Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\n
Seeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\n
Over these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\n
We are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\n
Thank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\n
Now with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
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"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\n
Seeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\n
Over these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\n
We are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\n
Thank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\n
Now with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-partners-with-ehs-for-digital-advertising-representation-20210416",title:"IntechOpen Partners with EHS for Digital Advertising Representation"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-new-contract-with-cepiec-china-for-distribution-of-open-access-books-20210319",title:"IntechOpen Signs New Contract with CEPIEC, China for Distribution of Open Access Books"},{slug:"150-million-downloads-and-counting-20210316",title:"150 Million Downloads and Counting"},{slug:"intechopen-secures-indefinite-content-preservation-with-clockss-20210309",title:"IntechOpen Secures Indefinite Content Preservation with CLOCKSS"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-to-all-global-amazon-channels-with-full-catalog-of-books-20210308",title:"IntechOpen Expands to All Global Amazon Channels with Full Catalog of Books"},{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"420",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Efficient Decision Support Systems - Practice and Challenges in Biomedical Related Domain",title:"Efficient Decision Support Systems",subtitle:"Practice and Challenges in Biomedical Related Domain",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This series is directed to diverse managerial professionals who are leading the transformation of individual domains by using expert information and domain knowledge to drive decision support systems (DSSs). The series offers a broad range of subjects addressed in specific areas such as health care, business management, banking, agriculture, environmental improvement, natural resource and spatial management, aviation administration, and hybrid applications of information technology aimed to interdisciplinary issues. This book series is composed of three volumes: Volume 1 consists of general concepts and methodology of DSSs; Volume 2 consists of applications of DSSs in the biomedical domain; Volume 3 consists of hybrid applications of DSSs in multidisciplinary domains. 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Jao, Ph.D., is chief biomedical informaticist with Tranformation Inc. based in Maryland. He has been involved in medical informatics since coming to University of Illinois at Chicago in 1992 to work on clinical decision support systems. His research was awarded the grant from National Patient Safety Foundation in investigating the matching of prescribing medications and clinical problems in electronic heath records. He was the visiting scholar in the Lister Hill National Center for Biomedical Communications, National Library of Medicine and built a standard drug-problem database based on authoritative information from approved drug package inserts. He has extensive experience as a software consultant to healthcare institutions. He is a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) and the American Medical Informatics Association (AMIA). 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\r\n\tIdiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is the most common and important type of Idiopathic interstitial pneumonia, characterized by progressive fibrosis. It is a serious disease of unknown etiology with a high fatality rate. Over the past two decades there has been a tremendous amount of research in this field, that has helped us better understand the epidemiology, risk factors, pathogenesis, diagnostic evaluation and management strategies of IPF. The incidence and prevalence of the disease increases with age.
\r\n
\r\n\tWorldwide IPF has known to affect more than 3 million people. In US the reported incidence of IPF is 6 to 94 cases per 100,000 person years and prevalence is 18-495 cases per 100,000 adults depending on the age of the cohort. IPF is a clinically heterogenous disease and the course and progression of IPF is highly variable with intermittent episodes of acute exacerbations with rapid decline in lung function. Patients present with dyspnea and hypoxemia which significantly affects their quality of life. IPF is an expensive disease and the direct treatment cost is around 25,000 USD per person year. The pathogenesis of the disease is complex, and it is important to rule out a number of other diseases that can lead to pulmonary fibrosis. The hallmark of this disease is usual interstitial pneumonia (UIP) pattern seen on HRCT and on histology.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe diagnosis requires a multidisciplinary team approach and several guidelines have been published in the recent years to help the clinicians diagnose this disease in a timely manner. After decades of research two antifibrotic drugs are now available which are not curative but has shown to significantly slow down the decline in lung function associated with this disease. There are newer and less invasive technologies, biomarkers that are being developed to diagnose IPF and novel targeted treatment strategies are on pipeline. Lung transplant still remains the cornerstone of management as despite the treatment with antifibrotic agents most of the patients with IPF will progress to advanced end-stage lung disease.
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1. Introduction
\n
There is a huge variety of phenolic compounds in our natural environment. Some like eugenol, thymol, pyrogallol, guaiacol or pyrocatechol are formed in natural way, but a vast majority of them are introduced as a consequence of industrial, agricultural and communal activities of humans. While the former are neutralized as the result of natural processes, the latter pose a serious risk to the environment.
\n
Quantitative isolation of phenol and its derivatives from environmental matrices is usually difficult because of considerably different properties and low concentration. It was a stimulus to development of research on process of sorption and search for efficient sorptive materials.
\n
This chapter is devoted to review of current state of knowledge on sorption process of phenolic compounds. Many different types of sorbents are used for phenols in chromatographic columns and solid phase extraction devices. Their efficiency is diverse and depends on many factors. As the most important chemical structure of adsorbate, a type of sorbent and its porosity as well as properties of solvent (or eluent) should be mentioned. Also other properties such as pH, temperature and presence of oxygen influence the process. For this reason, sorption of phenols is a very complex phenomenon. Although many researchers try to explain the mechanism of interaction of phenols with adsorbents, it is still an open problem.
\n
Many groups of researchers tried to solve it using different scientific methods, for example, chromatography [1, 2], spectroscopy (UV, mass spectrometry [MS], Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy [FTIR]) [3–5], thermal analysis [6], and computer simulations [7]. Based on the obtained results, some authors proposed explanations of phenomena and mechanisms accompanying the sorption of phenol. Understanding the mechanism is important from scientific point of view. Elucidation of this process is essential for reasons of utility and finding an answer to the questions how to improve efficiency of sorption phenolic compounds in the processes of aqueous environment remediation. Effective removal of these species from industrial and urban waste water helps to protect aquatic ecosystem from toxic impact of phenols on the living organisms, which is an important aim all over the world.
\n
2. Chemical structure and properties of phenols
\n
Phenols are compounds possessing one or more hydroxyl groups (–OH) directly connected to the aromatic system (e.g. phenyl, naphthyl) [8, 9]. Figure 1 presents some examples of phenols with their systematic and common names.
Figure 1.
Examples of phenolic compounds.
\n
All carbon atoms forming aromatic ring are sp2 hybridized. Therefore, phenyl has hexagonal planar structure with all bond angles 120° and delocalized π-electrons distributed over the ring. The C-O bond is formed from Csp2-Osp3 and the O-H bond is formed from Osp3-H1s. Two other orbitals of oxygen atom are occupied by two nonbonded electron pairs. For this reason, hydroxyl functional group C-O-H has a bent shape with almost the tetrahedral bond angle of 109.5° as it is represented in Figure 2. Oxygen is more electronegative than carbon and hydrogen that makes both the C-O and O-H bonds polar [10].
Figure 2.
The structure of phenol.
\n
Moreover, electron pairs of oxygen atom are conjugated with aromatic system that causes partial transfer of negative charge from oxygen to the ring and delocalization of the charge. This effect additionally strengthens polarization of O-H bond. In consequence, phenol gains acidic character and ability to form phenoxide (phenolate) ion [9, 10]. Both phenol and its conjugate base are resonance stabilized. Dispersion of the negative charge over the molecule can be illustrated with the resonance structures or as a resonance hybrid as in Figure 3.
Figure 3.
Resonance stabilized structures of phenol and phenoxide representing dispersion of negative charge and its resonance hybrid. Based on Refs. [9, 10].
\n
All the above-mentioned structural features give the phenol specific physical and chemical properties. Phenol is a peculiar smelling, water-soluble crystalline solid, with low melting and high boiling point values. These attributes can be reinforced or weakened, if a substituent is connected to the aromatic ring. A chemical character (electron withdrawing or donating), the way of substitution—position and a number of functional groups attached to the ring—can alter properties of the phenol significantly. Some properties such as melting (MP) and boiling points (BP), density (D), water solubility (w.s.), acidity in water (pKa) and octanol-water partition coefficient (Log P) of phenol and its derivatives are presented in Tables 1 and 2 [11, 12]. Comparison of these data allows to evaluate the impact of substituents on change of the properties.
\n\n
Compound Chemical name IUPAC name
Case no.
M [g mol−1]
MP [°C]
BP [°C]
d [g cm−3]
p.s.
w.s. [g L−1]
pKa
LogP
μ [D]
Benzenol Phenol
108-95-2
94.11
40.91
181.7
1.071
c.s.
83
9.99
1.46
1.61
Pyrocatechol Benzene-1,2-diol
120-80-9
110.11
105
245.5
1.344
c.s.
461
9.45 12.8
0.88
nda
Resorcinol Benzene-1,3-diol
108-46-3
110.11
109.8
280
1.278
c.s.
1400
9.30 11.06
0.80
2.07
Hydroquinone Benzene-1,4-diol
123-31-9
110.11
171
287
1.330
c.s.
72
10.85
0.59
1.4
Pyrogallol Benzene-1,2,3-triol
87-66-1
126.11
133
309
1.453
c.s.
507
9.01
0.97
nda
Hydroxyhydroquinone Benzene-1,2,4-triol
533-73-3
126.11
141
nda
nda
c.s.
nda
nda
nda
nda
Phloroglucinol Benzene-1,3,5-triol
108-73-6
126.11
217 −219
S. D.
nda
c.s.
10
8.45
nda
nda
1-Naphthol Naphthelene-1-ol
90-15-3
144.17
96
288
1.095
c.s.
0.86
9.34
2.85
1.40
2-Naphthol Naphthelene-2-ol
135-19-3
144.17
121.6
285
1.28
c.s.
0.75
9.51
2.70
1.53
o-Cresol 2-Methylphenol
95-48-7
108.14
31.0
191.0
1.047
c.s.
25.9
10.287
1.95
1.60
m-Cresol 3-Methylphenol
108-39-4
108.14
12.2
202.2
1.034
l
22.2
10.09
1.96
1.44
p-Cresol 4-Methylphenol
106-44-5
108.14
34.77
201.9
1.0185
c.s.
21.5
10.26
1.94
1.64
m-Xylenol 2,4-Dimethylphenol
105-67-9
122.16
25.4 −26
211.5
0.965
c.s
7.87
10.60
2.30
nda
Mesitol 2,4,6-trimethylphenol
527-60-6
136.19
73
220
nda
s
1.01
10.88
2.73
nda
2-Ethylphenol
90-00-6
122.16
18
204.5
1.015
l
5.34
10.20
2.47
nda
3-Ethylphenol
620-17-7
122.16
−4
218.4
1.028
l
nda
9.9
2.40
nda
4-Ethylphenol
123-07-9
122.16
46
217.9
1.011
c.s.
4.90
10.0
2.58
nda
Guaiacol 2-Methoxyphenol
8000-58-9
124.14
28-32
205
1.129
l/ c.s.
18.7
9.98
1.32
nda
3-Methoxyphenol
150-19-6
124.13
−18 −16
244
1.131
l
nda
nda
nda
nda
4-Methoxyphenol
150-76-5
124.14
54-57
243
1.55
c.s.
40.0
10.05
1.41/ 1.34
nda
o-Aminophenol 2-Aminophenol
95-55-6
109.13
170 −174
153 11 mmHg
1.328
c.s.
20
4.72 9.71
0.62
nda
m-Aminophenol 3-Aminophenol
591-27-5
109.13
123
164 at 11mmHg
1.195
c.s.
26.3
4.37 9.815
0.21
1.83
p-Aminophenol 4-Aminophenol
123-30-8
109.13
187.5
284 D.
1.29
c.s.
1.6
5.48 10.46
0.04
nda
2,4-Diaminophenol
95-86-3
124.14
205 D.
nda
nda
c.s.
275
nda
nda
nda
Table 1.
Comparison of physical and chemical properties of phenol and its derivatives with electron-donating substituents.
M, molar mass; d, density; w.s., water solubility; MP, melting point; p.s., physical state; c.s., crystalline solid; l,– liquid; pKa acidity in water; BP, boiling point; D., decomposes; E., explodes; S, sublimes; Log P, partition coefficient; μ, dipole moment in benzene as solvent; nda, no data available.
\n\n
Compound Chemical name IUPAC name
Case no.
M [g mol−1]
MP [°C]
BP [°C]
d [g cm−3]
p.s.
w.s. [g L−1]
pKa
Log P
μ [D]
o-Nitrophenol 2-Nitrophenol
88-75-5
139.11
44–45
216
1.49
c.s.
2.5
7.230
1.79
3.10
m-Nitrophenol 3-Nitrophenol
554-84-7
139.11
96.8
194 70 mmHg
1.485
c.s.
13.55
8.360
2.00
3.90
p-Nitrophenol 4-Nitrophenol
100-02-7
139.11
113 −114
279 D.
1.479
c.s.
15.6
7.15
1.91
5.05
2,4-Dinitrophenol
51-28-5
184.11
114.8
S.
1.6683
c.s.
2.790
4.09
1.67
nda
Picric acid 2,4,6-Trinitrophenol
88-89-1
229.10
122 −123
300 E.
1.763
c.s.
12.7
0.42
1.44
1.75
Salicylic acid 2-Hydroxybenoic acid
69-72-7
138.12
159
211 20 mmHg
1.443
c.s.
2.240
2.98 13.6
2.26
2.63d
4-Hydroxybenoic acid
99-96-7
138.12
214.5 D.
nda
1.46
c.s.
5.000
4.54
1.58
2.73d
o-Fluorophenol 2-Fluorophenol
367-12-4
112.10
14–16
151-152
1.246
l
37.7
8.82
nda
1.84d
m-Fluorophenol 3-Fluorophenol
372-20-3
112.10
13.5
178
1.213
l
nda
9.28
nda
nda
p-Fluorophenol 4-Fluorophenol
371-41-5
112.10
48
185
1.22
c.s.
80
9.96
nda
2.08
o-Chlorophenol 2-Chlorophenol
95-57-8
128.56
9.8
174.9
1.264
l
11.3
8.52
2.15
1.39 2.11d
m-Chlorophenol 3-Chlorophenol
108-43-0
128.56
33.5
214
1.245
c.s.
26
9.12
2.5
2.15
p-Chlorophenol 4-Chlorophenol
106-48-9
128.56
42.8
220
1.2238
c.s.
24
9.41
2.39
2.15
2,4-Dichlorophenol
120-83-2
163.00
45
210
1.4
c.s.
4.5
7.89
3.06
1.59
2,4,6-Trichlorophenol
88-06-2
197.45
69.5
249
1.4901
c.s.
0.500
6.23
3.69
1.62
2,3,4,5,6-Pentachlorophenol
87-86-5
266.34
174
309–310 D.
1.978
c.s.
0.014
4.70
5.12
nda
o-Bromophenol 2-Bromophenol
95-56-7
173.00
5.6
194.5
1.492
l
2.23
8.45
2.35
1.36 2.36d
m-Bromophenol 3-Bromophenol
591-20-8
173.00
33
236.5
nda
c.s.
23
9.03
2.63
nda
p-Bromophenol 4-Bromophenol
160-41-2
173.00
66.4
238
1.840
c.s.
14
9.17
2.59
2.12
o-Iodophenol 2-Iodophenol
533-58-4
220.01
39–43
186 100 mmHg
nda
c.s.
nda
8.47
nda
nda
m-Iodophenol 3-Iodophenol
626-02-8
220.01
40
D.
nda
c.s.
nda
8.88
nda
nda
p-Iodophenol 4-Iodophenol
540-38-5
220.01
94
D.
nda
c.s.
nda
9.2
nda
nda
Table 2.
Comparison of physical and chemical properties of phenolic compounds with electron withdrawing substituents.
M, molar mass; d, density; w.s., water solubility; MP, melting point; p.s., physical state; c.s., crystalline solid; l, liquid; pKa, acidity in water; BP, boiling point; D., decomposes; E., explodes; S, sublimes; Log P, partition coefficient; μ, dipole moment in benzene as solvent; d, dioxane; nda, no data available.
\n
Many monohydroxyl derivatives (alkylphenols, alkoxyphenols, halogenophenols, 2- and 3-nitrophenols) similar to phenol are crystalline solids with melting points below 100°C and boiling points ca. 200°C. Other nitrophenols, aminophenols, pentachlorophenol, hydroxybenzoic acids and species possessing two or more hydroxyl groups in a molecule have very high values both melting and boiling points. While some phenols are sublime, others decompose before reaching the boiling point. So, high temperatures are the consequence of intermolecular hydrogen bonds, which are formed between the molecules, thereby justifying water solubility of these compounds. The examples of intermolecular hydrogen bonds that phenols can form with their own molecules and with molecules of water are shown in the Figure 4.
Figure 4.
The intermolecular(purple dotted lines) and intramolecular hydrogen bonds (green dotted lines) formed by phenol and its derivatives. On the basis of Ref. [9].
\n
The possibility to form hydrogen bonds suggests that phenols should have good water solubility, but this is not the rule. The unsubstituted phenol is relatively well soluble in water (83 g L−1), while its substituted derivatives are not. For most of them, solubility does not exceed 30 g L−1. Alkyl and halogen groups enhance hydrophobic character of aromatic ring resulting in decrease of water solubility. For phenols possessing functional groups with strong polar character, differences in ability to dissolve are more pronounced. Even for isomers of the same compound, they can be significant. The close proximity of the –OH group to substituents such as -NO2, -NH2 and -COOH lead to formation of intramolecular hydrogen bonds. In this way coordinated the hydroxyl group becomes less active in the solvation process. Due to this fact, solubility of ortho-isomer is lower than meta or para ones (e.g. nitrophenols, hydroxylbenzoic acids).
\n
Very interesting behavior demonstrates benzenediols and benzenetriols. Increasing number of hydroxyl groups implies their solubility should be better in comparison to phenol. It is indeed, but hydroquinone and phloroglucinol are exceptions. Solubility of these two compounds is lower and amount 72 and 10 g L−1, respectively. This apparently abnormal behavior is the result of the presence of hydrogen bonds whose strength are additionally enhanced by symmetry of the molecules. The adjacent molecules form a kind of network in which each of them is strongly bonded with others by infinite chains of hydrogen bonds (Figure 5) [13–15]. In this way, a compact structure is created that prevents the penetration of solvent/water molecules into the interior. For this reason, dissolution process is significantly hindered. In the similar way, slight solubility of other phenols (4-aminophenol/para-isomers, multi-substituted phenols) can be explained.
Figure 5.
Hydrogen bonds enhanced by symmetrical structure of the molecules in (a) hydroquinone and (b) phloroglucine. Based on Refs. [13–15].
\n
Acidity values (pKa) of most phenols are in the range of 8–10, which means they are acids stronger than water (pKa of water 15.7) but weaker than carbonic acid (pKa of 6.4). As it was mentioned above, acidity of phenol is the result of delocalizing of negative charge over the aromatic ring and resonance effect. Dipole moment is sensitive to this kind of changes. Entering an electron donating (-CH3, -C2H5, -OCH3, -NH2, -OH) or electronwithdrawing (-COOH, -NO2, -F, -Cl, -Br, -I) group to the ring causes changes in its electron density. As a consequence, altering of dipole moment of the molecule and its acidity is observed. For this reason, alkylphenols are less acidic and nitrophenols are more acidic than phenol. This effect is particularly well visible in case of picric acid. Three symmetrically situated nitro groups exert so strong electron-withdrawing effect that the pKa value for this phenol decreases up to of 0.42 and is comparable with acidity of mineral acids, for example, HBrO3 (pKa = −0.69), H3PO4 (pKa = 2.12) or strong organic acids CF3COOH (pKa = 0.2) and CCl3COOH (pKa = 0.6). Similar effect is also observed for chlorophenols. The higher is a number of chlorine substituents the more acidic is character of phenol (decrease of pKa value) particularly in case of tri- and pentachlorophenols.
\n
3. The way of interaction with sorbents
\n
Great varieties of physicochemical properties make phenols very difficult compounds to adsorb or extract, especially they occur at extremely low level of concentration. Although so many different sorbents are commercially available, none of them is universal. For this reason, researchers are constantly working to develop new, better and more efficient materials for phenols sorption processes. All accessible sorbents due to their origin and chemical structure can be divided as the following classes:
\n
Natural and mineral based (clay, silicas, zeolites) [16–23]
Independently of the above division, in each class, the materials can have hydrophobic or hydrophilic character due to the lack or presence of polar functional groups.
\n
Retention of phenols from aqueous solution by nonpolar reversed phase adsorbent, for example, silica sorbents (RP-C8, RP-C18, RP-cyclohexyl, RP-phenyl), is the result of apolar Van der Waals forces that play the key role in reversed phase mechanisms. Differences in the polarity and solubility of the phenols between the aqueous and the solid apolar phase cause the mass transfer leading to partition process. For this reason, the efficiency of sorbent is related to the octanol-water partition coefficient, Log P (Tables 1 and 2), which is a measure of hydrophobicity (or lipophilicity) of the compound. The smaller is the value of Log P, the more limited is sorbent efficacy towards the compound. Conversely, increase in Log P provides its better affinity to the sorbent.
\n
In sorption of phenols using hydrophobic polymers (e.g. PS-DVB (copolymer styrene-divinylbenzene) or hypercrosslinked resins) and graphitized carbons, the possible interactions are also hydrophobic ones. The partition process occurs due to combination of apolar Van der Waals and π–π electrons interactions of the aromatic rings of the adsorbate and adsorbent. Therefore, the retention is the result of the reversed phase mechanism, too [18].
\n
Unfortunately, for very polar phenols, the described interactions in many cases are insufficient to carry out the process of sorption efficiently. In order to facilitate the retention, two methods can be applied:
\n
Introduction of polar groups (acetyl, hydroxymethyl, benzoil, o-carboxybenzoil, carboxylic, sulfonic, amino [24]) to the hydrophobic skeleton of already existing sorbent [27, 42]. This method is applicable to preparation of chemically modified polymers, activated or grafted carbons [42].
Synthesis of a new sorbent using compounds with polar moieties. In this way, silica-based materials: RP-cyano, RP-hydroxyl, RP-amine [43], polar polymers [2, 21, 25–28] and chemically activated or porous carbons [21, 27–29, 39] can be produced.
\n
Resulting materials still retain the high capacity towards less hydrophilic compounds and gain possibility to specifically interact with polar molecules due to stronger interactions including: dipole-dipole, hydrogen bonding or even ionic if sulfonic or carboxylic or amine groups are present. Additionally, polar surface is more wettable and consequently support mass transfer of the more polar species from aqueous solution to the sorbent [18], thus influencing the selectivity of sorption process and the capacity of the sorbent [26].
\n
In a situation when a solution consists of phenols with significantly different properties, one sorbent may be insufficient to trap all the compounds quantitatively. In such cases, the possibility to achieve high retention and selectivity for all analytes is the preparation of device containing mixed or layered sorbents with different chemical characters [18, 20, 21].
\n
4. Influence of different factors on process of phenols sorption
\n
Process of sorption of phenolic compounds is very complex and many factors exert influence on its efficiency. Some of them were already described above. Others are presented below. The factors are arranged into three groups: the first, connected with adsorbents; the second, associated with adsorbate properties; and the last, related to environmental conditions. Nevertheless, one should remember that none of the factors is working as separate. All of them make a system in which each element is closely linked with others, and changing one of them affects the rest.
\n
4.1. Adsorbent properties
\n
4.1.1. Physical properties of an adsorbent
\n
Many studies were carried out to find the correlation between specific surface area of sorbent and uptake of phenolic compounds. It is clear that as higher is the value of specific surface area, the higher are microporosity and the larger number of active sites available to interact with adsorbate. Consequently, extraction efficiency increases [23]. That is why, for hypercrosslinked polymers, higher sorption capacity is observed in comparison with traditional polymeric sorbents [18, 21].
\n
On the other hand, there are many works indicating lack of correlation between the value of specific surface area and ability to adsorb phenols [16, 24, 25, 27, 33, 41]. However, specific surface area is still put into characteristic in order to define the morphology of the adsorbent and for comparative purposes.
\n
In general, an adsorption process consists of three following steps:
\n
transport of the adsorbates from the bulk solution to the adsorbent exterior surface,
diffusion of molecules to the pore of adsorbent, although a small amount of adsorbate is retained on the external surface and
proper adsorption of the solutes on the interior surface of the micropores and in capillary spaces of the adsorbent. This final step is assumed to be rapid and leads to state of equilibrium [16, 33]. A driving force of that process is an adsorption potential near the walls of micropores [23].
\n
Consequently, adsorption of phenols is controlled by diffusion processes which are the slowest stage of the overall process. Therefore, characteristic features of porous structure like type of pores, their shape, size, a way of their connection and a size distribution are the most important factors determining the adsorption process and deciding on proper application [31, 44].
\n
In case of sorption processes realized in a dynamic mode (e.g. chromatography, solid phase extraction), size, shape and uniformity of sorbent particles also play significant role. These parameters have an impact on a length of diffusional path, availability of pores for adsorbed molecules, mass transfer resistance and contact time. Not meaningless is the geometry of a device (e.g. column, cartridge, sampler) as its length and diameter decide on the rate and efficiency of the process.
\n
4.1.2. Chemical properties of an adsorbent
\n
Chemical composition of the adsorbent surface determines the mechanism of phenols adsorption. As it is described above, the retention of phenols on the solid surface is the result of specific and nonspecific interactions. The main role is played by strong dipole-dipole interactions and hydrogen bonds between phenolic compounds and surface functional groups. Equally important are π electrons interactions of the aromatic systems of the adsorbate and adsorbent (if contains) [26, 32].
\n
Thus, retention of the polar phenols is enhanced by the presence of polar moieties on the sorbent surface, while sorption of the hydrophobic molecules and those forming strong intramolecular hydrogen bonds is not influenced by the polarity of an adsorbent surface [25].
\n
The studies show that functional groups being active in retention of phenolic species are mainly located in larger micropores, and the increase in their concentration on the surface leads to the favoring of adsorption in larger pores. Consequently, the competition takes place between filling of the smallest micropores and the adsorption on active sites located in larger micropores [33].
\n
The moderately and slightly acidic oxygen groups are as considered as the most important ones influencing the mechanism of phenols adsorption. The vital surface groups for this process are bases and carbonyls [18, 33, 45]. According to Su et al., the increase in concentration of carbonyl groups on the surface provides more sites for the donor-acceptor interactions resulting in the improvement in phenol adsorption [23].
\n
In addition, other polar moieties, for example nitrile [25], amine [24] or bicarbonate [27] on the sorbent surface, can positively influence the uptake of phenol and its derivatives by the formation of hydrogen bonds.
\n
Many researchers observe decrease in adsorption of phenol with the increase in surface acidity and with surface oxidation [33, 46, 47]. This phenomenon can be explained by
\n
strong interactions of phenols with the surface groups that lead to the creation of polymorphic forms of phenol [33],
hydration process of polar groups (e.g. carboxyl) leading to creation of water clusters, which occupy active sites. The formed water complexes block the pore entrances and thus reduce surface available for sorption resulting in decrease of phenol adsorbability [23, 48].
\n
In case of adsorption from solutions, the role of surface functionalities increases more and maybe even dominant [49]. The surface of adsorbent can be treated as a huge molecule covered with uniform (e.g. polymers) or various (e.g. active carbons) in chemical character functional groups. If they are able to dissociate, ions are released to the solution. Their presence affects the acid-base equilibrium of the solvent. In order to characterize this process, point of zero charge (PZC) [44, 50], contents of acidic and basic groups [47] and their pKa [45, 50], or pH of sorbent slurry [48], are determined.
\n
The ions on surface, those in solution and adsorbate molecules interact with one another by electrostatic attraction or repulsion. Confirmation of this phenomenon was presented in Tamon and Ozaki’s studies, who found that sorption characteristic of phenols in aqueous solution depends on electronic states of adsorbent surface and adsorbate [51]. The same phenomenon controls adsorption of acids on surface with basic groups and bases on the acidic ones of ion exchangers or porous carbons [32].
\n
4.2. Adsorbate properties
\n
Adsorption of small organic molecules, especially containing functional groups, is affected by surface chemistry. The bigger is the molecule, the weaker is the effect due to the steric hindrance. As phenols possess in their molecules aromatic ring and at least one polar group (-OH), both these parts are active in competition for high-energy adsorption sites. The strength of retention of the molecule depends on size of molecule (the number of carbon atoms) and specific interaction caused by polar moiety [32]. The presence of substituents in the ring changes physical, chemical and energetic characteristics of the molecule, resulting in additional strengthening or weakening impact on the sorption process. It was also found that solutes with electron-donating groups show a tendency to irreversible adsorption, while those with electron-withdrawing groups do not [51].
\n
Thus, for example, chloro or nitro groups which reduce the electron density of the aromatic ring cause growth of molecule hydrophobicity and decrease in water solubility. In consequence, interactions between the adsorbed molecules and hydrophobic surface of adsorbent become stronger and an increase in adsorption capacity is observed [17, 46, 49, 52, 53]. For polar adsorbents, the effect will be opposite [25, 35].
\n
4.2.1. Size of molecule
\n
The molecular size of the adsorbate has a crucial meaning for adsorption process. The rate of mass transfer is controlled by diffusion of adsorbates in porous structure of the adsorbent. However, availability of the pores strictly depends on size of the molecule. The smallest molecules penetrate almost all pores, while for the larger ones, not all of them are accessible. This elimination of large molecules from entering the pores describes size exclusion mechanism. As a result, porous materials act as a molecular sieve. An increase in adsorption resulting from the rise of adsorption energy is supposed if the pore size is about twice the size of kinetic diameter of adsorbate molecule [46].
\n
The species with branched or bulky substituents, which are too large to reach interior of micropores, are retained in mesopores [31]. Desorption of such solutes can be hindered due to being trapped inside pores.
\n
4.2.2. Multicomponent effect
\n
For multicomponent solutions additional effects become apparent. If the mixture consists of solutes having molecules of similar size, a competition between them for the active sites takes place. Compounds possessing higher affinity to adsorbent interact stronger with its surface and displace molecules interacting weaker [22, 27]. Hence, it follows a selectivity of adsorbent towards the specific compounds.
\n
On the other hand, if molecules that are significantly different in size are present in the mixture, the larger of them can block entrances of some pores effectively preventing adsorption of the smaller species [31].
\n
Both the effects adversely affect the sorption and reduce the overall efficiency of the process
\n
4.2.3. Initial concentration and contact time
\n
Increase in the phenols concentration in solution leads to an increase in the amount of adsorbed compounds. This can be attributed to a rise of the driving force of the concentration gradient with the rise in the initial phenols concentration and different arrangements of solute molecules on the surface of adsorbent [30]. At low concentrations, phenol molecules are lying flat in parallel with the surface. As a result, the surface occupied per molecule corresponds to the largest of its dimensions [54, 55]. At higher concentrations, accessibility of the surface for the individual molecules is considerably less. Consequently, the molecules have to change their position for upright to allow closer packing in parallel to each other. Then the area occupied in conversion to a single molecule is smaller that is observed as rise in adsorption density [55].
\n
Different studies show that the contact time required for phenols solution to reach the equilibrium is in the range of 1–24 h [30, 56, 57]. However, the uptake of phenols is the most rapid during the initial 30 min [56, 57]. It was also observed that the higher initial concentration, the longer equilibrium times were needed [30, 56]. Shaarani and Hameed explained the run of the process as follows: “initially the adsorbate molecules have to first encounter the boundary layer effect and then diffuse from the boundary layer film onto adsorbent surface and then finally, they have to diffuse into the porous structure of the adsorbent. This phenomenon takes relatively long contact time” [30].
\n
Moreover, it was noted that at relatively large phenol adsorption values, when interactions between adsorbate molecules predominate, phenol uptake is higher for the more oxidized surfaces, whereas, in case of diluted phenol solutions, the competition between phenol molecules and water leads to substantial reduction in adsorption of phenol on oxidized surface. “Competition between water adsorbing in pores and phenol is mainly responsible for the changes in adsorption” [33].
\n
4.3. Environmental conditions
\n
4.3.1. Water and other solvents
\n
Water molecules interact very weakly with the hydrophobic surface unless their concentration in adsorbed mixture is low (e.g. sorption from gas phase). If the contents of water rise like in case of sorption from aqueous solution or in head space techniques, the influence of water interaction with the surface is no longer negligible. Water begins to interfere with adsorption of organic compounds. Due to the better affinity to the surface, organic solutes are able to replace preadsorbed water. That impacts the kinetics and efficacy of the process. The effect is even stronger, if the surface is hydrophilic. The polar functional groups are predominantly adsorption centers capable of forming the hydrogen bonding. Interactions between water molecules lead to formation of clusters, which block entrances of pore as well as “the condensation of water in micropores at much lower humidity than that at which it happens on a fully hydrophobic surface” can take place [32, 33]. In consequence, adsorption of phenols diminishes.
\n
From practical point of view both adsorption and desorption processes are equally important. Adsorption of phenols is usually carried out from aqueous solution. However, to desorb retained compounds, organic solvent is necessary. It should be chosen so that its properties (solvating power, good wettability of adsorbent, miscibility, chromophoric nature and purity) provided quantitative, quick and simple process of recovery.
\n
For elution of adsorbed phenolic compounds, the most frequently used solvents are methanol [58], acetonitrile [59], acetone [18], ethyl acetate [18], tetramethylammonium hydroxide [17] and others [43]. If a single eluent is ineffective, a mixture of solvents can be considered. The volume of applied eluent depends on its eluting strength, polarity of the phenols, amount and surface chemistry of adsorbent, and type of device [18].
\n
Bruzzoniti et al. in their paper presented efficiency of different eluents in desorption of phenolic compounds from graphitized carbon black. They noted the effectiveness of eluent was affected by the value of pKa phenolic solute. Phenols with pKa about 7 were effectively eluted with tetramethylammonium hydroxide, while for phenols with higher pKa, methanol was better [17].
\n
For newly synthesized sorptive materials, studies on eluent selection and optimization of desorption process should be conducted [18, 59].
\n
4.3.2. Electrolytes: ionic strength
\n
The presence of electrolytes, for example salts in the solution, affects the strength of electrostatic interaction between phenolic solutes and the surface of the adsorbent. If these interactions are attractive and surface concentration of adsorbates is low, then the rise in ionic strength of solution causes decrease in uptake. But if they are repulsive or concentration of adsorbates on the surface is high, increase in ionic strength of the solution enhances the adsorption [60].
\n
The presence of salts can influence the adsorption of phenols also by the effect of salting out. The electrolytes dissolved in the solution reduce or even destroy the hydration layer of organic compound causing decrease in its solubility, which affects favorably on adsorption.
\n
Kuśmiderek and Świątkowski have compared the influence of an electrolyte on the adsorption of 4-chlorophenol on active carbon and multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs). They used three different salts: Na2SO4, NaCl, NaNO3 at various concentrations. The presented results proved higher uptake of 4-chlorophenol on the active carbon in the presence of salts in all cases, whereas no significant difference was observed for adsorption on MWCNTs. It was also indicated that the desorption of the 4-chlorophenol increased with the increase in the ionic strength of the solution [60].
\n
Dissimilar results were obtained by Mukherjee and De for sorption of catechol on mixed matrix membrane in the presence of NaCl. They justified their outcome by weakening forces between sorbent and phenols resulting in decrease of the uptake. They also defined this phenomenon as the shielding effect [22].
\n
4.3.3. pH
\n
The change in pH affects chemistry of both the adsorbate and the adsorbent by shifting the equilibrium dissociation process of solutes and surface functional groups of the sorbent towards ionized or unionized form. Thus, adsorption of phenols is limited by the acid-base characteristic of the adsorbent and its microporosity, which subsequently influences kinetics and effectiveness of the overall process. Higher values of uptake are observed for the compounds in undissociated form [30, 61]. Therefore, most of phenols such as weak acids are better adsorbed from neutral or acidic solutions. At lower pH values, oxonium ions are present in solution and they prevent dissociation of surface acidic groups. In these conditions, formation of hydrogen bonds and π-π interactions between phenolic adsorbates and sorbent surface is privileged. Accordingly, adsorption capacity is the highest [19]. The same applies to phenols, their transition point between acidic and basic form is associated with their pKa value. Below this value dominates acidic form and above it the conjugated base-phenoxide ion takes advantage.
\n
The uptake of phenols decreases at higher pH, when the molecules turn into phenolate ions and the surface of the adsorbent is negatively charged. The presence of electrostatic repulsive forces impedes adsorption [16, 57]. Thus, the more acidic the surface of sorbent, the lower the adsorbability of phenols.
\n
However, some researchers report the in certain pH range, adsorption for most phenols initially increases with the rise in pH to reach a certain value and then decreases with further increase in pH [16, 56]. This phenomenon can be explained by the fact that, in the presence of oxonium ions the surface functional groups of adsorbent gain a positive charge. As a result, adsorption of water increases and cluster formation takes place. Consequently, some of more active sites are not available. Second, already adsorbed molecules of phenols can block the entrances to fine pores and cause decrease in uptake. This effect is stronger at the lowest pH values [33].
\n
4.3.4. Temperature
\n
Due to the fact that process of physical adsorption is exothermic in nature, increase of temperature causes decrease in phenol’s uptake [56]. Moreover, the rise in temperature increases the rate of the sorption process and leads to the disappearance of the effects associated with surface chemical composition [33].
\n
In contrast, chemisorption is an endothermic process. Therefore, Shaarani and Hameed observed the increase of temperature slightly increases the uptake of 2,4-dichlorophenol at a higher concentration. They also found that the change of temperature alters the equilibrium capacity of the adsorbent for particular adsorbates [30].
\n
4.3.5. Oxic and anoxic conditions
\n
Influence of oxygen for process of phenols sorption was at first perceived for carbon adsorbents; hence, the facts presented here have been developed only based on the results obtained for these materials.
\n
When phenols are adsorbed under oxic and anoxic conditions, differences in the uptake can be observed. The sorption capacities of some sorbents are higher under oxic conditions that imply promoting action of molecular oxygen in this process [3, 49]. The increase in adsorption is attributed to the oxidative coupling reaction leading to formation of timers or more substituted derivatives of phenols (multimers) that are attached to the surface of adsorbent [33, 55].
\n
The course of the process can be explained as follows: the molecules of phenols and those of oxygen diffuse to the surface of carbon, where they are preadsorbed. The adsorbed oxygen molecules form superoxo ions that yield rearrangements and further reactions with surface functional groups and adsorbed phenols leading to creation of various surface compounds. Thus, described reaction occurs only on the surface of carbon and is catalyzed by it [33].
\n
Studies on this phenomenon revealed that
\n
the small pore size precludes oligomerization, thereby the presence of molecular oxygen has no significant effect on adsorption [3];
narrow pore size distribution (PSD) reduces the oligomerization of phenols to some extend while the wider PSD favors it [1];
2-methylphenol shows oligomerization under oxic condition. The oligomerization of 2-chlorophenol depends on the overall competitive effect of 2-nitrophenol and 2-methylphenol [1];
surface concentration of carboxylic groups diminishes the oxidative coupling in the whole range of coverages [62];
the lower ability of carbon to adsorb ions on the surface, the more significant differences in adsorption determined at oxic and anoxic conditions [33];
oxidative polymerization (spontaneous and/or electrochemical) of chlorophenol is responsible for a lack of anodic peak during voltammetric cyclization [5].
\n
4.3.6. Irreversible sorption of phenols
\n
Irreversible adsorption of phenols is closely related to process of chemical adsorption involving chemical reaction between adsorbates and surface functional groups of adsorbent [55]. As it was described above, the hydrogen bonding arising in the system adsorbate-active centers of adsorbent strengthens interactions and sorptive capacity, but also can cause difficulties related to irreversible sorption [18]. It can be also considered that phenol molecules or phenoxide radicals can react with active sites on a carbon surface, which leads to creation of covalent bond between them [33].
\n
Tessmer et al. investigated this problem and found that “grater structural ordering and delocalized electrons on the carbon surface may increase the basicity of the carbon but do not enhance its ability to promote irreversible adsorption. The presence of oxygen containing basic groups (chromene-type or pyrone-type) is likely the key factor promoting irreversible adsorption” [48].
\n
Other studies demonstrate that lactone surface groups are responsible for both irreversibility of phenol adsorption due to chemical reaction and decrease in the difference between adsorption in oxic and anoxic conditions [33].
\n
And another one proves that irreversible adsorption to carbon surfaces does not depend on oxidative coupling reaction, but oxidative coupling may enhance irreversible adsorption when experimental conditions are conductive (pH of solution high enough, microporosity of adsorbent) [63].
\n
The discrepancies in this matter indicate that it is a topic still open for discussion and further research.
\n
5. Conclusions and future prospects
\n
A lot of scientific research was performed in order to study and understand the process of sorption of phenolic compounds. This chapter presents the complexity of this process and shows how many different factors have influence on it. The starting point is chemical structure and overview of physical and chemical properties of phenol and its ring-substituted derivatives. This characteristic is the basis to explain the behavior of the molecules in solution and during sorption. Next, the way phenols interact with the most popular sorbents are shortly described. Finally, factors influencing the sorption process were characterized.
\n
Factors promoting the sorption:
\n
matching of the size of adsorbate molecules to the porous structure of adsorbent;
the retention process of phenolics is mainly due to reversed phase mechanism, but in case of polar sorbents, it is also supported by specific attractive interaction (dipole-dipole, donor-acceptor and ionic);
elongation of contact time of a phenols solution with an adsorbent;
salting effect;
pH. Sorption characteristic depends on electronic states of both an adsorbent surface and an adsorbate. Phenols uptake is higher for compounds in unionized form as formation of hydrogen bonds and π-π interactions are favored;
increase in temperature in case of chemisorption process.
\n
Factors hindering the sorption:
\n
- polar functional groups of the sorbent acts as adsorption centers. Their presence in larger pores can limit access to micropores (pore blocking effect) and lead to competition between the process of micropore filling and adsorption on active sites;
steric effects and size exclusion mechanism;
pore blocking caused by adsorption of large molecules or water clusters;
multicomponent effect and displacement phenomena;
shielding effect;
increase in temperature in case of physisorption process.
\n
Irreversibility of phenols adsorption can be the result of
\n
a chemical reaction between adsorbate and surface functional groups;
an oxidative coupling process in oxic conditions;
trapping molecules (especially large or branched ones) in pores of adsorbent;
the presence of electron donating substituents in phenol molecule enhances the effect of irreversible adsorption.
\n
Although so many works were devoted to studies on phenols sorption, the general mechanism of the process is still not fully understood and explained. There are some issues and unsolved problems requiring further investigations:
\n
There is still no consensus in the matter, what kind of the adsorbent functional groups has favorable and which undesirable influence on adsorption of phenols.
Process of irreversible adsorption due to oxidative coupling requires additional studies confirming the proposed in literature mechanisms.
Most of the studies concern the process of sorption of single compounds. Only a few research studies relate to multicomponent system, in which competitive adsorption take place. This aspect is particularly important from environment protection point of view. Interferents, such as ions from salts or organic contaminants of natural or anthropogenic origin, impede quantitative analysis of phenols in waste water.
Relatively little studied are processes of cyclic adsorption—desorption, reproducibility of the adsorption properties and regeneration of adsorbent, which are extremely important for utility reasons.
\n',keywords:"phenol’s properties, phenol’s sorption, phenol’s interactions, structure, adsorbents",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/53295.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/53295.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53295",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53295",totalDownloads:2352,totalViews:1574,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:14,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"June 3rd 2016",dateReviewed:"October 26th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"March 15th 2017",dateFinished:"December 3rd 2016",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Sorption of phenolic compounds is a very complex process and many factors influence it. At the beginning, detailed chemical structure of phenols is presented with its consequence for physical properties, for example, values of melting and boiling points, solubility in water, pKa and Log P. Also influence of activating and deactivating substituents on the properties is explained. On this basis, interaction with the most frequently used sorbents, for example, chemically modified silicas, polymers and porous carbons, is described. Both sorbents characteristics including physical (porosity) and chemical properties (functional groups) and experimental conditions such as concentration of solutes, contact time, temperature, solvent effects and presence or absence of oxygen are taken into account. The explanations of irreversible adsorption and oxidative coupling phenomena are included. The mechanisms of phenolic compounds sorption are described.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/53295",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/53295",book:{slug:"phenolic-compounds-natural-sources-importance-and-applications"},signatures:"Magdalena Sobiesiak",authors:[{id:"193105",title:"Dr.",name:"Magdalena",middleName:null,surname:"Sobiesiak",fullName:"Magdalena Sobiesiak",slug:"magdalena-sobiesiak",email:"magdalena.sobiesiak@umcs.pl",position:null,institution:{name:"Maria Curie-Skłodowska University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Chemical structure and properties of phenols",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. The way of interaction with sorbents",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Influence of different factors on process of phenols sorption",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1. Adsorbent properties",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"4.1.1. Physical properties of an adsorbent",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"4.1.2. Chemical properties of an adsorbent",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.2. Adsorbate properties",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"4.2.1. Size of molecule",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"4.2.2. Multicomponent effect",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"4.2.3. Initial concentration and contact time",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.3. Environmental conditions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"4.3.1. Water and other solvents",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"4.3.2. Electrolytes: ionic strength",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"4.3.3. pH",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"4.3.4. Temperature",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"4.3.5. Oxic and anoxic conditions",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"4.3.6. Irreversible sorption of phenols",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19",title:"5. 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DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2004.02.011'},{id:"B54",body:'Furuya E, Chang H, Miura Y, Noll K: A fundamental analysis of the isotherm for the adsorption of phenolic compounds on activated carbon. Sep Purif. 1997;1(96):69–78. Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1383586696010015,'},{id:"B55",body:'Grant TM, King CJ: Mechanism of Irreversible Adsorption of Phenolic Compounds by Activated Carbons. Ind Eng Chem Res. 1990;29:264–271. DOI: 10.1021/ie00098a017'},{id:"B56",body:'Khare P, Kumar A: Removal of phenol from aqueous solution using carbonized Terminalia chebula-activated carbon: process parametric optimization using conventional method and Taguchi’s experimental design, adsorption kinetic, equilibrium and thermodynamic study. Appl Water Sci 2012;2(4):317–326. 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DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.12.115'},{id:"B60",body:'Kuśmierek K, Świątkowski A: The influence of an electrolyte on the adsorption of 4-chlorophenol onto activated carbon and multi-walled carbon nanotubes. Desalin Water Treat. 2015;56:2801–2816. DOI: 10.1080/19443994.2014.965221'},{id:"B61",body:'Terzyk AP, Ćwiertnia MS, Wiśniewski M, Gauden PA., Rychlicki G, Szymański GS: Impact of the interaction with the positive charge in adsorption of benzene and other organic compounds from aqueous solutions on carbons. Appl Surf Sci. 2007;253(8):4006–4009. DOI: 10.1016/j.apsusc.2006.08.042'},{id:"B62",body:'Terzyk AP: The impact of carbon surface chemical composition on the adsorption of phenol determined at the real oxic and anoxic conditions. Appl Surf Sci. 2007;253(13):5752–5755. DOI: 10.1016/j.apsusc.2006.12.039'},{id:"B63",body:'Cesar A, Pimenta DO, Kilduff JE: Oxidative coupling and the irreversible adsorption of phenol by graphite. J Colloid Interface Sci. 2006;293:278–289. DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2005.06.075'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Magdalena Sobiesiak",address:"magdalena.sobiesiak@umcs.pl",affiliation:'
Department of Polymer Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Lublin, Poland
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Govender",authors:[{id:"195237",title:"Dr.",name:"Messai",middleName:"A.",surname:"Mamo",fullName:"Messai Mamo",slug:"messai-mamo"},{id:"196465",title:"Dr.",name:"William",middleName:"Wilson",surname:"Anku",fullName:"William Anku",slug:"william-anku"},{id:"196466",title:"Dr.",name:"Penny",middleName:null,surname:"Govender",fullName:"Penny Govender",slug:"penny-govender"}]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5609",title:"Phenolic Compounds",subtitle:"Biological Activity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"008b92507ee2f757322ec4565e631bb5",slug:"phenolic-compounds-biological-activity",bookSignature:"Marcos Soto-Hernandez, Mariana Palma-Tenango and Maria del Rosario Garcia-Mateos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5609.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"65790",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcos",surname:"Soto-Hernández",slug:"marcos-soto-hernandez",fullName:"Marcos Soto-Hernández"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"53128",title:"Phenolic Compounds: Functional Properties, Impact of Processing and Bioavailability",slug:"phenolic-compounds-functional-properties-impact-of-processing-and-bioavailability",signatures:"Igor Otavio Minatel, Cristine Vanz Borges, Maria Izabela Ferreira,\nHector Alonzo Gomez Gomez, Chung-Yen Oliver Chen and\nGiuseppina Pace Pereira Lima",authors:[{id:"146379",title:"Prof.",name:"Giuseppina",middleName:null,surname:"Lima",fullName:"Giuseppina Lima",slug:"giuseppina-lima"},{id:"194002",title:"MSc.",name:"Cristine",middleName:null,surname:"Vanz Borges",fullName:"Cristine Vanz Borges",slug:"cristine-vanz-borges"},{id:"194003",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor Otavio",middleName:null,surname:"Minatel",fullName:"Igor Otavio Minatel",slug:"igor-otavio-minatel"},{id:"194004",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Izabela",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira",fullName:"Maria Izabela Ferreira",slug:"maria-izabela-ferreira"},{id:"194005",title:"Prof.",name:"Hector",middleName:null,surname:"Gomez-Gomez",fullName:"Hector Gomez-Gomez",slug:"hector-gomez-gomez"},{id:"194006",title:"Prof.",name:"Chung-Yen Oliver",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Chung-Yen Oliver Chen",slug:"chung-yen-oliver-chen"}]},{id:"53885",title:"The Relationship Between Phenolic Compounds from Diet and Microbiota",slug:"the-relationship-between-phenolic-compounds-from-diet-and-microbiota",signatures:"Daniela Elena Popa, Cristina Manuela Drăgoi, Andreea Letiţia\nArsene, Ion Bogdan Dumitrescu, Alina Crenguţa Nicolae, Bruno Stefan Velescu and\nGeorge T.A. Burcea-Dragomiroiu",authors:[{id:"190111",title:"Dr.",name:"Andreea",middleName:null,surname:"Arsene",fullName:"Andreea Arsene",slug:"andreea-arsene"},{id:"192919",title:"Dr.",name:"CRISTINA MANUELA",middleName:null,surname:"DRĂGOI",fullName:"CRISTINA MANUELA DRĂGOI",slug:"cristina-manuela-dragoi"},{id:"193026",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Popa",fullName:"Daniela Elena Popa",slug:"daniela-elena-popa"},{id:"193027",title:"Dr.",name:"George Traian Alexandru",middleName:null,surname:"Burcea Dragomiroiu",fullName:"George Traian Alexandru Burcea Dragomiroiu",slug:"george-traian-alexandru-burcea-dragomiroiu"},{id:"193030",title:"Mrs.",name:"Alina Crenguta",middleName:null,surname:"Nicolae",fullName:"Alina Crenguta Nicolae",slug:"alina-crenguta-nicolae"},{id:"195925",title:"Mr.",name:"Ion Bogdan",middleName:null,surname:"Dumitrescu",fullName:"Ion Bogdan Dumitrescu",slug:"ion-bogdan-dumitrescu"},{id:"198528",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruno Ștefan",middleName:null,surname:"Velescu",fullName:"Bruno Ștefan Velescu",slug:"bruno-stefan-velescu"}]},{id:"53580",title:"Application of Phenolic Compounds for Food Preservation: Food Additive and Active Packaging",slug:"application-of-phenolic-compounds-for-food-preservation-food-additive-and-active-packaging",signatures:"Sara Martillanes, Javier Rocha-Pimienta, Manuel Cabrera-Bañegil,\nDaniel Martín-Vertedor and Jonathan Delgado-Adámez",authors:[{id:"193618",title:"Dr.",name:"Jonathan",middleName:null,surname:"Delgado-Adámez",fullName:"Jonathan Delgado-Adámez",slug:"jonathan-delgado-adamez"},{id:"193962",title:"Ms.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Martillanes",fullName:"Sara Martillanes",slug:"sara-martillanes"},{id:"193963",title:"Mr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Rocha-Pimienta",fullName:"Javier Rocha-Pimienta",slug:"javier-rocha-pimienta"},{id:"193964",title:"Mr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Cabrera-Bañegil",fullName:"Manuel Cabrera-Bañegil",slug:"manuel-cabrera-banegil"},{id:"193965",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Martín",fullName:"Daniel Martín",slug:"daniel-martin"}]},{id:"53658",title:"Phenolic Antioxidant Capacity: A Review of the State of the Art",slug:"phenolic-antioxidant-capacity-a-review-of-the-state-of-the-art",signatures:"Rubén San Miguel-Chávez",authors:[{id:"193235",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Ruben",middleName:null,surname:"San Miguel",fullName:"Ruben San Miguel",slug:"ruben-san-miguel"}]},{id:"53564",title:"Plant Phenolic Compounds as Immunomodulatory Agents",slug:"plant-phenolic-compounds-as-immunomodulatory-agents",signatures:"Alice Grigore",authors:[{id:"193003",title:"Dr.",name:"Alice",middleName:null,surname:"Grigore",fullName:"Alice Grigore",slug:"alice-grigore"}]},{id:"53576",title:"Inhibitory Properties of Phenolic Compounds Against Enzymes Linked with Human Diseases",slug:"inhibitory-properties-of-phenolic-compounds-against-enzymes-linked-with-human-diseases",signatures:"Sandra Gonçalves and Anabela Romano",authors:[{id:"193464",title:"Prof.",name:"Anabela",middleName:null,surname:"Romano",fullName:"Anabela Romano",slug:"anabela-romano"},{id:"193968",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Sandra Gonçalves",slug:"sandra-goncalves"}]},{id:"53840",title:"Grape Seed Nutraceuticals for Disease Prevention: Current Status and Future Prospects",slug:"grape-seed-nutraceuticals-for-disease-prevention-current-status-and-future-prospects",signatures:"Anthony Ananga, James Obuya, Joel Ochieng and Violeta Tsolova",authors:[{id:"74792",title:"Dr.",name:"Joel W.",middleName:null,surname:"Ochieng",fullName:"Joel W. 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Time is the friend of the wonderful business, the enemy of the mediocre - Alice Schroeder
\n\n
\n
1. Introduction
\n
The real task for the oil industry is how quickly it can move to take advantage of the many opportunities that “gas and renewable” technologies will bring. While oil demand slowly falls with the adoption of more renewables and gas technologies, there is a need for oil companies to have insight into new technology advancement and accordingly innovate to stay competitive and keep the fuel flowing. A great deal of activities in the oil and gas sector is focused on upstream and downstream, and not surprisingly, research and development still plays a key role in the coming years. Oil companies should be prepared to pursue new drilling and extraction technologies and to increase their research into sustainability and clean energy. I think oil sector leaders might consider a question on how their companies can develop new capabilities and in what areas?
\n
Nowadays, improved oil recovery (IOR) is one of the main strategic priority areas in petroleum industry [1]. IOR processes consist of all techniques that are employed to enhance hydrocarbon production. Oil field chemicals have many positive functions such improved oil recovery, drilling optimization, corrosion protection, prevent mud loss in different geological formations, stabilize drilling fluid in high pressure and high temperature environment, and many others [2]. Oil field chemicals demand is expected to reach USD 32.69 billion by 2023 from USD 26.06 billion in 2017 [3]. The rising demand from Asia-Pacific, shale gas, and increasing deep water drilling operations are likely to be the major driven for the oil field chemicals market.
\n
Region wise, oil field chemicals have received much attention in recent years (Figure 1) due to their contribution in oil recovery of hydrocarbons, which offer important economic benefits. Many case studies and lessons learned from the industry show that there are excellent opportunities to grow for oil field chemicals in certain fields such as drilling and cementing, enhanced oil recovery, production, workover and completion, and well stimulation. Well stimulation comprises of different types of operations performed on a well to maintain and/or improve its productivity [4].
\n
Figure 1.
Oil field chemicals by region.
\n
According to IHS Markit, 2018 [5], oil field chemicals enable the production of oil and gas or make it efficient and is projected to grow at an average annual rate of about 4% during 2017–2022. Logistics (hauling, transfer, and storage) and disposal issues are directly related to the green and continuous development in oil field chemicals. These two are contributed to approximately 85–90% of total annual spending money in petroleum industry.
\n
The wide range of oil field chemicals, including well stimulation and other additives, plays an important role in maximizing the productivity of existing (green) and mature (brown) fields. Stimulation operations can be conducted solely on the wellbore or on the reservoir; those can be performed on old wells and new wells alike; and it can be designed for remedial purposes or for enhanced production. As shown in Figure 2, the market size of the well stimulation in USA alone is about 61% of the total oil field chemicals. Increases in well stimulation activities are expected to continue; accordingly, development and innovation in stimulation chemicals will effectively shape the future of oil industry; that is one of the potentials what the oil and gas leaders may think about!
\n
Figure 2.
Oil field chemicals market.
\n
I am calling oil field chemicals as “every time ingredients” in petroleum industry; they are utilized in many ways and different stages in downstream and upstream sectors, starting from drilling, production, stimulation, and finally abandonment. So, if the oil sector leaders are thinking about innovative solutions in oil field chemicals, TIME is really their friend.
\n
\n\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/66507.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/66507.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66507",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66507",totalDownloads:693,totalViews:107,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:"March 19th 2019",datePrePublished:"April 1st 2019",datePublished:"May 15th 2019",dateFinished:"April 1st 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/66507",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/66507",signatures:"Mansoor Zoveidavianpoor",book:{id:"6829",title:"Petroleum Chemicals",subtitle:"Recent Insight",fullTitle:"Petroleum Chemicals - Recent Insight",slug:"petroleum-chemicals-recent-insight",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",bookSignature:"Mansoor Zoveidavianpoor",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6829.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83880-402-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-401-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-652-1",editors:[{id:"92105",title:"Dr.",name:"Mansoor",middleName:null,surname:"Zoveidavianpoor",slug:"mansoor-zoveidavianpoor",fullName:"Mansoor Zoveidavianpoor"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"92105",title:"Dr.",name:"Mansoor",middleName:null,surname:"Zoveidavianpoor",fullName:"Mansoor Zoveidavianpoor",slug:"mansoor-zoveidavianpoor",email:"Mansoor353@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Zoveidavianpoor M, Shadizadeh SR, Mombeini S. Evaluation and improvement of well stimulation by matrix acidizing in one of the Southern Iranian oilfields. Petroleum Research. 2010;20(62):94-106\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Fink J. Petroleum Engineer’s Guide to Oil Field Chemicals and Fluids. Waltham, MA, USA: Gulf Professional Publishing; 2015\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Freedonia Group. Oil Field Chemicals. 2015. Available from: https://www.freedoniagroup.com/industry-study/oilfield-chemicals-3352.htm\n\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Gharibi A, Zoveidavianpoor M, Daraei Ghadikolaei F. On the application of well stimulation method in improvement of oil recovery. Applied Mechanics and Materials. 2015;735:31-35. DOI: 10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.735.31\n'},{id:"B5",body:'IHS Markit. Oil Field Chemicals. 2018. Available from: https://ihsmarkit.com/products/chemical-oil-field-scup.html\n\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Mansoor Zoveidavianpoor",address:"mansoor353@yahoo.com",affiliation:'
Executive Production Technology, PETRONAS, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"6829",title:"Petroleum Chemicals",subtitle:"Recent Insight",fullTitle:"Petroleum Chemicals - Recent Insight",slug:"petroleum-chemicals-recent-insight",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",bookSignature:"Mansoor Zoveidavianpoor",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6829.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83880-402-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-401-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-652-1",editors:[{id:"92105",title:"Dr.",name:"Mansoor",middleName:null,surname:"Zoveidavianpoor",slug:"mansoor-zoveidavianpoor",fullName:"Mansoor Zoveidavianpoor"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"159126",title:"Dr.",name:"Candace",middleName:null,surname:"Kerr",email:"ckerr@som.umaryland.edu",fullName:"Candace Kerr",slug:"candace-kerr",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:null},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Epigenetic Reprogramming in Stem Cells",slug:"epigenetic-reprogramming-in-stem-cells",abstract:null,signatures:"Richard L. Eckert, Yasin Kizilyer and Candace L. Kerr",authors:[{id:"159126",title:"Dr.",name:"Candace",surname:"Kerr",fullName:"Candace Kerr",slug:"candace-kerr",email:"ckerr@som.umaryland.edu"}],book:{title:"Pluripotent Stem Cells",slug:"pluripotent-stem-cells",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"52914",title:"Prof.",name:"Thomas",surname:"Lufkin",slug:"thomas-lufkin",fullName:"Thomas Lufkin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/52914/images/3873_n.jpg",biography:"Research Interests\n\nOur research is in the novel area of Developmental Genomics and Regenerative Medicine with a focus on the molecular mechanisms controlling vertebral column development and an emphasis on early embryogenesis and embryonic stem cell commitment to specific differentiation pathways, but from a novel Systems Biology point of view. We use both mouse and zebrafish as model animals. In particular we are working on understanding the gene regulatory networks (GRNs) that govern normal embryonic development of the vertebral column and intervertebral disc (IVD). We are investigating the role of transcriptional regulators in the restriction of pluripotent embryonic stem cells into specific lineages that in turn comprise functional pre and postnatal vertebral elements with the goal of applying this knowledge to regenerative medicine using patient- specific induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells and adult mesenchymal stem cells.\n\nThe incidence of lower back pain (LBP) is extraordinarily high and is a cause for societal and fiscal concern world wide. In the USA alone, LBP’s economic impact shows that it is the number one reason for people under 45 to restrict their life style, 2nd highest complaint seen by physician’s, 3rd leading cause for surgery and the 5th most common requirement for hospitalization. The economic impact of LBP is striking, and is in excess of the costs of coronary artery disease and the total costs of stroke, respiratory infection, rheumatoid disease and diabetes combined. Direct medical costs in the USA annually exceed USD $30 billion. Most often, LBP is due to degenerative changes in the disc, spinal disc herniation, trauma and fractures. Surgeons have an arsenal of procedures for repairing the damaged disc. The most common strategies provide pain relief, but fail to prevent further disc degeneration, or completely restore disc function. Thus these surgical procedures are less than ideal, as they do not prevent further degeneration of the impaired vertebral column.\n\nOur current focus is on the Pax, Sox, Bapx and Runx GRNs in the commitment of cells to the chondro/osteoblast lineages which builds the fetal skeleton. Our goal here is to build a unified GRN for embryonic skeletal development as it pertains to the vertebral column and use this knowledge to direct iPS cells to fates of clinical significance and to provide a resource to reverse trauma and age-associated spinal degeneration. In particular the IVD. Our approach is multidisciplinary, collaborative, and technology-driven. We have been highly successful at developing novel experimental strategies that combine modern molecular genetic and transgenic approaches in mouse and zebrafish with the latest bioinformatic and genomic technologies such as comparative genomics, microarray, Ditag-Seq, ChIP-Seq, RNA-Seq and others. By applying these approaches in developing embryos, we show how relevant biological data can be generated to explain pleiotropic effects in organogenesis and finally by combining these approaches simultaneously with multiple interconnected genes, we have shown how a detailed network map can be elucidated for the developing vertebral column, reiterating the importance of building gene regulatory networks in complex processes.\n\nIn recent decades developmental biologists have been successful in determining some molecular level mechanisms controlling vertebral column development, such as the genes governing cell fate decisions, but have made comparatively little progress in other equally important areas such as patterning, morphogenesis, size control and regeneration. There is a major reason for this failure. These questions cannot be answered using the reductionist logic of one gene, one mutant, one phenotype, one function. Understanding these phenomena will require a more systems biological approach looking at multiple genes and their integrated activity in their native in vivo context using genomic approaches.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"62127",title:"Dr.",name:"Roxana",surname:"Nat",slug:"roxana-nat",fullName:"Roxana Nat",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"156149",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",surname:"Lo Nigro",slug:"antonio-lo-nigro",fullName:"Antonio Lo Nigro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KU Leuven",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Belgium"}}},{id:"156150",title:"Prof.",name:"Catherine M.",surname:"Verfaillie",slug:"catherine-m.-verfaillie",fullName:"Catherine M. 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The Open Access model is applied to all of our publications and is designed to eliminate subscriptions and pay-per-view fees. This approach ensures free, immediate access to full text versions of your research.
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 128,000 international scientists and researchers.
\\n\\n
The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your full chapter, monograph or Compacts monograph is accepted for publication.
\\n\\n
OAPF Publishing Options
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
\\n\\t
10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
\\n\\t
4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
\\n
\\n\\n
*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\\n\\n
Services included are:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
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Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
\\n\\t
Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
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English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
\\n\\t
XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
\\n\\t
Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
\\n\\t
Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
\\n\\n
If your manuscript:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Exceeds 20 pages (for chapters in Edited Volumes), an additional fee of 40 GBP per page will be required
\\n\\t
If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
\\n
\\n\\n
Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\\n\\n
Open Access Funding
\\n\\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at oapf@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\\n\\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\\n\\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
\\n\\n
Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\\n\\t
Long-term archiving
\\n\\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\\n\\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\\n\\t
Dissemination and Promotion
\\n
\\n\\n
Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
\\n\\t
+5,200 OA books published
\\n\\t
Most competitive prices in the market
\\n\\t
Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
\\n\\t
Optimized processes, enabling publication between 8 and 12 months
\\n\\t
Personal support during every step of the publication process
\\n\\t
+146,150 citations in Web of Science databases
\\n\\t
Currently strongest OA platform with over 150 million downloads
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 128,000 international scientists and researchers.
\n\n
The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your full chapter, monograph or Compacts monograph is accepted for publication.
\n\n
OAPF Publishing Options
\n\n
\n\t
1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
\n\t
10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
\n\t
4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
\n
\n\n
*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\n\n
Services included are:
\n\n
\n\t
An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
\n\t
Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
\n\t
Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
\n\t
English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
\n\t
XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
\n\t
Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
\n\t
Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
\n\n
If your manuscript:
\n\n
\n\t
Exceeds 20 pages (for chapters in Edited Volumes), an additional fee of 40 GBP per page will be required
\n\t
If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
\n
\n\n
Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\n\n
Open Access Funding
\n\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at oapf@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\n\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\n\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
\n\n
\n\t
Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\n\t
Long-term archiving
\n\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\n\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\n\t
Dissemination and Promotion
\n
\n\n
Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
\n\t
Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
\n\t
+5,200 OA books published
\n\t
Most competitive prices in the market
\n\t
Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
\n\t
Optimized processes, enabling publication between 8 and 12 months
\n\t
Personal support during every step of the publication process
\n\t
+146,150 citations in Web of Science databases
\n\t
Currently strongest OA platform with over 150 million downloads
\n
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