Comparison of GT and ST distribution in 170 samples tested by both LiPA and Vela NGS.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1370",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Biodiversity",title:"Biodiversity",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Biodiversity is strongly affected by the rapid and accelerating changes in the global climate, which largely stem from human activity. Anthropogenic activities are causing highly influential impacts on species persistence. The sustained environmental change wildlife is experiencing may surpass the capacity of developmental, genetic, and demographic mechanisms that populations have developed to deal with these alterations. How biodiversity is perceived and maintained affects ecosystem functioning as well as how the goods and services that ecosystems provide to humans can be used. Recognizing biodiversity is essential to preserve wildlife. Furthermore, the measure, management and protection of ecosystem biodiversity requires different and innovative approaches. For all these reasons, the aim of the present book is to give an up-to-date overview of the studies on biodiversity at all levels, in order to better understand the dynamics and the mechanisms at the basis of the richness of life forms both in terrestrial (including agro-ecosystems) and marine environments.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-715-4",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5188-3",doi:"10.5772/1836",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"biodiversity",numberOfPages:150,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"e8e73d2e25b10cf152d8c776fe59dad5",bookSignature:"Adriano Sofo",publishedDate:"October 10th 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1370.jpg",numberOfDownloads:21071,numberOfWosCitations:41,numberOfCrossrefCitations:13,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:49,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:103,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 23rd 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 21st 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 27th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 27th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 26th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"46532",title:"Dr.",name:"Adriano",middleName:null,surname:"Sofo",slug:"adriano-sofo",fullName:"Adriano Sofo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/46532/images/1747_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adriano Sofo, PhD, is working as an Assistant Professor at the University of Basilicata (Italy). He has experience in teaching and research at the Universities of Bari, Potenza and Bologna (Italy), Hasselt (Belgium), Uppsala (Sweden), Toulouse (France); in other institutes of public and private research, such as ENEA (Italy), Geisenheim Research Center (Germany), and other Agricultural Experimental Institutes. His research fields are plant and soil biochemistry and molecular biology, plant eco-physiology, and plant cell and tissue cultures, with a particular emphasis on sustainable soil management and plant responses to drought as well as to other abiotic and biotic stresses. Dr. Sofo is a lecturer in soil science and plant physiology at University of Basilicata and he is the author of approximately 50 papers published in international books and journals. He is a referee for a series of peer-reviewed international scientific journals in his research sectors.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Basilicata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"877",title:"Ecosystem",slug:"geological-engineering-ecosystem"}],chapters:[{id:"20943",title:"Integrating Spatial Behavioral Ecology in Agent-Based Models for Species Conservation",doi:"10.5772/23055",slug:"integrating-spatial-behavioral-ecology-in-agent-based-models-for-species-conservation",totalDownloads:3593,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Christina A.D. Semeniuk, Marco Musiani and Danielle J. Marceau",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/20943",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/20943",authors:[{id:"19765",title:"Dr.",name:"Danielle J.",surname:"Marceau",slug:"danielle-j.-marceau",fullName:"Danielle J. Marceau"},{id:"55281",title:"Dr.",name:"Christina",surname:"Semeniuk",slug:"christina-semeniuk",fullName:"Christina Semeniuk"},{id:"55282",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",surname:"Musiani",slug:"marco-musiani",fullName:"Marco Musiani"}],corrections:null},{id:"20944",title:"Evolution of Ecosystem Services in a Mediterranean Cultural Landscape: Doñana Case Study, Spain (1956-2006)",doi:"10.5772/24633",slug:"evolution-of-ecosystem-services-in-a-mediterranean-cultural-landscape-don-ana-case-study-spain-1956-",totalDownloads:2195,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:14,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Erik Gómez-Baggethun, Berta Martín-López, Pedro L. Lomas, Pedro Zorrilla and Carlos Montes",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/20944",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/20944",authors:[{id:"58632",title:"Dr.",name:"Berta",surname:"Martín-López",slug:"berta-martin-lopez",fullName:"Berta Martín-López"},{id:"58633",title:"Dr.",name:"Erik",surname:"Gómez-Baggethun",slug:"erik-gomez-baggethun",fullName:"Erik Gómez-Baggethun"},{id:"60834",title:"Mr.",name:"Pedro L.",surname:"Lomas",slug:"pedro-l.-lomas",fullName:"Pedro L. Lomas"},{id:"60835",title:"Mr.",name:"Pedro",surname:"Zorrilla Miras",slug:"pedro-zorrilla-miras",fullName:"Pedro Zorrilla Miras"},{id:"60836",title:"Mr.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Montes",slug:"carlos-montes",fullName:"Carlos Montes"}],corrections:null},{id:"20945",title:"Implications of Wood Collecting Activities on Invertebrates Diversity of Conservation Areas",doi:"10.5772/24760",slug:"implications-of-wood-collecting-activities-on-invertebrates-diversity-of-conservation-areas",totalDownloads:2484,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Thokozani Simelane",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/20945",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/20945",authors:[{id:"59286",title:"Dr.",name:"Thokozani",surname:"Simelane",slug:"thokozani-simelane",fullName:"Thokozani Simelane"}],corrections:null},{id:"20946",title:"Cell Surface Display",doi:"10.5772/23070",slug:"cell-surface-display",totalDownloads:3393,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Sharadwata Pan and Michael K. Danquah",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/20946",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/20946",authors:[{id:"31100",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",surname:"Danquah",slug:"michael-danquah",fullName:"Michael Danquah"},{id:"57666",title:"Mr",name:"Sharadwata",surname:"Pan",slug:"sharadwata-pan",fullName:"Sharadwata Pan"}],corrections:null},{id:"21589",title:"Biological Cr(VI) Reduction: Microbial Diversity, Kinetics and Biotechnological Solutions to Pollution",doi:"10.5772/24311",slug:"biological-cr-vi-reduction-microbial-diversity-kinetics-and-biotechnological-solutions-to-pollution",totalDownloads:3710,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:24,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Evans M. N. Chirwa and Pulane E. Molokwane",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/21589",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/21589",authors:[{id:"56622",title:"Dr.",name:"Evans",surname:"Chirwa",slug:"evans-chirwa",fullName:"Evans Chirwa"},{id:"62291",title:"Dr.",name:"Pulane E.",surname:"Molokwane",slug:"pulane-e.-molokwane",fullName:"Pulane E. Molokwane"}],corrections:null},{id:"20947",title:"Biodiversity Measures in Agriculture Using DNA",doi:"10.5772/23565",slug:"biodiversity-measures-in-agriculture-using-dna",totalDownloads:2342,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Lucia Vieira Hoffmann, Tereza Cristina de Oliveira Borba, Laísa Nogueira Allem, Paulo Augusto Vianna Barroso and Raquel Neves de Mello",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/20947",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/20947",authors:[{id:"52559",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucia",surname:"Hoffmann",slug:"lucia-hoffmann",fullName:"Lucia Hoffmann"},{id:"62316",title:"Dr.",name:"Tereza Cristina",surname:"De Oliveira Borba",slug:"tereza-cristina-de-oliveira-borba",fullName:"Tereza Cristina De Oliveira Borba"},{id:"62317",title:"Dr.",name:"Raquel Neves De",surname:"Mello",slug:"raquel-neves-de-mello",fullName:"Raquel Neves De Mello"},{id:"62318",title:"Dr.",name:"Paulo Augusto",surname:"Vianna Barroso",slug:"paulo-augusto-vianna-barroso",fullName:"Paulo Augusto Vianna Barroso"},{id:"115284",title:"MSc.",name:"Laisa Nogueira",surname:"Allem",slug:"laisa-nogueira-allem",fullName:"Laisa Nogueira Allem"}],corrections:null},{id:"20948",title:"Molecular Techniques to Estimate Biodiversity with Case Studies from the Marine Phytoplankton",doi:"10.5772/25265",slug:"molecular-techniques-to-estimate-biodiversity-with-case-studies-from-the-marine-phytoplankton",totalDownloads:3355,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Linda K. Medlin and Kerstin Töbe",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/20948",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/20948",authors:[{id:"62735",title:"Dr.",name:"Linda",surname:"Medlin",slug:"linda-medlin",fullName:"Linda Medlin"},{id:"62736",title:"Dr.",name:"Kerstin",surname:"Toebe",slug:"kerstin-toebe",fullName:"Kerstin Toebe"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:[{id:"65",label:"highly cited contributor"}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3828",title:"Application of Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"51a27e7adbfafcfedb6e9683f209cba4",slug:"application-of-nanotechnology-in-drug-delivery",bookSignature:"Ali Demir Sezer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3828.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3569",title:"Biodegradation",subtitle:"Life of Science",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb737eb528a53e5106c7e218d5f12ec6",slug:"biodegradation-life-of-science",bookSignature:"Rolando Chamy and Francisca Rosenkranz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3569.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"165784",title:"Dr.",name:"Rolando",surname:"Chamy",slug:"rolando-chamy",fullName:"Rolando Chamy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"79356",slug:"corrigendum-to-queer-disabled-existence-human-rights-of-people-with-disability",title:"Corrigendum to: Queer/Disabled Existence: Human Rights of People with Disability",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81457.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81457",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81457",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81457",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81457",chapter:{id:"75555",slug:"queer-disabled-existence-human-rights-of-people-with-disability",signatures:"Deepak Basumatary",dateSubmitted:"December 15th 2020",dateReviewed:"January 11th 2021",datePrePublished:"March 4th 2021",datePublished:"June 8th 2022",book:{id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",publishedDate:"June 8th 2022",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"334255",title:"Dr.",name:"Deepak",middleName:null,surname:"Basumatary",fullName:"Deepak Basumatary",slug:"deepak-basumatary",email:"dbjustlikethatonly@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"75555",slug:"queer-disabled-existence-human-rights-of-people-with-disability",signatures:"Deepak Basumatary",dateSubmitted:"December 15th 2020",dateReviewed:"January 11th 2021",datePrePublished:"March 4th 2021",datePublished:"June 8th 2022",book:{id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",publishedDate:"June 8th 2022",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"334255",title:"Dr.",name:"Deepak",middleName:null,surname:"Basumatary",fullName:"Deepak Basumatary",slug:"deepak-basumatary",email:"dbjustlikethatonly@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",publishedDate:"June 8th 2022",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"9778",leadTitle:null,title:"Migraine",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The book, Migraine, covers – to our best belief – the most important topics in migraine study, such as spontaneous primary headache, mostly from a clinical and therapeutic point of view. Special attention was paid to two hot topics in migraine problems: the chronic type of migraine and the new contemporary mode of treatment (for both episodic and chronic types) that is the use of monoclonal antibodies directed against the CGRP complex. The separate chapters cover the problem of medication overuse headaches, which is a growing condition among patients with migraine – especially the chronic migraine. The unique problem touched by the book is rarely discussed in literature of this field and it is the surgical attempts in the therapy of migraine. The authors of the book are widely recognized experts in migraines and related headaches that – we do believe – ensures a high quality of knowledge in the book. We hope that the presented monograph will be both attractive and helpful to all doctors interested not only in migraines but in other problems of idiopathic headaches.",isbn:"978-1-83962-410-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-409-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-411-7",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87586",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"migraine",numberOfPages:158,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"ba52761e098431d3113b538e9f6427f6",bookSignature:"Wojciech Kozubski",publishedDate:"December 9th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9778.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:4056,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:3,numberOfTotalCitations:6,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 26th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 2nd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 1st 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 20th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 18th 2020",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"83372",title:"Prof.",name:"Wojciech",middleName:null,surname:"Kozubski",slug:"wojciech-kozubski",fullName:"Wojciech Kozubski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/83372/images/system/83372.jpg",biography:"Prof. Wojciech Kozubski, MD, PhD is the Head of the Department of Neurology, University of Medical Sciences in Poznan, Poland.\nHe graduated from Medical School in Lodz in 1980. In 1983 he received his PhD and in 2002, his professorship.\nFrom 1987 to 1991, he was awarded a scholarship from the Academic Unit of Neuroscience, University of London, Department of Neurology, University of Tel-Aviv and the Department of Neurology, University of Trondheim.\nHe is an author and co-author of over 300 papers concerning the migraine and related headaches, stroke, and dementia. He is the editor of the handbook of clinical neurology for neurologists, the handbook for medical students, monographs on brain tumours, affective diseases of nervous system and therapy in neurology. \nFrom 2011 to 2014, he was the President of the Polish Neurological Society.",institutionString:"Poznań University of Medical Sciences",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Poznan University of Medical Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1056",title:"Neurology",slug:"neurology"}],chapters:[{id:"73994",title:"Introductory Chapter: Migraine in Post-Triptan Era – New Therapeutic Horizons",slug:"introductory-chapter-migraine-in-post-triptan-era-new-therapeutic-horizons",totalDownloads:312,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"83372",title:"Prof.",name:"Wojciech",surname:"Kozubski",slug:"wojciech-kozubski",fullName:"Wojciech Kozubski"},{id:"338998",title:"Dr.",name:"Izabela",surname:"Domitrz",slug:"izabela-domitrz",fullName:"Izabela Domitrz"}]},{id:"71598",title:"Recent Advances in Migraine Therapy",slug:"recent-advances-in-migraine-therapy",totalDownloads:777,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"250379",title:"M.D.",name:"Balaji",surname:"Ommurugan",slug:"balaji-ommurugan",fullName:"Balaji Ommurugan"},{id:"302217",title:"Dr.",name:"Vanishree",surname:"Rao",slug:"vanishree-rao",fullName:"Vanishree Rao"}]},{id:"70250",title:"Minimally Invasive Surgical Treatment of Migraine",slug:"minimally-invasive-surgical-treatment-of-migraine",totalDownloads:618,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"186689",title:"Dr.",name:"Edoardo",surname:"Raposio",slug:"edoardo-raposio",fullName:"Edoardo Raposio"},{id:"206724",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicolò",surname:"Bertozzi",slug:"nicolo-bertozzi",fullName:"Nicolò Bertozzi"},{id:"313170",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesco",surname:"Simonacci",slug:"francesco-simonacci",fullName:"Francesco Simonacci"},{id:"314065",title:"Dr.",name:"Gianluigi",surname:"Lago",slug:"gianluigi-lago",fullName:"Gianluigi Lago"},{id:"314066",title:"Dr.",name:"Fante",surname:"Carlo",slug:"fante-carlo",fullName:"Fante Carlo"},{id:"314067",title:"Dr.",name:"Giuseppe",surname:"Sanese",slug:"giuseppe-sanese",fullName:"Giuseppe Sanese"}]},{id:"72737",title:"Therapeutic Management: When and What",slug:"therapeutic-management-when-and-what",totalDownloads:594,totalCrossrefCites:2,authors:[{id:"320226",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Dimos-Dimitrios",surname:"Mitsikostas",slug:"dimos-dimitrios-mitsikostas",fullName:"Dimos-Dimitrios Mitsikostas"},{id:"320230",title:"Dr.",name:"Theodoros",surname:"Mavridis",slug:"theodoros-mavridis",fullName:"Theodoros Mavridis"},{id:"320231",title:"Dr.",name:"Christina",surname:"Deligianni",slug:"christina-deligianni",fullName:"Christina Deligianni"},{id:"320232",title:"Dr.",name:"Marianthi",surname:"Breza",slug:"marianthi-breza",fullName:"Marianthi Breza"}]},{id:"72941",title:"Chronic Migraine",slug:"chronic-migraine",totalDownloads:517,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"319862",title:"Prof.",name:"Diana",surname:"Obelieniene",slug:"diana-obelieniene",fullName:"Diana Obelieniene"},{id:"321343",title:"Dr.",name:"Ruta",surname:"Pestininkaite",slug:"ruta-pestininkaite",fullName:"Ruta Pestininkaite"},{id:"324551",title:"Prof.",name:"Daiva",surname:"Rastenyte",slug:"daiva-rastenyte",fullName:"Daiva Rastenyte"}]},{id:"70853",title:"Chronic Migraine in Adolescence",slug:"chronic-migraine-in-adolescence",totalDownloads:619,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"314132",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Marcos Antonio Da Silva",surname:"Cristovam",slug:"marcos-antonio-da-silva-cristovam",fullName:"Marcos Antonio Da Silva Cristovam"},{id:"316844",title:"Mr.",name:"Daniel Albiero",surname:"Piélak",slug:"daniel-albiero-pielak",fullName:"Daniel Albiero Piélak"},{id:"316845",title:"Ms.",name:"Julia",surname:"Deitos",slug:"julia-deitos",fullName:"Julia Deitos"},{id:"316846",title:"Ms.",name:"Júlia Natsumi",surname:"Hashimoto",slug:"julia-natsumi-hashimoto",fullName:"Júlia Natsumi Hashimoto"},{id:"316847",title:"Ms.",name:"Lorena Vaz Meleiro",surname:"Lopes",slug:"lorena-vaz-meleiro-lopes",fullName:"Lorena Vaz Meleiro Lopes"},{id:"316848",title:"Ms.",name:"Luísa Manfredin",surname:"Vila",slug:"luisa-manfredin-vila",fullName:"Luísa Manfredin Vila"}]},{id:"73382",title:"Medication Overuse Headache",slug:"medication-overuse-headache",totalDownloads:619,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"295996",title:"Dr.",name:"Pritesh",surname:"Pranay",slug:"pritesh-pranay",fullName:"Pritesh Pranay"},{id:"320333",title:"Prof.",name:"Fayyaz",surname:"Ahmed",slug:"fayyaz-ahmed",fullName:"Fayyaz Ahmed"},{id:"330603",title:"Dr.",name:"Dhruv",surname:"Bansal",slug:"dhruv-bansal",fullName:"Dhruv Bansal"}]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"297737",firstName:"Mateo",lastName:"Pulko",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297737/images/8492_n.png",email:"mateo.p@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"745",title:"Neurodegenerative Diseases",subtitle:"Processes, Prevention, Protection and Monitoring",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3d5795dad33257368f0b7848c22d5dd4",slug:"neurodegenerative-diseases-processes-prevention-protection-and-monitoring",bookSignature:"Raymond Chuen-Chung Chang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/745.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"33396",title:"Dr.",name:"Raymond Chuen-Chung",surname:"Chang",slug:"raymond-chuen-chung-chang",fullName:"Raymond Chuen-Chung Chang"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3278",title:"Neurodegenerative Diseases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"aa717c2801cf98db641d48414cef8ced",slug:"neurodegenerative-diseases",bookSignature:"Uday Kishore",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3278.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"155691",title:"Dr.",name:"Uday",surname:"Kishore",slug:"uday-kishore",fullName:"Uday Kishore"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"434",title:"Alzheimer's Disease Pathogenesis",subtitle:"Core Concepts, Shifting Paradigms and Therapeutic Targets",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"49f4c7dbf69e8a9eaf780e37f4aae1ab",slug:"alzheimer-s-disease-pathogenesis-core-concepts-shifting-paradigms-and-therapeutic-targets",bookSignature:"Suzanne De La Monte",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/434.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"29111",title:"Dr.",name:"Suzanne",surname:"De La Monte",slug:"suzanne-de-la-monte",fullName:"Suzanne De La Monte"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3296",title:"Understanding Alzheimer's Disease",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b040d696d429a2a6dc90cd236f160778",slug:"understanding-alzheimer-s-disease",bookSignature:"Inga Zerr",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3296.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"26013",title:"Prof.",name:"Inga",surname:"Zerr",slug:"inga-zerr",fullName:"Inga Zerr"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3437",title:"Mood Disorders",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"62c54b70da87ce48e712c07601105311",slug:"mood-disorders",bookSignature:"Nese Kocabasoglu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3437.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"91417",title:"Prof.",name:"Nese",surname:"Kocabasoglu",slug:"nese-kocabasoglu",fullName:"Nese Kocabasoglu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"628",title:"Clinical and Genetic Aspects of Epilepsy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7a566ad3987bbfe969872a2b89c43559",slug:"clinical-and-genetic-aspects-of-epilepsy",bookSignature:"Zaid Afawi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/628.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"61190",title:"Dr.",name:"Zaid",surname:"Afawi",slug:"zaid-afawi",fullName:"Zaid Afawi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4543",title:"Alzheimer's Disease",subtitle:"Challenges for the Future",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"06a927cb5db884ece5679509729fd17a",slug:"alzheimer-s-disease-challenges-for-the-future",bookSignature:"Inga Zerr",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4543.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"26013",title:"Prof.",name:"Inga",surname:"Zerr",slug:"inga-zerr",fullName:"Inga Zerr"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1062",title:"Dystonia",subtitle:"The Many Facets",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"81069e5ab5b7c4bb52cf7bd16d0c4cb2",slug:"dystonia-the-many-facets",bookSignature:"Raymond L. Rosales",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1062.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"70147",title:"Prof.",name:"Raymond",surname:"Rosales",slug:"raymond-rosales",fullName:"Raymond Rosales"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1360",title:"Mechanisms in Parkinson's Disease",subtitle:"Models and Treatments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"823c4dc5acbf952ba3723cae01f7f67a",slug:"mechanisms-in-parkinson-s-disease-models-and-treatments",bookSignature:"Juliana Dushanova",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1360.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36845",title:"Dr.",name:"Juliana",surname:"Dushanova",slug:"juliana-dushanova",fullName:"Juliana Dushanova"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6207",title:"Traumatic Brain Injury",subtitle:"Pathobiology, Advanced Diagnostics and Acute Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b39555959a8969f3d06634703afd3231",slug:"traumatic-brain-injury-pathobiology-advanced-diagnostics-and-acute-management",bookSignature:"Nikolai V. Gorbunov and Joseph B. Long",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6207.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"180960",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolai",surname:"Gorbunov",slug:"nikolai-gorbunov",fullName:"Nikolai Gorbunov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"29728",title:"The Welfare of Transgenic Farm Animals",doi:"10.5772/29260",slug:"the-welfare-of-transgenic-farm-animals",body:'\n\t\tAs part of a burst of deregulatory activity in the dwindling days of the Bush administration, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration proposed guidelines for the approval of genetically engineered farm animals for the American food supply. Imagine “double muscled” beef cattle born so enormous they can be extracted only via Caesarian section, a dairy cow capable of generating ten times more milk than a calf could suckle (if she were allowed, that is), a hen laying so many eggs she risks a prolapse (laying her own uterus), turkeys so top-heavy they are physically incapable of mating, and chickens with such explosive growth they have to be starved lest they risk aortic rupture (Renema, 2004). Imagine a world in which farm animals have been so genetically modified for rapid muscling that billions suffer in chronic pain from skeletal disorders that impair their ability to even walk.
\n\t\t\tUnfortunately, this is the world we already live in. All of these abominations exist today, products of conventional techniques of genetic manipulation, such as artificial selection and insemination, hormone-induced superovulation, and embryo splitting and transfer. Genetic engineering, the creation of transgenic farm animals whose genes have been modified through biotechnology, goes a step further, giving agribusiness an additional tool to stress animals towards their biological limits at the expense of their health and welfare—and, potentially, ours as well.
\n\t\tEver since the early Eighties when it was demonstrated that one could nearly double the size of mice by engineering them to produce rat or human growth hormones, the livestock industries have been clamoring to make use of this technology (Palmiter et al., 1982, 1983; Westhusin, 1997). Double-muscling is a genetic defect maintained in certain breeds of beef cattle caused by a mutation of a gene which regulates muscle growth. Not only do births of such calves require surgical intervention, their tongue muscles may be too enlarged to suckle, leading to death (Lips et al., 2001; Uystepruyst et al., 2002). Unable to move sufficiently in the womb due to their unnatural size they may be born with their joints locked in place and be unable to stand (Lips et al., 2001). The inherent welfare problems have led some European countries to consider banning the intentional breeding of such cattle on animal welfare grounds (Anonymous, 2010a). Reads one editorial in the
The creation of the “mighty mouse,” however, with up to
Today\'s dairy cows endure annual cycles of artificial insemination, mechanized milking for 10 out of 12 months (including 7 months of their 9-month pregnancies), and giving birth. Over the past century, selective breeding has tripled the annual milk yield per cow to about 20,000 pounds. It took the first half of the century to force the first ton increase, but since the 1980s, the industry has managed to milk an extra ton of production per cow every eight or nine years. According to Bristol University Emeritus Professor John Webster in the Department of Clinical Veterinary Science, “The amount of work done by the [dairy] cow in peak lactation is immense. To achieve a comparable high work rate a human would have to jog for about 6 hours a day, every day.” This excessive metabolic drain overburdens the cows, who are considered “productive” for only two years and are slaughtered for hamburger around their fourth birthday when their profitability drops, a small fraction of their natural lifespan (Dewey, 2001).
\n\t\t\t\tTurning dairy cows into milk machines has led to epidemics of so-called “production-related diseases,” such as lameness and mastitis, the two leading causes of dairy cow mortality in the United States. We all remember the sick and crippled dairy cows being dragged and beaten at that California dairy cow slaughter plant in 2008. That loss of body condition is in part a direct result of this extreme selection for unnaturally high milk yields.
\n\t\t\t\tThat slaughter plant investigation triggered the largest meat recall in history for fear the cows might be infected with mad cow disease. A cow\'s natural diet—grass—can no longer sustain such abnormally high levels of milk production. They must be fed feed concentrates such as grains or slaughter waste. Today\'s dairy cows may be forced to eat a pound a day of meat, blood, and bone meal, euphemisms, as described by a leading feedstuffs textbook, for “trimmings that originate on the killing floor, inedible parts and organs, cleaned entrails, fetuses....”
\n\t\t\t\tEver increasing rates of mastitis, (United States Department of Agriculture [USDA], 2008a) udder infections, have led to the extensive use of antibiotics in the dairy industry, including classes of drugs important to human medicine such as penicillin, erythromycin, and tetracycline (USDA, 2008b). A 2005 survey of Pennsylvania dairy herds even uncovered that about 1 in 5 operations were injecting cows with a third generation cephalosporin, a class of antibiotics critical for the treatment of serious infections in children (Call et al., 2008). The concern is that by selective breeding for an overstressed caricature of an animal, the dairy industry\'s reliance on pharmacological crutches may in turn breed antibiotic resistance to drugs necessary for human medicine (Alcaine et al., 2005).
\n\t\t\t\tThe mastitis epidemic in the national dairy herd also affects milk quality. American milk has the highest allowable pus cell concentration in the world, legally allowing over 300 million “somatic” cells per glass, 90% of which are neutrophils (pus cells) when there is an udder infection of that severity (United States Public Health Service, 2003; Ruegg, 2001). The industry, however, has always argued that it doesn’t matter how inflamed and infected the udders of our factory farmed dairy cows are, because of pasteurization—it’s essentially cooked pus, so there’s no food safety risk. But just as parents may not want to feed their children fecal matter in meat even if it\'s irradiated fecal matter, they might not want to feed their children pasteurized pus.
\n\t\t\t\tAnd you can taste the difference. A 2008 study published in the
The intensive breeding of pigs for increased muscle mass has led to a susceptibility to porcine stress syndrome, in which electric prodding and other stressors can trigger muscle rigidity, high fever, and acute death from what’s called malignant hyperthermia, also known as “hot death” (Casau, 2003; Wendt et al., 2000; Anonymous, 2010b). It costs the industry hundreds of millions of dollars a year, but the reason the genetic defect hasn’t been eliminated is that the mutation that puts pigs at risk for this disease is the same mutation that adds 2-3% muscle mass to the dressed carcass weight (MacLennan & Phillips, 1992).
\n\t\t\t\tPostmortem, their muscles can become pale, soft, and sweaty, which many consumers find objectionable. As the director of the Muscle Biology Laboratory at the University of Wisconsin told the
Whereas ancestors to the modern-day chicken laid about 25 eggs a year, today’s laying hens produce more than ten times that number. After about a year they are considered “spent.” By the end their bones are so brittle because of the excessive draw of calcium from their skeletons for egg shell formation that up to a third of hens have freshly broken bones at slaughter.
\n\t\t\t\tThe loss of muscle tone from excessive egg-laying, along with consumer demand for “jumbo” eggs, places hens at risk for the prolapse of part of their reproductive tracts during egg-laying (Keshavarz, 1990; Zuidhof, 2002). This can lead to bleeding, infection, and death from cloacal cannibalism, as stressed and overcrowded cage-mates peck at the exposed organ (Newberry, 2004; Zuidhof, 2002). The steroidal sex hormone activity associated with heavy egg production is thought to be why both benign and cancerous tumors are so common in commercial birds and also why hens are predisposed to salpingitis. This pelvic infection can lead to the buildup of masses of caseous exudate (oozing material with a cheese-like consistency), which can expand and end up fatally filling the body cavity.
\n\t\t\tBen Franklin\'s tree-perching “Bird of Courage” has been transformed into a flightless mammoth bred to grow so fast, a group of veterinary researchers concluded, “that they are on the verge of structural collapse” (Wise & Jennings, 1972). Wild turkeys grow to be 8 pounds (Healy, 1992). The average turkey grown today is more than 28 pounds (National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2007). Their skeletons cannot adequately support such weight, leading to degenerative hip disease, spontaneous fractures, and up to 20% mortality due to lameness in problem flocks (Julian, 1984). An editor at
Commercial strains may not only outgrow their skeletons, but their cardiovascular systems as well. Modern day turkeys have been bred to grow so fast that up to 6% of modern-day turkey flocks simply drop dead from acute heart failure at just a few months of age (Mutalib & Hanson, 1990). It still may make good economic sense in the end. The sudden deaths of turkeys has in fact been regarded by some in the industry as a sign of “good flock health and fast growth rate as in the case of sudden death syndrome (flip-over) in broiler chickens” (Mutalib & Hanson, 1990). As one producer wrote, “Aside from the stupendous rate of growth…the sign of a good meat flock is the number of birds dying from heart attacks” (Baskin, 1978).
\n\t\t\tThe commercial breeds of chickens raised for meat, so-called “broilers,” probably suffer the most. Compared to 1920, broilers now grow twice as large in half the time, reaching slaughter weight in around 6 weeks. To put their growth rate into perspective, the University of Arkansas Division of Agriculture calculates, “If you grew as fast as a chicken, you’d weigh 349 pounds at age 2” (Boersma, 2001).
\n\t\t\t\tTheir hearts and lungs can\'t keep up. Due to this breeding for rapid growth, a hundred million chickens in the United States every year succumb to sudden death or “flip-over“ syndrome, since the birds are often found on their backs after dying in a fit of convulsions and wing-beating (Julian, 2004). These are baby birds, only a few weeks old, dying of heart attacks. One poultry specialist mused in the trade publication
Today\'s broiler chickens are crippled with inbred physical disabilities, from “twisted-leg” deformities to avulsed and ruptured tendons. At six weeks, broiler chickens have such difficulty supporting their grossly overweight bodies that they are forced to spend most of their time lying in their own waste, leading to an increased incidence of painful contact burns such as “breast blisters” from the ammonia released from the decomposing excrement (Estevez, 2002; Weeks et al., 2000). Those unable to hobble using their wing tips as crutches or crawl on their shanks to food and water won’t make it to slaughter.
\n\t\t\t\tA review published in 2003 in an industry text
According to Professor Emeritus Webster, “Broilers are the only livestock that are in chronic pain for the last 20% of their lives. They don’t move around, not because they are overstocked, but because it hurts their joints so much” (Erlichman, 1991). This chronic pain experienced by our freakishly heavy modern day chickens and turkeys “must constitute,” Webster concludes, “in both magnitude and severity, the single most severe, systematic example of man’s inhumanity to another sentient animal” (Webster, 1995).
\n\t\t\t\tTwo prominent poultry researchers, however, offer the following economic analysis:
\n\t\t\t\t“Two decades ago the goal of every grower was to ensure that the flock grew as rapidly as possible. However, the industry has developed a broiler that, if grown as rapidly as possible, will achieve a body mass that cannot be supported by the bird’s heart, respiratory system or skeleton.
\n\t\t\t\t“The situation has forced growers to make a choice. Is it more profitable to grow the biggest bird possible and have increased mortality due to heart attacks, ascites, and leg problems, or should birds be grown slower so that birds are smaller, but have fewer heart, lung and skeletal problems?...A large portion of growers’ pay is based on the pound of saleable meat produced, so simple calculations suggest that it is better to get the weight and ignore the mortality” (Tabler & Mendenhall, 2003).
\n\t\t\tChickens and turkeys aren\'t the only lame birds. In its final days, the Bush Administration\'s promise to “sprint to the finish” involved rolling back restrictions on smokestack emissions, commercial ocean fishing, and mountaintop removal coal mining (Smith, 2008). Overshadowed by election coverage, in September 2008 the FDA released draft guidelines to move the approval of genetically engineered farm animals in the U.S. food supply one step closer to reality (Food and Drug Administration, 2009).
\n\t\t\t\tThe Biotechnology Industry Organization claims that the genetic engineering of farm animals offers “tremendous benefit to the animal by enhancing health, wellbeing, and animal welfare” (Gottlieb, 2002). Theoretically this technology could be used by industry giants to ameliorate some of the inbred animal “illfare” they have created, but if past performance is any predictor of future behaviour, genetic engineering will just be used to further industry goals of production efficiency at nearly any cost. The meat, egg, and dairy industries recognize that enhanced productivity generally comes at the expense of animal health and well-being. The reason given for not using existing breeding programs to relieve suffering is presumably the same reason biotech resources won\'t be diverted to improve welfare: doing so, in the words of livestock geneticists in the
The primary goal set out for transgenic food animals has explicitly been to improve productivity, so-called “quantitative genetic engineering” concerned with increasing “economic fitness” (Dickerson & Willham, 1983; Pinkert & Murray, 1999). Consider the most widespread current use of biotechnology in animal agriculture, recombinant bovine somatotropin. The injection of this genetically engineered growth hormone increases milk yield in dairy cattle, but also increases the rates of mastitis, lameness, and poor body condition. Yet millions of U.S. dairy cows are repeatedly injected with this genetically engineered hormone throughout their short lives, demonstrating dairy industry priorities—profits at the expense of animal health. More is not always better.
\n\t\t\t\tAgribusiness claims in its public relations materials that biotechnology will be used to improve animal welfare, but to date gene constructs designed to express growth factors constitute the largest class of transgenes so far experimentally transferred into livestock (Murray, 1999). It is instructive that the first report of the successful creation of transgenic livestock was the “Beltsville pigs,” engineered at a USDA lab in Beltsville, Maryland to express human growth hormone (Hammer et al., 1985). Yes, their feed efficiency modestly improved, but many became lame, lethargic, and uncoordinated with thickened skin and bulging eyes. These pigs also suffered with ulcerated stomachs, inflamed hearts and kidneys and severe joint degeneration. Several of them died during or immediately after confinement in a restraint device, suggesting an increased susceptibility to stress (National Research Council, 2002). Seventeen of the nineteen transgenic pigs created didn\'t last a year.
\n\t\t\t\tThough animal scientists have cited the Beltsville pigs research “as an excellent example of the value of this technology,” the results of the now infamous experiment have been used by critics for over 20 years to condemn the genetic engineering of farmed animals on animal welfare grounds (Wheeler et al., 2003). Reliance on laboratory freaks as the centerpiece of one\'s argument, though, ignores the fact that the technology has improved since those early experiments and, more importantly, overlooks the much larger concern. Given the inefficiency and unpredictability of this still emerging science, attention has been drawn to the unintended consequences, but considering the power of the technology and the sheer number of animals raised for food every year—50 billion land animals alone—what of the secondary effects of the
Grahame Bulfield, the head of the Roslin Institute, the creator of the cloned sheep Dolly, is quoted as saying:
\n\t\t\t\t“The view I take on animal welfare is that the technology itself is a red herring. If an animal is lame because of genetic modification or selective breeding or poor nutrition, or because I kick it, it is wrong that it’s lame. So you have to pay attention to the phenotype—that is, to the animal itself—rather than the technique that produces the problem” (Klotzko, 1998).
\n\t\t\t\tThe speed, power, and ecologically disruptive potential, however, of genetic engineering is unique. Selective breeding is a powerful tool; it is, after all, what enabled humankind to turn a wolf into a poodle, but that was over a period of 14,000 years (Pennisi, 2002). Dramatic changes can be induced by gene manipulation in a single generation, and few of the usual checks and balances imposed by natural selection may apply. In natural or artificial selection, the trait that is chosen comes coupled to a constellation of linked attributes that may help the animal maintain homeostatic balance, as teetering as it may be. Due to the single-gene nature of transgenic change, however, engineered animals may suffer a greater loss of fitness than their selectively bred counterparts in conforming form to function. This has been clearly demonstrated in transgenic fish.
\n\t\t\tSeveral species of genetically engineered fish stand ready to be marketed worldwide, transgenic tilapia in Cuba, transgenic salmon in the United States and Canada, and transgenic carp in the People’s Republic of China (Kaiser, 2005). The North American AquAdvantage™ salmon is positioned to become the first transgenic animal available for human consumption. Like all farmed animals, farmed fish undergo genetic manipulation through selective breeding to enhance economically favored traits such as rapid growth rate. Genetic selection for salmon size over a period of ten years has been shown to increase average weights by about 60% (Hershberger et al., 1990). Salmon engineered with transgenic growth hormones can be 1100% heavier on average, though, with one fish weighing out at 37 times normal (Devlin et al., 1994).
\n\t\t\t\tYes, some of these transgenic salmon suffer from severe and sometimes fatal cranial disfigurements, but the larger concern surrounds their overall average fitness. The critical swimming speed of salmon genetically engineered to grow twice as fast is twice as slow as the speed of same-sized normal salmon, impairing their ability to forage and avoid predators. Similarly, normal catfish exhibit better predator-avoidance skills compared to transgenic catfish. The concern is that should these transgenic fish escape into the wild—a common occurrence in aquaculture—they could lead to species population extinction (Muir & Howard, 1999).
\n\t\t\t\tMale medaka fish genetically engineered with a salmon growth hormone, for example, possess an overwhelming mating advantage compared to wild-type medaka males due to their large body size. While they preferentially attract mates, in the end bigger is not necessarily better. Should their offspring bear a viability disadvantage, mathematical modeling suggests a “Trojan gene effect,” where a combination of mating advantage with survivability disadvantage could ultimately lead to the rapid collapse and extinction of both the transgenic and wild fish population in as few as approximately 50 generations should a transgenic male escape into the wild (Howard et al., 2004).
\n\t\t\t\tA report from the National Academy of Sciences on animal biotechnology concluded that these potential environment impacts present the greatest science-based safety concern (National Research Council, 2002). The one class of species—fish—considered to pose the highest risk is the one closest to commercialization. The risk is so great that biologic, rather than physical, containment of these animals may be necessary, such as induced sterility. The incorporation of so-called “suicide genes” is under consideration to prevent the genetic pollution of environment (as well as to protect corporate intellectual property rights and investment) (Wheeler et al., 2003). On the other hand, some Purdue University scientists have expressed hope that the Trojan gene effect could itself be harnessed as a tool for biological control: transgenic males could be created and released intentionally to drive wild populations of unwanted species to extinction (Muir & Howard, 1999).
\n\t\t\tThere is also a concern that biotechnology will lead to the loss of genetic biodiversity within farm animal species. An international analysis of commercial poultry breeds published in the
The biotech industry touts human benefits as well. Under consideration are cows that produce milk with fewer disease-causing components — fewer allergens, less lactose, or less saturated butterfat, though the industry fears the latter could deleteriously impair the whipping of cream (Gibson, 1991; Jost et al., 1999; Karatzas & Turner, 1997; Reh et al., 2004). Adding human breast milk genes to dairy cow udders has been suggested to improve baby formula (Wall et al., 1997). Incorporation of a humanized version of a roundworm gene into pigs could potentially make pork a source of omega-3 fatty acids and take pressure off diminishing global fish stocks. Pigs have even been implanted with spinach genes (Lai et al., 2006; Young, 2002). Dr. Seuss’s signature dish may soon be realized.
\n\t\t\t\tHuman health concerns, as expressed for example in a February 2009 review in
Genetic manipulation for accelerated muscle, milk, and egg production carries an inverse relationship with immune function, a trade-off that has been empirically demonstrated in chickens, pigs, and both beef and dairy cattle. This has been explained by the “resource-allocation hypothesis,” which suggests that protein and energy diversion from host defense to breast muscle mass production, for example, explains why chickens with accelerated growth are at risk for increased immune dysfunction, disease morbidity, and disease mortality. As breast mass enlarges, the lymphoid tissue, the immune system organs themselves, shrink.
\n\t\t\t\tBefore domestication, natural selection chose strong immune systems for survival. After domestication, though, artificial selection concentrated on improvement of production traits with less attention to resistance to disease, resulting in survival of the fattest rather than the fittest. The reason this may pose a human health hazard is that three quarters of emerging human infections diseases have come from animals. Whether it’s mad cow, bird flu, porcine Nipah virus,
As a crutch to compensate for the imposed immunodeficiency (as well as the often overcrowded, stressful, unhygienic conditions on factory farms) agribusiness pours millions of pounds of antibiotics straight into chicken, pig, cattle, and fish feed to promote further growth and stave off disease, a practice banned in the European Union and condemned by the American Academy of Pediatrics, the American Medical Association, the World Health Organization, and hundreds of other medical and public health organization. Antibiotic resistant bacteria, including the “superbug” MRSA found recently in 70% of pigs tested in Iowa and Illinois, may then transfer to people via contaminated air, water, soil, or food. We may be sacrificing a future where antibiotics will continue to work for treating sick people by squandering them today on animals that are not yet sick at all.
\n\t\t\tA 1997 scientific expedition to Alaska further underscored the threat of weakened farm animal immunity. Digging up victims of the 1918 flu pandemic discovered frozen in the permafrost for tissue samples, scientists allied with the U.S. Armed Forces Institute of Pathology were able to decipher the genetic code of the killer virus, solving perhaps the greatest medical detective story of all time. The 1918 pandemic was the worst plague in human history, killing more people in 25 weeks than AIDS has killed in 25 years, an estimated 50 million people dead. In 2005, with the entire genome of the 1918 virus finally decoded, the mystery was solved. Humanity’s greatest mass murderer turned out to be a bird flu virus. This finding, combined with the unprecedented recent emergence of highly pathogenic bird flu viruses around the world such as H5N1, means that disease losses from selecting or engineering fast growing breeds of chickens with essentially built-in immune dysfunction can no longer just be factored in to the corporate bottom line. Millions of human lives may be at stake.
\n\t\t\t\tThere has been interest in trying to genetically engineer our way out of these problems. Instead of stopping the cannibalistic feeding of slaughterhouse waste, blood, and manure to cows, for example, researchers are trying to create mad cow disease resistant cattle (Cyranoski, 2003). Instead of removing the strain on overproducing dairy cattle, researchers are working on creating cows that secrete an antibiotic substance directly into their milk to prevent udder infections (Wall et al., 2005). Production-related diseases have become preferred technofix targets presumably because they represent barriers to even greater productivity. The industry may be able to squeeze extra tons of milk from cows secreting antibiotics without rampant mastitis, but the metabolic, musculoskeletal, and painful hoof problems associated with overproduction would be further aggravated. Issues surrounding the Enviropig™ offer a parallel.
\n\t\t\tTrumpeted by the pork industry as the “biggest breakthrough in pig farming since the invention of the trough,” a new line of transgenic pigs incorporating a composite of mouse and bacterial genes has been patented to produce manure with less phosphorus: the Enviropig™ (Vestel, 2001). This may allow for the further expansion of swine CAFOs, confined animal feeding operations. Already some CAFOs store hog waste in massive open-air manure pits the size of several football fields, which can burst, spilling millions of gallons of excrement into local watersheds. In one year, 1991, an estimated one billion fish were killed from farm animal manure run-off in North Carolina alone (Zakin, 1999). Enviropigs may produce less phosphorus, but what about the other pollutants in manure—the nitrates which end up in the groundwater leading to miscarriages, birth defects, and “blue-baby syndrome,” the hydrogen sulfide emissions that have killed CAFO workers, the ammonia contributing to acid rain, potent greenhouse gases such as methane and nitrous oxide, and the increased asthma rates in adjoining school districts and elevated infant mortality? The pigs aren’t the problem; CAFOs are the problem.
\n\t\t\t\tIn the United States, farm animals produce an estimated 2 billion tons of manure each year, the weight of 20,000 Nimitz-class aircraft carriers. Manure has been found to be the source of more than 100 pathogens and parasites that can infect people, as well as antibiotics, hormones, pesticides, and toxic heavy metals. Enviropigs won’t rid CAFOs of the odor, disease, pollution and occupational hazards inherent to intensive confinement. They will, however, be trumpeted as exemplars by the biotechnology industry of the golden age that transgenic farm animals are to herald, as golden rice was used to tout genetically modified crops.
\n\t\t\t\tGolden Rice was hyped as the salvation for millions of children threatened with blindness, but cynics argued that Golden Rice was more about the salvation of the beleaguered biotech industry (Anonymous, 2008). The cynics may have been right. In the eight years since its development not a single grain has been sown for consumption, whereas during that same period hundreds of millions of tons of Roundup Ready® crops have been planted worldwide, increasing the global ecological burden of herbicides and herbicide resistance. Similarly, the industry may publicly peddle concepts like the Enviropig™ as a ploy to dampen criticism while slipping past the more lucrative and damaging applications of transgenic livestock.
\n\t\t\tAnimal agriculture has undergone a mass consolidation in recent decades. For example, a handful of corporations now supply most of the breeding stock for all the world’s poultry. Soon, the industry predicts, there may essentially be only three poultry breeders in the world. Today, a single pedigree cockerel can potentially give rise to two million broiler chickens. This means that selected or engineered traits can be propagated around the world at an unprecedented rate. The industry can now replace practically the entire global chicken flock in a space of three or four years, affecting the welfare of 50 billion animals for better or for worse.
\n\t\t\t\tThe genetic engineering of farmed animals is not
Today’s laying hens produce more than ten times the number of eggs than their ancestors, leading to uterine prolapses and critically weakened, broken bones as their skeletal calcium is disproportionately mobilized for shell formation. Egg-laying breeds have been so genetically manipulated—through conventional selection—that it\'s not profitable to raise male offspring for meat. So hundreds of millions of male chicks every year in the United States are gassed, ground up alive, or just thrown in dumpsters to suffocate or dehydrate to death after hatching. Economically it doesn\'t make sense to even waste feed on male chicks because they haven\'t been bred for excessive muscle mass. Engineering hens that lay only female chicks would double the yield for the breeding industry while sparing hundreds of millions of animals a tragic death. Similarly, constructing dairy cows to preferentially deliver females could save a half million male calves from their doomed fate in the veal industry.
\n\t\t\t\tTens of millions of piglets are castrated without anesthesia or postoperative painkillers every year in the United States to prevent “boar taint” of carcasses, a quality considered amenable to genetic manipulation. No federal regulations protect animals on the farm and “standard agricultural practices” such as castration and dehorning are typically exempt from state anti-cruelty statutes.
\n\t\t\t\tDehorning of beef cattle is another painful surgical procedure performed without anesthesia primarily to protect carcass quality, but could be obviated by knocking out the single gene responsible for horn production (Rollin, 1995). Polled (congenitally hornless) breeds already exist, a fact that may make cattle genetically engineered without horns more palatable to the public. Of course if beef cattle weren’t crammed so tightly into feedlots there wouldn’t be the level of bruising from horns that leads to so much carcass wastage. This raises the question: is it preferable to engineer animals to fit industrial systems, or rather to engineer systems that fit the animals in the first place?
\n\t\t\tMore than 95 percent of egg-laying hens in the United States are crammed five to seven together into file-cabinet sized wire "battery cages," affording each hen less than a sheet of paper of space on which to live for over a year before she is killed. Nobel Laureate and noted father of modern ethology Konrad Lorenz wrote: "The worst torture to which a battery hen is exposed is the inability to retire somewhere for the laying act. For the person who knows something about animals it is truly heart-rending to watch how a chicken tries again and again to crawl beneath her fellow cagemates to search there in vain for cover." What if this nesting urge could be removed through genetic tinkering, though? This brings to mind the ill-famed blind chicken experiments.
\n\t\t\t\tIn 1985 poultry scientists published a series of experiments showing that under conditions of intensive confinement congenitally blind hens are more efficient at laying eggs than hens that can see. Under the stressful, barren, overcrowded battery cage conditions, hens can peck each other to death, so the ends of their sensitive beaks are burned off as chicks to minimize the damage they can do. They still peck at one another, though, which can increase feed requirements because body heat is lost from exposed skin due to feather loss. But blind hens don’t seem to peck at each other as much, not do they seem to move as much either, another big cost saver in terms of feed efficiency. Feed “wasted” on movement means less energy directed to egg production. The researchers concluded that “genetically blind birds were more efficient in converting feed into products. It is therefore worthwhile to explore further the potential of this mutation in egg-laying strains under cage systems” (Ali & Cheng, 1985).
\n\t\t\t\tThe general public reacts negatively to the notion of the industry deliberately breeding hens to be blind in order to save on feed costs, but the larger issue remains unaddressed (Lassen, 2006). What has the system come to when animals have to be literally mutilated—whether via debeaking, dehorning, detoeing, desnooding, disbudding, mulesing, comb removal, teat removal, teeth cutting, or tail docking—to fit the industrial model? Rather than creating blind chickens better adapted to confinement, an informed public would likely reject stuffing birds in tiny cages in the first place, as California voters did in 2008, passing a ballot initiative that phases out battery cages by a landslide 27 point spread victory, making it the most popular citizens\' initiative in California history. A 2007 American Farm Bureau poll found that a majority of Americans are in agreement that farm animals shouldn’t be raised in cages and crates.
\n\t\t\tIf demand for the cheapest possible meat continues to grow unabated, some animal welfare scientists have suggested going beyond the design of sightless birds, and moving to brainless. Mike the headless rooster (1945-1947) became a circus sideshow phenomenon after an incomplete decapitation left him with his brainstem intact. He was able to walk, balance on a perch, and, fed with an eyedropper, lived 18 months with no head. In this vein one could theoretically engineer headless chickens, stick tubes down their neck, and have all the meat with none of the misery. Though aesthetically abhorrent, which is worse: raising brainless chickens or a system in which animals might be better off braindead than fully alive?
\n\t\t\t\tCIP, Congenital Insensitivity to Pain, is a rare neurological disorder in which children are born unable to feel pain. Due to their susceptibility to injury, they don\'t live very long, but the industry doesn’t need farm animals to live very long. The moral outrage such a breeding program would engender might be tempered should the public become aware of the current paradigm, in which billions of animals are raised to suffer in chronic pain.
\n\t\t\t\tThese scenarios speak to how far we’ve strayed from tradition concepts of animal husbandry, how far out of step animal agribusiness is now from mainstream American values—and the industry knows it. Professor Emeritus of Animal Science Peter Cheeke wrote in his collegiate textbook Contemporary Issues in Animal Agriculture:
\n\t\t\t\t“One of the best things modern animal agriculture has going for it is that most people…haven’t a clue how animals are raised and ‘processed.’ In my opinion if most urban meateaters were to visit an industrial broiler house to see how the birds were raised…some, perhaps many, of them would swear off eating chicken and perhaps all meat. For modern animal agriculture, the less the consumer knows about what’s happening before the meat hits the plate the better” (Cheeke, 2004 )
\n\t\t\tThe answer may lie in producing meat “ex vivo,” outside of a living animal. In 1932, Winston Churchill predicted: "Fifty years hence we shall escape the absurdity of growing a whole chicken in order to eat the breast or wing by growing these parts separately under a suitable medium." He was a few years off, but in 2000 NASA scientists showed that one could start to grow fish flesh in a petri dish.
\n\t\t\t\tThe first In Vitro Meat Consortium Symposium took place in 2008 at the Norwegian Food Research Institute, bringing together an international cadre of research scientists working on the issue. With the right mixture of nutrients and growth factors, muscle cells may be able to be coaxed to multiply enough times to produce processed meat products such as sausage, hamburger, or chicken nuggets. Meat scientists at Utrecht University in conjunction with a Sara Lee sausage manufacturer subsidiary are currently working off a grant from the Dutch government to produce cultured meat as part of a national initiative to reduce the environmental impact of food production. Theoretically, the entire world’s meat supply could be produced from a single cell taken painlessly from a single animal.
\n\t\t\t\tReasoned one animal scientist at the Portuguese Institute for Molecular and Cell Biology:
\n\t\t\t\t“Frankly, if the end product is to be the white meat of a month-old broiler chicken or the minced meat of a hamburger, prepared without care and eaten absent-mindedly, why make the detour through a sentient vertebrate which needs kilos of grain just to keep upright and has a brain that may feel fear and frustration?”
\n\t\t\t\tImagine victimless meat, minus manure and methane, fished out oceans, and jungles deforested for fodder. Meat could be grown hygienically, eliminating million of cases of foodborne illness, and more efficiently, since the vast majority of corn, soy, and grain we feed animals now is lost to metabolism—just keeping the animals alive—and making inedible structures like the skeleton. Unnatural, yes, but so is most of what we eat, from bread to yogurt to hydroponic vegetables. There is arguably very little natural about the way our meat is produced today. Biotechnology has the potential to dramatically affect the welfare of farm animals on a massive scale, but whether this effect is positive or negative depends on how it’s used and how it’s regulated.
\n\t\t\tIn a dismissal of the charge that biotechnology leads to the treatment of animals as mere commodities, bioethicists at the Danish Centre For Bioethics and Risk Assessment respond: “There is already a tendency to treat animals as mere things in industrial farming” (Sand∅e & Holtug, 1993). This doesn’t justify further erosion of consideration for farm animals, but rather constitutes a call for critical reflection on contemporary practices. As the complete genomic sequences of all farm animals become available, there will be an increasing need for guidelines and guidance as to what is and is not ethically permissible.
\n\t\t\tColorado State University Distinguished Professor Bernard Rollin, professor of animal sciences, biomedical sciences, and philosophy, has introduced as a guiding principle the concept of “conservation of welfare”: when genetically engineering animals, the transgenic animals should be no worse off afterwards than their parents were (Pew, 2005). Given the volume of current suffering imposed by conventional techniques, though, rather than arguing for the status quo, perhaps a “remediation principle” would be more appropriate. Society could mandate that transgenesis for increased production require the resulting farm animals be better off than their parents. Equipped with such powerful new tools, animal agriculture could use biotechnology to bring itself more in line with rising societal expectations for farm animal care.
\n\t\t\tIn order for biotech companies to recoup their R&D investments and for agribusiness corporations to sell products of this technology, a broad public acceptance is necessary. The most extensive international study of public perceptions was a survey of more than 34,000 residents of 34 countries in Africa, Asia, the Americas, Europe and Oceania in 2000. Only 35% of global consumers were in favor of using biotechnology to increase farm animal productivity (Environics International, 2000). In the United States the percentage of those who found it acceptable to use biotechnology to create faster-growing fish dropped from 32% in 1992, to 28% in 1994, to 23% in 2000 (Hoban, 2004). According to a nationwide survey conducted in 2003 by the Pew Initiative on Food and Biotechnology, the majority of Americans (58%) even oppose scientific research into the genetic engineering of animals (PEW, 2005).
\n\t\t\tAt the same time there has been a groundswell in public awareness and scrutiny over the treatment of animals raised for food. According to a 2007 American Farm Bureau poll executed by Oklahoma State University, 95% of consumers agreed with the statement that “[i]t is important to me that animals on farms are well cared for” and furthermore, 76% disagreed that “[l]ow meat prices are more important than the well-being of farm animals” (Lusk et al., 2007 ). An Ohio State University survey found that 81% felt farmed animal well-being is as important as the well-being of companion animals, such as dogs and cats (Rauch & Sharp, 2005). The Farm Bureau found that the majority of surveyed Americans oppose the way hundreds of millions of farm animals are raised every year in the United States—the intensive confinement of animals in cages and crates. Three quarters of Americans would vote for a law that would require farmers to treat their animals more humanely, a sentiment reflected in a 2008 Gallup poll recognizing widespread support for the passage of “strict laws” concerning the treatment of farm animals. "It was a little surprising the extent to which the issue of humane treatment of animals is ingrained and widespread in our society," the director of public relations for the Farm Bureau told
This emerging social ethic for the welfare of farm animals could be an opportunity for the biotech industry rather than an impediment. A consumer backlash against biotechnology resulting from an application perceived to worsen the plight of billions of farm animals could undermine confidence not only in the food system but adversely affect the public’s view regarding medical applications of biotechnology as well as the science of genomics as a whole (Pew, 2005). According to an extensive national survey and focus group discussions published in 1993 by the North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service, the least acceptable applications of biotechnology reportedly appeared to include genetically engineering food animals for accelerated growth (Hoban & Kendall, 1993). By instead redressing the pain and suffering caused by conventional breeding, the biotech industry could improve its public image and reduce the stigma hindering the technology, and agribusiness could address societal concerns while potentially expanding its market share. Either way, the debate over transgenic farm animals may bring to light the excesses of the current breeding paradigm and force the meat egg, and dairy industries to revisit practices they have so far taken for granted.
\n\t\tThe Pew Commission on Industrial Farm Animal Production was formed to conduct a comprehensive, fact-based, and balanced examination of key aspects of the farm animal industry. This prestigious independent panel was chaired by former Kansas Governor John Carlin and included former U.S. Secretary of Agriculture Dan Glickman, former Assistant Surgeon General Michael Blackwell, and James Merchant, then Dean of the University of Iowa College of Public Health. They released their report in 2008. It concluded: "The present system of producing food animals in the United States is not sustainable and presents an unacceptable level of risk to public health and damage to the environment, as well as unnecessary harm to the animals we raise for food." Animals have already in effect been manufactured to be damaged and diseased (Ott, 1996).
\n\t\t\tIn their report, the National Academy of Science and National Research Council’s Committee on Defining Science-Based Concerns Associated with Products of Animal Biotechnology expressed concern that certain farmed animals have already been pushed to the edge: “Indeed,” they concluded, “it is possible that we already have pushed some farm animals to the limits of productivity that are possible by using selective breeding, and that further increases only will exacerbate the welfare problems that have arisen during selection” (National Research Council, 2002). Biotechnology could be used to reverse some of the damage, but given animal agriculture’s track record of willful neglect, the incorporation of genetic engineering will likely just reinforce current practices and worsen an already broken system.
\n\t\tDue to the genetic diversity of the hepatitis C virus (HCV), its accurate genotyping is still currently challenging despite the use of modern molecular techniques. In addition to the six widely-recognised HCV genotypes, a newly identified genotype (GT) 7 was reported in 2015 [1]. Molecular methods including reverse hybridization, real-time PCR and Sanger sequencing are commonly utilised for HCV genotyping and subtyping in clinical laboratories. HCV genotype and subtype (ST) have been the critical factors in decision-making for administering interferon-based therapies for the past decade [2]. According to the latest AASLD guidelines [3], determination of viral characteristics including GT, ST and resistance-associated variants (RAVs) profile is important in assigning direct-acting antivirals (DAAs) regimes in HCV patients.
\nTo help achieve the best clinical management of HCV patients, a routine diagnostic laboratory should aim at minimising reporting out non-informative HCV genotyping results which are due to inherent limitations of the diagnostic platform of choice. In general, about 2–8.5% of HCV positive samples have been reported to carry “indeterminate” GTs by several commercial assays [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. To tackle uncertainties in determining HCV GT and ST, Sanger sequencing could be utilised to resolve indeterminate or discordant GTs or ST results produced by commercial assays [10, 11]. Despite the ability to provide definitive genotyping information most of the time, unfavourable features of Sanger sequencing including low throughput, time-consuming procedures and relatively high costs, pose a barrier to it becoming routinely adopted as a first-line genotyping method. With the advent of next-generation sequencing (NGS), limitations of probe-based genotyping assays and Sanger sequencing for HCV genotyping can be overcome. NGS provides a high-resolution means for direct sequence-based interrogation of the HCV genome. Moreover, NGS also allows concurrent profiling of RAVs where such value-added feature is highly relevant for the clinical management of HCV infection with appropriate use of DAAs.
\nIn the present study, the Sentosa SQ HCV genotyping assay (hereinafter referred to as Vela NGS) (Vela Diagnostics, Singapore) which primarily interrogates the NS5B region of HCV GTs 1–6 by ion torrent-based NGS technology, was evaluated in comparison to the VERSANT HCV Genotype 2.0 Assay (hereinafter referred to as LiPA) (Siemens Healthineers, Erlangen, Germany). HCV indeterminate GTs previously reported in clinical samples by LiPA were resolved using Vela NGS assay with further confirmation by Sanger sequencing. Information on RAVs was also harnessed from deeply sequenced NS3, NS5A and NS5B regions in samples classified as HCV 1a and 1b using Vela NGS.
\nThis study was performed on residual sera or plasma from 222 clinical specimens previously received for routine genotyping using the VERSANT HCV Genotype 2.0 Line Probe Assay (Siemens Healthineers, Erlangen, Germany). All samples were stored at -80°C post-LiPA analysis and were only thawed prior to re-analysis by NGS and Sanger sequencing. All samples were de-identified for anonymisation purposes, and hence, the treatment histories remain unknown and cannot be traced. These were all residual samples, which would otherwise be discarded, and were used for the purposes of assay validation only. In such situations, ethics approval is not normally required, as all samples could not be linked back to the original patients after anonymisation.
\nIn this study, NGS was performed using Sentosa SQ HCV Genotyping Assay (4 × 16) (Vela Diagnostics, Singapore) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. The workflow started with automated extraction of total nucleic acids from 530 μL of sera or plasma using Sentosa SX Virus Total Nucleic Acid Plus II kit (Vela Diagnostics) on Sentosa SX101 (Vela Diagnostics). PCR amplification of the HCV NS3, NS5A and NS5B regions was performed on Veriti 96-Well Thermal Cycler (Applied Biosystems, CA, USA). In every individual run, a pooled library containing barcoded amplicons of 15 clinical samples and one system control, was prepared by Sentosa SX101. The pooled library was subject to sequencing template preparation and enrichment on Sentosa ST401 (Vela Diagnostics). Sequencing data generated by Sentosa SQ301 (Vela Diagnostics) was automatically channelled for primary and subsequent secondary analyses using Sentosa SQ Suite (Vela Diagnostics) and Sentosa SQ Reporter (Vela Diagnostics), respectively. Auto-generated quality control and pathology reports containing technical information, viral typing, and RAVs (available only for GTs 1a and 1b) results were manually reviewed, respectively.
\nTotal nucleic acids were extracted from 200 μL sera or plasma using EZ1 Virus Mini Kit v2.0 (QIAGEN, Hilden, Germany) on Biorobot EZ1 (QIAGEN). Using VERSANT HCV Genotype 2.0 Line Probe Assay (LiPA) (Siemens Healthineers), a one-step reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) amplifying the 5’UTR and core regions was performed on GeneAmp PCR System 9700 (Applied Biosystems). Reverse hybridisation, washing and colour development steps were performed on Autoblot 3000H (Fujirebio Europe, Gent, Belgium). For GT and ST determination, band patterns were manually scored by aligning the strips to an interpretation chart provided by the manufacturer.
\nSanger sequencing was performed on samples previously reported by LiPA as indeterminate genotype. A primary PCR amplification of a 454 bp fragment of the NS5B region was initially attempted using primers 5Bo8254 and 5Bo8707 [12]. In samples with PCR failure using the above-mentioned primers, a secondary PCR amplifying a 446 bp fragment of the 5’UTR/core regions was subsequently performed using primers UTR45 and Cor490 [12]. PCR products from the amplifiable gene segments were subjected to direct sequencing with BigDye Terminator v3.1 Cycle Sequencing kit (Applied Biosystems) using the respective PCR primers on a 3130XL Genetic Analyzer (Applied Biosystems).
\nSequence analysis was performed by querying the nucleotide sequences obtained from Sanger sequencing in the Los Alamos hepatitis C sequence database [13]. For Vela NGS, assembled contigs were downloaded from the Sentosa SQ Reporter software. In samples with discordant results between LiPA and Vela NGS, NGS contigs were uploaded to the Los Alamos hepatitis C sequence database [13] to verify Vela NGS results.
\nThe Vela NGS results at both GT and ST levels were tabulated in Table 1 for 170 clinical samples with GT and/or ST results from LiPA. Perfect (100%) concordance at HCV genotype level was achieved in GT 2 (N = 13), GT 3 (N = 55) and GT 5 (N = 7). For samples reported by LiPA as GT 1 (N = 40), 20% (N = 8) gave discrepant results when compared to Vela NGS. These samples had been previously classified by LiPA as either GT 1a with core inconclusive, GT 1b with 96.1% homology, GT 1b with core inconclusive, or GT 1b with core not available, due to their unconventional band patterns. There was no discrepancy between samples firmly reported as GT 1a and GT 1b by LiPA. In samples reported as GT 4 (N = 16) by LiPA, 43.8% (N = 7) were found to be GT 3 by Vela NGS. Two samples (5.1%) originally reported by LiPA as GT 3 were classified by Vela NGS as GT 6 samples.
\nComparison of GT and ST distribution in 170 samples tested by both LiPA and Vela NGS.
At ST level, Vela NGS reclassified 1 sample previously assigned as HCV 1a with core inconclusive by LiPA as 1c. Two samples each reported as 4a/4c/4d and 4e by LiPA, respectively, were reclassified as 4n and 4o by Vela NGS. Another 29 GT 6 (ST c-l) samples reported by LiPA were reassigned by Vela NGS as 6e/6u (N = 1), 6j (N = 1), 6m (N = 9), and 6n (N = 18), respectively. One sample with LiPA 6m (77.9% homology) was reassigned as 6u by Vela NGS.
\nOf the 170 samples tested, there were 104 agreements at both GT and ST levels, 49 partial agreements at genotype but not the subtype levels, and 117 discordant results generated by LiPA and Vela NGS (Table 1). At GT level, the calculated Cohen’s Kappa is 0.869 (95% confidence interval: 0.810–0.928), suggesting good strength of agreement between the two assays. The 66 NGS contig sequences of samples with partial agreement or discordant results were submitted to the online analysis in the Los Alamos hepatitis C sequence database. HCV GT and ST called by Vela NGS were verified in all 66 contigs.
\nHCV genotyping and subtyping results were found to be reproducible for a panel of 5 samples with different HCV GT/ST including 1a, 1b, 2a, 3a and 3b tested in triplicates within a single run on the Vela NGS platform (Figure 1a). For inter-run reproducibility testing (Figure 1b), GT and ST results were consistently reported in another panel of 7 samples including 1a, 1b, 2b, 3a, 4d, 5a and 6n, which were repeatedly tested in three separate runs on different days. Details of viral load and median coverage of the targeted NS5B region are depicted in Figure 1a and b, respectively.
\nPrecision studies on the Vela NGS. (a) Intra-run and (b) inter-run reproducibility on median read depth were tested on 5 and 7 clinical specimens, respectively. For RAV analysis, variants were called with reproducible frequency (c) within a run (intra-run) and (d) between runs (inter-run).
In the current Vela NGS assay, a list of variants differing from the wild-type codons are detectable for HCV 1a and 1b. The 16 target codons in the NS3 gene are 36, 41, 43, 54, 55, 80, 109, 122, 132 (1a only), 138, 155, 156, 158, 168, 170 (1b only) and 175 (1b only). For NS5A, variants at nine codons including 28 (1a only), 30 (1a only), 31, 32, 54 (1b only), 58, 62 (1b only), 92 and 93, are detectable. Eight codons in the NS5B gene including 414, 419, 422, 423, 495, 499 (1b only), 554 and 559, are also covered in this assay.
\nOf 13 GT 1a samples (Table 2), five were found to carry at least one target variant in the NS3 gene. Notably, two samples carried the Q80K RAV. For NS5A, the M28A variant was detected in one sample in which NS3 Q80K was also present. None of the GT 1a samples was found to carry any of target variants in the NS5B gene.
\nNo | \nID | \nGT1 STs | \nRAVs (variant frequency) | \n||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
NS3 | \nNS5A | \nNS5B | \n|||
1 | \nR02-BC02 | \n1a | \nS122G (99.21%), D168E (97.07%) | \n– | \n– | \n
2 | \nR02-BC03 | \n1a | \nV55A (91.44%) | \n– | \n– | \n
3 | \nR02-BC04 | \n1a | \nQ80K (25.63%) | \nM28V (99.47%) | \n– | \n
4 | \nR02-BC05 | \n1a | \nQ80K (4.84%) | \n– | \n– | \n
5 | \nR13-BC13 | \n1a | \nD168E (51.43%) | \n– | \n– | \n
6 | \nR01-BC02 | \n1b | \nQ80K (55.29%) M175L (87.81%) | \n– | \nV499A (98.15%) | \n
7 | \nR01-BC03 | \n1b | \n– | \n– | \nV499A (97.03%) | \n
8 | \nR01-BC04 | \n1b | \n– | \nL31M (22.03%), Q54H (98.82%) | \nV499A (33.65%) | \n
9 | \nR01-BC05 | \n1b | \n– | \nQ54H (99.11%), Y93H (99.73%) | \n– | \n
10 | \nR01-BC06 | \n1b | \nQ80L (99.52%), S122G (9.99%) | \nQ54H (99.05%) | \nV499A (97.91%) | \n
11 | \nR01-BC07 | \n1b | \n– | \nQ54H (98.76%), Y93H (99.61%) | \n– | \n
12 | \nR01-BC08 | \n1b | \n– | \nQ54H (99.22%), Q62E (99.04%) | \n– | \n
13 | \nR01-BC09 | \n1b | \nS122G (97.69%) | \nQ54H (99.21%), Q62E (51.64%) | \nP495A 8.83% | \n
14 | \nR01-BC11 | \n1b | \n– | \nY93H (99.24%) | \n– | \n
15 | \nR02-BC07 | \n1b | \n– | \nQ54H (99.37%) | \nV499A 98.9% | \n
16 | \nR02-BC-11 | \n1b | \nQ80R (92.29%) | \nQ62E (5.61%) | \nV499A 95.15% | \n
17 | \nR11-BC14 | \n1b | \nM175L (99.97%) | \nY93H (99.8%) | \nV499A 98.7% | \n
18 | \nR12-BC14 | \n1b | \n– | \nQ54H (80.35%), Y93H (8.07%) | \n– | \n
19 | \nR12-BC15 | \n1b | \n– | \nQ54H (98.82%), Q62R (99.79%) | \n– | \n
List of resistance-associated variants (RAVs) identified in GT 1a and 1b samples by Vela NGS.
In this study, RAVs with variant frequency less than 1% are not shown.
Of 18 HCV 1b samples (Table 2), five were detected with at least one target variant in the NS3 gene. Twelve samples were identified with at least one target variant in the NS5A gene. For NS5B, the P495A and V499A variants were detected in one and eight samples, respectively. Notably, there were four samples detected with at least one target variant in each of the NS3, NS5A and NS5B genes.
\nIn intra-run reproducibility analysis, the Q80K variant was reproducibly detected in the NS3 gene of the GT 1a samples. Another two variants, namely Q54H and V499A were also repeatedly identified in the NS5A and NS5B genes of the GT 1b sample, respectively. Variant frequencies of the three variants were highly reproducible within run (Figure 1c).
\nIn the inter-run reproducibility study, NS3 S122G and NS5B V499A variants were tested. Variant frequencies of the two variants were found to be highly reproducible among the three separate runs (Figure 1d).
\nForty specimens, which were previously reported as HCV indeterminate GT by LiPA, were subject to Vela NGS analysis. Sanger sequencing were successfully performed on NS5b (N = 30) or 5’UTR/core (N = 10) regions in 40 samples (Table 3). Of the 40 samples with Sanger sequencing results, Vela NGS results were confirmed at GT level in 39 samples (97.5%). In a sample with LiPA complex band patterns (5, 9, 10, 13, 14, 15 & 24), a mixed genotypes of GT 2a and GT 3a were assigned by Vela NGS. Sanger sequencing on NS5B showed overlapping nucleotide base calls in the overall sequences, in which putative mixed infection with two different HCV GTs was likely inferred.
\nNo | \nLiPA results (bands) | \nVela NGS | \nSanger sequencing | \nConcordance at GT or ST level | \n|
---|---|---|---|---|---|
NS5B | \n5‘UTR/core | \n||||
1 | \nIndeterminate (3,6,16,24) | \n6n | \nNot amplified | \n6n | \nGT & ST | \n
2 | \nIndeterminate (3,6,16,24) | \n6n | \nNot amplified | \n6n | \nGT & ST | \n
3 | \nIndeterminate (3,6,16,24) | \n6n | \nNot amplified | \n6n | \nGT & ST | \n
4 | \nIndeterminate (6,7,24) | \n3b | \n3b | \nNot done | \nGT & ST | \n
5 | \nIndeterminate (6,7,24) | \n6m/6u | \nNot amplified | \n6e/6d | \n|
6 | \nIndeterminate (6,7) | \n6u | \n6u/6n | \nNot done | \nGT & ST | \n
7 | \nIndeterminate (6,7) | \n6u | \n6m/6n | \nNot done | \n|
8 | \nIndeterminate (6,7) | \n6u | \n6n/6a | \nNot done | \n|
9 | \nIndeterminate (6) | \n6m/6l | \n6d/6e | \nNot done | \n|
10 | \nIndeterminate (17,24) | \n3b | \n3b | \nNot done | \nGT & ST | \n
11 | \nIndeterminate (17,18,24) | \n3b | \n3b | \nNot done | \nGT & ST | \n
12 | \nIndeterminate (6,17,24) | \n3b | \n3b | \nNot done | \nGT & ST | \n
13 | \nIndeterminate (7,8,14,15,24) | \n3a | \n3a | \nNot done | \nGT & ST | \n
14 | \nIndeterminate (7,13,17,18) | \n3b | \n3b | \nNot done | \nGT & ST | \n
15 | \nIndeterminate (7,13,17,18,24) | \n3b | \n3b | \nNot done | \nGT & ST | \n
16 | \nIndeterminate (13,16,17,18,24) | \n3b | \n3b | \nNot done | \nGT & ST | \n
17 | \nIndeterminate (13,14,15,18,24) | \n3b | \n3b | \nNot done | \nGT & ST | \n
18 | \nIndeterminate (3,4,13,25) | \n1a | \n1a | \nNot done | \nGT & ST | \n
19 | \nIndeterminate (3,4,7,13,25) | \n1a | \n1a | \nNot done | \nGT & ST | \n
20 | \nIndeterminate (3,4,7,13,24) | \n6e | \n6e | \nNot done | \nGT & ST | \n
21 | \nIndeterminate (3,4,6,7,13,24) | \n6e | \nNot amplified | \n6e/6d | \nGT & ST | \n
22 | \nIndeterminate (5,9,21,24) | \n6a | \nNot amplified | \n6a | \nGT & ST | \n
23 | \nIndeterminate (5,6,9,17,18) | \n4a | \nNot amplified | \n4a | \nGT & ST | \n
24 | \nIndeterminate (5,9,10,13,14,15,24) | \n2a & 3a | \nTwo mixed sequences | \nNot done | \nLikely mixed infections | \n
25 | \nIndeterminate (5,8,9,11) | \n2a | \n2a | \nNot done | \nGT & ST | \n
26 | \nIndeterminate (24) | \n3b | \n3b | \nNot done | \nGT & ST | \n
27 | \nIndeterminate (24) | \n3b | \n3b | \nNot done | \nGT & ST | \n
28 | \nIndeterminate (4,5,9,16,21,24) | \n6a | \n6a | \nNot done | \nGT & ST | \n
29 | \nIndeterminate (4,9,21) | \n6a | \nNot amplified | \n6a | \nGT & ST | \n
30 | \nIndeterminate (3,4,6,13,17,18,24,26) | \n3b | \n3b | \nNot done | \nGT & ST | \n
31 | \nIndeterminate (6) | \n6n/6a | \n6d/6u | \nNot done | \n|
32 | \nIndeterminate (3,4,13,25) | \n1a | \n1a | \nNot done | \nGT & ST | \n
33 | \nIndeterminate (6) | \n6u | \n6u | \nNot done | \nGT & ST | \n
34 | \nIndeterminate (13,16,24) | \n3b | \n3b | \nNot done | \nGT & ST | \n
35 | \nIndeterminate (7) | \n6u | \nNot amplified | \n6v/6l/6d/6k | \n|
36 | \nIndeterminate (17,18,24) | \n3b | \n3b | \nNot done | \nGT & ST | \n
37 | \nIndeterminate (3,4,5,16,25) | \n1a | \nNot amplified | \n1a | \nGT & ST | \n
38 | \nIndeterminate (5,6,18,24) | \n3k | \n3k | \nNot done | \nGT & ST | \n
39 | \nIndeterminate (8,9,21,24) | \n6a | \n6a | \nNot done | \nGT & ST | \n
40 | \nIndeterminate (3,4,6,16,24) | \n6q | \n6q | \nNot done | \nGT & ST | \n
Comparison of genotyping results produced by the Vela NGS and Sanger sequencing methods in 40 specimens with indeterminate genotypes by LiPA.
PCR amplification for NS5B was first attempted in all 40 specimens. A secondary PCR amplifying 5\'UTR/core regions were performed in samples with unsuccessful amplification of NS5B. Sanger sequencing was performed on PCR amplicon obtained.
The application of NGS assays to analyse quasispecies HCV genomes has been increasing in recent years. Several laboratory-developed NGS assays had been previously described in the literature for phylogenetic studies [14], outbreak investigation [15, 16], characterisation of HCV full genome [17, 18] and identification of HCV GT and ST in clinical samples [19, 20]. However, there are fewer reports of adoption of NGS assays in routine HCV genotyping. In 2016, Vela NGS became available as a CE-IVD certified commercial kit for diagnostic use in the clinical laboratories. In this study, we report the performance characteristics of Vela NGS in comparison to the widely used LiPA assay for HCV genotyping.
\nThe performance of Vela NGS in determining the HCV GT and ST in the clinical specimens had been discussed in several previous studies [21, 22, 23]. Perfect agreement at GT level was observed between Vela NGS and LiPA in a study by Manee et al. [21]. Samples with unclear ST results in GTs 2, 3, 4 and 6 reported by LiPA were each assigned with a specific subtype after subject to Vela NGS analysis. Dirani et al. [22] also performed a direct comparison of GT and ST calling between Vela NGS and LiPA for samples from patients infected with HCV GTs including GT 1, 2, 3 and 4, and found a high concordance (>99%) at GT level between the two tests. Vela NGS was also found to have better performance in assigning HCV STs among the four GTs when compared to LiPA [22]. In another study by Rodriguez et al. [23], Vela NGS achieved high concordance rates with Sanger sequencing in assigning GTs 1 to 6, 1a and 1b STs, and other STs for GTs 4, 5 and 6. Discrepant calls at ST level was mainly found among HCV GTs 1 and 2 between Vela NGS and Sanger sequencing; the latter was used as the reference method to sequence the 286 bp segment of NS5B for which phylogenetic analysis was performed.
\nIn the present study, discrepancy in results was mainly observed in samples with LiPA GT 1b with incomplete or missing bands at the core region. In this particular result group, GT 6 with different STs were assigned by Vela NGS. This observation was not unexpected as it has been specified in the LiPA interpretation chart that GT 6 (STs c-1) cannot be differentiated from ST 1a and 1b without additional information from the core region sequence. Among LiPA GT 4 samples, all ST 4h were reassigned as GT 3 by Vela NGS. Some geographical regions, for example, Southeast Asia, where GT 6 is highly prevalent [24], could thus be impacted more by this mis-classification with the use of LiPA method.
\nIn contrast to LiPA which utilises primarily the 5’UTR in GTs 1-6 and core regions for the discrimination of GT 6 STs c-l from 1a and 1b, Vela NGS targets the non-structural genes implicated in both accurate genotyping/subtyping and resistance to DAAs. The LiPA is known to be poor at detecting and identifying recombinant forms of HCV [25]. Due to the assay design of Vela NGS, this may also pose a problem for this platform, despite the application of NGS technology. The HCV recombinant forms can be accurately detected via sequencing of recombination breakpoint junctions or the whole HCV genome [26]. For example, in our study, one previously LiPA-indeterminate sample was reported by the Vela NGS to have mixed HCV infections with HCV 2a and 3a. This NGS finding was confirmed by Sanger sequencing in which overlapping Sanger electropherograms were observed for NS5B.
\nThe Vela NGS offers information on RAVs in HCV 1a or 1b positive samples, where such profiling will be useful when prescribing DAA regimes, and detecting of baseline or emerging RAVs. Targeted assays had been previously developed to identify a specific RAV [27, 28]. RAVs which are found at levels with at least 15% variant frequency, at baseline, are known to confer resistance to certain DAAs [29], and therefore may impact on the effectiveness of DAA treatment [30]. Vela NGS targets relevant RAVs in three non-structural gene segments (NS3, NS5A and NS5B) of HCV 1a and 1b, and although the RAV profiling is comprehensive but not exhaustive due to the assay design, any baseline RAVs present in any of these DAA target genes, can affect the therapeutic effectiveness [31]. In our study, four HCV 1b samples were found to harbour variants in all three NS3, NS5A and NS5B genes concurrently.
\nIn conclusion, the genotyping results of the Vela NGS were found to be highly concordant with those of the LiPA method. Vela NGS refined the ST assignment in GT 6 and resolved previously indeterminate GTs reported by LiPA. Technically, the HCV Vela NGS was found to have consistent intra- and inter-run reproducibility in terms of GT and ST calling and RAVs identification. Detection of infections with multiple HCV GTs or STs is feasible by Vela NGS. Due to the assay design which relies on investigating the HCV sub-genomic regions, HCV recombinant strains may still be potentially missed. Deep sequencing allows sensitive identification of RAVs in the GT1a and 1b NS3, NS5A and NS5B regions, but the list of target RAVs is not exhaustive. We would also suggest the RAVs detection spectrum should be extended to cover GTs other than HCV 1a and 1b, namely GTs 2-6.
\nWe thank Cui-Wen Chua, Mui-Joo Khoo and Lily Chiu of the Department of Laboratory Medicine at the National University Hospital, Singapore, for their technical assistance in performing the NGS and LiPA analysis. We also thank Vela Diagnostics Singapore for funding the NGS reagents in this study.
\nThe authors have no conflict of interest to declare.
These Terms and Conditions outline the rules and regulations pertaining to the use of IntechOpen’s website www.intechopen.com and all the subdomains owned by IntechOpen located at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, United Kingdom.
',metaTitle:"Terms and Conditions",metaDescription:"These terms and conditions outline the rules and regulations for the use of IntechOpen Website at https://intechopen.com and all its subdomains owned by Intech Limited located at 7th floor, 10 Lower Thames Street, London, EC3R 6AF, UK.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/terms-and-conditions",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"By accessing the website at www.intechopen.com you are agreeing to be bound by these Terms of Service, all applicable laws and regulations, and agree that you are responsible for compliance with any applicable local laws. Use and/or access to this site is based on full agreement and compliance of these Terms. All materials contained on this website are protected by applicable copyright and trademark laws.
\\n\\nThe following terminology applies to these Terms and Conditions, Privacy Statement, Disclaimer Notice, and any or all Agreements:
\\n\\n“Client”, “Customer”, “You” and “Your” refers to you, the person accessing this website and accepting the Company’s Terms and Conditions;
\\n\\n“The Company”, “Ourselves”, “We”, “Our” and “Us”, refers to our Company, IntechOpen;
\\n\\n“Party”, “Parties”, or “Us”, refers to both the Client and ourselves, or either the Client or ourselves.
\\n\\nAll Terms refer to the offer, acceptance, and consideration of payment necessary to provide assistance to the Client in the most appropriate manner, whether by formal meetings of a fixed duration, or by any other agreed means, for the express purpose of meeting the Client’s needs in respect of provision of the Company’s stated services/products, and in accordance with, and subject to, the prevailing laws of the United Kingdom.
\\n\\nAny use of the above terminology, or other words in the singular, plural, capitalization and/or he/she or they, are taken as interchangeable.
\\n\\nUnless otherwise stated, IntechOpen and/or its licensors own the intellectual property rights for all materials on www.intechopen.com. All intellectual property rights are reserved. You may view, download, share, link and print pages from www.intechopen.com for your own personal use, subject to the restrictions set out in these Terms and Conditions.
\\n\\nWe employ the use of cookies. By using the IntechOpen website you consent to the use of cookies in accordance with IntechOpen’s Privacy Policy. Most modern day interactive websites use cookies to enable the retrieval of user details for each visit. On our site, cookies are predominantly used to enable functionality and ease of use for those visiting the site.
\\n\\nIn no circumstances shall IntechOpen or its suppliers be liable for any damages (including, without limitation, damages for loss of data or profit, or due to business interruption) arising out of the use, or inability to use, the materials on IntechOpen's websites, even if IntechOpen or an IntechOpen authorized representative has been notified orally or in writing of the possibility of such damage. Some jurisdictions do not allow limitations on implied warranties, or limitations of liability for consequential or incidental damages; consequently, these limitations may not apply to you.
\\n\\nIntechopen.com website content and services are provided on an "AS IS" and an "AS AVAILABLE" basis. Material appearing on www.intechopen.com could include minor technical, typographical, or photographic errors. IntechOpen may make changes to any material contained on its website at any time without notice.
\\n\\nIntechOpen has no formal affiliation to any external sites that link to www.intechopen.com, unless otherwise specifically stated. As such, it is not responsible for content that appears on any such sites. The inclusion of any link to IntechOpen does not imply endorsement by IntechOpen. Use of any such linked website is done solely at the user's own discretion.
\\n\\nWe reserve the right of ownership over our entire website www.intechopen.com, and all contents. By using our services, you agree to remove all links to our website immediately upon request. We also reserve the right to amend these Terms and Conditions and our linking policy at any time. By continuing to link to our website, you agree to be bound to, and abide by, these linking Terms and Conditions.
\\n\\nIf you find any link on our website, or any linked website, objectionable for any reason, please Contact Us. We will consider all requests to remove links but will have no obligation to do so.
\\n\\nWithout prior approval and express written permission, you may not create frames around our web pages or use other techniques that alter in any way the visual presentation or appearance of our website.
\\n\\nIntechOpen may revise its Terms of Service for its website at any time without notice. By using this website, you are agreeing to be bound by the current version of all Terms at the time of use.
\\n\\nThese Terms and Conditions are governed by and construed in accordance with the laws of the United Kingdom and you irrevocably submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the courts in London, United Kingdom.
\\n\\nCroatian version of Terms and Conditions available here
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'By accessing the website at www.intechopen.com you are agreeing to be bound by these Terms of Service, all applicable laws and regulations, and agree that you are responsible for compliance with any applicable local laws. Use and/or access to this site is based on full agreement and compliance of these Terms. All materials contained on this website are protected by applicable copyright and trademark laws.
\n\nThe following terminology applies to these Terms and Conditions, Privacy Statement, Disclaimer Notice, and any or all Agreements:
\n\n“Client”, “Customer”, “You” and “Your” refers to you, the person accessing this website and accepting the Company’s Terms and Conditions;
\n\n“The Company”, “Ourselves”, “We”, “Our” and “Us”, refers to our Company, IntechOpen;
\n\n“Party”, “Parties”, or “Us”, refers to both the Client and ourselves, or either the Client or ourselves.
\n\nAll Terms refer to the offer, acceptance, and consideration of payment necessary to provide assistance to the Client in the most appropriate manner, whether by formal meetings of a fixed duration, or by any other agreed means, for the express purpose of meeting the Client’s needs in respect of provision of the Company’s stated services/products, and in accordance with, and subject to, the prevailing laws of the United Kingdom.
\n\nAny use of the above terminology, or other words in the singular, plural, capitalization and/or he/she or they, are taken as interchangeable.
\n\nUnless otherwise stated, IntechOpen and/or its licensors own the intellectual property rights for all materials on www.intechopen.com. All intellectual property rights are reserved. You may view, download, share, link and print pages from www.intechopen.com for your own personal use, subject to the restrictions set out in these Terms and Conditions.
\n\nWe employ the use of cookies. By using the IntechOpen website you consent to the use of cookies in accordance with IntechOpen’s Privacy Policy. Most modern day interactive websites use cookies to enable the retrieval of user details for each visit. On our site, cookies are predominantly used to enable functionality and ease of use for those visiting the site.
\n\nIn no circumstances shall IntechOpen or its suppliers be liable for any damages (including, without limitation, damages for loss of data or profit, or due to business interruption) arising out of the use, or inability to use, the materials on IntechOpen's websites, even if IntechOpen or an IntechOpen authorized representative has been notified orally or in writing of the possibility of such damage. Some jurisdictions do not allow limitations on implied warranties, or limitations of liability for consequential or incidental damages; consequently, these limitations may not apply to you.
\n\nIntechopen.com website content and services are provided on an "AS IS" and an "AS AVAILABLE" basis. Material appearing on www.intechopen.com could include minor technical, typographical, or photographic errors. IntechOpen may make changes to any material contained on its website at any time without notice.
\n\nIntechOpen has no formal affiliation to any external sites that link to www.intechopen.com, unless otherwise specifically stated. As such, it is not responsible for content that appears on any such sites. The inclusion of any link to IntechOpen does not imply endorsement by IntechOpen. Use of any such linked website is done solely at the user's own discretion.
\n\nWe reserve the right of ownership over our entire website www.intechopen.com, and all contents. By using our services, you agree to remove all links to our website immediately upon request. We also reserve the right to amend these Terms and Conditions and our linking policy at any time. By continuing to link to our website, you agree to be bound to, and abide by, these linking Terms and Conditions.
\n\nIf you find any link on our website, or any linked website, objectionable for any reason, please Contact Us. We will consider all requests to remove links but will have no obligation to do so.
\n\nWithout prior approval and express written permission, you may not create frames around our web pages or use other techniques that alter in any way the visual presentation or appearance of our website.
\n\nIntechOpen may revise its Terms of Service for its website at any time without notice. By using this website, you are agreeing to be bound by the current version of all Terms at the time of use.
\n\nThese Terms and Conditions are governed by and construed in accordance with the laws of the United Kingdom and you irrevocably submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the courts in London, United Kingdom.
\n\nCroatian version of Terms and Conditions available here
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{mdrv:"www.intechopen.com"},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. He is a very good player of squash but has not played squash since his arrival in Denmark.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"611",title:"Prof.",name:"T",middleName:null,surname:"Nagarajan",slug:"t-nagarajan",fullName:"T Nagarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Teknologi Petronas",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:13389},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:11660},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:4168},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:22334},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:2019},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:33642}],offset:12,limit:12,total:135275},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"7"},books:[{type:"book",id:"11774",title:"International Law - A Practical Manual",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c607e873911da868c0764770dc224313",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Michael Underdown",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11774.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"478218",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",surname:"Underdown",slug:"michael-underdown",fullName:"Michael Underdown"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11775",title:"Global Peace and Security",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"131303f07b492463a5c4a7607fe46ba9",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Norman Chivasa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11775.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"331566",title:"Dr.",name:"Norman",surname:"Chivasa",slug:"norman-chivasa",fullName:"Norman Chivasa"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11776",title:"Fashion Industry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"e8d53d1029a7bccf825aa55d43fecc68",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11776.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12134",title:"Sustainable Tourism",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"bb510c876f827a1df7960a523a4b5db3",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12134.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12138",title:"Online Advertising",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"d1a7aaa841aba83e7199b564c4991cf1",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12138.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12139",title:"Global Market and Trade",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"fa34af07c3a9657fa670404202f8cba5",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr.Ing. Ireneusz Miciuła",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12139.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"243649",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Ireneusz",surname:"Miciuła",slug:"ireneusz-miciula",fullName:"Ireneusz Miciuła"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12141",title:"Leadership - Advancing Great Leadership Practices and Good Leaders",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"85f77453916f1d80d80d88ee4fd2f2d1",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Joseph Crawford",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12141.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"420133",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",surname:"Crawford",slug:"joseph-crawford",fullName:"Joseph Crawford"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:27},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:42},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:17},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:68},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:12,limit:12,total:7},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7827",title:"Interpersonal Relationships",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ebf41f4d17c75010eb3294cc8cac3d47",slug:"interpersonal-relationships",bookSignature:"Martha Peaslee Levine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7827.jpg",editors:[{id:"186919",title:"Dr.",name:"Martha",middleName:null,surname:"Peaslee Levine",slug:"martha-peaslee-levine",fullName:"Martha Peaslee Levine"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology",subtitle:"From Science to Clinical Research",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4af8830e463f89c57515c2da2b9777b0",slug:"current-concepts-in-dental-implantology-from-science-to-clinical-research",bookSignature:"Dragana Gabrić and Marko Vuletić",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg",editors:[{id:"26946",title:"Prof.",name:"Dragana",middleName:null,surname:"Gabrić",slug:"dragana-gabric",fullName:"Dragana Gabrić"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10796",title:"Extracellular Vesicles",subtitle:"Role in Diseases, Pathogenesis and Therapy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eb5407fcf93baff7bca3fae5640153a2",slug:"extracellular-vesicles-role-in-diseases-pathogenesis-and-therapy",bookSignature:"Manash K. Paul",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10796.jpg",editors:[{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10908",title:"Advances in Decision Making",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"126486f7f91e18e2e3539a32c38be7b1",slug:"advances-in-decision-making",bookSignature:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10908.jpg",editors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"95",title:"Applications and Experiences of Quality Control",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4bcb22b1eee68210a977a97d5a0f363a",slug:"applications-and-experiences-of-quality-control",bookSignature:"Ognyan Ivanov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/95.jpg",editors:[{id:"22230",title:"Prof.",name:"Ognyan",middleName:null,surname:"Ivanov",slug:"ognyan-ivanov",fullName:"Ognyan Ivanov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"2160",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"A Fundamental Tool for Scientific Computing and Engineering Applications - Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd9c658341fbd264ed4f8d9e6aa8ca29",slug:"matlab-a-fundamental-tool-for-scientific-computing-and-engineering-applications-volume-1",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Katsikis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2160.jpg",editors:[{id:"12289",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasilios",middleName:"N.",surname:"Katsikis",slug:"vasilios-katsikis",fullName:"Vasilios Katsikis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"3560",title:"Advances in Landscape Architecture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a20614517ec5f7e91188fe8e42832138",slug:"advances-in-landscape-architecture",bookSignature:"Murat Özyavuz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3560.jpg",editors:[{id:"93073",title:"Dr.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Ozyavuz",slug:"murat-ozyavuz",fullName:"Murat Ozyavuz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10739",title:"Global Decline of Insects",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"543783652b9092962a8fa4bed38eeb17",slug:"global-decline-of-insects",bookSignature:"Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10739.jpg",editors:[{id:"192142",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamadttu",middleName:null,surname:"Abdel Farag El-Shafie",slug:"hamadttu-abdel-farag-el-shafie",fullName:"Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10911",title:"Higher Education",subtitle:"New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"223a02337498e535e967174c1f648fbc",slug:"higher-education-new-approaches-to-accreditation-digitalization-and-globalization-in-the-age-of-covid",bookSignature:"Lee Waller and Sharon Waller",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg",editors:[{id:"263301",title:"Dr.",name:"Lee",middleName:null,surname:"Waller",slug:"lee-waller",fullName:"Lee Waller"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"3568",title:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"830bbb601742c85a3fb0eeafe1454c43",slug:"recent-advances-in-plant-in-vitro-culture",bookSignature:"Annarita Leva and Laura M. R. Rinaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3568.jpg",editors:[{id:"142145",title:"Dr.",name:"Annarita",middleName:null,surname:"Leva",slug:"annarita-leva",fullName:"Annarita Leva"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"3737",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"Modelling, Programming and Simulations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"matlab-modelling-programming-and-simulations",bookSignature:"Emilson Pereira Leite",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3737.jpg",editors:[{id:"12051",title:"Prof.",name:"Emilson",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira Leite",slug:"emilson-pereira-leite",fullName:"Emilson Pereira Leite"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"1770",title:"Gel Electrophoresis",subtitle:"Principles and Basics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"279701f6c802cf02deef45103e0611ff",slug:"gel-electrophoresis-principles-and-basics",bookSignature:"Sameh Magdeldin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1770.jpg",editors:[{id:"123648",title:"Dr.",name:"Sameh",middleName:null,surname:"Magdeldin",slug:"sameh-magdeldin",fullName:"Sameh Magdeldin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:4798},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7827",title:"Interpersonal Relationships",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ebf41f4d17c75010eb3294cc8cac3d47",slug:"interpersonal-relationships",bookSignature:"Martha Peaslee Levine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7827.jpg",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",numberOfDownloads:7175,editors:[{id:"186919",title:"Dr.",name:"Martha",middleName:null,surname:"Peaslee Levine",slug:"martha-peaslee-levine",fullName:"Martha Peaslee Levine"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology",subtitle:"From Science to Clinical Research",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4af8830e463f89c57515c2da2b9777b0",slug:"current-concepts-in-dental-implantology-from-science-to-clinical-research",bookSignature:"Dragana Gabrić and Marko Vuletić",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1981,editors:[{id:"26946",title:"Prof.",name:"Dragana",middleName:null,surname:"Gabrić",slug:"dragana-gabric",fullName:"Dragana Gabrić"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10796",title:"Extracellular Vesicles",subtitle:"Role in Diseases, Pathogenesis and Therapy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eb5407fcf93baff7bca3fae5640153a2",slug:"extracellular-vesicles-role-in-diseases-pathogenesis-and-therapy",bookSignature:"Manash K. Paul",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10796.jpg",publishedDate:"July 20th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2308,editors:[{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10908",title:"Advances in Decision Making",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"126486f7f91e18e2e3539a32c38be7b1",slug:"advances-in-decision-making",bookSignature:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10908.jpg",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1473,editors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"95",title:"Applications and Experiences of Quality Control",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4bcb22b1eee68210a977a97d5a0f363a",slug:"applications-and-experiences-of-quality-control",bookSignature:"Ognyan Ivanov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/95.jpg",publishedDate:"April 26th 2011",numberOfDownloads:318571,editors:[{id:"22230",title:"Prof.",name:"Ognyan",middleName:null,surname:"Ivanov",slug:"ognyan-ivanov",fullName:"Ognyan Ivanov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"2160",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"A Fundamental Tool for Scientific Computing and Engineering Applications - Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd9c658341fbd264ed4f8d9e6aa8ca29",slug:"matlab-a-fundamental-tool-for-scientific-computing-and-engineering-applications-volume-1",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Katsikis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2160.jpg",publishedDate:"September 26th 2012",numberOfDownloads:271836,editors:[{id:"12289",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasilios",middleName:"N.",surname:"Katsikis",slug:"vasilios-katsikis",fullName:"Vasilios Katsikis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"3560",title:"Advances in Landscape Architecture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a20614517ec5f7e91188fe8e42832138",slug:"advances-in-landscape-architecture",bookSignature:"Murat Özyavuz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3560.jpg",publishedDate:"July 1st 2013",numberOfDownloads:243450,editors:[{id:"93073",title:"Dr.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Ozyavuz",slug:"murat-ozyavuz",fullName:"Murat Ozyavuz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10739",title:"Global Decline of Insects",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"543783652b9092962a8fa4bed38eeb17",slug:"global-decline-of-insects",bookSignature:"Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10739.jpg",publishedDate:"July 20th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1582,editors:[{id:"192142",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamadttu",middleName:null,surname:"Abdel Farag El-Shafie",slug:"hamadttu-abdel-farag-el-shafie",fullName:"Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10911",title:"Higher Education",subtitle:"New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"223a02337498e535e967174c1f648fbc",slug:"higher-education-new-approaches-to-accreditation-digitalization-and-globalization-in-the-age-of-covid",bookSignature:"Lee Waller and Sharon Waller",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg",publishedDate:"July 13th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2082,editors:[{id:"263301",title:"Dr.",name:"Lee",middleName:null,surname:"Waller",slug:"lee-waller",fullName:"Lee Waller"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"3568",title:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"830bbb601742c85a3fb0eeafe1454c43",slug:"recent-advances-in-plant-in-vitro-culture",bookSignature:"Annarita Leva and Laura M. R. Rinaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3568.jpg",publishedDate:"October 17th 2012",numberOfDownloads:256294,editors:[{id:"142145",title:"Dr.",name:"Annarita",middleName:null,surname:"Leva",slug:"annarita-leva",fullName:"Annarita Leva"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology",subtitle:"From Science to Clinical Research",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4af8830e463f89c57515c2da2b9777b0",slug:"current-concepts-in-dental-implantology-from-science-to-clinical-research",bookSignature:"Dragana Gabrić and Marko Vuletić",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"26946",title:"Prof.",name:"Dragana",middleName:null,surname:"Gabrić",slug:"dragana-gabric",fullName:"Dragana Gabrić"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11328",title:"Botulinum Toxin",subtitle:"Recent Topics and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7dd05a316001cef143e209eda51387a7",slug:"botulinum-toxin-recent-topics-and-applications",bookSignature:"Suna Sabuncuoglu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11328.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"270856",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Suna",middleName:null,surname:"Sabuncuoglu",slug:"suna-sabuncuoglu",fullName:"Suna Sabuncuoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11085",title:"Polycystic Ovary Syndrome",subtitle:"Functional Investigation and Clinical Application",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3066dd3ff29e1fac072fd60b08d4d3e7",slug:"polycystic-ovary-syndrome-functional-investigation-and-clinical-application",bookSignature:"Zhengchao Wang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11085.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"204883",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhengchao",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"zhengchao-wang",fullName:"Zhengchao Wang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10833",title:"Tumor Angiogenesis and Modulators",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f29b575c46128b2da061ef7f9bd1070b",slug:"tumor-angiogenesis-and-modulators",bookSignature:"Ke Xu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10833.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"59529",title:"Dr.",name:"Ke",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"ke-xu",fullName:"Ke Xu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11356",title:"Molecular Cloning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"671c629dd86e97f0fb467b9e70e92296",slug:"molecular-cloning",bookSignature:"Sadık Dincer, Hatice Aysun Mercimek Takcı and Melis Sumengen Ozdenef",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11356.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"188141",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadik",middleName:null,surname:"Dincer",slug:"sadik-dincer",fullName:"Sadik Dincer"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7827",title:"Interpersonal Relationships",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ebf41f4d17c75010eb3294cc8cac3d47",slug:"interpersonal-relationships",bookSignature:"Martha Peaslee Levine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7827.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"186919",title:"Dr.",name:"Martha",middleName:null,surname:"Peaslee Levine",slug:"martha-peaslee-levine",fullName:"Martha Peaslee Levine"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10908",title:"Advances in Decision Making",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"126486f7f91e18e2e3539a32c38be7b1",slug:"advances-in-decision-making",bookSignature:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10908.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10669",title:"Corrosion",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Protection Mechanisms",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4a76d54f8a40fc2e7002a8d13fd617c1",slug:"corrosion-fundamentals-and-protection-mechanisms",bookSignature:"Fahmina Zafar, Anujit Ghosal and Eram Sharmin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"89672",title:"Dr.",name:"Fahmina",middleName:null,surname:"Zafar",slug:"fahmina-zafar",fullName:"Fahmina Zafar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10677",title:"Advanced Topics of Topology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bf964c52f9e653fac20a7fcab58070e5",slug:"advanced-topics-of-topology",bookSignature:"Francisco Bulnes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10677.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"92918",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Bulnes",slug:"francisco-bulnes",fullName:"Francisco Bulnes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11195",title:"Recent Advances in Biometrics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2d32e33e0f499cb5241734bb75dd2a83",slug:"recent-advances-in-biometrics",bookSignature:"Muhammad Sarfraz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11195.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"199",title:"TCM and Alternative Medicine",slug:"tcm-and-alternative-medicine",parent:{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"},numberOfBooks:8,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:186,numberOfWosCitations:83,numberOfCrossrefCitations:88,numberOfDimensionsCitations:171,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"199",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"9445",title:"Alternative Medicine",subtitle:"Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3b5a02b419c5277facf2b2e0905bdb64",slug:"alternative-medicine-update",bookSignature:"Muhammad Akram",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9445.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"215436",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Akram",slug:"muhammad-akram",fullName:"Muhammad Akram"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8323",title:"Traditional and Complementary Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"60eadb1783d9bba245687adf284d4871",slug:"traditional-and-complementary-medicine",bookSignature:"Cengiz Mordeniz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8323.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"214664",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Cengiz",middleName:null,surname:"Mordeniz",slug:"cengiz-mordeniz",fullName:"Cengiz Mordeniz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7910",title:"Acupuncture",subtitle:"Resolving Old Controversies and Pointing New Pathways",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8ee244050594f166365bb63ec51a447a",slug:"acupuncture-resolving-old-controversies-and-pointing-new-pathways",bookSignature:"Marcelo Saad and Roberta de Medeiros",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7910.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51991",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcelo",middleName:null,surname:"Saad",slug:"marcelo-saad",fullName:"Marcelo Saad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8593",title:"Plant Extracts",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"93ae18175f7b16937a3dfddc10a51572",slug:"plant-extracts",bookSignature:"Aman Dekebo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8593.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"191684",title:"Dr.",name:"Aman",middleName:null,surname:"Dekebo",slug:"aman-dekebo",fullName:"Aman Dekebo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3304",title:"Acupuncture in Modern Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b6d3a937281325154720c678283daff0",slug:"acupuncture-in-modern-medicine",bookSignature:"Lucy L. Chen and Tsung O. Cheng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3304.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"49147",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucy L",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"lucy-l-chen",fullName:"Lucy L Chen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3369",title:"Alternative Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e5a330fdcaea1dbe6b571b1f2ee93b56",slug:"alternative-medicine",bookSignature:"Hiroshi Sakagami",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3369.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82603",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakagami",slug:"hiroshi-sakagami",fullName:"Hiroshi Sakagami"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"386",title:"Acupuncture",subtitle:"Concepts and Physiology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a1b327d1a93e8dfd07289ab0a701aa39",slug:"acupuncture-concepts-and-physiology",bookSignature:"Marcelo Saad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/386.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51991",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcelo",middleName:null,surname:"Saad",slug:"marcelo-saad",fullName:"Marcelo Saad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1316",title:"Acupuncture",subtitle:"Clinical Practice, Particular Techniques and Special Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"60c42faaae3504a330936fc3ff4456ee",slug:"acupuncture-clinical-practice-particular-techniques-and-special-issues",bookSignature:"Marcelo Saad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1316.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51991",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcelo",middleName:null,surname:"Saad",slug:"marcelo-saad",fullName:"Marcelo Saad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:8,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"65475",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83790",title:"African Traditional Medicine: South African Perspective",slug:"african-traditional-medicine-south-african-perspective",totalDownloads:3780,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"African traditional medicine (ATM) has been used by African populations for the treatment of diseases long before the advent of orthodox medicine and continues to carry a part of the burden of health for the majority of the population. South Africa, as a member state of the World Health Organisation, has been set on the path of institutionalising African traditional medicine. This chapter outlines the processes and progress pertaining to the acceptance and acknowledgement of the role of ATM in health care. It sets out to describe the strides made with regard to the traditional health practitioners’ Act and other laws, research in ATM, education of both health care and traditional health practitioners, including the role of collaboration. An overview of the practice of African traditional medicine is provided.",book:{id:"8323",slug:"traditional-and-complementary-medicine",title:"Traditional and Complementary Medicine",fullTitle:"Traditional and Complementary Medicine"},signatures:"Mmamosheledi E. Mothibe and Mncengeli Sibanda",authors:[{id:"276601",title:"Dr.",name:"Mmamosheledi",middleName:null,surname:"Mothibe",slug:"mmamosheledi-mothibe",fullName:"Mmamosheledi Mothibe"},{id:"278675",title:"Mr.",name:"Mncengeli",middleName:null,surname:"Sibanda",slug:"mncengeli-sibanda",fullName:"Mncengeli Sibanda"}]},{id:"41698",doi:"10.5772/54003",title:"Propolis: Alternative Medicine for the Treatment of Oral Microbial Diseases",slug:"antifungal-activity-of-propolis-oral-clinical-studies-in-humans",totalDownloads:5451,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:null,book:{id:"3369",slug:"alternative-medicine",title:"Alternative Medicine",fullTitle:"Alternative Medicine"},signatures:"Vagner Rodrigues Santos",authors:[{id:"79610",title:"Dr.",name:"Vagner Rodrigues",middleName:"Rodrigues",surname:"Santos",slug:"vagner-rodrigues-santos",fullName:"Vagner Rodrigues Santos"}]},{id:"41492",doi:"10.5772/53333",title:"Application of Saponin-Containing Plants in Foods and Cosmetics",slug:"application-of-saponin-containing-plants-in-foods-and-cosmetics",totalDownloads:6909,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:null,book:{id:"3369",slug:"alternative-medicine",title:"Alternative Medicine",fullTitle:"Alternative Medicine"},signatures:"Yukiyoshi Tamura, Masazumi Miyakoshi and Masaji Yamamoto",authors:[{id:"97471",title:"Mr.",name:"Masaji",middleName:null,surname:"Yamamoto",slug:"masaji-yamamoto",fullName:"Masaji Yamamoto"}]},{id:"41526",doi:"10.5772/53868",title:"Network Pharmacology and Traditional Chinese Medicine",slug:"network-pharmacology-and-traditional-chinese-medicine",totalDownloads:2997,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:null,book:{id:"3369",slug:"alternative-medicine",title:"Alternative Medicine",fullTitle:"Alternative Medicine"},signatures:"Qihe Xu, Fan Qu and Olavi Pelkonen",authors:[{id:"23803",title:"Prof.",name:"Olavi",middleName:null,surname:"Pelkonen",slug:"olavi-pelkonen",fullName:"Olavi Pelkonen"},{id:"67044",title:"Dr.",name:"Qihe",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"qihe-xu",fullName:"Qihe Xu"},{id:"162445",title:"Dr.",name:"Fan",middleName:null,surname:"Qu",slug:"fan-qu",fullName:"Fan Qu"}]},{id:"67066",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86373",title:"Introductory Chapter: Traditional and Complementary Medicine",slug:"introductory-chapter-traditional-and-complementary-medicine",totalDownloads:1230,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:null,book:{id:"8323",slug:"traditional-and-complementary-medicine",title:"Traditional and Complementary Medicine",fullTitle:"Traditional and Complementary Medicine"},signatures:"Cengiz Mordeniz",authors:[{id:"214664",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Cengiz",middleName:null,surname:"Mordeniz",slug:"cengiz-mordeniz",fullName:"Cengiz Mordeniz"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"65475",title:"African Traditional Medicine: South African Perspective",slug:"african-traditional-medicine-south-african-perspective",totalDownloads:3765,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"African traditional medicine (ATM) has been used by African populations for the treatment of diseases long before the advent of orthodox medicine and continues to carry a part of the burden of health for the majority of the population. South Africa, as a member state of the World Health Organisation, has been set on the path of institutionalising African traditional medicine. This chapter outlines the processes and progress pertaining to the acceptance and acknowledgement of the role of ATM in health care. It sets out to describe the strides made with regard to the traditional health practitioners’ Act and other laws, research in ATM, education of both health care and traditional health practitioners, including the role of collaboration. An overview of the practice of African traditional medicine is provided.",book:{id:"8323",slug:"traditional-and-complementary-medicine",title:"Traditional and Complementary Medicine",fullTitle:"Traditional and Complementary Medicine"},signatures:"Mmamosheledi E. Mothibe and Mncengeli Sibanda",authors:[{id:"276601",title:"Dr.",name:"Mmamosheledi",middleName:null,surname:"Mothibe",slug:"mmamosheledi-mothibe",fullName:"Mmamosheledi Mothibe"},{id:"278675",title:"Mr.",name:"Mncengeli",middleName:null,surname:"Sibanda",slug:"mncengeli-sibanda",fullName:"Mncengeli Sibanda"}]},{id:"66855",title:"Traditional Chinese Medicine: From Aqueous Extracts to Therapeutic Formulae",slug:"traditional-chinese-medicine-from-aqueous-extracts-to-therapeutic-formulae",totalDownloads:2105,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is one of the most established systems of medicine in the world. The therapeutic formulae used in TCM are frequently derived from aqueous decoctions of single plants or complex multicomponent formulae. There are aspects of plant cultivation and preparation of decoction pieces that are unique to TCM. These include Daodi cultivation, which is associated with high quality medicinal plant material that is grown in a defined geographical area, and Paozhi processing where the decoction pieces can be treated with excipients and are processed, which may fundamentally change the nature of the chemical metabolites. Therefore, a single plant part, processed in a variety of different ways, can each create a unique medicine. The quality of TCM materials, their safety and therapeutic efficacy are of critical importance. The application of metabolomic and chemometric techniques to these complex and multicomponent medicines is of interest to understand the interrelationships between composition, synergy and therapeutic activity. In this chapter, we present a short history of TCM, detail the role of Daodi and Paozhi in the generation of therapeutic formulae and look at the international practices and methodologies currently in use to ensure their sustainable production, quality, safety and efficacy.",book:{id:"8593",slug:"plant-extracts",title:"Plant Extracts",fullTitle:"Plant Extracts"},signatures:"Jinfan Wang, Astrid Sasse and Helen Sheridan",authors:[{id:"288780",title:"Prof.",name:"Helen",middleName:null,surname:"Sheridan",slug:"helen-sheridan",fullName:"Helen Sheridan"},{id:"288781",title:"Ms.",name:"Jinfan",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jinfan-wang",fullName:"Jinfan Wang"},{id:"288782",title:"Prof.",name:"Astrid",middleName:null,surname:"Sasse",slug:"astrid-sasse",fullName:"Astrid Sasse"}]},{id:"18907",title:"Yamamoto New Scalp Acupuncture (YNSA): Development, Principles, Safety, Effectiveness and Clinical Applications",slug:"yamamoto-new-scalp-acupuncture-ynsa-development-principles-safety-effectiveness-and-clinical-applica",totalDownloads:21323,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"1316",slug:"acupuncture-clinical-practice-particular-techniques-and-special-issues",title:"Acupuncture",fullTitle:"Acupuncture - Clinical Practice, Particular Techniques and Special Issues"},signatures:"Thomas Schockert",authors:[{id:"51993",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Schockert",slug:"thomas-schockert",fullName:"Thomas Schockert"}]},{id:"65194",title:"A Review on Natural Antioxidants",slug:"a-review-on-natural-antioxidants",totalDownloads:1276,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Free radicals and related species have attracted a great deal of attention in recent years. Oxidative stress has been considered a major contributory factor to the diseases. They are mainly derived from oxygen (reactive oxygen species (ROS)) and nitrogen (reactive nitrogen species (RNS)) and are generated in our body by various endogenous systems and exposure to different physicochemical conditions or pathophysiological states. Free radical damage to protein can result in loss of enzyme activity. There are epidemiological evidences correlating higher intake of components/foods with antioxidant abilities to lower incidence of various human morbidities or mortalities. The sources and origin of antioxidants which include fruits and vegetables, meats, poultry, and fish were treated in this study. The classification and characteristics of antioxidant, its measurements and level in food and free radicals, were also documented. The chemistry of antioxidants which includes chain reactions, molecular structures, food antioxidants and reaction mechanisms, biochemical activity, therapeutic properties, and future choice of antioxidants was reported in this review.",book:{id:"8323",slug:"traditional-and-complementary-medicine",title:"Traditional and Complementary Medicine",fullTitle:"Traditional and Complementary Medicine"},signatures:"Arun Rasheed and Rinshana Fathima Abdul Azeez",authors:[{id:"277345",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",middleName:null,surname:"Rasheed",slug:"arun-rasheed",fullName:"Arun Rasheed"}]},{id:"66587",title:"Introductory Chapter: Plant Extracts",slug:"introductory-chapter-plant-extracts",totalDownloads:1814,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:null,book:{id:"8593",slug:"plant-extracts",title:"Plant Extracts",fullTitle:"Plant Extracts"},signatures:"Aman Dekebo",authors:[{id:"191684",title:"Dr.",name:"Aman",middleName:null,surname:"Dekebo",slug:"aman-dekebo",fullName:"Aman Dekebo"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"199",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 12th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. Dr. Villarreal is the editor in chief and founder of the Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT) (https://recit.uabc.mx/) and is a member of several editorial and reviewer boards for numerous international journals. He has published more than thirty international papers and reviewed more than ninety-two manuscripts. His research interests include biomaterials, nanomaterials, bioengineering, biosensors, drug delivery systems, and tissue engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:26,paginationItems:[{id:"82800",title:"Repurposing Drugs as Potential Therapeutics for the SARS-Cov-2 Viral Infection: Automatizing a Blind Molecular Docking High-throughput Pipeline",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105792",signatures:"Aldo Herrera-Rodulfo, Mariana Andrade-Medina and Mauricio Carrillo-Tripp",slug:"repurposing-drugs-as-potential-therapeutics-for-the-sars-cov-2-viral-infection-automatizing-a-blind-",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Molecular Docking - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11451.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}},{id:"82582",title:"Protecting Bioelectric Signals from Electromagnetic Interference in a Wireless World",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105951",signatures:"David Marcarian",slug:"protecting-bioelectric-signals-from-electromagnetic-interference-in-a-wireless-world",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Biosignal Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11153.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}},{id:"82586",title:"Fundamentals of Molecular Docking and Comparative Analysis of Protein–Small-Molecule Docking Approaches",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105815",signatures:"Maden Sefika Feyza, Sezer Selin and Acuner Saliha Ece",slug:"fundamentals-of-molecular-docking-and-comparative-analysis-of-protein-small-molecule-docking-approac",totalDownloads:27,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Molecular Docking - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11451.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}},{id:"82392",title:"Nanomaterials as Novel Biomarkers for Cancer Nanotheranostics: State of the Art",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105700",signatures:"Hao Yu, Zhihai Han, Cunrong Chen and Leisheng Zhang",slug:"nanomaterials-as-novel-biomarkers-for-cancer-nanotheranostics-state-of-the-art",totalDownloads:23,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11405.jpg",subseries:{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:12,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"6692",title:"Medical and Biological Image Analysis",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6692.jpg",slug:"medical-and-biological-image-analysis",publishedDate:"July 4th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Robert Koprowski",hash:"e75f234a0fc1988d9816a94e4c724deb",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Medical and Biological Image Analysis",editors:[{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",slug:"robert-koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7218",title:"OCT",subtitle:"Applications in Ophthalmology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7218.jpg",slug:"oct-applications-in-ophthalmology",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Michele Lanza",hash:"e3a3430cdfd6999caccac933e4613885",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"OCT - Applications in Ophthalmology",editors:[{id:"240088",title:"Prof.",name:"Michele",middleName:null,surname:"Lanza",slug:"michele-lanza",fullName:"Michele Lanza",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240088/images/system/240088.png",biography:"Michele Lanza is Associate Professor of Ophthalmology at Università della Campania, Luigi Vanvitelli, Napoli, Italy. His fields of interest are anterior segment disease, keratoconus, glaucoma, corneal dystrophies, and cataracts. His research topics include\nintraocular lens power calculation, eye modification induced by refractive surgery, glaucoma progression, and validation of new diagnostic devices in ophthalmology. \nHe has published more than 100 papers in international and Italian scientific journals, more than 60 in journals with impact factors, and chapters in international and Italian books. He has also edited two international books and authored more than 150 communications or posters for the most important international and Italian ophthalmology conferences.",institutionString:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institution:{name:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7560",title:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods",subtitle:"Image Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7560.jpg",slug:"non-invasive-diagnostic-methods-image-processing",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mariusz Marzec and Robert Koprowski",hash:"d92fd8cf5a90a47f2b8a310837a5600e",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods - Image Processing",editors:[{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6843",title:"Biomechanics",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6843.jpg",slug:"biomechanics",publishedDate:"January 30th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hadi Mohammadi",hash:"85132976010be1d7f3dbd88662b785e5",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Biomechanics",editors:[{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"12141",title:"Leadership - Advancing Great Leadership Practices and Good Leaders",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12141.jpg",hash:"85f77453916f1d80d80d88ee4fd2f2d1",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"July 1st 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"420133",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",surname:"Crawford",slug:"joseph-crawford",fullName:"Joseph Crawford"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"12139",title:"Global Market and Trade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12139.jpg",hash:"fa34af07c3a9657fa670404202f8cba5",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"July 21st 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"243649",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Ireneusz",surname:"Miciuła",slug:"ireneusz-miciula",fullName:"Ireneusz Miciuła"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:42,paginationItems:[{id:"82914",title:"Glance on the Critical Role of IL-23 Receptor Gene Variations in Inflammation-Induced Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105049",signatures:"Mohammed El-Gedamy",slug:"glance-on-the-critical-role-of-il-23-receptor-gene-variations-in-inflammation-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:11,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}},{id:"82875",title:"Lipidomics as a Tool in the Diagnosis and Clinical Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105857",signatures:"María Elizbeth Alvarez Sánchez, Erick Nolasco Ontiveros, Rodrigo Arreola, Adriana Montserrat Espinosa González, Ana María García Bores, Roberto Eduardo López Urrutia, Ignacio Peñalosa Castro, María del Socorro Sánchez Correa and Edgar Antonio Estrella Parra",slug:"lipidomics-as-a-tool-in-the-diagnosis-and-clinical-therapy",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82440",title:"Lipid Metabolism and Associated Molecular Signaling Events in Autoimmune Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105746",signatures:"Mohan Vanditha, Sonu Das and Mathew John",slug:"lipid-metabolism-and-associated-molecular-signaling-events-in-autoimmune-disease",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82483",title:"Oxidative Stress in Cardiovascular Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105891",signatures:"Laura Mourino-Alvarez, Tamara Sastre-Oliva, Nerea Corbacho-Alonso and Maria G. Barderas",slug:"oxidative-stress-in-cardiovascular-diseases",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Importance of Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant System in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11671.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"82751",title:"Mitochondria-Endoplasmic Reticulum Interaction in Central Neurons",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105738",signatures:"Liliya Kushnireva and Eduard Korkotian",slug:"mitochondria-endoplasmic-reticulum-interaction-in-central-neurons",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"82709",title:"Fatty Acid Metabolism as a Tumor Marker",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106072",signatures:"Gatot Nyarumenteng Adhipurnawan Winarno",slug:"fatty-acid-metabolism-as-a-tumor-marker",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82716",title:"Advanced glycation end product induced endothelial dysfunction through ER stress: Unravelling the role of Paraoxonase 2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106018",signatures:"Ramya Ravi and Bharathidevi Subramaniam Rajesh",slug:"advanced-glycation-end-product-induced-endothelial-dysfunction-through-er-stress-unravelling-the-rol",totalDownloads:13,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"82388",title:"Epigenetics: Science of Changes without Change in DNA Sequences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105039",signatures:"Jayisha Dhargawe, Rita Lakkakul and Pradip Hirapure",slug:"epigenetics-science-of-changes-without-change-in-dna-sequences",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Modifications of Biomolecules",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11098.jpg",subseries:null}},{id:"82583",title:"Leukaemia: The Purinergic System and Small Extracellular Vesicles",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104326",signatures:"Arinzechukwu Ude and Kelechi Okeke",slug:"leukaemia-the-purinergic-system-and-small-extracellular-vesicles",totalDownloads:11,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82531",title:"Abnormal Iron Metabolism and Its Effect on Dentistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104502",signatures:"Chinmayee Dahihandekar and Sweta Kale Pisulkar",slug:"abnormal-iron-metabolism-and-its-effect-on-dentistry",totalDownloads:12,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Iron Metabolism - A Double-Edged Sword",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10842.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}}]},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[{caption:"Chemical Biology",value:15,count:2,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Proteomics",value:18,count:2,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Cell and Molecular Biology",value:14,count:17,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Metabolism",value:17,count:18,group:"subseries"}],publishedBooks:{paginationCount:13,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7102",title:"Pneumonia",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7102.jpg",slug:"pneumonia",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Nima Rezaei",hash:"9fd70142814192dcec58a176749f1b60",volumeInSeries:13,fullTitle:"Pneumonia",editors:[{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116250/images/system/116250.jpg",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9615",title:"Chikungunya Virus",subtitle:"A Growing Global Public Health Threat",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9615.jpg",slug:"chikungunya-virus-a-growing-global-public-health-threat",publishedDate:"February 9th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",hash:"c960d94a63867dd12a8ab15176a3ff06",volumeInSeries:12,fullTitle:"Chikungunya Virus - A Growing Global Public Health Threat",editors:[{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9619",title:"Epstein-Barr Virus",subtitle:"New Trends",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9619.jpg",slug:"epstein-barr-virus-new-trends",publishedDate:"December 22nd 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Emmanuel Drouet",hash:"a2128c53becb6064589570cbe8d976f8",volumeInSeries:11,fullTitle:"Epstein-Barr Virus - New Trends",editors:[{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9525",title:"Insights Into Drug Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9525.jpg",slug:"insights-into-drug-resistance-in-staphylococcus-aureus",publishedDate:"December 8th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Amjad Aqib",hash:"98bb6c1ddb067da67185c272f81c0a27",volumeInSeries:10,fullTitle:"Insights Into Drug Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus",editors:[{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9614",title:"Advances in Candida albicans",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9614.jpg",slug:"advances-in-candida-albicans",publishedDate:"November 17th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Xinhui Wang",hash:"31d6882518ca749b12715266eed0a018",volumeInSeries:9,fullTitle:"Advances in Candida albicans",editors:[{id:"296531",title:"Dr.",name:"Xinhui",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xinhui-wang",fullName:"Xinhui Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/296531/images/system/296531.jpg",institutionString:"Qinghai Normal University",institution:{name:"University of Luxembourg",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Luxembourg"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9528",title:"Current Topics and Emerging Issues in Malaria Elimination",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9528.jpg",slug:"current-topics-and-emerging-issues-in-malaria-elimination",publishedDate:"July 21st 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",hash:"7f178329cc42e691efe226b32f14e2ea",volumeInSeries:8,fullTitle:"Current Topics and Emerging Issues in Malaria Elimination",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9613",title:"Dengue Fever in a One Health Perspective",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9613.jpg",slug:"dengue-fever-in-a-one-health-perspective",publishedDate:"October 28th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Márcia Aparecida Sperança",hash:"77ecce8195c11092230b4156df6d83ff",volumeInSeries:7,fullTitle:"Dengue Fever in a One Health Perspective",editors:[{id:"176579",title:"Dr.",name:"Márcia Aparecida",middleName:null,surname:"Sperança",slug:"marcia-aparecida-speranca",fullName:"Márcia Aparecida Sperança",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/176579/images/system/176579.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal do ABC",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7981",title:"Overview on Echinococcosis",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7981.jpg",slug:"overview-on-echinococcosis",publishedDate:"April 22nd 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Fethi Derbel and Meriem Braiki",hash:"24dee9209f3fd6b7cd28f042da0076f0",volumeInSeries:6,fullTitle:"Overview on Echinococcosis",editors:[{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7887",title:"Hepatitis B and C",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7887.jpg",slug:"hepatitis-b-and-c",publishedDate:"April 8th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",hash:"8dd6dab483cf505d83caddaeaf497f2c",volumeInSeries:5,fullTitle:"Hepatitis B and C",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/73208/images/system/73208.jpg",institutionString:"University of Oviedo",institution:{name:"University of Oviedo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7839",title:"Malaria",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7839.jpg",slug:"malaria",publishedDate:"December 11th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Fyson H. Kasenga",hash:"91cde4582ead884cb0f355a19b67cd56",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Malaria",editors:[{id:"86725",title:"Dr.",name:"Fyson",middleName:"Hanania",surname:"Kasenga",slug:"fyson-kasenga",fullName:"Fyson Kasenga",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/86725/images/system/86725.jpg",institutionString:"Malawi Adventist University",institution:{name:"Malawi Adventist University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malawi"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",hash:"61c627da05b2ace83056d11357bdf361",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7064",title:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7064.jpg",slug:"current-perspectives-in-human-papillomavirus",publishedDate:"May 2nd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"d92a4085627bab25ddc7942fbf44cf05",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:25,paginationItems:[{id:"429683",title:"Dr.",name:"Bilal",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"bilal-khalid",fullName:"Bilal Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/429683/images/system/429683.png",biography:"Dr. Bilal Khalid received a Ph.D. in Industrial Business Administration from KMITL Business School, Bangkok, in 2021, and a master’s in International Business Management from Stamford International University, Bangkok, in 2017. Dr. Khalid\\'s research interests include leadership and negotiations, digital transformations, gamification, eLearning, blockchain, Big Data, and management of information technology. Dr. Bilal Khalid also serves as an academic editor at Education Research International and a reviewer for international journals.",institutionString:"KMITL Business School",institution:{name:"King Mongkut's Institute of Technology Ladkrabang",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"418514",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mohiuddin",slug:"muhammad-mohiuddin",fullName:"Muhammad Mohiuddin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038UqSfQAK/Profile_Picture_2022-05-13T10:39:03.jpg",biography:"Dr. Muhammad Mohiuddin is an Associate Professor of International Business at Laval University, Canada. He has taught at Thompson Rivers University, Canada; University of Paris-Est, France; Osnabruck University of Applied Science, Germany; and Shanghai Institute of Technology and Tianjin University of Technology, China. He has published research in Research Policy, Applied Economics, Review of Economic Philosophy, Strategic Change, International Journal of Logistics, Sustainability, Journal of Environmental Management, Journal of Global Information Management, Journal of Cleaner Production, M@N@GEMENT, and more. He is a member of CEDIMES Institut (France), Academy of International Business (AIB), Strategic Management Society (SMS), Academy of Management (AOM), Administrative Science Association of Canada (ASAC), and Canadian council of small business and entrepreneurship (CCSBE). He is currently the director of the Research Group on Contemporary Asia (GERAC) at Laval University. He is also co-managing editor of Transnational Corporations Review and a guest editor for Electronic Commerce Research and Journal of Internet Technology.",institutionString:"Université Laval",institution:{name:"Université Laval",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"189147",title:"Dr.",name:"Hailan",middleName:null,surname:"Salamun",slug:"hailan-salamun",fullName:"Hailan Salamun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/189147/images/19274_n.jpeg",biography:"Hailan Salamun, (Dr.) was born in Selangor, Malaysia and graduated from Tunku Ampuan Jamaah Religious High School at Shah Alam. Obtained a degree from the International Islamic University (UIA), Gombak in the field of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Heritage. Next, I furthered my studies to the professional level to obtain a Diploma in Education at UIA. After serving for several years in school, I furthered my studies to the Master of Dakwah and Leadership at Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Bangi. I graduated with a Doctor of Philosophy in Principalship Leadership from the University of Malaya (UM) in 2010. I am currently a senior lecturer in the Department of Nationalism and Civilization, Center for Basic and Continuing Education, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu. Prior to that, I had served in several educational institutions such as schools, the Institute of Teacher Education (IPG), and also the University of Malaya. I am also actively involved in paper presentation, writing and publishing. My research interests are focused on leadership, education, society and Islamic civilization. This area of research requires a detailed understanding of Islamic studies and research studies in leadership. Another research interest that I have explored recently is the politics of the Malay community and also the leadership of the mosque.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"442081",title:"Dr.",name:"Audrey",middleName:null,surname:"Addy",slug:"audrey-addy",fullName:"Audrey Addy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"442083",title:"Dr.",name:"James",middleName:null,surname:"Addy",slug:"james-addy",fullName:"James Addy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ghana Health Service",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"437993",title:"Mr.",name:"Job",middleName:null,surname:"Jackson",slug:"job-jackson",fullName:"Job Jackson",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Management College of Southern Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"437991",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Hoque",slug:"muhammad-hoque",fullName:"Muhammad Hoque",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Management College of Southern Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"428495",title:"Prof.",name:"Asyraf",middleName:null,surname:"Ab Rahman",slug:"asyraf-ab-rahman",fullName:"Asyraf Ab Rahman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"421024",title:"Prof.",name:"Harold Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Patrick",slug:"harold-andrew-patrick",fullName:"Harold Andrew Patrick",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jain University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"429650",title:"Dr.",name:"Jacqueline",middleName:null,surname:"Kareem",slug:"jacqueline-kareem",fullName:"Jacqueline Kareem",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Christ University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"421041",title:"Dr.",name:"Sunil",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar Ramdas",slug:"sunil-kumar-ramdas",fullName:"Sunil Kumar Ramdas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jain University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"421833",title:"Mr.",name:"Eugene",middleName:null,surname:"Owusu-Acheampong",slug:"eugene-owusu-acheampong",fullName:"Eugene Owusu-Acheampong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"421826",title:"Dr.",name:"Inusah",middleName:null,surname:"Salifu",slug:"inusah-salifu",fullName:"Inusah Salifu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"420823",title:"Prof.",name:"Gardênia da Silva",middleName:null,surname:"Abbad",slug:"gardenia-da-silva-abbad",fullName:"Gardênia da Silva Abbad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Brasília",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"437613",title:"MSc.",name:"Juliana",middleName:null,surname:"Legentil",slug:"juliana-legentil",fullName:"Juliana Legentil",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Brasília",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"239876",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Luciana",middleName:null,surname:"Mourão",slug:"luciana-mourao",fullName:"Luciana Mourão",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Salgado de Oliveira",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"421735",title:"Dr.",name:"elizabeth",middleName:null,surname:"addy",slug:"elizabeth-addy",fullName:"elizabeth addy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"421006",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Uster",slug:"anna-uster",fullName:"Anna Uster",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"470243",title:"Dr.",name:"Md Samim",middleName:null,surname:"Al Azad",slug:"md-samim-al-azad",fullName:"Md Samim Al Azad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"470244",title:"Dr.",name:"Slimane",middleName:null,surname:"Ed-dafali",slug:"slimane-ed-dafali",fullName:"Slimane Ed-dafali",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"421011",title:"Dr.",name:"Afatakpa",middleName:null,surname:"Fortune",slug:"afatakpa-fortune",fullName:"Afatakpa Fortune",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"446057",title:"Mr.",name:"Okedare",middleName:null,surname:"David Olubukunmi",slug:"okedare-david-olubukunmi",fullName:"Okedare David Olubukunmi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"421778",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatimah",middleName:"Saeed",surname:"AlAhmari",slug:"fatimah-alahmari",fullName:"Fatimah AlAhmari",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"421065",title:"Ms.",name:"Euzália",middleName:null,surname:"do Rosário Botelho Tomé",slug:"euzalia-do-rosario-botelho-tome",fullName:"Euzália do Rosário Botelho Tomé",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"421053",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ken",middleName:null,surname:"Kalala Ndalamba",slug:"ken-kalala-ndalamba",fullName:"Ken Kalala Ndalamba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"86",type:"subseries",title:"Business and Management",keywords:"Demographic Shifts, Innovation, Technology, Next-gen Leaders, Worldwide Environmental Issues and Clean Technology, Uncertainty and Political Risks, Radical Adjacency, Emergence of New Business Ecosystem Type, Emergence of Different Leader and Leader Values Types, Universal Connector, Elastic Enterprise, Business Platform, Supply Chain Complexity",scope:"