 2015, that is, area of 84.61 ha/year of water bodies has vanished [15]. The expansion in peri-urban has also been at the cost of vanishing water bodies. Urban sprawl has consumed water bodies and open lands to accommodate housing and other economic activities. Even the floodwaters carrying channels connecting one water body to the other have been encroached by private, government agencies, and their coalitions [16].
\nPollution and waste disposal have further aggravated the flood vulnerability by clogging the drainage system and degrading the water bodies with toxic industrial chemical waste. The black-colored sewage of untreated toxic effluents from many industries is discharged into Hussain Sagar Lake through Kukatpally nala [17]. Further during Ganesh festival, many idols made of plaster of Paris (PoP), iron, and other chemicals are immersed in Hussain Sagar Lake. After dissolving, these idols not only alter the water quality but also accumulate in the lake bed causing serious damage to the lake [15]. Solid waste disposal is another concern as unsorted waste ends up in the water bodies, which clogs the drainage system and results in flooding of nearby areas. The uncontrolled disposal of solid waste will also worsen the condition with increasing pace of urbanization. The projected per capita solid waste generation by 2021 in GHMC is likely to be 803 g/cap/day [18].
\nPeri-urban expansion in the city has even affected the agriculture land. Open cultivated lands act as sponge for excess water during heavy rainfall, but with increasing concretization, agriculture land use has reduced in Hyderabad over the years. In the city’s periphery, in Medak, of 66,055 ha that has been put to nonagricultural use, nearly half have been consumed by the real estate [19]. The Rangareddy area has witnessed such conversion even at more rapid pace. Development projects such as SEZs, outer ring road (ORR), and IT parks have come at the cost of decreasing open and farm land.
\nForest areas are essential for maintaining environmental sustainability in the city and help to absorb/slow down excessive runoff water. According to EPTRI [15] report, area under scrub and forest land has decreased from 8189.51 ha in 2003 to 8177.75 ha in 2014. Area under parks and recreational playground has increased from 21.68 ha in 2003 to 50.92 ha in 2014, and urban vegetation has increased from 11.31 ha in 2003 to 27.73 ha in 2014. This can be misleading as many parks and urban vegetation have come up on the lake beds to attract tourism and recreational activities. As often lakes are encroached, dried up, and converted into parks such as Chacha Nehru Park came up on site of Masab Tank, similar is the case for Yousufguda cheruvu.
\nHyderabad has even been affected by legal and illegal mining in the city, which has degraded land. Other than sand mining, there is active mining of feldspar, limestone, and granite in the city and its periphery. Most of the laterite and granite mines are in the Rangareddy district. High Court issued guidelines under which the mines were not allowed to function inside the ORR, and court observed that such mining in the city is threat to residential colonies and environment. Deccan chronicle has reported frequent mining explosions in Manikonda, Puppalaguda, and Vattinagulapally localities in complete disregard of the norms [20]. Such land use pattern will only add to the woes of flood vulnerability in the city.
\nThe multiple processes of land use for economic growth have severely degraded and concretized the land in the city. This has resulted in increased flow of water even after moderate amount of rainfall. Disappearance of water bodies has reduced the aquifers and capacity of land to act as absorbent for rain water. In the next section, the policies and acts have been analyzed to understand the process that leads to such dismal conditions in the city.
\nFollowing the heuristic framework of reflexive governance, analysis is organized in terms of policy, polity, and politics with three levels of governance at macro, meso, and micro (Table 1).
\nLevels | \nMacro | \nMeso | \nMicro | \n||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Politics (Focus on barriers to improved governance) | \nLack of mainstreaming of DRR and spirit of decentralization. | \nPoor awareness, risk mapping and clarity on disaster mitigation fund | \nNo mandatory power to NDMA and reliance on ad hoc generation of data. | \nNon- engagement of SDMA in developmental decisions. | \nAbsence of focus on flood proofing, mitigation and evacuation measures. | \nWeak regulation of land use and provision of basic amenities. | \nAdministrative vacuum & Influence of real state aspirations. | \nParastatal agencies & Supralaocal forces | \nIncapacity of storm drainage network and absence of efforts for green growth. | \n
Polity (Focus on formal instruments and institutions) | \nArticle 51 A (g), 74th amendment, Sendai Framework | \nDisaster Management Act 2005, National Disaster Management Policy 2016. | \nNDMA Plans and Guidelines | \nSDMA & Disaster Management Cell. | \nState Disaster Management Plan & State Action Plan For Climate Change | \nUrban Policy & Urban Mega Projects. | \nMunicipal Corporation & Governance | \nBuilding By laws, Municipal Finances & AP Vision 2020 | \nMaster Plans & Kirloskar Report | \n
Policy (Focus on problems) | \nIncoordination and global structural factors. | \nFragmentary implementation of disaster management act, policies and financing of disaster mitigation efforts. | \nDispersed responsibilities and non-implementation of NDMA guidelines. | \nAmalgamation of disaster management with other departments. | \nNo comprehensive plans for integrated flood management | \nExploitative land use and water management practices | \nLow level of public engagement and focus on environmental aspects in the city | \nFocus on short term economic gains | \nIncreased runoff water, decreasing green cover and open spaces. | \n
Policy analysis framework.
Article 51A (g) of the Indian constitution states that “it shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures.” But over the years, these natural endowments have been degraded, at much accelerated rate in the cities. For realizing the spirit of Article 51A (g) at grass root level, it was essential to empower the local bodies. Seventy-fourth amendment provided for the decentralization of power at the municipal level, which has remained an unrealized dream. Hyogo and Sendai frameworks also stress on national and local level mobilization for disaster risk management. But even these international frameworks not consider how global structural factors, which are out of bounds of local controls, influence the status of disaster risks.
\nNDMA is topmost organization for disaster management in India. It has fallen short of successfully coordinating with state and district authorities. Rather many times, other government bodies are found to be filling the shoes. This is because of dispersed responsibilities for different disaster and no mandatory power to enforce its guidelines. NDMA guidelines provide for city disaster management committee, formation of community-based disaster management plans, and urban citizens’ forum for disaster risk reduction in the cities [21]. But none of such active bodies or plans can be found in Telangana with national and state level coordination.
\nNDMA is more occupied with rescue, relief, and rehabilitation. There is no institutionally centered mechanism for collecting the disaster risk data and archiving the disaster lived experiences of population, rather agencies mostly function on ad-hoc generation of data [22]. Another area of concern is the identification of victims, which becomes more challenging in case of mass fatalities in disaster, and NDMA plans/guidelines do not address victim identification process [23]. In terms of financing DRR, there is still no clarity on disaster mitigation fund even though supreme court has also urged for its creation as per Section 47 of Disaster Management Act 2005 [24]. Rather, its absence is justified by the presence of many existing social sector schemes [25].
\nFurther, more than decade after disaster management act 2005, center has failed to convince and convey the urgency for the need of independent disaster management bodies and their coordination with various departments across sectors. Many states still do not have full-fledged disaster management plan to imbibe the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030. At national level, recently National Disaster Management Policy 2016 was prepared.
\nAt meso level, there are serious gaps in policy framing and implementation. Disaster Management Act 2005 under Section 14 asserts for the formation of SDMAs for effective disaster management. Telangana has formed State Disaster Management Response and Fire Services. But it is more concerned with fire safety, even training and evacuation procedures are also limited to fire incidents. There are no concrete guidelines, procedures, and mock drills for flood evacuation. As seen in floods during 2016, it heavily relies on the response of NDRF for evacuation and rescue operations. In Section 22, mandates for drawing state disaster management plan as per national plan, and under Section 28, SDMA is to ensure a disaster management plan for all departments. The Telangana State Action Plan for Climate Change only briefly mentions the floods and does not even address urban flooding as the particular challenge facing the cities in the state. In City of Hyderabad, only administrative structure to be found is the disaster management cell under GHMC. Absence of proper administrative structures and comprehensive plans results in conflict and poor accountability in disaster management.
\nAnother concern at meso level is urban policy, which directly influences the land use change in the city. Socioeconomically, vulnerable populations inhabiting the low lying river and lake bed areas are most affected during flooding in the city. Specifically, in Hyderabad, there is continuous inhabitation along the Musi River, which at many places such as Chaderghat, Shankar Nagar Colony, and so on get inundated, and overflowing sewage/wastewater frequently enters into the houses. Poor provisions of basic amenities as proper closed drainage for wastewater further worsen the situation. Not surprisingly, drinking water many times may get mixed with wastewater. The weak regulation of land use provision in the urban policy is the primary reason for diversion of eco-sensitive areas for fulfilling the real-estate aspirations. Hence, a state level urban policy sensitive toward the needs of vulnerable population will inspire municipal bodies for proactive flood resilient outlook for the city.
\nUrban mega projects such as outer ring road and Hyderabad Metro project have also compromised urban flood resilience. Metro project has been very contentious with questions on land acquisition in eco-sensitive sites in the city, lack of public engagement, and sidelining of municipal body [26]. In case of outer ring road (ORR), supposedly a road-cum-area development project was in violation of Government Order (GO) (see [27]), and nearly half of the land required was under agriculture. The erstwhile Government of Andhra Pradesh has been directly involved in encroachments of lakes by omitting full tank level (FTL) markings and particularly in case of Hussain Sagar Lake by building the memorial parks [28]. Such diversion of large agriculture tracts, vegetation, lake/river beds, and their rapid concretization has been one of the primary reasons behind the increased surface runoff resulting in flooding. State government initiatives for riverfront development as Nandanavanam project in 1997 and Save Musi Campaign in 2005 were ill conceived, which led to eviction and public interest litigations. Latest attempt of grander project was announced in 2017, which was put on hold, while Musi River continues to be polluted, encroached, and prone to flooding [29].
\nAnalysis at micro city level in Hyderabad further reveals the existing policy gaps; particularly, it is helpful in discerning gaps in implementation of policy at ground level. Municipal planning process can be traced to the formation of Hyderabad Urban Development Authority (HUDA) in 1975. It is in the wake of liberalization and decentralization in the 1990s that a new phase of urban process followed, which completely changed the city. Urban flooding is geographically local phenomenon, and municipal bodies are at forefront in facing the immediate challenges of urban flooding. Even then, since the 1990s, Hyderabad municipal governance body has either been sidelined or downgraded as the city has seen long periods of democratic deficits and administrative vacuum [30].
\nThis has coincided with the proliferation of state supported parastatal bodies, which were out of the preview of municipal bodies but had large role to play in the development of city infrastructure. Hyderabad municipal bodies had no involvement whatsoever in their formation or working of these bodies. These parastatal bodies were created for specific purposes to turn Hyderabad into a global city and favorite destination of investments. But this has compromised the city’s flood resilience not only in terms of infrastructure but also putting more vulnerable people at risk of flooding. Some of such bodies are Hyderabad Airport Development Authority (HADA), Cyberabad Development Authority (CDA), and many other Industrial Area Local Authorities (IALAs).
\nHADA acquired land in the catchment area of Himayatsagar Lake, threating the existence of the water body. Development of Cyberabad and nearby Serilingampally ward saw influx rural migrants sheltering in slums. As per the Census 2011, the ward of Serilingampally has one of poorest provision of basic amenities in Hyderabad. The above concretization of city has been because of flouting of building bylaws resulting in vanishing agricultural land, vegetation, and water bodies. This has reduced the capacity of the land to absorb rain water and increased the runoff flow. The whole process of parastatal bodies for the creation of world class enclaves has put greater number of people at risk of urban flooding.
\nThe creation of parastatal bodies has also been the reason for limited financial capacity of Hyderabad Municipal Corporation to take up effective flood management and preparedness. As per provisions for governing IALAs, significant part of building fees and property taxes is kept internally; hence, collected revenue is barely shared with GHMC [31]. Creation of such bodies also surpasses democratic process as the decision-making process does not involve the elected member of municipality. Rather that is the primary reason, such bodies are created to cut through the scrutiny and achieve faster implementation of the plans by the state. This has only undermined the city’s flood resilience as in pursuit of global city imaginary, basic urban challenges of provision of efficient drainage and protection of urban commons have been neglected.
\nSuch pursuits of seeing city as engines of growth by creating parastatal bodies and bypassing democratic institutions have its origin in neoliberal supra local forces. The imagination of Chief minister Chandrababu Naidu of transforming Hyderabad as information city was influenced by Malaysia’s technological corridors, which in turn are based on silicon valley imaginations. To persuade for investment of funds in Hyderabad, under the aegis of World Bank and IMF, Naidu hired McKinsey for preparing a model development plan that resulted in AP vision 2020, which guided the transformation of the city in the next decades [32]. The effort to project the city as technological hub was successful, and the following concretization left the landscape flood prone with accentuated disparities.
\nInfluence of supra local forces, which are independent of municipal body engagement and bypass democratic institutors, has also seen development of many special economic zones (SEZs). And as mentioned earlier even though the high court had initially prohibited any mining activities inside the ORR, it was exempted for some to supply of raw material for developing SEZs. One can only imagine the two folded damage of quarrying, and increased pace of concretization would have done to city’s flood resilience.
\nOther than above forces, role of GHMC has not been encouraging in city’s increased vulnerability to floods. Areas near the drains in several localities such as Malkajgiri, Alwal, and Ashoknagar were completely inundated during floods in 2016 and 2017. There is only 1200 km of storm water drains with carrying capacity of only 2 cm of rain/hour [33]. The Kirloskar report had suggested demolition of many structures and widening of drains, which has been long pending. As in case of other urban agglomeration, major development activities in Hyderabad are guided by Master Plans. Fragmentary nature of process can be seen in master plans for the city. Surpassing the existing institutional structures and master plan for the city, new agencies like CDA were provided with special master plan with separate building rules, land use, and financial instruments [34]. This has only exacerbated the tendency to see the planning area in isolation from its broader socioecological context. Poor implementation and lack of harmonization between the master plans have left it more vulnerable to floods over the years.
\nThe HUDA’s 2003 draft master plan proposed to increase area under water bodies to 95.44 sq.km by 2020. But, the area has shrunk by over 10 sq.km, and there were no modalities in plan for reclaiming the lost area [16]. The zoning regulation in the latest Development Plan 2031 (Master Plan) for the Hyderabad Metropolitan Region also has no priorities for the protection of areas such as farm and scrub land, which act as sponge for absorbing rain for the city [35], thus leaving the land vulnerable for real estate aspirations and urban flooding in the coming years.
\nResilience requires attention toward transformative attributes and long-term process that help system absorb shocks and stressors. Focus for building resilience to urban flooding can range from strengthening specific resilience at local level to general resilience at national and global levels. For rapidly growing cities, this involves efficient coordination and collaboration at various administrative levels for assisting gradual changes while being attentive of indirect impacts [36].
\nResilience strategies are embedded in sociopolitical power structures; hence at international and national policy levels, an impact assessment of global structural factors’ influence on local disaster risks is much needed. Accordingly, strengthening and guiding of local bodies by coordination of national and state level bodies are an essential step in giving responsive governance and building resilience to disasters. This may be achieved by giving mandatory power to NDMA to enforce the guidelines. Disaster risk mapping, data collection, and archiving are increasingly central to efficient response, which can be institutionalized in NDMA or with National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM). NDRF has been shining armor in times of crisis and can mentor State Disaster Response Force (SDRF). For identification of disaster, victim’s Interpol’s DVI process may be followed [23].
\nObjectives of 74th amendment can be achieved by actively engaging district disaster management authority (DDMA) through community participation in making local level plans, forums, and committees for disaster management. Engagement with civil society groups is another area where lot may be achieved as in Hyderabad, there are many active organizations such as Hyderabad Greens, Forum for a Better Hyderabad, and so on, which can contribute immensely to resilience building.
\nNational Disaster Management Policy 2016 places lot of emphasis on flood early warning systems and generating awareness through various mechanisms. It advocates for ward level risk mapping and vulnerability assessment and setting up of urban flooding cell for integrated urban flood management at municipal level. In New Brunswick, Canada, the land use controls were even linked with flood risk mapping with different restrictions for high- and low-risk zones [37]. NDMA guidelines on management of urban flood offer many practical and innovative solutions such as rain gardens, detention ponds, and lined channels [38]. Emphasis is much needed for interagency and interstate coordination through NDMA and SDMAs. For financing DRR, there is robust institutional mechanism of National and State Disaster Response Funds. There is a need for more targeted financing for mitigation measures, which can be achieved by the creation of disaster mitigation fund and by encouraging micro insurance cover to low-income groups as highlighted in Prime Minister’s Ten-Point Agenda on DRR [39].
\nTelangana State has taken proactive steps by strengthening the disaster response force and deploying the monsoon teams during heavy rainfall. An independent SDMA nodal body along with SDRF involved in integrated plans, evacuations strategies, frequent mock drills, and generating awareness can go long way in streamlining the fragmented nature of disaster planning. Comprehensive state and district disaster plan well aligned with national plan following the vision of Sendai framework will mainstream disaster with development processes for specifically integrating flood mitigation and preparedness at all levels. For early warning, Telangana planning development society (TPDS) has been involved in weather monitoring on real-time basis through automated station and sensors. Central water commission also assists in early warning with its network of river gauge and rainfall stations. Further, Telangana state remote sensing application center actively involved in modeling, forecasting, and giving assessment reports for decision making. Presently, in environmental clearance/impact assessment, pollution control board and state environmental impact assessment bodies are responsible. A greater involvement of SDMAs in developmental decisions will catalyze streamlining and mainstreaming of disaster preparedness.
\nUrban policies are not only mere top down instrument for stimulating economic growth but also opportunity for bottom up engagement of residents, municipality, and civil society for steering toward sustainable disaster resilient cities. Hyderabad has many lakes, and their protection following the GO 111 and demarcation of FTL boundaries will be helpful in protecting them. Planning for catchment area for Musi River along with water treatment and segregation of solid waste disposal will not only revive the river but also reduce the runoff water during the heavy rainfall. Implementation of land use and zoning regulations in execution of mega urban projects will be instrumental in protecting eco-sensitive sites and restricting mindless concretization of city. The government of Germany and England adopted the concept of “room for rivers” and “making space for water,” respectively, which makes land use regulation central to flood management. Germany has ensured flood mitigation with more restrictive approach of land use policy based on the return period of 100-year floods [40].
\nPolitical decentralization at the municipal level is central to building disaster resilience in the cities. Active engagement of local institution in developmental decisions instead of leaving them in vacuum will give them greater administrative exposure, which has direct impact on land use change and flood resilience in the city. It will also further the much needed public oversight on the supra local forces of urbanization along with fair sharing of revenue with parastatal bodies or subsuming them to strengthen flood preparedness capacity. Provision of basic amenities empowers people to cope with disruption caused by urban flooding. Many wards such as Serilingampally, Rajendra nagar, and Hafeezpet have poor provision of basic amenities as closed drainage and treated drinking water [41]. Weak housing structure and poor basic amenities particularly in old city area have to be addressed through ward level targeted approach.
\nBuilding bylaws in the city encourage rain water harvesting, which help in reduction of run off and flood hazards. They also provide for not sanctioning building permits to floodable areas with nonpercolating soils or more than 45 degrees of slopes or for not taking proper measures of drainage [42]. Floor space index is another instrument through which sustainable urban form in the city can be promoted. No building or development activity is allowed in bed of water bodies and FTL of lake, ponds, and so on [43]. Implementation of model building bylaws and provisions of open spaces will assist in sustainable urban development and flood resilience. Regular inspection and impact assessment of industries/constructions for compliance and protection of water bodies as per water and waste management acts/rules will accelerate the flood resilience in the city [44, 45, 46].
\nSewage and storm water drains have to be delinked to avoid congestion and mixing of runoff water. By taking into consideration, the natural contours of flow, existing drainage pattern and neighborhood catchment area, maintenance of an integrated storm water system are essential for long-term flood resilience in the city. Kirloskar & later Voyants report had already provided recommendations, and its implementation will strengthen the storm drainage. Master plan should focus more on socioenvironmental factors, restoring urban water bodies, vegetation, and creating a network of multifunctional open spaces. Master plan of Auroville adopted the concept of bioregion where part of area is designated for green growth for environmental restoration, regeneration, and biodiversity. Mandi planning area adopted the zone of “no construction” in the land below the high flood level and “green zone” in a belt of 25 m buffer along the banks of river [47]. A convergence of hierarchy of plans may be developed as regional plan, town plan, and neighborhood plan along with master plan. These measures will essentially require coming out of silos and periodical review of planning processes.
\nThere still exists gap between Sendai framework, national, and provincial level disaster management. Particularly highlighting is the seemingly lack of urgency and poor integration with developmental plans. Policy frameworks at state level influence land use decisions and distribution of public services. Weak land use regulations transpire into degrading natural resources and creating multilevel vulnerabilities. At micro-city level, the development activities are framed under broad master plans and subjected to building bylaws. But, flouting of these laws has led to mushrooming of settlements in the low lying flood prone areas. Particularly noticeable is the influence of parastatal bodies and supra local market forces which often bypass regulations and democratic processes. In this scenario, water bodies, forest, agricultural land, and open spaces are being consumed at accelerated rate to produce real estate products. Current policy approaches being clouded by the neoliberal self and technocratic narratives still see disasters management as separate from developmental processes. The resulting poor multi-institutional coordination can only be overcome by empowering key institutions with agenda cutting across sectors and departments both horizontally and vertically. Focus on green growth and flood proofing with engagement of all stakeholders will play a central role in mainstreaming DRR.
\nAs this section deals with legal issues pertaining to the rights of individual Authors and IntechOpen, for the avoidance of doubt, each category of publication is dealt with separately. Consequently, much of the information, for example definition of terms used, is repeated to ensure that there can be no misunderstanding of the policies that apply to each category.
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\\n\\nIntechOpen - Registered publisher with office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ - UNITED KINGDOM
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\\n\\nTERMS
\\n\\nAll Works published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License, a license which allows for the broadest possible reuse of published material.
\\n\\nCopyright on the individual Works belongs to the specific Author, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen. The Creative Common license is granted to all others to:
\\n\\nAnd for any purpose, provided the following conditions are met:
\\n\\nAll Works are published under the CC BY 3.0 license. However, please note that book Chapters may fall under a different CC license, depending on their publication date as indicated in the table below:
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The CC BY 3.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
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\\n\\nReposting & sharing:
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\\n\\nRepublishing – More about Attribution Policy can be found here.
\\n\\nThe same principles apply to Works published under the CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license, with the caveats that (1) the content may not be used for commercial purposes, and (2) derivative works building on this content must be distributed under the same license. The restrictions contained in these license terms may, however, be waived by the copyright holder(s). Users wishing to circumvent any of the license terms are required to obtain explicit permission to do so from the copyright holder(s).
\\n\\nDISCLAIMER: Neither the CC BY 3.0 license, nor any other license IntechOpen currently uses or has used before, applies to figures and tables reproduced from other works, as they may be subject to different terms of reuse. In such cases, if the copyright holder is not noted in the source of a figure or table, it is the responsibility of the User to investigate and determine the exact copyright status of any information utilised. Users requiring assistance in that regard are welcome to send an inquiry to permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nAll rights to Books and all other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nThe copyright to Books and other compilations is subject to separate copyright from those that exist in the included Works.
\\n\\nAll Long Form Monographs/Compacts are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others.
\\n\\nCopyright to the individual Works (Chapters) belongs to their specific Authors, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen and the Creative Common license granted to all others to:
\\n\\nUnder the following terms:
\\n\\nThere must be an Attribution, giving appropriate credit, provision of a link to the license, and indication if any changes were made.
\\n\\nNonCommercial - The use of the material for commercial purposes is prohibited. Commercial rights are reserved to IntechOpen or its licensees.
\\n\\nNo additional restrictions that apply legal terms or technological measures that restrict others from doing anything the license permits are allowed.
\\n\\nThe CC BY-NC 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as it is not used for commercial purposes. The source Work must be cited and its Authors acknowledged in the following manner:
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\\n\\nReposting & sharing:
\\n\\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nAll Book cover design elements, as well as Video image graphics are subject to copyright by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nEvery reproduction of a front cover image must be accompanied by an appropriate Copyright Notice displayed adjacent to the image. The exact Copyright Notice depends on who the Author of a particular cover image is. Users wishing to reproduce cover images should contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nAll Video Lectures under IntechOpen's production are subject to copyright and are property of IntechOpen, unless defined otherwise, and are licensed under the Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) license. This grants all others the right to:
\\n\\nShare — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
\\n\\nUnder the following terms:
\\n\\nUsers wishing to repost and share the Video Lectures are welcome to do so as long as they acknowledge the source in the following manner:
\\n\\n© {year} IntechOpen. Published under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nUsers wishing to reuse, modify, or adapt the Video Lectures in a way not permitted by the license are welcome to contact us at permissions@intechopen.com to discuss waiving particular license terms.
\\n\\nAll software used on the IntechOpen platform, any used during the publishing process, and the copyright in the code constituting such software, is the property of IntechOpen or its software suppliers. As such, it may not be downloaded or copied without permission.
\\n\\nUnless otherwise indicated, all IntechOpen websites are the property of IntechOpen.
\\n\\nAll content included on IntechOpen Websites not forming part of contributed materials (such as text, images, logos, graphics, design elements, videos, sounds, pictures, trademarks, etc.), are subject to copyright and are property of, or licensed to, IntechOpen. Any other use, including the reproduction, modification, distribution, transmission, republication, display, or performance of the content on this site is strictly prohibited.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-08
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original Works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how Authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish, and distribute publications.
\n\nIntechOpen only publishes manuscripts for which it has publishing rights. This is governed by a publication agreement between the Author and IntechOpen. This agreement is accepted by the Author when the manuscript is submitted and deals with both the rights of the publisher and Author, as well as any obligations concerning a particular manuscript. However, in accepting this agreement, Authors continue to retain significant rights to use and share their publications.
\n\nHOW COPYRIGHT WORKS WITH OPEN ACCESS LICENSES?
\n\nAgreement samples are listed here for the convenience of prospective Authors:
\n\n\n\nDEFINITIONS
\n\nThe following definitions apply in this Copyright Policy:
\n\nAuthor - in order to be identified as an Author, three criteria must be met: (i) Substantial contribution to the conception or design of the Work, or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the Work; (ii) Participation in drafting or revising the Work; (iii) Approval of the final version of the Work to be published.
\n\nWork - a Chapter, including Conference Papers, and any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials forming part of or accompanying the Chapter/Conference Paper.
\n\nMonograph/Compacts - a full manuscript usually written by a single Author, including any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials.
\n\nCompilation - a collection of Works distributed in a Book that IntechOpen has selected, and for which the coordination of the preparation, arrangement and publication has been the responsibility of IntechOpen. Any Work included is accepted in its entirety in unmodified form and is published with one or more other contributions, each constituting a separate and independent Work, but which together are assembled into a collective whole.
\n\nIntechOpen - Registered publisher with office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ - UNITED KINGDOM
\n\nIntechOpen platform - IntechOpen website www.intechopen.com whose main purpose is to host Monographs in the format of Book Chapters, Long Form Monographs, Compacts, Conference Proceedings and Videos.
\n\nVideo Lecture – an audiovisual recording of a lecture or a speech given by a Lecturer, recorded, edited, owned and published by IntechOpen.
\n\nTERMS
\n\nAll Works published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License, a license which allows for the broadest possible reuse of published material.
\n\nCopyright on the individual Works belongs to the specific Author, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen. The Creative Common license is granted to all others to:
\n\nAnd for any purpose, provided the following conditions are met:
\n\nAll Works are published under the CC BY 3.0 license. However, please note that book Chapters may fall under a different CC license, depending on their publication date as indicated in the table below:
\n\n\n\n
LICENSE | \n\t\t\tUSED FROM - | \n\t\t\tUP TO - | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t 1 July 2005 (2005-07-01) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t 3 October 2011 (2011-10-03) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported (CC BY 3.0) | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t 5 October 2011 (2011-10-05) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tCurrently | \n\t\t
The CC BY 3.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
\n\nContent reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nReposting & sharing:
\n\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nRepublishing – More about Attribution Policy can be found here.
\n\nThe same principles apply to Works published under the CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license, with the caveats that (1) the content may not be used for commercial purposes, and (2) derivative works building on this content must be distributed under the same license. The restrictions contained in these license terms may, however, be waived by the copyright holder(s). Users wishing to circumvent any of the license terms are required to obtain explicit permission to do so from the copyright holder(s).
\n\nDISCLAIMER: Neither the CC BY 3.0 license, nor any other license IntechOpen currently uses or has used before, applies to figures and tables reproduced from other works, as they may be subject to different terms of reuse. In such cases, if the copyright holder is not noted in the source of a figure or table, it is the responsibility of the User to investigate and determine the exact copyright status of any information utilised. Users requiring assistance in that regard are welcome to send an inquiry to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nAll rights to Books and all other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen.
\n\nThe copyright to Books and other compilations is subject to separate copyright from those that exist in the included Works.
\n\nAll Long Form Monographs/Compacts are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others.
\n\nCopyright to the individual Works (Chapters) belongs to their specific Authors, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen and the Creative Common license granted to all others to:
\n\nUnder the following terms:
\n\nThere must be an Attribution, giving appropriate credit, provision of a link to the license, and indication if any changes were made.
\n\nNonCommercial - The use of the material for commercial purposes is prohibited. Commercial rights are reserved to IntechOpen or its licensees.
\n\nNo additional restrictions that apply legal terms or technological measures that restrict others from doing anything the license permits are allowed.
\n\nThe CC BY-NC 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as it is not used for commercial purposes. The source Work must be cited and its Authors acknowledged in the following manner:
\n\nContent reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nReposting & sharing:
\n\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nAll Book cover design elements, as well as Video image graphics are subject to copyright by IntechOpen.
\n\nEvery reproduction of a front cover image must be accompanied by an appropriate Copyright Notice displayed adjacent to the image. The exact Copyright Notice depends on who the Author of a particular cover image is. Users wishing to reproduce cover images should contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nAll Video Lectures under IntechOpen's production are subject to copyright and are property of IntechOpen, unless defined otherwise, and are licensed under the Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) license. This grants all others the right to:
\n\nShare — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
\n\nUnder the following terms:
\n\nUsers wishing to repost and share the Video Lectures are welcome to do so as long as they acknowledge the source in the following manner:
\n\n© {year} IntechOpen. Published under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nUsers wishing to reuse, modify, or adapt the Video Lectures in a way not permitted by the license are welcome to contact us at permissions@intechopen.com to discuss waiving particular license terms.
\n\nAll software used on the IntechOpen platform, any used during the publishing process, and the copyright in the code constituting such software, is the property of IntechOpen or its software suppliers. As such, it may not be downloaded or copied without permission.
\n\nUnless otherwise indicated, all IntechOpen websites are the property of IntechOpen.
\n\nAll content included on IntechOpen Websites not forming part of contributed materials (such as text, images, logos, graphics, design elements, videos, sounds, pictures, trademarks, etc.), are subject to copyright and are property of, or licensed to, IntechOpen. Any other use, including the reproduction, modification, distribution, transmission, republication, display, or performance of the content on this site is strictly prohibited.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-08
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