Objective method for image quality assessment (Shi et al.,2005)
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
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This technique used the radio links satellite-to-satellite when a satellite-receiver setting or rising behind the earth’s atmosphere is relative to a satellite - emitter of radio waves. During setting the radio ray perigee moves through the ionosphere and ionosphere. Atmospheric and ionospheric effects arise in most cases owing to influence of a zone near the radio ray perigee and cause significant variations of the amplitude, phase, and frequency of the radio waves. These variations enable determination of the altitude profiles of temperature, pressure, refractivity, density, humidity and turbulence in the atmosphere, distribution of the electron density in the ionosphere, and the wave phenomena at different altitudes with a global coverage. 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\r\n\tIn mathematics, operator theory is the study of linear operators on function spaces, beginning with differential operators and integral operators. The operators may be presented abstractly by their characteristics, such as bounded linear operators or closed operators and consideration may be given to nonlinear operators. The study, which depends heavily on the topology of function spaces, is a branch of functional analysis. If a collection of operators forms an algebra over a field, then it is an operator algebra. The description of operator algebras is part of operator theory. Single operator theory deals with the properties and classification of operators, considered one at a time. For example, the classification of normal operators in terms of their spectra falls into this category.
\r\n\r\n\tThe theory of operator algebras brings algebras of operators such as C*-algebras to the fore. Many operators that are studied are operators on Hilbert spaces of holomorphic functions, and the study of the operator is intimately linked to questions in function theory. For example, Beurling's theorem describes the invariant subspaces of the unilateral shift in terms of inner functions, which are bounded holomorphic functions on the unit disk with unimodular boundary values almost everywhere on the circle. Beurling interpreted the unilateral shift as multiplication by the independent variable on the Hardy space. The success in studying multiplication operators, and more generally Toeplitz operators (which are multiplication, followed by projection onto the Hardy space) has inspired the study of similar questions in other spaces, such as the Bergman space. Hence, operator theory has a connection with complex analysis. Additionally, this book will be intended to be an illustration of the use of operator theory when applied to solve specific problems in pure and applied mathematics, engineering, physics, or science in general.
\r\n\t
Remote Sensing systems, particularly those deployed on satellites, provide a repetitive and consistent view of the Earth (Schowengerdt, 2007). To meet the needs of different remote sensing applications the systems offer a wide range of spatial, spectral, radiometric and temporal resolutions. Satellites usually take several images from frequency bands in the visual and non-visual range. Each monochrome image is referred to as a band and a collection of several bands of the same scene acquired by a sensor is called
The color information in a remote sensing image by using spectral band combinations for a given spatial resolution increases information content which is used in many remote sensing applications. Otherwise, different targets in a single band may appear similar which makes difficult to distinguish them. Different bands can be acquired by a single multispectral sensor or by multiple sensors operating at different frequencies. Complementary information about the same scene can be available in the following cases (Simone et al., 2002):
Data recorded by different sensors;
Data recorded by the same sensor operating in different spectral bands;
Data recorded by the same sensor at different polarization;
Data recorded by the same sensor located on platforms flying at different heights.
In general, sensors with high spectral resolution, characterized by capturing the radiance from different land covers in a large number of bands of the electromagnetic spectrum, do not have an optimal spatial resolution, that may be inadequate to a specific identification task despite of its good spectral resolution (González-Audícana, 2004). On a high spatialresolution panchromatic image (PAN), detailed geometricfeatures can easily be recognized, while the multispectralimages contain richer spectral information. The capabilities of the images can be enhanced if theadvantages of both high spatial and spectral resolutioncan be integrated into one single image. The detailedfeatures of such anintegrated image thus can be easilyrecognized and will benefit many applications, such asurban and environmental studies (Shi et al., 2005).
With appropriate algorithms it is possible to combine multispectral and panchromatic bands and produce a synthetic image with their best characteristics. This process is known as multisensor merging, fusion, or sharpening (Pohl &Genderen, 1998; Zhang, 2004;, Wald 2002). It aims to integrate the spatial detail of a high-resolution panchromatic image (PAN) and the color information of a low-resolution multispectral (MS) image to produce a high-resolution MS image (hybrid product). The result of image fusion is a new image which is more suitable for human and machine perception or further image-processing tasks such as segmentation, feature extraction and object recognition.
The hybrid product should offer the highest possible spatial information content while still preserving good spectral information quality.It is known that the spatial detailed informationof PAN image is mostly carried by its high-frequency components, while the spectral information of MS image ismostly carried by its low-frequency components. If the high-frequency components of the MS image are simply substitutedby the high-frequency components of the panchromatic image, the spatial resolution is improved but with the loss of spectralinformation from the high-frequency components of MS image (Guo et al., 2010; Li et al. 2002; Zhou et al., 1998).
To produce hybrid images with good quality some aspects should be considered during the fusion process(Schowengerdt, 2007; Fonseca et al., 2008):
The PAN and MS images should be acquired at nearby dates. Several changes may occur during the interval of acquisition time: variations in the vegetation depending on the season of the year, different lighting conditions, construction of buildings, or changes caused by natural catastrophes (e.g. earthquakes, floods and volcanic eruptions);
The spectral range of PAN image should cover the spectral range of all multispectral bands involved in the fusion process to preserve the image color. This condition can avoid the color distortion in the fused image;
The spectral band of the high resolution image should be as similar as possible to that of the replaced low resolution component in the fusion process;
The high resolution image should be globally contrast matched to the replaced component to reduce residual radiometric artifacts;
The PAN and MS images must be registered with a precision of less than 0.5 pixel, avoiding artifacts in the fused image.
Some of these factors are less important when the fused images are from regions of the spectrum with different remote sensing phenomenologies. For example, there is no reason to assume radiometric correlation between the images in the fusion of low-resolution thermal or radar images with multispectral visible imagery (Schowengerdt, 2007).
The merging process becomes more difficult in those cases where the ratio between the spatial resolutions of both images is greater than 4 due to the registration and resampling processes. Lingetal. (2008) showed that a spatial resolution ratio of 1:10 or higher is desired for optimal multisensor image fusion provided the input panchromatic image is not downsampled to a coarser resolution. Due to the synthetic pixels generated from resampling, the quality of the fused image decreases as the spatial resolution ratio decreases (e.g. from 1:10 to 1:30). In cases where the spatial resolution ratio is too small (e.g. 1:30), to obtain better spectral integrity of the fused image, one may downsample the input high-resolution panchromatic image to a slightly lower resolution before fusing it with the multispectral image.
Most image processing systems such as Environment for Visualizing Images - ENVI (Research System, 2011), SPRING (SPRING, 2011; Câmara et al., 1996) and ERDAS (ERDAS, 2011) have an image fusion module. Also, some image fusion algorithms have been implemented using open software such as TerraLib, which is a Geographic Information Systems (GIS) classes and functions library available from the Internet as open source, allowing a collaborative environment and its use in the development of multiple GIS tools (TerraLib, 2011).
Based on the problems aforementioned, we present a brief review about fusion techniques and fusion evaluation methods, and also a discussion about the use of image fusion techniques in three remote sensing applications, which will be illustrated through case studies. Each case study presents results applied to real data and problems in remote sensing such as for inland water analysis, disaster and urban studies. Two of them use hybrid images generated from CBERS-2B images that are freely available on internet (INPE, 2011).
The chapter is organized in five sections: Section 2 briefly describes the most traditional fusion methods, Section 3 describes some techniques for fused image quality assessment, Section 4 presents three case studies that illustrate the application of image fusion inthe remote sensing area, finally section 5 concludes the work.
Ideally, image fusion techniques should allow combination of images with different spectral and spatial resolution keeping the radiometric information (Pohl and Genderen, 1998). Huge effort has been put in developing fusion methods that preserve the spectral information and increase detail information in the hybrid product produced by fusion process.
Methods based on IHS transform (Choi, 2006; Schetselaar, 1998; Silva et al., 2008; Tu et al., 2001a, 2001b, Tu et al., 2004; Tu et al., 2007) and Principal Components Analysis (PCA) (Chavez, 1989) probably are the most popular approaches used to enhance the spatial resolution of multispectral images with panchromatic images. However, both methods suffer from the problem that the radiometry on the spectral channels is modified after fusion. This is because the high-resolution panchromatic image usually has spectral characteristics different from both the intensity and the first principal components (Li et al., 2002). More recently, new techniques have been proposed such as those that combine wavelet transform with IHS model and PCA transform to manage the color and details information distortion in the fused image (Cao et al., 2003; González-Audícana et al., 2004; Simone et al., 2002).
Below, we present the basic theoryof the fusion methods based on IHS, PCA, arithmetic operators, and Wavelet Transform(WT), which are the most traditional techniques used in remote sensing applications.
IHS method consists on transforming the R,G and B bands of the multispectral image into IHS components, replacing the intensity component by the panchromatic image, and performing the inverse transformation to obtain a high spatial resolution multispectral image (Schowengerdt, 2007; Carper et al., 1990).
The three multispectral bands, R, Gand B, of a low resolution image are first transformed tothe IHS color space as (Carper et al., 1990):
where I, H, S components are intensity, hue and saturation, and V1and V2 are the intermediate variables. Fusion proceedsby replacingcomponent I with the panchromatic high-resolutionimage information, after matching its radiometric information with the component I (Figure 1). The fused image, which hasboth rich spectral information and high spatialresolution, is thenobtained by performing the inverse transformation fromIHS back to the original RGB space as
Although the IHS method has been widely used, themethod cannot decompose an image into differentfrequencies in frequency space such as higher or lowerfrequency. Hence the IHS method cannot be used toenhance certain image characteristics (Shi et al., 2005). Besides, the color distortion of IHS technique is often significant. To reduce the color distortion, the PAN image is matched to the intensity component before the replacement or the hue and saturation components are stretching before the reverse transform. Ling et al. (2007) also propose a method that combines a standard IHS transform with FFT filtering of both thepanchromatic image and the intensity component of the original multispectral image to reduce color distortion in the fused image.
Block scheme of the IHS fusion method.
The fusion method based on PCA is very simple (Chavez &Kwakteng, 1989; Schowengerdt, 2007; Zhang, 1999). PCA is a general statistical technique that transformsmultivariate data with correlated variables into one withuncorrelated variables. These new variables are obtainedas linear combinations of the original variables. PCAhas been widely used in image encoding, image datacompression, image enhancement and image fusion. In the fusion process, PCA method generates uncorrelated images (PC1, PC2, …,PCn, where n is the number of input multispectral bands). The first principal component (PC1) is replaced with the panchromatic band, which has higher spatial resolution than the multispectral images. Afterwards, the inverse PCA transformation is applied to obtain the image in the RGB color model as shown in Figure 2.
In PCA image fusion, dominant spatial information and weak color information is often a problem (Zhang, 2002). The first principal component, which contains maximum variance, is replaced by PAN image. Such replacement maximizes the effect of panchromatic image in the fused product.One solution could be stretching the principal component to give a spherical distribution.Besides, the PCA approach is sensitive to the choice of area to be fused. Other problem is related to the fact that the first principal component can be also significantly different from the PAN image. If the grey values of the PAN image are adjusted to the grey values similar to PC1 component before the replacement, the color distortion is significantly reduced.
Block scheme of the PCA fusion method.
In accord to Zhang (2002), different arithmetic combinations such as Brovey Transform, Synthetic Variable Ratio (SVR) and Ratio Enhancement (RE) techniques have been employed for fusing multispectral and panchromatic images (Rahman &Csaplovics, 2007).
In the Brovey method, given the multispectral
The Brovey Transform was developed to provide contrast in features such shadows, water and high reflectance areas. Consequently, the Brovey Transform should not be used if preserving the original scene radiometry is important. However, it is good to produce RGB images with a higher degree of contrast and visually appealing images (ERDAS, 2011).
Other arithmetic methods such as SVR and RE are similar and involve more computations for the simulated image (Chavez et al., 1991).
In the fusion methods based on wavelet transform (Mallat, 1989), the images are decomposed into pyramid domain, in which coefficients are selected to be fused (Garguet-Duport et al., 1996). The two source images are first decomposed using wavelet transform. Wavelet coefficients from MS approximation subband and PAN detail subbands are then combined together, and the fused image is reconstructed by performing the inverse wavelet transform (Figure 3).Since the distribution of coefficients in the detail subbands have meanzero, the fusion result does not change the radiometry ofthe original multispectral image (Li et al., 2002).The simplest method is based on the selection of the higher value coefficients, but various other methods have been proposed in the literature (Amolins et al., 2007; Chen et al., 2005; Chibani & Houacine, 2000, 2003 ; Choi et al., 2005; Garzelli & Nencini, 2005;Ioannidou& Karathanassi, 2007; Li et al., 2002; Li et al. 2005; Lillo-Saavedra et al., 2005; Pajares & de la Cruz, 2004; Shi et al., 2005; Zhou et al., 1998).
The schemes used to decompose the images are based on decimated (Mallat, 1989) and undecimated algorithms (Lang et al., 1995, González-Audicana et al., 2005). In the decimated algorithm, the signal is down-sampled after each level of transformation. In the case of a two-dimensional image, down-sampling is performed by keeping one out of every two rows and columns, making the transformed image one quarter of the original size and half the original resolution (Amolins et al., 2007). In the lower level of decomposition, four images are produced, one approximation image and three detail images. The decimated algorithm is not shift-invariant, which means that it is sensitive to shifts of the input image. The decimation process also has a negative impact on the linear continuity of spatial features that do not have a horizontal or vertical orientation. These two factors tendto introduce artifacts when the algorithm is used in applicationssuch as image fusion (Amolins et al., 2007).
On the other hand, the undecimated algorithmaddresses the issue of shift-invariance. It does so bysuppressing the down-sampling step of the decimatedalgorithm and instead up-sampling the filters by insertingzeros between the filter coefficients.The undecimated algorithm isredundant, meaning some detail information may be retainedin adjacent levels of transformation. It also requiresmore space to store the results of each level oftransformation and, although it is shift-invariant, it doesnot resolve the problem of feature orientation (González-Audícana et al., 2005; Garzelli& Nencini, 2005).
Most methods based on wavelet transform exploits the context dependency by thresholding the local correlation coefficient between the images to be merged, to avoid injection of spatial details that are not likely to occur in the high spatial image (Choi et al., 2005; Li et al., 2005; Lillo-Saavedra& Gonzalo, 2006;Song et al., 2007; Ventura et al., 2002; Yang et al., 2007). These techniques seem to reduce the color distortion problem and to keep the statistical parameters invariable.
Zhou et al. (1998) compared a fusion method based on wavelet transform with IHS, PCA and Brovey transform to merge Landsat TM and SPOT panchromatic image. They conclude thatwith the wavelet merging method it is easy to control the trade-off between the spectral information from a low spatial-high spectral resolution sensor and the spatial structure from a high spatial-low spectral resolution sensor. They also showed that simultaneous best spectral and spatial quality can only be achieved with wavelet transform methods compared with the other approaches.The main drawback consists on the selection of the coefficients to be merged.
In accord to Zhang (2002), although the color distortion is reduced in the WT fusion methods, the colors seem not being smoothly integrated into the spatial features. Besides, some researchers have reported the loss of spectral content of small objects.
Pajares & de la Cruz (2004) conclude that when the images are smooth,without abrupt intensity changes, the wavelets work appropriately,improving the results of the classical methods. This has been verified with smooth images and also with medical images, where no significant changesare present. In this case, the type of images (remote sensing,medical) is irrelevant.
Other researchers have proposed alternative methods,which presentsome improvements, especially for holding spectral information, texture information, and contour information(Chai et al., 2010; Guo et al., 2010; Jing &Cheng, 2010; Miao et al., 2011; Yang & Jiao, 2008). Miao et al. (2011) stated that detail information can be easilycaught when the images are decomposed by shearlet transform in any scale and any direction. Guo et al. (2010) proposed an approach based on Expectation Maximization (EM) and Covariance Intersection (CI) models for image fusion. The ideal MS and PAN images are estimated by EM along with the covariance matrices of the estimation error. Then, CI is applied to combine the two images
Block scheme of the WT fusion method.
and provide a consistent estimate of the high-resolution MS image. Comparing with WT and PCA methods, the proposed EM–CI method preserves more significant spectral information at the cost of slightly lower improvement on spatial quality.
Some researchers have evaluated different image fusion methods using different image quality measures (Alparone et al., 2004; Alparone et al., 2007; Amolins et al., 2007; Chavez et al., 1991; González-Audícana et al., 2005; Guo et al., 2010; Laporterie-Dejean et al., 2005;Marcelino et al., 2003; Nikolakopoulos, 2005; Wald, 2000; Wang & Bovik, 2002). Generally, the goodness of an image-fusion method can be evaluated by comparing the resulting merged image with a reference image, which is assumed to be ideal. This comparison can be based on spectral and spatial characteristics, and can be done both visually and quantitatively. Unfortunately, the reference image is not always available in practice, thus, it is necessary to simulate it or to perform a quantitative and blind evaluation of the fused images.
For assessing quality of animage after fusion, some aspects must be defined. These include, for instance, spatial and spectral resolution,quantity of information, visibility, contrast, or details of features of interest (Shi et al., 2005). Quality assessment is application dependant so that different applications may require different aspects of image quality.
Generally, imageassessment methods can be divided into two classes:qualitative (or subjective) and quantitative (or objective) methods.Qualitative methods involve visual comparison between a reference image and the fused image whereas quantitative analysis involves quality indicators that measures spectral and spatial similarity between multispectral and fused images. Some of them will be briefly described below.
This section is based on Shi et al. (2005). According to prior assessment criteria or individualexperiences, personal judgment or even grades can begiven to the quality of an image. The interpreter analyzes the tone, contrast, saturation, sharpness, and texture of the fused images. A final overall qualityjudgment can be obtained by, for example, a weightedmean based on the individual grades. This is the socalledthe meanopinion score (MOS) method (Wei et al., 1999). The qualitative method mainly includes absolute and therelative measures (Table 1).This method depends on the specialist’s experiencesor bias and some uncertainty is involved.Qualitative measures cannot be represented byrigorous mathematical models, and their techniqueis mainly visual (Shi at al., 2005).
Grade | Absolute measure | Relative measure |
1 | Excellent | The best in group |
2 | Good | Better than the average level in group |
3 | Fair | Average level in group |
4 | Poor | Lower than the average level |
5 | Very poor | The lowest in the group |
Objective method for image quality assessment (Shi et al.,2005)
Some quality indicators include (a) average grey value, for representing intensity of an image, (b) standard deviation, information entropy, profile intensity curve for assessing details of fused images, and (c) bias and correlation coefficient for measuring distortion between the original image and fused image in terms of spectral information.
LetCorrelation Coefficient (
Difference between the means of the reference and the merged images (
Standard deviation of the difference image (
Universal Image Quality Indicator -UIQI (Wang & Bovik, 2002):
where
To estimate the global spectral quality of the merged image, one can use the following parameters:
The relative average spectral error index (RASE) characterizes the average performance of the method for all bands:
Relative global dimensional synthesis error (ERGAS) (Wald, 2000):
where h and l are the resolution of the high and low spatial resolution images, respectively, and
A good fusion method must allow the addition of a high degree of the spatial detail of the PAN image into the MS image. Visually the details information can be observed. However, the spatial quality of the merged images can be measured using the procedure proposed by Zhou et al. (1998):
The PAN and merged images are filtered using the Laplacian Filter
Calculate the correlation between the filtered merged image and the filtered PAN image. The high correlation value indicates that the spatial information of the PAN image has been injected into the MS image in the fusion process.
Guo et al. (2010) use the average gradient index (AG) for spatial quality evaluation. AG describes the changing feature of image texture and the detailed information. Larger values of the AG index correspond to higher spatial resolution. The AG index of the fused images at each band can be computed by
where K and L are the number of lines and columns of the fused image F.
Other methods for assessing fusion quality have been proposed (Liu et al., 2008; Chen and Varshney, 2007;Zheng & Chin; 2009; Zheng et al., 2008; Chen & Blum, 2009; Wang et al., 2008). Liu et al. (2008) proposed two metrics based on a modified structural similarity measure (FSSIM)scheme and the local cross-correlation between the feature maps of the fused and input images. A similarity map with the fused image is generated for each input image. Then, the larger value at each location is retained for overall assessment. The second metric is implemented by computing the local cross-correlation between the phase congruency maps of the fused and input images. The index value is obtained by averaging the similarity or cross-correlation value in each predefined region. These metrics provide an objective quality measure in the absence of a reference image.
Chen & Varshney (2007) proposed a new quality metric for image fusion that does not require a reference image.It isbased on local information given by a set of localized windows and by the difference in the frequency domain filtered by a contrast sensitivity function.Thecalculationisvery simple and it is also applicable to different input modalities. The proposed metricis used to evaluate different fusion algorithms based on wavelet, averaging and Laplacian pyramid. The fusion performance is tested against several circumstances including: absence of noise, different window sizes, presence of additive Gaussian noise and for six sets of test images. In all tests, the fusion method based on wavelet transform outperformed the others.
Zheng & Chin (2009) have developed a structural similarity quality metric for image fusion which treats complementary and redundant regions in the original images. This objective quality evaluation also takes into account the amount of important information in the source images that can be transferred into the fused image. Comparisons with other standard objective quality metrics show that the proposed metric correlates well with subjective quality evaluation of the fused images, especially for input images where the complementary information and the redundant information can be well distinguished.They evaluate four image fusion methods based on arithmetic, PCA, andmulti-resolution (MR) techniques using standard objective metrics. The results show that the current structural similarity quality metric agrees with the subjective evaluation and three of the other standard structural metrics.
Chen & Blum (2009) propose a new perceptual image fusion quality assessment method motivated by human vision modeling. Generally, it is not possible to obtain an ideal image to be taken as a reference for fusion evaluation. Therefore, they measure the information present in the input images,which is transferred to the fused image to improve the fused image quality. For this, they filter the input images using a specified contrast sensitivity function; compute the local contrast; calculate the contrast preservation; generate a saliency map; and calculate the global quality measure.
Zhang (2008) has evaluated seven fusion quality metrics and the results showed that there was inconsistency between visual and quantitative image fusion quality analysis. Alparone et al. (2004) have got similar results. This inconsistency has proven that not all metrics produce reliable measurements for image fusion evaluation.
The availability of high spectral and spatial resolution images is desirable when undertaking identification studies in areas with complex morphological structure such as urban areas, heterogeneous forested areas or agricultural areas with a high degree of plot subsivision (González-Audicana et al., 2004). When this kind of images is not available one can produce images with higher spatial resolution using image fusion techniques.
Therefore, in this section we present three case studies in remote sensing applications to illustrate the use of fusion techniques for monitoring remaining forest, identifying landslide scars, and classifying intra-urban land cover. The first two applications use images acquired from CBERS-2B (CBERS, 2011) that are freely distributed on internet (INPE, 2011).
An application that is still underused by the remote sensing community is the monitoring of remaining forest, which has an important role in ecological balance. However, traditional images of low and medium spatial resolution are not adequate for mapping forest fragments which occur along drainage channels and their boundaries.
Within this context, this study aims to evaluate a hybrid CBERS-2B image to map the remaining forestvegetation at Ibitinga, Brazil. This scene presents phytoplankton blooms on water areas and land use changes due to sugar cane plantation. CBERS-2B, launched in September 2007, has a high resolution panchromatic camera (HRC - High Resolution Camera), with spatial resolution of 2.7 m, a multispectral camera (CCD) with 20 meter spatial resolution, and a Wide Field Imager (WFI), with 260 m spatial resolution (CBERS, 2011).
To identify forest fragments we generate a hybrid product of 2.5 m spatial resolution from CCD and HRC images, acquiredon08/22/2008. The input images are shown inFigure 4. To evaluate the results from fused CBERS-2B images we used the Quickbird (QB) image of 09/01/2008, resampled to 2.5 m of spatial resolution. Table 2 presents the characteristics of HRC, CCD and QB sensors.
The CBERS-2B images are pre-processed using restoration(Fonseca et al., 1993), noise filtering and orthorectification procedures. Afterwards, the images are fused and classified for mapping the remaining forest in the Ibitinga Resevoir. Figure 5 illustrates the hybrid CBERS-2B and QB images for purpose of comparison.
Characteristics | HRC-CBERS 2B | CCD – CBERS 2B | Quickbird |
Multispectral bands (µm) | 0.50 - 0,80 (Pan) | 0.51 - 0.73 (Pan) 0.45 - 0.52 (Blue) 0.52 - 0.59 (Green) 0.63 - 0.69 (Red) 0.77 - 0.89 (IR) | 0.45 – 0.90 (Pan) 0.45 – 0.52 (Blue) 0.52 – 0.60 (Green) 0.63 – 0.69(Red) 0.76 – 0.90 (IR) |
Spatial Resolution | 2.7 x 2.7 m | 20 x 20 m | 0.61 m (nadir) 2.44 m (nadir) |
Swath width | 27 km (nadir) | 113 km (nadir) | 16.5 km (nadir) 20.8 km (off- nadir) |
Quantization | 8 bits | 8 bits | 11 bits |
Data characteristics.
CBERS-2B images: (a) filtered CCD image to reduce striping effects; (b) high resolution HRC image.
The hybrid product CBERS-2B and QB image are classified using maximum-likelihood method (SPRING, 2011).A total of 67 samples were selected: 33 for "Forest ", 12 for "bare soil", 11 for "vegetation 1" and 11 samples for "vegetation 2". Theses classes were grouped to produce only two classes of interest ("forest" and "non-forest"), and the water body area was excluded in the thematic maps. In the thematic maps (Figure 6), green and beige colors represent forest and non-forest areas, respectively.
Image Quickbird (a) and hybrid image producedby merging CBERS-2B CCD and HRCimages (b), with 2.5 m spatial resolution.
Table 3 shows the overall accuracy and Kappa values for both classifications. The visual and quantitative analysis show that the results are quite similar. However, we observed that in some regions, the forest area was underestimated in the map produced by CBERS-2B product. The classification results differ mainly in the linear features and in the targets contours. Besides, the map obtained from the QB image shows isolated spots, particularly in areas of “high vegetation” (Figure 6a), not present in the map produced by CBERS-2B (Figure 6b).
Thematic maps | Overall accuracy | Kappa value |
Hybrid CBERS-2B | 0.93 | 0.83 |
QB | 0.93 | 0.84 |
Thematic map assessement.
Finally, the evaluation of hybrid products CBERS-2B for mapping of fragments of tree patches indicated that CBERS-2B images, after pre-processing and fusion processes, have potential for those applications in which QB images have been used.
Thematic maps produced for (a) QBimage,and (b)CBERS-2B hybrid image. Forest and non-forest are represented by green and beige colours, respectively.
Landslide is a fast mass movement responsible for the shape of montainous landscapes. These mass movements include a wide range of ground movement, such as rock falls, deep slopes and shallow debris flows. Although the action of gravity is the primary reason for the occurrence of this fenomenon, there are other contributing factors to start landslides such as lithology and structure, slope gradient and slope morphology, slope aspect, land-use type, etc (Dai & Lee, 2002).
The landslide mapping consists on the identification of erosion scars (loss of vegetation cover and soil horizons) on hillslope, using aerial photographies and and satellite images (Temesgen et al., 2001; Marcelino et al., 2003). Remote Sensing is a fundamental tool to detect, classify and monitor landslides because it allows one to obtain historical data series at a relatively low cost. Besides, various image processing techniques can be used to enhance the features and, thus, their identification is facilitated.
Considering this fact, we analyze two fusion methods for improving the interpretability of the CBERS-2B images to identify the scars of a landslide occurred in January, 2010, after heavy rains, which killed more than 20 people (BBC, 2010). The region covers an area of the Ilha Grande Island, Brazil (Figure 7). Hybrid images produced by image fusion techniques can be used to measure the extent of the landslide scar automatically or by a human interpreter.
The CCD and HRC images used in the methodology wereacquired on February 21, 2010. The original CCD (RGB color composition: band 3 in red, band 4 in green and band 2 in blue) and HRC images are presented in Figure 8. We can observe the island Ilha Grande in the center of the image marked with a rectangle.The CCD images cover an area between longitude 44 38´ west and longitude 43 47´ west, and latitude 22 42´ south and latitude 23 50´ south; HRC image covers an area between longitude 44 15´ west and longitude 44 2´ west, and latitude 22 57´ south and latitude 23 14´ south.
Landslide in Ilha Grande Brazil (BBC, 2010).
As the spatial resolution difference between CCD and HRC is large, firstly, we resample the CCD images to 10 meter spatial resolution by applying the restoration procedure (Fonseca et al., 1993). The restoration filter takes into account thespatial response of each sensor to resample and restore the image in a single processing step. Afterwards, the restored image (10 meter resolution) was resampled to 2.5 meters by a bilinear interpolation in order to match the pixel size of the HRC image.
CBERS-2B images acquired on February 21, 2010: (a) Color composition of CBERS-2B CCD images (b) HRC image.
The resampled CCD images and the HRC images were registered using control points and affine geometric transformation. Figure 9 presents a portion of the registered images, with the HRC image in gray levels and a strip of the corresponding region on the resampled CCD image, in order to demonstrate the quality of the registration procedure.
CBERS-2B image registration: strip of CCD color image (R4G3B2) superimposed on HRC image.
Next, the registered CBERS-2B images were merged using IHS and PCA methods. A small portion around the landslide area of each original image and fused imagewas used in the fusion evaluation procedure. The original and fused images are displayed inFigure 10, with the landslide area shown on the right side images.
To evaluate the detail information injected into the hybrid image, we calculated the correlation between the original PAN image and the luminance component of the fused images. The fused images were converted from RGB to YIQ color space, where the Y luminance is calculated by the linear combination of the red, green, and blue components (Foley et al., 1993). Figure 11 shows the HRC and luminance images of the fused images.
The correlation values obtained for IHS and PCA fusion methods were 0.9982 and 0.9167, respectively. This indicates that fused image produced by IHS method is more similar to the PAN image in respect to the detail information. By visual analysis (Figure 11), we observe that the appearance of the luminance IHS image is quite similar to the PAN image.
To quantitatively evaluate the fusion results the UIQI metric (Wang & Bovik, 2002) was calculated for each band and their values are presented in Table 4. The values indicate that mean UIQI is almost the same for both methods PCA and IHS. Band 2 showed better result for PCA while UIQI values for Band 3 and Band 4 were higher for IHS than for PCA. Despite of these results, visually we observed significant color distortion in the landslide scar area in the IHS hybrid image. This indicates that PCA hybrid image is more adequate for analyzing the landslide in this case.
Fused images: (a) original CCD image after restoration and resampling to 2.5 meter pixel size; (b)IHS fusion, and (c)PCA fusion.
UIQI | Mean UIQI | |||
Fusion | Band 2 | Band 3 | Band 4 | |
HSL | 0.59 | 0.89 | 0.85 | 0.77 |
PCA | 0.77 | 0.84 | 0.80 | 0.78 |
UIQI index obtained for the fused images.
HRC (a) and luminance images obtained fromIHS (b) andPCA (c)fused images.
Intra-urban land cover classification of high spatial resolution images provides a useful set of information for urban management and planning (Meinel et al., 2001). With this type of data, it is possible to generate information for many applications, such as analysis of urban micro-climate and urban greening maps amongst others. The usage of automatic methods to classify high spatial resolution images faces the challenge of processing images with wide intra- and inter-classes spectral variability.
This section presents a case study for intra-urban land cover classification of Quickbird imagery for the city of São José dos Campos – SP, southeast of Brazil, which is based on researches of Almeida et al. (2007) and Pinho et al. (2008). The total and urban areas of the São José dos Campos municipality cover about 1,099.60 and 298.99 square kilometers, respectively. The selected region is in the southern part of the urban area and contains a great variety of intra-urbanland cover classes.
The QB images (Ortho-ready Standard 2A) used in this experiment consist of: a panchromatic image (0.6 m) and a multispectral image (2.4 m) with 4 bands (blue, green, red, and infrared) (Table 2). The images acquired on May 17, 2004 have an off-nadir incidence angle of 7.0o and a radiometric resolution of 11 bits. Figure 12 shows the panchromatic and multispectral images.
The hybrid images are segmented before the classification process. The segmentation approach selected is based on region growing and a multi-resolution procedure, in which the similarity measure depends on scale since segmentation parameters are weighted by the objects size (Baatz, 2000). The user defined four segmentation parameters: scale, weight for each spectral band, weight for color and shape, and weight for smoothness and compactness. Figure 13 shows segmentation results for three different scales of processing.
The fusion method used here is based on PCA since it has shown good results in urban analysis with high resolution images (Novack et al., 2008). The processing resulted in four images with spectral information similar to those of the original bands (blue, green, red and infrared) and spatial resolution equal to that of the panchromatic image (0.6 m). Figure 14 shows a small region of the panchromatic, multispectral, and fused images.
The classification phase was carried out using the decision tree method. The following attributes were selected in the training phase: brightness, hue channel mean, means of bands, belonging to super-object Block, maximum value in band 1, NDVI (Vegetation Index), ratio between bands 3 and 1, ratio between band 2 and the mean of all others, and difference mean for band 1. Figure 15 shows the original multispectral image and the resultant classification.
Quickbird satellite scene acquired on 05/17/2004: (a) panchromatic image (0.6 m), and (b) multispectral image (2.4 m), (band 3 in red, band 2 in green and band 1 in blue).
Segmentation results for three different scales of processing.
A small region of the (a) panchromatic image (0.6 m), (b) multispectral image (2.4 m), and (c) fused image (0.6 m).
Intra-urban classification: (a) original color image, and (b) thematic map.
The visual analysis of the classification indicates confusion between Ceramic Roof and Bare Soil classes while other classes are fairly well separated. Figure 16 illustrates the confusion between these classes in a small region.Quantitative classification accuracy assessment using error matrix indicates a good classification with Kappa value of 0.57. A conditional producer Kappa indicates lower values for Ceramic Roof and Bare Soil classes as expected from the visual analysis.
Portion of the (a) true color image, and (b) thematic map showing the confusion between Ceramic Roof and Bare Soil classes.
Due to the advances in satellite technology, a great amount of image data has been available and has been widely used in different remote sensing applications. Thus, image data fusion has become a valuable tool in remote sensing to integrate the best characteristics of each sensor data involved in the processing.
To provide guidelines about the use of fusion techniques, we presented a brief review about fusion image techniques and fusion assessment methods that is illustrated with three case studies in remote sensing applications. Since there are a lot of fusion methods proposed in the literature only a few examples, mainly those applied for merging satellites images, were discussed in this work.
Indeed, there is not a unique method that is adequate for every data and application. The fusion quality often depends upon the user’s experience, the fusion method, and upon the data set being fused. The objective of a fusion process is to generate a hybrid imagewith the highest possible spatial information content while still preserving good spectral information quality. Unfortunately, this task is not easy. One solution proposed in the literature is to combine different fusion methods in a single framework.
Despite the great number of fusion possibilities the most traditional methods such as PCA and IHS are still very used in remote sensing applications. This can be explained by the fact that most image processing systems have them implemented, and in many applications they have provided good results. Therefore, even if you have many fusion options it may be worth to test and evaluate some of them for the application of interest. Besides, the assistance of an interpreter in the fusion process is fundamental to guarantee the good quality of the final product
The authors would like to thank Imagem Soluções Inteligência Geográfica (www.img.com.br) for providing Quickbird images, and INPE for supporting our work.
If organs with high regenerative capacity undergo chronic injury and inflammation, their healing often occurs abnormally - due to replacement of the damaged elements with connective tissue. The most striking example of such distorted regeneration is the development of liver fibrosis and cirrhosis on the background of its chronic damage. Fibrosis is an “exceeding” healing accompanied with the formation of an excessive amount of connective tissue incorporated into liver parenchyma due to extracellular matrix (ECM) overproduction and/or its incomplete degradation.
The main etiological factors of liver fibrosis and cirrhosis are alcohol, storage diseases, hepatitis viruses, hepatotoxic drugs, cholestasis, and autoimmune reactions. The trigger of fibrogenesis is chronic injury accompanied by an inflammatory component, which causes the activation and expansion of mesenchymal cells (including fibroblasts, myofibroblasts, smooth muscle cells) and increased synthesis of ECM molecules, predominantly collagen. Cells involved into the inflammation actively produce soluble factors like pro-inflammatory cytokines, endothelins, growth factors, reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, which also promote fibrogenesis [1, 2]. The final stage of organ’s fibrosis is cirrhosis - the irreversible replacement of a significant part of that by connective tissue, which leads to the organ’s failure. The main cells which “trigger” liver fibrosis are hepatic stellate cells (HSC). Under liver injury and if being stimulated with cytokines produced by inflammatory cells, Kupffer cells and hepatocytes, HSCs are activated and transformed into myofibroblasts. The latters are able to migrate to the damaged area and produce a reduced number of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and an increased number of their tissue inhibitors (TIMPs) and ECM proteins, causing the growth of connective tissue in liver and accumulation of fibrillar matrix into Disse spaces. Thick bundles of newly synthesized collagen fibers in the Disse spaces between hepatocytes are surrounded by fibroblasts, macrophages, HSCs, lymphocytes, polymorphonuclear leukocytes, eosinophils and plasmatic cells. These cells produce ROS, inflammatory mediators and growth factors, thus maintaining liver inflammation and promoting substantial disorders followed by cirrhosis development [3].
Cirrhosis is the endpoint of many liver diseases and causes the development of serious complications with possible fatal outcome. Those include: liver failure, gastrointestinal bleeding, portal hypertension, i.e. increased pressure in the portal vein, and hepatic coma. Thus, mortality from liver cirrhosis within 1 year after diagnosis varies from 1 to 57%, depending on the stage [4] and reaches more than 1.2 million deaths annually [5].
Growth factor receptors are tightly involved in the pathogenesis of chronic inflammation due to their signaling close relationship with the major proinflammatory pathways. Those include, in particular, nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB), p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Protein kinase B (PI3K/Akt), Janus kinase/signal transducer and activator of transcription (Jak/STAT) signaling pathways, which are activated not only by proinflammatory cytokines, but also by individual growth factors, such as transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ), TGFα, hepatocytes growth factor (HGF), epidermal growth factor (EGF), insulin-like growth factor (IGF) [6, 7, 8, 9], associated with the “start” of regenerative processes.
The main proinflammatory pathways are also profibrogenic ones. Thus, NF-κB signaling provides not only survival and inflammatory reaction of Kupffer cells, but also survival, inflammatory response and activation of HSCs. Constitutive activity of this pathway in HSCs and/or hepatic myofibroblasts stimulates fibrous degeneration of the liver due to direct profibrogenic and antiapoptotic effects and by stimulating the secretion of cytokines - macrophage attractants [10]. Another proinflammatory pathway, STAT3, is involved in the control of MMPs and TIMPs transcription, TGF-β1 and ECM molecules synthesis and secretion, myofibroblasts proliferation and resistance to apoptosis, thus enhancing tissue regeneration. Activation of this pathway is observed in many tissues due to their fibrosis [11]. The PI3K/Akt pathway, in addition to its significant role in apoptosis inhibition and cell proliferation and survival, may promote epithelial-mesenchymal transition, thus contributing to fibrogenesis [12] (Figure 1). Furthermore, this pathway could be activated by EGF receptor (EGFR), the ligands of which are ones of the main profibrogenic growth factors [13]. P38 MAPK pathway is the one, the effects of the main profibrogenic cytokine TGF-β1 are realized through [14].
The role of growth factor receptors in liver fibrogenesis.
Macrophages and neutrophils, the first responders on damage and inducers of acute inflammation, also produce cytokines and chemokines, which serve as mitogens and chemoattractants for endothelial, epithelial and mesenchymal cells (myofibroblasts, HSCs) migrating to the cites of injury. With the chronicity of the inflammatory process, these cells are activated and secrete profibrogenic cytokines and growth factors such as TGF-β1, interleukin 13 (IL-13) and platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), which further activate macrophages and fibroblasts and promote proliferation of those in addition to epithelial cells. Wound/injury healing also includes ECM synthesis and remodeling. Under chronic inflammation, this process is violated: the synthesis of ECM molecules prevails on their cleavage, leading to accumulation of those, which called fibrosis [15].
Impaired activity of protein kinases, in particular growth factor receptors such as EGFR, vaso-endothelial growth factor receptor (VEGFR), PDGF receptor (PDGFR), fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR), play a significant role in development of numerous non-malignant liver diseases, including diseases associated with its fibrous degeneration [16]. Thus, PDGF is the most important cytokine responsible for the proliferation of HSCs; PDGF, VEGF and FGF2 induce their migration, TGF-β causes HSCs transformation to myofibroblasts, stimulates synthesis of ECM by those and inhibits its degradation. Inhibition of these growth factors receptors downregulates mentioned processes [17]. Furthermore, an excessive proliferation of cholangiocytes which express numerous cytokines, chemokines and growth factors is one of the main mechanisms of fibrogenesis. The proliferating cholangiocytes also involve myofibroblasts, fibroblasts and immune cells in this process [18, 19]. Therefore, activation of biliary proliferation (called ductular reaction) contributes a lot in the initiation and progression of liver fibrosis.
There is no specific remedy for the liver fibrosis to date. Some compounds having therapeutic activity against liver fibrosis are undergoing preclinical and I-II phases of clinical trials. They include: (1) the monoclonal antibodies and low molecule inhibitors of key signaling pathways involved in the regulation of inflammation, HSCs life cycle and collagen metabolism [20]; (2) the broad-spectrum agents exhibiting antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, antilipotoxic activities such as ursolic, ursodeoxycholic and 24-norursodeoxycholic acids, resveratrol, silymarin [3]. However, the last agents are rather supplements, the positive effect of which is observed only in combination with other therapeutics.
Cytostatics like methotrexate and azathioprine are actively used for the treatment of diseases accompanied by fibrosis. However, due to the nonspecificity of action, they cause the development of numerous side effects. Therefore, the idea of using selective inhibitors of excessive cell proliferation can be fruitful. Impaired activity of tyrosine kinases, in particular growth factor receptors EGFR, VEGFR, PDGFR, TGFβR, and FGFR, contributes significantly to liver diseases associated with its fibrous degeneration [16]. Therefore, these receptors may be potential targets for antifibrotic therapy [21]. Among approved and experimental therapeutics tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) possess the leading position.
VEGF is a key regulator of liver cells proliferation. An increased expression of this growth factor and its receptors by the biliary cells was noted under liver biliary pathologies, in particular polycystic liver disease and primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) [22]. PBC patients also demonstrated over-expression of the angiogenic factors Ang-1, Ang-2 and tyrosine kinase with immunoglobulin-like and EGF-like domains 2 (TIE2) their effects are realized by, in the epitheliocytes and periportal hepatocytes [23], suggesting, therefore, their contribution in fibrosis development. VEGF has been shown to stimulate also proliferation of sinusoidal endothelial cells and activated HSCs
Drug | Target(s) | Cellular effects | Model/Patients | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Panitumumab | EGFR | Inhibition of bile duct mucosa excessive proliferation and accumulation of collagen fibers | chronic proliferative cholangitis | Liu et al. 2019 [35] |
Erlotinib | EGFR | Reduce the number of activated HSCs | DEN-, BDL- induced rats, CCl4-induced mice | Fuchs et al. 2014 [36] |
Vatalanib | VEGFR | Inhibition of α-SMA, collagen I and TGF-β1 expression | CCl4-induced mice | Kong et al. 2017 [26] |
Imatinib | PDGFR | Induce of HSC apoptosis, decrease HSC migration | CCl4-, TAA-induced mice | Kim et al. 2012 [37] |
Sunitinib | VEGFR, PDGFR, c-Kit | Decrease of vascular density, inflammatory infiltrate, α-SMA and collagen expression | CCl4-induced rats | Tugues et al. 2007 [25] |
Sorafenib | Raf, VEGFR2/3, PDGFR-β | Stimulation of HSCs autophagy and apoptosis, inhibition of HSCs proliferation and collagen deposition | High fat diet-, BDL-, DEN-induced mice | Wang et al. 2010 [38] |
Pazopanib | VEGFR1, PDGFR-β, FGFR | Induce of HSCs apoptosis, inhibition of HSCs activation, α-SMA, MMP-2, TIMP-1 expression | CCl4-induced mice | Elshal et al. 2015 [39] |
Nilotinib | BCR-ABL, PDGFR, TGFβRII | Depression of HSCs activation, proliferation, migration, α-SMA formation, induce of HSCs apoptosis, reduce collagen deposition in activated HSCs and in liver tissues | CCl4- and BDL-induced rats | Liu et al. 2011 [40] |
Nintedanib | PDGFR, VEGFR, FGFR | Depression of HSCs activation, contractility, migration, collagen deposition, inhibition of macrophage migration | CCl4-induced mice | Acora et al. 2017 [41] |
Regorafenib | VEGFR1–3, PDGFR-β and FGFR, TIE2 | Reduce portal hypertension, NO effects on HSCs activation and fibrosis progression or regression | BDL-, CCl4-induced mice | Uschner et al. 2018 [42] |
Brivanib | VEGFR, FGFR | Decrease of HSCs proliferation | BDL-, CCl4-, TAA-induced mice | Nakamura et al. 2014 [17] |
TKIs which demonstrated antifibrotic effects, their molecular targets and cellular effects.
The EGFR signaling plays an important role in proliferation of liver progenitor cells and their differentiation into hepatocytes or cholangiocytes during the hepatic regeneration. In liver samples of primary sclerosing cholangitic (PSC) patients, the upregulation of EGFR compared to that of healthy individuals was revealed. EGFR is also required for the induction of active pro-inflammatory response by the cholangiocytes [28]. Indeed, the panitumumab, anti-EGFR antibody, inhibited an excessive proliferation of the bile duct mucosa and accumulation of collagen fibers in chronic proliferative cholangitis [29]. In addition, anti-EGFR antibodies applied at bile duct ligation (BDL) model inhibited biliary epithelium hyperplasia and fibrosis. EGFR inhibitor erlotinib inhibited proliferation of the cholangiocytes and hepatocytes, and prevented activation of HSCs, which was demonstrated on different (CCl4-, diethylnitrosamine (DEN)- and BDL-induced) rat models [30]. EGFR inhibition also significantly reduced viability and ECM production in activated HSCs, inhibited their proliferation and α-SMA production, but did not affect parenchymal cells [31, 32]. Moreover, inhibition of EGFR signaling by erlotinib and other specific inhibitors effectively prevented the progression of cirrhosis and regressed fibrosis in some animals [33, 34] (Table 1).
FGF family includes 7 subfamilies of growth factors (1, 4, 8, 9, 10, 11, 19) and four isoforms of their receptors (FGFR1, FGFR2, FGFR3, FGFR4), and all of them are involved in liver injury and regeneration. There is coordinated regulation of FGFR activation and FGFs secretion during liver injury and subsequent healing: hepatocyte-derived FGFs activate FGFRs on HSCs, and FGFs produced by HSCs activate FGFRs on hepatocytes [38]. FGF signaling during liver damage enhances liver regeneration, however, its chronic production can also lead to the abnormal regeneration with subsequent fibrosis development.
FGF2, a main FGFR1 binding partner, is a mitogen for HSCs. FGFR1 overexpression has been reported in human liver myofibroblasts and activated HSCs compared to the non-activated ones [37]. Then, FGF2 also induces chemotaxis and chemoinvasion by HSCs and may participate in the recruitment and activation of HSCs in acute liver injury. Thus, Yu et al. demonstrated, that chronic hepatic fibrosis is markedly reduced in FGF1/FGF2-deficient mice. However, the absence of FGF1 and FGF2 did not impair the total number of HSCs and their migration into the areas of injury, but overproduction of matrix components, especially collagen α1(I), by those, and therefore excessive fibrous tissue accumulation. The probable explanation is that FGF1 and FGF2 are not essential activating ligands for proliferation and migration of activated HSCs
Furthermore, blockade of FGFR1 by small molecule inhibitors prevents HSCs activation (as evidenced by diminishing of α-SMA expression by those), inhibits their proliferation and release of the inflammatory cytokines by those both
The ability of FGFs to regulate HSCs proliferation, migration, and transdifferentiation makes FGFR signaling an attractive target for the treatment of hepatic fibrosis. Therapeutic agents which are developing now aim to inhibit FGFRs, to modulate FGF expression, are recombinant FGF proteins, therefore achieving to inhibit EGFR signaling in all levels [37].
PDGF is the most prominent cytokine that regulates HSCs activation, proliferation and migration. Primary producers of PDGF are platelets, vascular endothelial cells, pericytes and Kupffer cells. PDGFR, tyrosine kinase receptor, is primarily located in vascular endothelial cells, fibroblasts and Kupffer cells. Under the liver injury macrophages, injured endothelial cells and activated HSCs synthesize and secrete PDGF which stimulates proliferation of fibroblasts and vascular endothelial cells via autocrine and paracrine mechanisms. Additionally, PDGF promotes HSCs transformation into myofibroblasts and collagen production by those. Marked upregulation of PDGFR expression on the membranes of activated HSCs have been shown under various chronic liver diseases associated with its fibrosis. Hence, PDGFR overexpression contributes to HSCs activation by synthesized PDGF via the autocrine mechanism and enhances cellular chemotaxis [46]. Additionally, clinical studies demonstrated an excessive activation of PDGF and its downstream molecules, and association of those with the extent of fibrosis in patients with hepatic damage.
There are four PDGF subunits (A, B, C and D) and 2 types of PDGFRs (α and β), and all of them are involved in different stages of hepatic fibrogenesis. Thus, PDGF-B is elevated during the early stage of the disease and is the most potent factor associated with HSCs activation, whereas PDGF-C and -D levels continuously rise during the whole process of HSCs transformation into myofibroblasts and demonstrate relatively high level at the late stage of hepatic fibrosis. Then, quiescent HSCs express PDGFR-α only, and activated ones – predominantly PDGFR-β. The latter is substantially upregulated, and together with PDGF-B and -D serves important role in hepatic fibrosis [46].
Activated PDGFR induces many signaling pathways, which regulate cell proliferation, migration and survival. In particular, activated Ras system through MAPK signaling cascade regulates the expression of collagen type I, MMPs, TIMPs genes responsible for ECM synthesis and degradation; phospholipase Cγ (PLCγ) signaling contributes to HSCs mitosis; PDGFR-activated PI3K/Akt and JAK/STAT pathways promote cell migration, mediate metabolic regulation, stimulate cell growth and inhibit cellular apoptosis.
Blocking of PDGF signaling has been suggested to inhibit HSCs proliferation and to ameliorate liver fibrogenesis, so the strategies aimed to regulate that have been explored in preclinical and clinical investigations. Application of PDGF isoform antagonists, blocking of PDGFR activation and its downstream pathway regulation are considered as those ones. Thus, sorafenib (a first-line oral chemotherapy drug towards advanced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC)) is a multikinase inhibitor that targets Raf, VEGFR2/3, and PDGFR-β and has been demonstrated to be a potent antifibrotic agent. The mechanisms of its antifibrotic action were revealed on mice models (high fat diet-, BDL- and DEN- induced ones) and include HSCs autophagy and apoptosis induction (through activation of Akt/mTOR and MAPK signaling pathways), suppression of neovascularization and oxidative stress (through PDGF, STAT3 and mitochondrial respiration downregulation), and inhibition of collagen deposition [47]. Imatinib, another selective TKI, which specifically targets PDGFR, attenuates liver fibrosis and additionally inhibits PDGFR-β expression and decreases the levels of proinflammatory cytokines. The ability of imatinib to induce HSCs apoptosis and substantially decrease their migration could contribute a lot to antifibrotic activity of that and was proven
The great potency of PDGFR inhibitors was demonstrated on numerous animal and
TGF-β is a cytokine which plays a prominent role in transformation of HSCs to myofibroblasts. Indeed, many of TGF-β pathological effects could be related with its ability to regulate cell plasticity – change of cell phenotype and function due to genetic and epigenetic changes and cytoskeleton remodeling. One of the most striking events of cell plasticity is epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Activation of HSCs and their transformation to myofibroblasts is an example of that one. Moreover, another example of cell transformation caused by TGF-β is EMT in hepatocytes accompanied with loss of cell–cell contacts and polarity [50]. Actually, TGF-β stimulates almost of all liver cell populations (portal and resident fibroblasts, bone marrow-derived fibrocytes, endothelial cells, vascular smooth muscle cells, pericytes and cholangiocytes additionally to hepatocytes and HSCs) to change into a more fibroblastic phenotype [40] and to release profibrogenic transcriptional program manifested by upregulation of collagen expression [41] and disturbances in ECM turnover through imbalance between MMPs and TIMPs. TGF-β receptors (TGFβRI and TGFβRII) are Ser/Tre protein kinases expressed on the membranes of various cells including all above mentioned ones. TGF-β is secreted by these cells and regulates their activity by autocrine and paracrine mechanisms. Moreover, both monocyte-derived macrophages and Kupffer cells (liver resident macrophages) produce this cytokine and some other profibrogenic factors like PDGF and connective tissue growth factor (CTGF), contributing, therefore, to HSCs activation and transdifferentiation, and promoting fibrosis [39]. Thus, TGF-β plays a master role in the activation of HSCs to myofibroblasts. In fact, some of the previous factors stimulate the expression, production and activation of TGF-β, which is responsible finally for the activation of HSCs, and the higher the level of TGF-β the more expressed fibrotic changes in the tissue.
The main mediators of the TGF-β-induced fibrogenic transcriptional program are SMADs (
Some TKIs have been shown to release antifibrotic activity do not demonstrate exact specificity against their targets and could inhibit more than one receptor. So, it is difficult to explain the mechanism of their action precisely. Nevertheless, these agents attract the attention and reveal the antifibrotic potency even more than specific inhibitors because of multiplicity of mechanisms and downregulated signaling pathways, and therefore, ability to avoid drug resistance through the compensatory mechanisms and signaling crosstalk.
For example, multikinase TKI nilotinib, which is a breakpoint cluster region protein (Bcr)-tyrosine-protein kinase ABL (Abl) inhibitor, also significantly inhibited PDGFR and TGFβRII, which contributes to depression of HSCs activation, proliferation, migration, and α-SMA formation, induction of their apoptosis, reduce collagen deposition in activated HSCs and in liver tissues of CCl4- and BDL-induced rats experienced liver fibrosis [52]. Moreover, the effects of nilotinib also include diminished expression of VEGF and VEGFR, which, however, is expected due to high similarity of PDGFR and VEGFR kinase domains. These results indicated that nilotinib may represent a putative antifibrotic treatment due to its combined inhibition of non-receptor tyrosine kinases (nonRTK) (Abl) and RTK (PDGFR-β, TGFβRII and VEGFR) (Table 1).
Treatment of CCl4-induced fibrotic mice with nintedanib that blocks PDGFR, VEGFR and FGFR, in addition to depression of HSCs activation, contractility, migration, and collagen deposition, inhibited macrophage migration, intrahepatic inflammation and angiogenesis as well [36]. Another oral multitargeted TKI pazopanib (approved for renal cell sarcoma treatment) directly inhibits PDGFRs, FGFRs, mast/stem cell growth factor receptor (KIT) and selectively suppresses VEGFR-mediated angiogenesis. The drug can halt liver fibrosis progression through modulating inflammatory cytokines, suppressing HSCs activation, inducing their apoptosis, and regulating angiogenesis [53]. Regorafenib could affect similar targets (VEGFR1–3, PDGFR-β and FGFR) and also potently inhibits another angiogenic RTK TIE2. This drug has recently been approved as a second-line therapy for HCC and demonstrated depression of cirrhotic-associated systemic changes and portal hypertension in HCC patients. Moreover, regorafenib might also be beneficial towards fibrosis and portal hypertension even in absence of HCC [42]. Despite regorafenib treatment had no direct observable effect on HSCs activation and fibrosis progression or regression (as evidenced by liver histopathology, α-SMA and hydroxyproline deposition), however, even its acute administration improved cirrhotic portal hypertension (BDL and CCl4 models of liver fibrosis) and also hemodynamic circulation in an animal model mimicking portal vein thrombosis [54] (Table 1). These findings might explain the anticirrhotic effects of the drug in HCC patients by normalization of liver blood circulation in fibrotic liver and therefore exhausting the inflammatory microenvironment which leads to fibrosis progression.
Brivanib is a selective inhibitor of VEGFR and FGFR and also affects liver fibrosis through multiple signaling pathways. Nakamura et al. demonstrated that brivanib decreased HSCs proliferation induced by PDGF, VEGF and FGF treatment, and also abrogated the phosphorylation of PDGFRβ, which was confirmed
Our team developed the set of multikinase inhibitors, and one of them (1-(4-Cl-benzyl)-3-chloro-4-(CF3-phenylamino)-1H-pyrrole-2,5-dione, called MI1) demonstrated high inhibitory activity against EGFR, VEGFR1,2,3 (the most prominent results), FGF-R1, IGF1-R, spleen associated tyrosine kinase (Syk), 3-phosphoinositide-dependent protein kinase-1 (PDK1), and Src [55]. Besides anticancer and anti-inflammatory activity having been revealed in our previous investigations [56, 57], we showed that MI1 could inhibit liver fibrosis development on rat acute (3 days) and chronic (28 days) cholangitis models, as evidenced by substantially depleted connective tissue deposits in liver and improved liver general state (according to plasma biochemical tests). Moreover, antifibrotic effects of MI1 preserved through at least 28 days since the interventions were terminated (unpublished data, under consideration).
Thus, multikinase inhibitors might be more potent antifibrotic treatments through their impact on several signaling pathways. However, this task should be explored in more detail because of high probability of adverse effects due to multiplicity of these drugs’ targets.
Inhibitors of RTK signaling include not only molecules designed to block ATP-binding sites of the kinase, but also small therapeutic molecules with different activities, which, however, could additionally inhibit RTK. For example, natural antioxidant of polyphenol origin resveratrol despite of different therapeutic activities (anti-inflammatory, antitumor, antiaging, protective etc.) demonstrated also strong antifibrotic effect against liver cirrhosis (CCl4- model) [58]. The mechanisms of its action are different and include predominantly antioxidant capability, but also impact on gene expression and ability to modulate different signaling pathways through interaction with their key molecules. Among others, resveratrol could downregulate EGFR/Akt/ERK1/2 signaling pathway particularly by decrease of EGFR activation [59]. Furthermore, this polyphenol could scavenge VEGF, altering, therefore, its binding with VEGFR and activation of the latter [60]. Of course, this action could not be interpreted as direct impact on VEGFR. However, it deserves to be considered as an approach for modulation of this signaling activity on its initial stages.
Another plant-derived polyphenol curcumin among various types of biological activities (anticancer, antiviral, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory ones) had beneficial effects in animal models of liver injury and cirrhosis [61]. While studying the possible mechanisms of its action, substantial reduce of TGFβRII levels and its downstream molecules Smad2/3 phosphorylation in response to added TGF-β was found [62]. Furthermore, curcumin revealed anti-EGFR activity: firstly, it was able to inhibit directly the enzymatic activity of the EGFR intracellular domain, and, secondly, it could influence the cell membrane environment of the receptor [63, 64].
Ability to affect the membrane environment of the receptor and thus alter its binding with ligand and subsequent activation has been shown for biologically active indolic related compounds including melatonin, 3-indoleacetic acid, 5-hydroxytryptophol, and serotonin. These chemicals are proven to significantly inhibit VEGF-induced VEGFR2 activation in human umbilical vein endothelial cells through interacting with the cell surface components in a way that prevents VEGF from activating the receptor [65]. This property could contribute to the hepatoprotective and antifibrotic efficacy of melatonin realizing by inhibition of inflammation, HSCs proliferation and hepatocyte apoptosis [66]. The similar mechanism of RTK inhibition has been considered for natural cyclopeptide destruxin A5, that effectively downregulate PDGF-B-induced PDGFR-β signaling. Destruxin A5 does not bind to the ATP-binding pocket of PDGFR-β, so the inhibitory mechanism of that is distinct from the mechanism of “canonical” TKIs. It looks like this chemical selectively targets PDGF-β/PDGFR-β interaction interface and blocks this signaling [67].
However, some non-specific small molecules are able to inhibit RTK by “classical” mechanism – through binding to receptor and preventing its activation by ligand. A naturally occurring flavone 4′,5,7-trihydroxy-3′,5′-dimethoxyflavone (tricin) is one of them. Tricin affected HSCs
Growth factor receptors, in particular EGFR, VEGFR, PDGFR, FGFR, and TGFβR are proven to be key regulators of various liver cell populations behavior under hepatic injury and reparation, and subsequent fibrosis development if “something has been going wrong”. Upregulation of related signaling pathways has been shown in numerous
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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This chapter aims to present the main good practices, challenges, and opportunities related to Industry 4.0 paradigm.",book:{id:"6291",slug:"digital-transformation-in-smart-manufacturing",title:"Digital Transformation in Smart Manufacturing",fullTitle:"Digital Transformation in Smart Manufacturing"},signatures:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Raffaele Cioffi and Federico\nZomparelli",authors:[{id:"161682",title:"Prof.",name:"Fabio",middleName:null,surname:"De Felice",slug:"fabio-de-felice",fullName:"Fabio De Felice"},{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"},{id:"205141",title:"Dr.",name:"Federico",middleName:null,surname:"Zomparelli",slug:"federico-zomparelli",fullName:"Federico Zomparelli"},{id:"208748",title:"Dr.",name:"Raffaele",middleName:null,surname:"Cioffi",slug:"raffaele-cioffi",fullName:"Raffaele Cioffi"}]},{id:"35715",doi:"10.5772/38693",title:"The Role and Importance of Cultural Tourism in Modern Tourism Industry",slug:"the-role-and-importance-of-cultural-tourism-in-modern-tourism-industry",totalDownloads:41085,totalCrossrefCites:31,totalDimensionsCites:62,abstract:null,book:{id:"2298",slug:"strategies-for-tourism-industry-micro-and-macro-perspectives",title:"Strategies for Tourism Industry",fullTitle:"Strategies for Tourism Industry - Micro and Macro Perspectives"},signatures:"Janos Csapo",authors:[{id:"118766",title:"Dr.",name:"János",middleName:null,surname:"Csapó",slug:"janos-csapo",fullName:"János Csapó"}]},{id:"38973",doi:"10.5772/51460",title:"Risk Management in Construction Projects",slug:"risk-management-in-construction-projects",totalDownloads:102568,totalCrossrefCites:36,totalDimensionsCites:59,abstract:null,book:{id:"2175",slug:"risk-management-current-issues-and-challenges",title:"Risk Management",fullTitle:"Risk Management - Current Issues and Challenges"},signatures:"Nerija Banaitiene and Audrius Banaitis",authors:[{id:"139414",title:"Dr.",name:"Nerija",middleName:null,surname:"Banaitiene",slug:"nerija-banaitiene",fullName:"Nerija Banaitiene"},{id:"149658",title:"Dr.",name:"Audrius",middleName:null,surname:"Banaitis",slug:"audrius-banaitis",fullName:"Audrius Banaitis"}]},{id:"40977",doi:"10.5772/53885",title:"The Emergence of Scientific Reasoning",slug:"the-emergence-of-scientific-reasoning",totalDownloads:4554,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:59,abstract:null,book:{id:"654",slug:"current-topics-in-children-s-learning-and-cognition",title:"Current Topics in Children's Learning and Cognition",fullTitle:"Current Topics in Children's Learning and Cognition"},signatures:"Bradley J. Morris, Steve Croker, Amy M. Masnick and Corinne Zimmerman",authors:[{id:"154336",title:"Prof.",name:"Bradley",middleName:null,surname:"Morris",slug:"bradley-morris",fullName:"Bradley Morris"},{id:"154337",title:"Prof.",name:"Steve",middleName:null,surname:"Croker",slug:"steve-croker",fullName:"Steve Croker"},{id:"154338",title:"Prof.",name:"Amy",middleName:null,surname:"Masnick",slug:"amy-masnick",fullName:"Amy Masnick"},{id:"154339",title:"Prof.",name:"Corinne",middleName:null,surname:"Zimmerman",slug:"corinne-zimmerman",fullName:"Corinne Zimmerman"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"58890",title:"Philosophy and Paradigm of Scientific Research",slug:"philosophy-and-paradigm-of-scientific-research",totalDownloads:14074,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Before carrying out the empirical analysis of the role of management culture in corporate social responsibility, identification of the philosophical approach and the paradigm on which the research carried out is based is necessary. Therefore, this chapter deals with the philosophical systems and paradigms of scientific research, the epistemology, evaluating understanding and application of various theories and practices used in the scientific research. The key components of the scientific research paradigm are highlighted. Theories on the basis of which this research was focused on identification of the level of development of the management culture in order to implement corporate social responsibility are identified, and the stages of its implementation are described.",book:{id:"5791",slug:"management-culture-and-corporate-social-responsibility",title:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility",fullTitle:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility"},signatures:"Pranas Žukauskas, Jolita Vveinhardt and Regina Andriukaitienė",authors:[{id:"179629",title:"Prof.",name:"Jolita",middleName:null,surname:"Vveinhardt",slug:"jolita-vveinhardt",fullName:"Jolita Vveinhardt"}]},{id:"74550",title:"School Conflicts: Causes and Management Strategies in Classroom Relationships",slug:"school-conflicts-causes-and-management-strategies-in-classroom-relationships",totalDownloads:2328,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Conflicts cannot cease to exist, as they are intrinsic to human beings, forming an integral part of their moral and emotional growth. Likewise, they exist in all schools. The school is inserted in a space where the conflict manifests itself daily and assumes relevance, being the result of the multiple interpersonal relationships that occur in the school context. Thus, conflict is part of school life, which implies that teachers must have the skills to manage conflict constructively. Recognizing the diversity of school conflicts, this chapter aimed to present its causes, highlighting the main ones in the classroom, in the teacher-student relationship. It is important to conflict face and resolve it with skills to manage it properly and constructively, establishing cooperative relationships, and producing integrative solutions. Harmony and appreciation should coexist in a classroom environment and conflict should not interfere, negatively, in the teaching and learning process. This bibliography review underscore the need for during the teachers’ initial training the conflict management skills development.",book:{id:"7827",slug:"interpersonal-relationships",title:"Interpersonal Relationships",fullTitle:"Interpersonal Relationships"},signatures:"Sabina Valente, Abílio Afonso Lourenço and Zsolt Németh",authors:[{id:"324514",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sabina",middleName:"N.",surname:"Valente",slug:"sabina-valente",fullName:"Sabina Valente"},{id:"326375",title:"Prof.",name:"Abílio Afonso",middleName:"Afonso",surname:"Lourenço",slug:"abilio-afonso-lourenco",fullName:"Abílio Afonso Lourenço"},{id:"329177",title:"Dr.",name:"Zsolt",middleName:null,surname:"Németh",slug:"zsolt-nemeth",fullName:"Zsolt Németh"}]},{id:"58969",title:"Corruption, Causes and Consequences",slug:"corruption-causes-and-consequences",totalDownloads:27687,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"Corruption is a constant in the society and occurs in all civilizations; however, it has only been in the past 20 years that this phenomenon has begun being seriously explored. It has many different shapes as well as many various effects, both on the economy and the society at large. Among the most common causes of corruption are the political and economic environment, professional ethics and morality and, of course, habits, customs, tradition and demography. Its effects on the economy (and also on the wider society) are well researched, yet still not completely. Corruption thus inhibits economic growth and affects business operations, employment and investments. It also reduces tax revenue and the effectiveness of various financial assistance programs. The wider society is influenced by a high degree of corruption in terms of lowering of trust in the law and the rule of law, education and consequently the quality of life (access to infrastructure, health care). There also does not exist an unambiguous answer as to how to deal with corruption. Something that works in one country or in one region will not necessarily be successful in another. This chapter tries to answer at least a few questions about corruption and the causes for it, its consequences and how to deal with it successfully.",book:{id:"6487",slug:"trade-and-global-market",title:"Trade and Global Market",fullTitle:"Trade and Global Market"},signatures:"Štefan Šumah",authors:[{id:"228073",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:null,surname:"Sumah",slug:"stefan-sumah",fullName:"Stefan Sumah"}]},{id:"55499",title:"Human Resources Management in Nonprofit Organizations: A Case Study of Istanbul Foundation for Culture and Arts",slug:"human-resources-management-in-nonprofit-organizations-a-case-study-of-istanbul-foundation-for-cultur",totalDownloads:2399,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The aim of this study is to investigate the efficiency and importance of human resources management in nonprofit organizations. The understanding was included to the literature as personnel management at the beginning of the twentieth century and it turned into an approach as human resources management in the 1980s. It could be observed that many organizations, which deem the human as the most critical stakeholder, adopt a traditional way of personnel management in operating human resources. The employees play a key role in the success of an organization. For this reason, subjects such as recruitment, training, development, career management, performance appraisal, occupational health, and safety are the fundamental functions of human resources management. The study examines to what extent these roles are evaluated through a case study. The subject matter of the study is the most powerful culture and art foundation in Turkey. Compared to many other nonprofit organizations, the foundation actively performs a variety of services within a year worldwide. The fact that the total number of employees might rise up to 800, including the field personnel, indicates the need of a good functioning human resources management. The human resources practices of the foundation are examined and evaluated within that scope.",book:{id:"5826",slug:"issues-of-human-resource-management",title:"Issues of Human Resource Management",fullTitle:"Issues of Human Resource Management"},signatures:"Beste Gökçe Parsehyan",authors:[{id:"189113",title:"Dr.",name:"Beste",middleName:null,surname:"Gokce Parsehyan",slug:"beste-gokce-parsehyan",fullName:"Beste Gokce Parsehyan"}]},{id:"59152",title:"Marketing Strategies for the Social Good",slug:"marketing-strategies-for-the-social-good",totalDownloads:1669,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Social network sites (SNS) have proven to be a good environment to promote and sell goods and services, but marketing is more than creating commercial strategies. Social marketing strategies can also be used to promote behavioral change and help individuals transform their lives, achieve well-being, and adopt prosocial behaviors. In this chapter, we seek to analyze with a netnographic study, how SNS are being employed by nonprofits and nongovernment organizations (NGOs) to enable citizens and consumers to participate in different programs and activities that promote social transformation and well-being. A particular interest is to identify how organizations are using behavioral economic tactics to nudge individuals and motivate them to engage in prosocial actions. By providing an understanding on how SNS can provide an adequate environment for the design of social marketing strategies, we believe our work has practical implications both for academicians and marketers who want to contribute in the transformation of consumer behavior and the achievement of well-being and social change.",book:{id:"6583",slug:"marketing",title:"Marketing",fullTitle:"Marketing"},signatures:"Alicia De La Pena",authors:[{id:"196878",title:"Dr.",name:"Alicia",middleName:null,surname:"De La Pena",slug:"alicia-de-la-pena",fullName:"Alicia De La Pena"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"4",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"83075",title:"Practices and Challenges of Community Services at Debre Markos University, Ethiopia: A Case Study",slug:"practices-and-challenges-of-community-services-at-debre-markos-university-ethiopia-a-case-study",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105896",abstract:"Universities are the main actors that deliver community service in Ethiopia. Community service is among the three pillars of the university’s business along with teaching and research tasks. Employing a qualitative case study design, this research inspects the practices of community services against the ascribed principles and identifes the pitfalls of community service in Debre Markos University. Both primary and secondary data were collected. Primary data were collected through key informants interviews, semistructured interviews, and non-participant observation. Thirteen participants, five through key informant interview and eight through a semistructured interview were addressed. Participants were purposively selected from both the university and the nearby community. Lecturers, vice-presidents, and directors have participated in the interview. Articles, books, different reports, newspapers, and magazines were reviewed and used as sources of secondary data. Thematic data analysis technique was employed to analyze the primary data, and document analysis was used to analyze the data gained from secondary sources. The results show that, though community service is rendered since 2006 at Debre Markos University, there are still limitations in adhering to the principles of community service. These include shortage of budget, low level of University-Industry Linkage (UIL), less commitment of the staff, and the low level of monitoring and evaluation.",book:{id:"11602",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11602.jpg"},signatures:"Adane Mengist"},{id:"83053",title:"Apologies in L2 French in Canadian Context",slug:"apologies-in-l2-french-in-canadian-context",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106557",abstract:"This article presents the results of an analysis of apology strategies in native and non-native French in Canadian context. The data used were obtained through a Discourse Completion Task questionnaire that was completed by a group of native French speakers (FL1) and a group of learners of French as a second language (FL2). The goal was to identify and compare pragmatic and linguistic choices made by both groups when apologizing in three different situations. Several differences and similarities emerged between the two groups regarding the use of exclamations to introduce apologies, direct apologies, indirect apologies, and supportive acts. For instance, it was found that the FL1 speakers used “expressions of regret”, “offers of apology” 15 and “requests for forgiveness” to apologize directly, while the FL2 speaking informants used 16 only “expressions of regret” and “offers of apology”. While the respondents of both groups 17 mostly chose “offers of repair” to apologize indirectly, they displayed divergent preferences 18 regarding the use of other indirect apology strategies. Differences were also documented 19 with respect to the use of intensification devices in direct apologies and the use of supportive acts. Implications of the findings for L2 French pedagogy were also discussed.",book:{id:"11480",title:"Second Language Acquisition - Learning Theories and Recent Approaches",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11480.jpg"},signatures:"Bernard Mulo Farenkia"},{id:"83049",title:"An Ethnographic Study on Sense of a Community: The “Awramba” Experience",slug:"an-ethnographic-study-on-sense-of-a-community-the-awramba-experience",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105953",abstract:"The study was conducted on “Awramba” Community who are living in “Amhara” region, south “Gondor” Zone, Ethiopia. The general objective of this study was to capture an understanding of sense of community in “Awramba” community. The study tried to answer the following questions: How the community was established? What are the criteria to be part of the community? What are the shared values of social practice that has survived for the test of time? What is the historical background of the “Awramba” Community? The researcher used realist ethnography method to achieve the above objective and to answer the questions. In-depth interview and observational guide techniques were applied to collect reliable data for the study. The observation and in-depth interview data were analyzed qualitatively. The study showed the following themes: Membership criteria of the community are based on adhering to the community norm. They have a strong sense of community based on shared story, cooperative work, marriage and mourning values, religious view, gender equality, commitment to be honest, and solving their problem by themselves. The emotional connection of the “Awramba” community is strengthened by their common celebration of the yearly anniversary of New Year and scheduled meeting.",book:{id:"11429",title:"Sustainability, Ecology, and Religions of the World",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11429.jpg"},signatures:"Nassir-Maru Yesuf"},{id:"83027",title:"Coping Strategies and Meta-Worry in Adolescents’ Adjustment during COVID-19 Pandemic",slug:"coping-strategies-and-meta-worry-in-adolescents-adjustment-during-covid-19-pandemic",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106258",abstract:"With the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, several limitations and stressful changes have been introduced in adolescent’s daily life. Particularly, Italian teenagers were the first among western populations to experience fears of infection, home confinement, and social restrictions due to a long lockdown period (10 weeks). This study explores the role of coping strategies (task-oriented, emotion-oriented, and avoidance coping) and meta-beliefs about worry as vulnerability factors associated with adolescents’ anxiety. A community sample of adolescents (N = 284, aged 16–18 y.o.) answered questionnaires assessing anxiety symptoms (RCMAS-2), meta-cognitive beliefs and processes about worry (MCQ-C), and coping strategies (CISS). Results show that 37% of participants report clinically elevated anxiety. Emotion-centered coping predicted higher anxiety, whereas task-centered coping resulted associated with decreased anxiety. Cognitive monitoring about their own worry contributes, but to a lesser extent, to higher levels of anxiety. The implications for the intervention are discussed, especially the need to enhance the coping skills of adolescents and mitigate the stress of the COVID-19 pandemic, which could last for a long time.",book:{id:"10671",title:"Adolescences",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10671.jpg"},signatures:"Loredana Benedetto, Ilenia Schipilliti and Massimo Ingrassia"},{id:"83023",title:"Gestational Tryptophan Fluctuation Underlying Ontogenetic Origin of Neuropsychiatric Disorders",slug:"gestational-tryptophan-fluctuation-underlying-ontogenetic-origin-of-neuropsychiatric-disorders",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106421",abstract:"Neuropsychiatry underlies personality development and social functioning. Borderline personality disorder exhibits high trait aggression and is associated with tryptophan hydroxylase polymorphisms. The acute tryptophan depletion reduces plasma and cerebrospinal fluid tryptophan availability and brain serotonin concentrations, leading to alterations in personality and trait-related behaviors. Tryptophan is essential for fatal neurodevelopment and immunomodulation in pregnancy. Gestational tryptophan fluctuation induced by maternal metabolic disorders or drug administrations may account for the maternal-fetal transmission determining neurogenesis and microbial development, consequentially shaping the long-standing patterns of thinking and behavior. However, it is not possible to assess the gestational tryptophan exposure effects on fetal brain and gastrointestinal system in humans for ethical reasons. The maternal–fetal microbe transmission in rodents during gestation, vaginal delivery, and breastfeeding is inevitable. Chicken embryo may be an alternative and evidence from the chicken embryo model reveals that gestational tryptophan fluctuation, i.e., exposed to excessive tryptophan or its metabolite, serotonin, attenuates aggressiveness and affects peer sociometric status. This chapter discusses the gestational tryptophan fluctuation as a risk factor of personality disorders in offspring and the prevention of personality disorders by dietary tryptophan control and medication therapy management during pregnancy.",book:{id:"11782",title:"Personality Traits - The Role in Psychopathology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11782.jpg"},signatures:"Xiaohong Huang, Xiaohua Li and Heng-Wei Cheng"},{id:"83014",title:"Culture: A Pillar of Organizational Sustainability",slug:"culture-a-pillar-of-organizational-sustainability",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106523",abstract:"Sustainability is a concern that permeates all levels of society and is premised on meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirs. More recently, policies and research have emerged that guide organizations to align their activities with the broader sustainable development agendas, including cultural issues, not just economic, social, and environmental ones. Culture is the material and immaterial attribute of society. It incorporates social organizations, literature, religion, myths, beliefs, behaviors and entrepreneurial practices of the productive segment, use of technology, and expressive art forms on which future generations depend. Thus, cultural sustainability is a fundamental issue and is configured as the fourth pillar of sustainability, equal to social, economic, and environmental issues, which has to do with the ability to sustain or continue with cultural beliefs and practices, preserve cultural heritage as its entity, and try to answer whether any culture will exist in the future. The importance of cultural sustainability lies in its power to influence people. Their beliefs are in the decisions made by society. Thus, there can be no sustainable development without including culture.",book:{id:"11429",title:"Sustainability, Ecology, and Religions of the World",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11429.jpg"},signatures:"Clea Beatriz Macagnan and Rosane Maria Seibert"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:282},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:33,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11410,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11411,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:42,paginationItems:[{id:"82914",title:"Glance on the Critical Role of IL-23 Receptor Gene Variations in Inflammation-Induced Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105049",signatures:"Mohammed El-Gedamy",slug:"glance-on-the-critical-role-of-il-23-receptor-gene-variations-in-inflammation-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:11,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}},{id:"82875",title:"Lipidomics as a Tool in the Diagnosis and Clinical Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105857",signatures:"María Elizbeth Alvarez Sánchez, Erick Nolasco Ontiveros, Rodrigo Arreola, Adriana Montserrat Espinosa González, Ana María García Bores, Roberto Eduardo López Urrutia, Ignacio Peñalosa Castro, María del Socorro Sánchez Correa and Edgar Antonio Estrella Parra",slug:"lipidomics-as-a-tool-in-the-diagnosis-and-clinical-therapy",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82440",title:"Lipid Metabolism and Associated Molecular Signaling Events in Autoimmune Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105746",signatures:"Mohan Vanditha, Sonu Das and Mathew John",slug:"lipid-metabolism-and-associated-molecular-signaling-events-in-autoimmune-disease",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82483",title:"Oxidative Stress in Cardiovascular Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105891",signatures:"Laura Mourino-Alvarez, Tamara Sastre-Oliva, Nerea Corbacho-Alonso and Maria G. 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She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:{name:"Kobe College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. 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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. 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Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation"},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:{title:"Biomedical Engineering",id:"7"},selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. 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