Pesticides losses, quality and health risks of wine.
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",isbn:"978-1-80356-357-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-356-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-358-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"3aba1eb3600a8c9ff880c628f70b3298",bookSignature:"Ph.D. Delfín Ortega-Sánchez",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11481.jpg",keywords:"Integrated Curriculum, Transdisciplinarity, Integrated Active Learning, Educational Programs, Contemporary Social Problems, Critical Thinking, Creative Thinking, Social Thinking, Agenda 2030, Sustainable Development Goals, Educational Paradigm, Social Reality",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 18th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 18th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 17th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 5th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 4th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Internationally recognized researcher in the field of historical and social science education. Author of more than 100 publications, awarded three Doctorate degrees and the National End of Degree Award, granted by the Ministry of Education to the best academic records of Bachelor's degrees in Spain. Dr. Ortega-Sánchez has been Vice-Rector for Social Responsibility, Culture, and Sports at the University of Burgos since 2021.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"302925",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Delfín",middleName:null,surname:"Ortega-Sánchez",slug:"delfin-ortega-sanchez",fullName:"Delfín Ortega-Sánchez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/302925/images/system/302925.jpg",biography:"I hold a PhD in Didactics of Social Sciences from the Autonomous University of Barcelona, a PhD in Educational Sciences from the University of Burgos, and a PhD in History from the University of Extremadura. My research interests focus on the construction of identities in the History and Geography teaching, gender mainstreaming in initial education and training for teachers, the didactic treatment of relevant social problems and controversial issues in the teaching of the social and human sciences, and the application of educational technology in the specific field of social sciences. I am currently a Social Sciences teacher and researcher at University of Burgos (Spain).",institutionString:"University of Burgos",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Burgos",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"23",title:"Social Sciences",slug:"social-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"429339",firstName:"Jelena",lastName:"Vrdoljak",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/429339/images/20012_n.jpg",email:"jelena.v@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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By definition, it is the inability to control bowel movements or, in other words, the uncontrolled and involuntary loss of solid or liquid stool or gas. The uncontrolled loss should last at least more than 1 month and with regard to patients who were previously continent. The terms anal or bowel incontinence are also used to represent the same clinical entity. Fecal incontinence, as a symptom, has various etiologies. Obstructed defecation syndrome is a very common pathology acting actually as one of the underlying causes of fecal incontinence.
Obstructed defecation syndrome (ODS) is the inability of the patient to empty the rectum normally. By definition, it is a clinical condition where the patient has the feeling of not emptying the rectum adequately. It can also be related, sometimes, to reduced bowel movements. Terminology of this condition in the literature also includes rectal outlet obstruction or evacuatory dysfunction. ODS may coexist with other bowel pathologies such as irritable bowel syndrome, anatomical deformities such as sigmoidocele, or even other colonic motility disorders, such as slow transit constipation. ODS is frequently associated with fecal incontinence. The established status quo is that fecal impaction, as a secondary effect from a rectocele or intussusception, causes overflow incontinence. Prolonged fecal impaction, prolapse or other ODS pathologies, all contribute to impairment of rectal compliance and thus sensitivity, as well as sphincter damage from chronic distention. ODS from various causes can provoke episodes of incontinence; however, new data suggest an increased risk of anal incontinence in patients who have had different types of operation for ODS in the past.
In order to understand the physiology of defecation, deep knowledge of the anatomy of the rectum and anal canal is very important. The rectum is the last part of the large intestine, located in the lower pelvis. Rectal function is crucial for retention of stool (continence) and for evacuation (defecation). The rectum measures about 15–17 cm in length, descending along the sacrococcygeal concavity and passing through the pelvic floor to the anal canal. The major part is called the rectal ampulla, which is a wide segment, with a perimeter that can extend to more than 15 cm. The lowest and narrowest part is the anal canal. The anorectal junction is formatted by the constant traction of the puborectal sling. The levator ani muscle, formed by the iliococcygeus, the pubococcygeal, and the puborectal muscles, serves as the pelvic floor. The relaxation of levator ani, and mainly the puborectalis muscle, the perineum and contraction of the lower abdomen, and the relaxation of the anal sphincter, all work in tandem in order to provide a normal defecation. Distention of rectal wall stimulates contractions of colon and rectal wall, mediated by the parasympathetic defecation reflex. Thus, phasic rectal contractions start and tone increases, formatting a conduit shape of rectum rather than a reservoir. For the above pattern of function, rectal sensitivity is of great importance. Once the rectum is filled with stool, the internal anal sphincter relaxes, as per the rectoanal inhibitory reflex. Simultaneous relaxation of the puborectalis muscle creates an obtuse anorectal angle, thus allowing defecation to occur normally. Defecation can be postponed with voluntary contraction of the external anal sphincter. Regarding pelvic floor innervations, the pudendal nerve innervates the external anal sphincter and some fibers of the puborectalis muscle, while the rest of puborectalis and levator ani muscles are getting innervations from sacral roots of S3 and S4 [1].
Symptoms of ODS include rectal or lower abdominal pain, a feeling of bloatedness or incomplete rectal evacuation, the use of vaginal splitting or perineal manipulation to help the defecation, prolonged straining, spending more time than usual in toilet, perineal descent, report of hard stools as well as dependency on laxatives and enemas. Obstructive defecation syndrome may be of various functional or anatomical origins. Functional etiology includes aganglionic rectum (short-term Hirschsprung), neuropathic disorders (multiple sclerosis, spinal cord lesions), and pelvic floor dyssynergia, such as in anismic patients. Mechanical ODS comes from anatomic deformities such as internal intussusception, rectocele, rectal prolapse or enterocele [2].
Soiling and real fecal incontinence are also usual symptoms of ODS mainly, but not solely, representing overflow diarrhea. In this chapter, we will focus on the coexistence and clinical relation between obstructive defecation syndrome and fecal incontinence.
Obstructive defecation and fecal incontinence have been recognized as related pathologies in geriatric population [3]. Fecal impaction and concomitant overflow diarrhea, as a typical non-controlled loss of stool, is not unusual. However, the coexistence of other pathologies and the lack of accurate statistics still exist [4]. Fecal impaction and chronic straining can cause denervation and pelvic floor weakness, which is the most well-known cause of obstructed defecation syndrome [5].
Apart from chronic straining as a known cause, adaptation of endoanal ultrasound in assessment of incontinence showed anal sphincter disruption as a common cause of fecal incontinence [6]. However, it is well known that prevalence of anal incontinence remains equal between genders. This leads to the possible conclusion that the role of obstetric injury in fecal incontinence is important, but may be not crucial, bearing in mind the equal number of male patients suffering from this condition. In addition, most female patients who suffer from incontinence, report the onset of their symptoms many years after delivery, making clinicians consider other contributing pathologies on top of the sphincter damage [7]. Recently, more studies are dealing with the coexistence of underlying constipation and fecal pathology [8].
In general, population, overlapping of symptoms of slow transit constipation, obstructive defecation, and incontinence are considerable, indicating constipation as a principal risk factor for fecal incontinence. Damon et al. found that between 706 patients, 63% reported difficulty in defecation, and 51% found to have sense of incomplete evacuation [9]. Several other studies represent similar findings and demonstrate the role of ODS in coexistent fecal incontinence [10, 11].
More specifically, in patients assessed in colorectal clinics, although the series are small, proctographic studies have shown similar findings. Rex et al. used anorectal manometry and defecography for the assessment of their patients. They demonstrated retention of contrast in rectoceles and incomplete evacuation in patients having clinical symptoms of ODS with concurrent incontinence [12]. In another study by Harewood et al., between 38 patients that evaluated with symptoms of incomplete evacuation and straining, 15% were found to also suffer from fecal incontinence [13]. In another study from Mohammed SD et al. on 200 patients complaining for symptoms of ODS, 91% reported incontinence [14]. Similar reports are coming from an evaluation of 161 male patients complaining for fecal incontinence, having found that almost half of them (48%) have concurrent functional constipation [15].
Rectal function and defecation should be assessed clinically and with several radiological or functional tests. Apart from colonoscopy, which is important to exclude any malignant causes of changes in bowel habits, clinical examination may reveal descent perineum, absence of rectoanal inhibitor reflex, sphincter tears or external openings of perianal sinus. Observation of perineum after requesting patient to squeeze usually allows us to understand if intussusception, or prolapse, is the clinical problem. Digital rectal exam is crucial to estimate the rest and squeeze anal tone, to assess for possible fecal impaction, rectocele or to palpate any abnormal mass.
Rectal sensitivity is usually assessed with air or water insufflation and distention of either a balloon or condom inserted to the rectum. Today multimodal balloon catheters allow the analysis of electrical and temperature receptors as well. Balloon expansion resembles the full rectum and triggers the need for evacuation. The time, the volume of the balloon, and the difficulty to expel provide much information about the rectal sensitivity and the possible dyssynergic defecation. Mean balloon volume is 50 ml of water. Expulsion should take less than 30 s in young men and less than 1 min in older men, but in women expulsion should occur in about a minute, regardless of age. Balloon expulsion test along with anorectal manometry is considered the primary diagnostic tests for identifying ODS. New manometric catheters have an expulsion balloon on the tip, permitting the performance of anorectal manometry at the same time. Anorectal manometry with high resolution catheters provides excellent information. Catheters can have up to 36 channels, evaluating pressure along the entire anal canal as long as the changes of pressures at the time of rectal distention (Figure 1). Physicians can get information for rest and squeeze pressures, about the rectoanal inhibitor reflex, the push defecation test, and the pressures during cough.
Anorectal manometry catheter. The multiple respective channels can be seen.
Anorectal ultrasonography is the most useful test not only to estimate the anatomy of the anal sphincters but also to estimate possible enterocele or rectocele, using the proper probe for perineal view (Figures 2–4). It is a cheap, painless, and very informative exam and provides the information needed by a colorectal surgeon. In expert hands, it can be the only exam necessary to evaluate obstructive defecation syndrome. Although most of the information taken from a proctogram can also be deciphered from a good total anorectal and pelvic ultrasound, experts in most centers prefer a combination of both for the best assessment of the patient [16] (Figures 5 and 6).
Anal endosonography equipment. The ultrasound can be seen in operation at the left, while the ultrasound probe can be seen on the right.
Anal endoultrasonogram of a normal person. The distinct structures of the region can be seen and labeled.
Sagittal view of a transperineal ultrasonogram of a patient with rectocele, which can be discerned between the vagina and the anal canal.
Proctogram of a rectocele.
Proctographic imaging of a case of anorectal intussusception.
As mentioned above, obstructive defecation syndrome has various clinical manifestations, but the predominant symptom is the sense of incomplete evacuation. Etiologic factors can be classified as either functional or anatomical. It is of high importance to clarify that, for patients with concomitant constipation from ODS and incontinence, soiling is coming as a result. Overlapping and mixed pathophysiology is very common. However, the most commonly accepted pathophysiological mechanisms are (a) overflow incontinence due to fecal impaction mainly in elderly people, (b) post defecation uncontrolled soiling or hard stool leakage after evacuation due to retained material, as in rectoceles, and (c) perineal denervation, pelvic floor weakness or dyssynergy which cause fecal incontinence. All of the above mechanisms are the underlying cause of obstruction defecation syndrome and contribute to fecal incontinence.
Incontinence in elder population is not uncommon. In geriatric population and particularly in institutionalized elders, prevalence of incontinence can reach 50%. Fecal impaction is defined as the prolonged retention of fecal material in the rectum. This can be a result of incomplete evacuation such as in ODS pattern, but also can happen from other causes such as immobility, hypothyroidism, neurologic disorders, dehydration, and dementia. Pharmaceutical agents such as opioids or antidepressants cause retard colonic contraction and may lead to fecal impaction. Rectum physiologically acts a fecal reservoir. Dilatation of rectal wall commences the autonomic nerve coordination for the pelvic relaxation and rectal wall contraction. In elder people, rectal sensitivity may be impaired due to chronic distention and denervation. These patients have reduced rectal sensation, pudendal neuropathy caused of chronic straining, or even concurrent reduced anal resting tone. However, when a large ball of fecal material remains for a while, secretion of mucus from rectal mucosa will cause significant soiling. Furthermore, uncontrolled contractions will end to true anal incontinence, and symptoms may be exacerbated after laxative use [17].
A similar clinical manifestation of overflow incontinence due to prolonged impaction can be seen not only in geriatric population but also in middle aged adults, although less commonly. Rectal hyposensitivity is of great importance to that type of incontinence. This is probably the underlying cause for the excessive distention of rectal wall and the development of megarectum. As a consequence, impaired rectal wall sensitivity contributes to excess rectal wall stretching and distention caused due to retained stool. As a result, paradoxical rectal contractions and overflow incontinence can happen to adult patients. In an interesting audit study from Gladman et al., rectal hyposensitivity was found in 27% of patients with coexisting constipation and incontinence [18]. On the basis of functional outlet obstruction, a few patients also have short segment Hirschsprung disease, leading to impaired rectoanal inhibitory reflex. A full rectal wall biopsy confirms the diagnosis. This disease is characterized by the absence of ganglion cells within the myenteric plexus. Rectal wall remains nonfunctional in terms of contractility, which ultimately leads to fecal retention. Surgery of the rectal wall is unusual because the same physiologic deformity usually occurs at the colonic wall. Therefore, subtotal or total colectomy is the most common surgical practice for these patients [19].
As mentioned above, the most common underlying pathology of obstructive defecation syndrome is mechanical outlet obstruction. Different anatomic abnormalities can cause disruption of the normal evacuatory root. Internal rectal intussusception is probably the most common underlying pathology. It represents invagination of distal sigmoid or upper rectum to mid rectum. Traditionally, internal intussusception is considered as a precursor of true full thickness rectal prolapse and a predominant cause of ODS. It is worth to mention that intussusception is quite the common finding in proctograms. Only a minor percentage of these patients requires surgical intervention and, interestingly, many of them do not complain for clinical symptoms of ODS. Rectal prolapse occurs in only 2% of the patients with internal intussusceptions [20]. Patients suffering from years from intussusception or low take off rectal prolapse exhibit extreme straining during defecation. Eventually, this causes perineal dyssynergia from pudendal chronic neuropathy. Biofeedback remains the mainstay of treatment for this condition. The patient learns the correct technique for prompt defecation after coordination of pelvic floor muscles, under electrode monitoring [21].
Fecal incontinence in early stages of ODS is more seepage type and does not present as major episodes of leakage. It comes as an unintentional loss of small amount of liquid stool or mucus after the early hours post defecation. Patients describe a feeling of incomplete evacuation, the urge for repeated visits to toilet, incontinence or pruritus ani. Symptoms usually improve after courses of biofeedback [21]. For those who undergo surgical intervention for correction of rectoanal intussusceptions or rectocele, symptoms are also improved [22].
Apart from intussusceptions, patients with rectoceles and ODS may also have subsequent incontinence. Rectoceles can easily be detected in proctograms. These are always anterior and found only in female patients as a result of anterior herniation of rectum through the loose rectovaginal septum, causing bulging of posterior vaginal wall. Again, as in intussusception, rectocele may represent only a radiological finding in asymptomatic women. Biofeedback remains the cornerstone of the treatment algorithm. Small rectoceles usually do not require surgical intervention. Incontinence symptoms improve postoperatively in patients who are submitted to operation. Laparoscopic ventral mesh rectopexy has become the treatment of choice for fit female patients, mainly in Europe [23]. Perineal or transvaginal rectocele repair with or without levatorplasty is another option, with promising results in experienced centers [24]. Stapled transanal rectal resection procedure (STARR/TRANSTARR) has gained a wide acceptance among colorectal surgeons. The concept is the removal of the redundant anterior or circumferential rectal mucosa, allowing a straightened outlet [25, 26].
Although surgery for ODS has gained great acceptance between colorectal surgeons, it is crucial to understand that it is needed only for correction of major anatomic abnormalities. Furthermore, surgery for ODS may aggravate any symptoms of urgency, as well as cause subsequent incontinence, thus it is not without pitfalls or risks. Among the different techniques available for fixing rectoceles or intussusception, laparoscopic ventral mesh rectopexy seems to have the less risk of postoperative incontinence. However, it requires expert knowledge of the technique, its results are not widely reproducible, and mesh complications may lead surgeons to abandon the technique in the future [27, 28]. The Delorme and the Internal Delorme procedures have been widely used for rectal prolapse and for low take off prolapse or intussusception respectively, as causes of ODS symptoms. Internal mucosa excision and plication completely restores the rectal cavity, reducing, however, in the process, the rectal capacity and compliance. The resulting rectal hyposensitivity and abnormal distention contribute to urge incontinence. For patients with preoperative anal incontinence and rectal prolapse Delorme or Internal Delorme procedures should be avoided [29, 30] Regarding the STARR technique, which is widely used to correct both rectocele and intussusception, criticism has been raised due to the lack of long-term results, as well as the worsening of urge incontinence in some patients. An Italian study on patients who underwent STARR reported increased predominantly incidence of urge type of incontinence. Maximum tolerated rectal volume capacity was impaired according to anorectal manometry [31]. The European Stapled Transanal Rectal Resection Registry reports urgency in about 20% of operated patients. Impaired rectal compliance and even minimal sphincter damage from the stapler can easily transform defecatory urgency to urge fecal incontinence [32].
Dyssynergia, by all means, is a syndrome of different specific origins, with symptoms that can be produced by lack of coordination or malfunction of different pelvic muscles. Thus, pelvic dyssynergia generally results from paradoxic muscle spasm and failure of puborectalis sling to relax during defecation. As a consequence, functional outlet obstruction is not unusual. Rectal masses should be excluded with flexible sigmoidoscopy at the first instance and anatomic abnormalities as intussusception and rectoceles should be excluded—usually with a proctogram. Defecography is also crucial to recognize anismic patients and paradoxic spasm of the puborectalis muscle. Anal manometry usually shows increased anal rest pressures, failure of relaxation, and increased puborectalis activity during straining [16]. In proctograms, anorectal angle changes less than 15°, and the perineum fails to relax and to descend during defecation. There are different studies that show the connection between dyssynergia and fecal seepage or soiling. In the study of Rao SS et al., in 25 patients who reported seepage, residual anal pressure was raised and 29% were unable to expel a rectal balloon [33]. As mentioned above, rectal sensation is crucial, thus rectal hyposensitivity, which is common in functional obstruction syndrome, results in impaired rectoanal coordination and pelvic muscles relaxation.
Biofeedback is the first step in the treatment of patient with ODS and is mainly useful for patients with pelvic floor dyssynergy. It is a sophisticated approach using behavioral and physiologic methods. Biofeedback uses anorectal manometers and screen in front of the patient, where changes in attempts for defecation and correction of the technique can be visible for the patient, recognizing different patterns of muscular activity. The majority of patients report improved outcomes after repeated courses of biofeedback. For patients with rectal intussusception and small rectoceles, this is the treatment of choice [21]. Botulinum toxin injection is another option for anismic patients. Injection of 60–100 U on the puborectalis sling showed prominent results in patients with pelvic dyssynergy, although the lack of long-term data and the need for repeated injections [34].
The role of SNS in obstructive defecation has been debatable. Most of the studies for SNS have been done for patients with slow transit constipation or incontinence, and few data are available for ODS. Some of these patients report improvement of straining, but still more studies are required [35].
Pelvic floor weakness and pudendal denervation due to chronic straining or repeated perineum stretching had been traditionally considered as the principal mechanism for fecal incontinence. Prolonged straining, descent of perineum, and prolapse cause not only anal sphincter disruption but also chronic pudendal neuropathy. As a result, anal pressures are reduced and this predisposes to incontinence [36]. Pudendal neuropathy needs time to be established, but time is crucial because once it is established, the malfunction becomes permanent. In a longitudinal study of patients with perineal descending syndrome, more than 50% became incontinent in a second follow up 5 years after initial assessment [37]. In general, pelvic floor weakness, with all clinical presentations (rectocele, descending perineum, prolapsed) and organ prolapse predispose to evacuatory disorders and denervation, causing finally fecal incontinence.
Fecal incontinence is a quite common and underestimated clinical syndrome, which is not exclusive to aged patients. Great clinical expertise is needed for the assessment of the patients. Obstructive defecation syndrome has been nowadays accepted as one of the underlying pathologies that ultimately lead to fecal incontinence. Clinical assessment, defecatory proctogram, anorectal manometry evaluation, and endoanal ultrasound are the tools needed for a full discussion on a pelvic floor MDT. Conservative management with biofeedback is a key to the treatment, and of great benefit to the patients. Surgery for ODS should be offered only to patients who fail biofeedback or have major anatomic abnormalities. The decision of the type of surgery that will be suggested to the patient must be decided after a great deal of thought, because different procedures for ODS may lead to fecal incontinence as well.
The author would like to acknowledge the work of Dr. Spyridon Smparounis in proofreading and correcting the drafts of this manuscript.
Grapevine (
Grapes are known to poses high amounts of carbohydrates and this makes them very vulnerable to damage by diverse fungal pests and insects [2]. High susceptibility to biotic stress of grape varieties can led to important economic loses, reduction of wine quality and undesirable sensory characteristics. Vines and grapes can be affected by a large number of diseases, such as downy mildew (
The use of pesticides in vineyard is a conventional and ancient agricultural practice, which brings many benefits but, unfortunately, some disadvantages as well. Concerns regarding the exposition over a long period of time to pesticide residues present in wines have gained attention in the scientific community. In some cases, inappropriate agricultural practices are used during the application of these active substances in the vineyard. As a result, the amount of pesticide residues on grapes at harvest time exceeds the permitted level by national and international regulations. Alongside with the environmental risks, high amounts of pesticide residues may influence the quality of grapes and wines. Constant consumption of wine or grapes (and indirectly of pesticide residues), can provoke health issues to many consumers. Therefore, it is crucial to monitor the presence of pesticides and regulate their amount in grapes in order to prevent potential health risks. In the European Union, the maximum residue levels (MRLs) of pesticides permitted in products of vegetable origin intended for human consumption is establishes by Regulation 396/2005/EC [6]. Also, the MRLs limits and the analysis methods are regulated by various internationals directives [6, 7]. In grapes, the MRLs for pesticide residues often range between 0.01 mg/kg and 5 mg/kg depending on the pesticide, but in some cases higher limits are allowed.
Pesticide residues on grapes may be transferred during winemaking in the juice/must and later to the wine. This means a toxicological risk to consumers despite the fact that winemaking processes (crushing, pressing, fermentation, filtration and stabilization, etc.) can considerably decrease pesticides residues from wines [8]. Each phytosanitary product used in vineyards has a different mode of action which may explain the differences that were observed during analysis. Pesticide residues stability during fermentation and fining stages are factors of concern during winemaking. In red wine production, the maceration-fermentation stage take place in contact with grape skins, leading to greater residue amounts in raw wine. These types of residues can be adsorbed into solid state during fermentation or filtered out in the fining stages.
Grapes and wines are an indispensable part of people’s lifestyle. The world surface devoted to the culture of grapevine is 7.3 million ha, and in Europe is 3.3 million ha [9]. Within the EU, according to the latest available data for 2020, Spain has the topmost area cultivated with vines (961 thousands of hectares-kha), followed by France (797 kha), Italy (719 kha), Portugal (194 kha), Romania (190 kha), Germany (103 kha). World wine consumption in 2020 was estimated at 260 million hectolitres (mhl) and in the EU at 165 mhl. Wine consumption was very high for USA-33.0 mhl, France-24.7 mhl, Germany-19.8 mhl, China-12.4 mhl, Spain-9.6 mhl, Portugal-4.6 mhl, Romania-3.8 mhl, Belgium-2.6 mhl and Switzerland-2.6 mhl [9].
The possible impact of pesticide residues on winemaking stages is a complex subject, and one that has a limited number of literature reports. The influence of pesticide residues on the grapes is a potential source of oenological concerns and can induce wine spoilage and undesired outcomes. The fermentation stage can be disturbed due to the active ingredients of pesticide residues in the must and thus, the quality and structure of wine can be negatively impacted. Pesticide residues can inhibit the yeast activity at the enzyme level and block the cellular metabolic processes of the yeast, leading to problems during the fermentation stage. Pesticide residues impacts on grapes can be influenced by the content of pesticides used in the vineyard, spraying method, spraying time, number of applications and the time difference between last application and harvest.
The morphology, size, and quality requirements of agricultural products are different, thus, influencing the overall content of pesticide residues. In winemaking stages, residues are transferred from the grapes to the wine, in accordance with the physical–chemical properties of their active ingredients, such as vapor pressure, solubility, boiling point, and octanol–water partition coefficient [10]. Processing of grapes using established winemaking techniques can influence the content of residues found in the juice and wine, but it is well established that, in general, wines have lower concentrations than must or grapes [11]. Environmental conditions such as sunlight, temperature and humidity can play a significant role in the kinetic and dynamic behavior of pesticides. In addition, other techniques for reducing pesticides are grape storage and washing processes that can minimize their potential adverse repercussion on human health.
A European Union recent report showed that pesticide residues could be found in more than 86% of grapes; moreover, multiple residues were reported in over 68% of tested samples (in total 2181 table grape samples) [12]. Under these conditions, it is highly recommended to speed up the pesticide residues analysis and come up with reliable, cheap and easy to use methods for identification, quantification and removal of such compounds from grapes, juices and wines.
Pesticides have a great variety of chemical structures, with diverse action mechanisms and applications. Nowadays, pesticides are presented in a large range of commercially products, with above 800 active components, belonging to more than 100 classes.
Pesticides can be classified bases on the pest type (A) and the origin (B) (Figure 1). In the first group of pesticides (A) are included: (1) herbicides, substances used to manage unwanted plant growth or to destroy weeds; (2) insecticides, used to kill infesting insects; (3) fungicides, used to control the propagation of fungi; (4) rodenticides that kill rodents; and (5) nematicides which kill nematodes or adversely affect nematodes. In the second group (B), pesticides can be categorized as chemical (synthetic) and biopesticides (biological or biorationals). The most outspread groups of pesticides are organochlorines, carbamates, pyrethroids and organophosphates. Organochlorines are the first important synthetic organic pesticides that belongs to the class of persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Biopesticides can be separated into two classes, that are, biochemical (hormones, enzymes, pheromones, natural insects, etc.) and microbial (viruses, bacteria, fungi, etc.).
Classification of pesticides.
Another classification of pesticides is based on the mode of action or mode of entry. Based on this, pesticides can be differentiated as non systemic, systemic, stomach poison, broad spectrum, disinfectant, nonselective, nerve poison, protectants and repellents. Moreover, pesticides can be classified using their acute toxicity. WHO [13] grouped them in Class Ia = extremely hazardous, Class Ib = highly hazardous, Class II = moderately hazardous, Class III = Slightly hazardous, and Class U=Unlikely to present acute hazards.
Organochlorines (OCs) were among the frequently used pesticides in agriculture, and presented a high toxicity, with hazardous and bio-accumulation properties [14]. These types of pesticides are carcinogenic, persistent in the cycle of environmental degradation, belonging to group of chlorinated hydrocarbons. Moreover, they have high lipophilicity, low polarity and solubility in aqueous medium. OCs are forbidden and no longer used for agriculture in Europe, America and other countries. Organochlorines were substituted with other synthetic compounds such as carbamates, pyrethroids and organophosphorus. These synthetic compounds have a low price, low persistence in nature, high capacity to eliminate a vast number of pests.
The organophosphates and carbamates lead to disturbance in the normal functioning of the central nervous system (CNS), inhibiting the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE) in (CNS) of humans and insects [15]. Organophosphates are widespread contaminants and are correlated with important toxicological threats to the soil, aquatic ecosystems and human health [16].
Pyrethroids are obtained from natural chrysanthemum ester containing natural chemicals, name as pyrethrins [17]. The synthetic pyrethroids have a longer environmental stability and half-life when as compared to the natural form. They have a particular insecticidal activity with reduced toxicity, operation by lagging the voltage gated sodium channel in the neuronal membrane.
Use of such pesticides in modern agriculture is regarded as beneficial for pest control, although residues accumulated in raw products or beverages are extremely dangerous to both human health and the environment. Consumption of wines that may contain residues of pesticides has a strong impact on human health, and may cause muscle weakness, respiratory disorder, paralysis, cancer, etc. [18, 19].
Grape growing and wine production are very complex processes, which start in the vineyard, continue in the winery and end in the consumer’s glass. The environmental components, encompassing soil, topography, weather and climate have major impacts on vines growing and grape quality. Management practices in vineyards influence the accumulation of pesticide residues that can potentially affect the final wine chemical composition. Harvesting, transportation and transfer of grapes into the winery and later on the winemaking processes, can modify pesticide residues and gradually reduce or eliminate them.
Pesticide management techniques are constantly changing in accordance with the consumers and policy requirements. The promotion of sustainable viticulture and reduction of chemical inputs in vineyards arises new challenges and concerns for the entire viti-vinicultural sector.
Environmental conditions such as sunlight, temperature, soil, humidity and climate play a significant role in the kinetic and dynamic behavior of pesticides and grapes. Global warming is a key factor that provokes an increase in the accumulation of soluble solids in grapes, in combination with a lower amount of anthocyanins and acidity. As a cascading phenomenon, this slows, or even blocks fermentations and may lead to large economic losses in the winery. In addition, climate change presents a deep effect on the vine phenology, grape composition, winemaking stages, wine chemistry and microbiology and finally on the sensory attributes. Chemical composition of wines, aroma compounds, polyphenolic compounds, color, sensorial characteristics are all affected by the management of vineyards.
Management of vineyard is coordinated by humans and based on their decisions, many components may be affected. Grape quality is dependent on rows orientation, their training system, density, the calendar for pruning, trimming, fungicide treatments, or the way in which soil surface is managed, which comprise its tillage, the manipulation of the canopy structure and nitrogen fertilization [20]. High quality grape berries are influenced by the microclimate, sunlight and water levels. The light influences the evolution of grape volatile compounds, through the amount of light absorbed by the vine leaf area that determines the rate of photosynthesis. All these components generate an uneven distribution of favorable factors that may led to a high fluctuation of grape quality across different years.
Canopy management includes a series of common techniques, such as the plucking of leaves and head trimming. The first technique improves the microclimate of clusters, provides better fruit maturation, decreasing grapevine diseases incidence [21]. The second one, decrease transpiration and induces the lignification of the plant, balances the growth of branches and insulation within the foliage. Thus, wines resulted from defoliated grapes have higher fruity notes.
In order to obtain a high-quality wine, it is mandatory to have healthy grapes in the winemaking process. Vine growers have to be very careful in the prevention of parasite attacks in vineyards. Phytosanitary treatments used for common vine diseases such as botrytis, powdery mildew or downy mildew may provoke important problems during winemaking. Residues on grapes can be passed to the must and affect the selection and development of yeast strains [8]. Yeast can decrease the pesticides content in the wine. The persistence of pesticides depends on various factors such as the chemical characteristics of active ingredients, photodegradation, thermo-degradation and enzymatic degradation [22].
One of the essential pilons of the horticultural sciences for the control of insect-pests during the second half of XX century is Integrated Pest Management (IPM). There are various strategies to decrease the presence of pesticide residues in wine, such as treatments with sulfur, copper, or plant extracts as alternatives to synthetic products. Another strategy includes scheduled dosages and installation of a meteorological station to relay real-time weather data by General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) connection [23].
In the European Union [24] the use of copper fungicides in organic agriculture is restricted, being limited to 6 kg ha−1per year [25]. Vallejo et al. [23] found that “weather station” was the most effective to decrease pesticide with wine-growing ecosystem.
IPM is considered as an environmentally friendly approach that can ensure sustainable production, constant yields and high-quality horticultural products [26, 27].
Sustainable agriculture is a key objective of the European Union and a focus of its sustainable development policies. Suitable remedial measures aim to decrease occurrence of pesticides toxicity and other health issues correlated with pesticides. Normally it employs mechanical, cultural and biological methods; allows use of chemical pesticides only when it is required; if possible, bio-pesticide usage, bio-control and indigenous advanced [27]. Some strategies to reduce pesticide residues are presented below and in (Figure 2A and B):
Rational use of pesticides present advantages that include decreased expenses, decreased environmental impacts and increased safety (Figure 2A) [28].
Organic strategy is used to increase organic cycles in horticulture, to preserve and improve extended soil fertility, to decrease all types of hazard provoked by pesticides extensive use.
Awareness of workers: there is an urgent requirement to instruct the farmers and workers regarding the use of pesticides, their toxicity, and the risks of critical pesticide poisoning.
Sustainable systems can decrease horticultural pesticide using the efficiency–substitution–redesign framework —precision and smart farming, substituting chemical inputs with biocontrol agents or mechanical weed control and improving the current cropping system.
Genomics and new plant breeding techniques provide huge potential to increase the speed and technical opportunities in the development of resistant cultivars; plant breeding is a long and complex process, which is often unable to keep pace with the rapid evolution of pathogens or the emergence of new pests — processes that are increasingly driven by globalization and climate change [29].
Artificial intelligence in agriculture can help identification and classification of weeds, pests and diseases exactly and efficiently; photos taken by drones or from tractor-mounted spraying boots allow targeted spraying and decrease the overall applied pesticide quantities.
Strategies used to remove pesticides in vineyards. A) Rational use of pesticides in the vineyards. B) Integrated pest management stategies.
A limited number of scientific reports could be found in the literature, regarding the influence of pesticides on the polyphenolic compounds in beverages. In the last years, studies on beer [30, 31, 32] and wine [33, 34, 35] chemical compositions have been published.
Dugo et al. [33] investigated the phenolic compounds of grapes and wines, after the use of pesticide treatments in the vineyard. Their results indicated that the antioxidant activity of wines was correlated to the content of phenolic compounds. In contrast, each individual phenolic compound was not homogeneous, and the contents were not correlated to various pesticide treatments.
Navarro et al. [30, 31] noticed on beers samples important differences in the total polyphenolic amount after fermentation for samples that contains residues of pesticides. Major reductions were recorded for propiconazole, 70.8%, myclobutanil, 43.0%, fenitrothion, 13.6%, and trifluralin, 6.8%, when compared to the control. Moreover, fenarinol, malathion, methidathion, nuarimol and pendimethalin were not influence by pesticide residues.
In 2011, Navarro et al. [32] observed that not significant differences on the total polyphenolic amount of beer after fermentation with fungicides. In contrast, statistical differences were noticed for the values of color intensity (lower) and tint (higher) in beer.
Recently, Briz-Cid et al. [34] reported that treatment with mepanipyrim decreased 1.2 times the level in monomeric anthocyanin, while polymeric forms increased 1.3 times. Also, after treatment with iprovalicarb the content in the monomeric anthocyanin increased by around 30%. Malvidin derivatives have been affected significantly, increasing up to 42%. Mulero et al. [35] noticed small changes of less than 10%. In his study, quinoxyfen and kresoxim-methyl have provoked the biggest increase in total anthocyanin, while the famoxadone, trifoxystrobin and fenhexamid reduced the anthocyanin content. No significant differences in antioxidant activity were observed. Similarly, Mulero et al. [35] reported that presence of pesticide residues did not influence the antioxidant activity in red wines.
In general, the treatment with fungicides did not change very much the concentrations of monomeric anthocyanins or flavan-3-ol monomers in wine [36]. Exceptions have been reported for treatments with boscalid + kresoxim-methyl which increased the amount of flavonoid groups with 58% and 36%, respectively. Mulero et al. [35] presented similar results for Monastrell wines from grapes treated with kresoxim-methyl. The treatment with quinoxyfen indicates an increase of phenolic compounds in wines when compared with control sample. In opposite, when trifloxystrobin was used it was observed a lower total content in phenolic compounds.
Castro-Sobrino et al. [37] indicated that the use of pesticides does not have an effect on anthocyanins. However, tetraconazole use led to a decrease of these compounds.
Wines represent a very complex matrix that contains hundreds of volatile aroma compounds. Aroma compounds originate from: i) varietal aroma that come from the vine and is released in the wine during the fermentation process. The most powerful varietal aromas are terpenoids, varietal thiols and methoxypyrazines; ii) fermentative aroma as a result of the synthesis of important volatile compounds through
Pesticides | Pesticides losses | Quality and health risks of wine | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|
Iprovalicarb Mepanipyrim Tetraconazole | The fungicides mepanipyrim and tetraconazole exhibited a high dissipation rate during the winemaking process (93–98%); about 10–18% of iprovalicarb remained in wine. | The total content in the monomeric anthocyanin of iprovalicarb treatment increased by about 30%. Fungicides in wine do not only poses a health risk but also can alter fermentation and hence the quality of the wine | [34] |
Metrafenone Boscalid + kresoxim-methyl Fenhexamid Mepanipyrim | no data | Presence of boscalid + kresoxim-methyl residues in must impairs the sensory quality of the resulting wine by diminishing its brightness and aroma. It increased the contents in monomeric anthocyanins (58%) and flavan-3-ols (36%), and also color lightness (20%), but decreased the contribution of the ripe (42%) and fresh fruits (59%) odorant series. | [35] |
Fenhexamid Kresoxim-methyl Fluquinconazole Famoxadon Trifloxystrobin Quinoxyfen | no data | Wines from grapes treated with quinoxyfen shows an increase of phenolic compounds than the control. In contrast, the wine obtained from grapes treated with trifloxystrobin showed lower total concentration of phenolic compounds. | [36] |
Mepanipyrim (Mep) Tetraconazole (Tetra) | no data | No effects on anthocyanins for mepanipyrim treatments were observed. A decrease of these pigments was registered when Tetra and Tetra-Form were applied; moreover Tetra-Form reduced phenolic compounds. | [37] |
Tebuconazole | no data | The presence of residual levels of tebuconazole had no effect on varietal aroma compounds, terpene and higher-alcohol concentrations were essentially not changed; by contrast, C6-alcohol, ester and aldehyde concentrations differed significantly. | [42] |
Mepanipyrim Tetraconazole | no data | Mep residues affected the release of varietal aroma compounds from their grape precursors, Tetra residues mainly affected the aroma biosynthesis pathways of the ethanol producing yeasts. Presence of Mep residues in grape must could contribute to wines having higher “floral” and “spicy” notes and lower “fruity” nuances while the presence of Tetra residues can contribute to wines having higher “floral and lactic” nuances. | [43] |
Benalaxyl, Iprovalicarb, Pyraclostrobin | no data | Reduced the varietal aroma of wines attributed to geraniol. Increase in the fruity aroma due to several ethyl esters and acetates | [45] |
Quinoxyfen | 79–82% fungicide removal by alcoholic fermentation. | Quinoxyfen led to significantly lower ethylic ester levels. The addition of the fungicide did not seriously inhibit biomass production. A slight decrease of ethanol production in terms of both absolute value and conversion yield of ethanol produced per sugar consumed was, however, observed when the quinoxyfen concentration was increased. | [47] |
Fenamidone, Pyraclostrobin, Trifloxystrobin | After winemaking, fenamidone, pyraclostrobin, and trifloxystrobin were not detected in the wine, but they were present in the cake and lees. | These three active ingredients could be used in a planning to obtain residue-free wines. | [48] |
Iprovalicarb, Indoxacarb, Boscalid | Winemaking showed a complete transfer of all pesticide from grapes to the must, while in wine the residues were negligible due to the adsorbing effect of lees and pomace. | No risks of quality and safety defects. | [49] |
Cyprodinil, Fludioxonil, Pyrimethanil, Quinoxyfen | Fludioxonil decreased most quickly during winemaking without maceration, whereas the decrease of pyrimethanil was the slowest in all cases. During carbonic maceration winemaking, the decay constant of cyprodinil was greater than that of the other pesticides. | The winemaker can also choose which winemaking process to follow depending on the residues. | [50] |
Carbendazim, Chlorothalonil, Fenarimol, Metalaxyl, Procymidone, Triadimenol Carbaryl, Chlorpyrifos, Dicofol | After malolactic fermentation the concentrations of the active compounds chlorpyrifos (70%) and dicofol (30–40%) were the most significantly reduced. | In the case of dicofol, a substantial slowing of malolactic fermentation was observed when this compound was present at high concentration. Dicofol had a major inhibitory effect on the catabolism of malic acid (6–13% was metabolized), whereas chlorothalonil, chlorpyrifos, and fenarimol had only a minor effect (76–84% was metabolized). | [51] |
Pesticides losses, quality and health risks of wine.
Wine aroma can vary depending on the geographic area and terroir, viticultural practices, winemaking processes, type of aging and bottling. Moreover, other factors that have impact on the aroma compounds can interact with proteins, oxygen, polyphenols, polysaccharides, and thus modifying the sensorial characteristics of wines. A correct and controlled management of various methods or conditions of winemaking can help improve wine quality thorough removing the unwanted aroma compounds, the residues of pesticides or heavy metals, microbial contamination or oxidation, etc.
Reports suggested that the residual content of cyazofamid, famoxadone, mandipropamid and valifenalate was not affected by the synthesis of alcohols [39]. Similar results were published by other authors, regarding the chlorpyrifos, fenarimol, mancozeb, metalaxyl, penconazole, vinclozolin, fluquinconazole, kresoxim-methyl, quinoxyfen and trifloxystrobin in red wines [40] and with fludioxonil and pyrimethanil in white wines [41]. Interesting, opposite impacts were noticed for other pesticide categories. In red wines, a significant decrease of alcohols was observed when famoxadone, fenhexamid and tebuconazole were used [40, 42]. Contrasting, in white wines an increase of cis-3-hexen-1-ol content was observed in the presence of cyprodinil [41]. The same trend was noticed for tetraconazole in wines, in which the levels of cis-3-hexen-1-ol also increased with 55% [43].
A pesticides treatment that included fluxilazole showed that, in white wines, the content of isoamyl alcohols and 2-phenylethanol was increased with a direct correlation to the dose [44]. Moreover, other studies observed in white wines a decrease of 2-methyl-1- propanol and 3-methyl-1-propanol when fosetyl-A, mancozeb and iprovalicarb were used [45]. Results concerning the decrease of alcohols concentrations in the presence of some pesticides can be attributed to lower assimilation of the amino acid precursor by yeast or modifications in the biosynthesis of amino acids. However, a decrease in the quality of wine was noticed due to considerable increases in isoamyl alcohols contents [40, 41]. González-Álvarez et al. [39] reported no significant differences in the alcohols level between control sample and wines treated with chlorpyrifos, cyazofamid, famoxadone, fenarimol, mancozeb, mandipropamid, metalaxyl, penconazole, valifenalate and vinclozolin.
The level of aldehydes increased slowly in the wine aging stage by effect of the oxidation of alcohols. The principal aldehydes that could be found in wines are benzaldehyde and phenylethanal [46]. Until now, results indicate that pesticides utilization do not influence the aldehyde contents [42]. However, in red wine, fenhexamid seems to be responsible for the increased content of benzaldehyde [40].
Sieiro-Sampedro et al. [43] founded that mepanipyrim influence the release of varietal aroma compounds while tetraconazole have a major impact on the aroma biosynthesis pathways of the ethanol producing yeasts. According to the OAV, the mepanipyrim could offer to wines higher spicy and floral nuances and lower fruity note whereas tetraconazole leads to higher floral and lactic notes. Mepanipyrim (Mepp) and Mep-Form generated a positive increase of the geraniol content, between 27 and 41%, benzyl alcohol between 91 and 177%, benzaldehyde between 51 and 111% and
The effect of cyprodinil, fludioxonil and pyrimethanil presented lower levels of hexanoate, ethyl octanoate and ethyl decanoate in white wines [41]. Also, grapes treated with quinoxyfen, kresomin-methyl and trifloxystrobin have decreased the content of ethyl dodecanoate and diethyl succinate in wines [45]. García et al. [41] observed an increased content of isoamyl acetate in the presence of cyprodinil, fludioxonil, chlorpyrifos, feranimol and vinclozolin. The level of ethyl acetate increased also when chlorpyrifos were used, whereas decreased its content with famoxadone and fenhexamid [40]. Other studies did not notice differences in ethyl ester and acetate levels in control sample and grapes treated with cyazofamid, famoxadone, mandipropamid and valifenalate [39]. Similarly, Noguerol-Pato [42] reported no significant variations, caused by treatments with tebuconazole, in the level of isopentyl acetate and most ethyl esters found in Mencía wines. On the other hand, residues of other pesticides seemed to increase the content of isopentyl acetate [45, 40].
Oliva et al. [40] reported that treatment with some pesticides (famoxadone, fenhexamid, fluquinconazole, kresoxim-methyl, quinoxyfen and trifloxystrobin) presented an increase of terpenoic class in red wine comparative with control sample. Another study by González-Álvarez et al. [39] showed that cyazofamid and famoxadone treatments have a major impact in the synthesis of trans, trans-farnesol of white wines. Also, three fungicides (benalaxyl, iprovalicarb and pyraclostrobin) have altered the geraniol synthesis [45]. On the contrary, Noguerol-Pato et al. [42] observed that tebuconazole caused no important changes in the terpenoic content of red wines.
The treatment with famoxadone and cymoxanil led to a reduction in the content of isovaleric, caproic and caprylic acids, while valifenalate and cyazofamid increased the content of capric acid, according to González-Álvarez et al. [39]. In another study, the quinoxyfen, kresoxim-methyl, famoxadone, trifloxystrobin, fluquinconazole and fenhexamid content decreased the acid concentration in red wines compared with control sample [40].
Pesticide residues in grapes and by-products can be a major concern to human health. The majority of grape products are consumed raw or slightly processed [52]. It is imperative to identify processes that are able to decrease and remove the pesticide residues from all horticultural products.
Certain processes, like washing [53], peeling [54], or cooking [55] have been reported in literature as good methods to decrease the content of pesticide residues and also reduce the risk of exposure to these phytosanitary products. However, some horticultural crops such as grapes are not subjected to a washing stage in their industrial processing line, and they are not peeled or cooked previous to consumption. Commonly, grapes are treated followed a phytosanitary scheme in the vineyard, harvested and then directly subjected to the winemaking process.
Proactive removal of pesticide residues from grapes and wines can be done by using decontamination techniques, classified as physical, physical–chemical and oenological methods (Figure 3). Apart from the classic methods used for reducing pesticide residues, the application of new or emergent technologies such as pulsed electric field (PEF) or ultrasounds, in the grapes and wines, is a current research hotspot.
Removal of pesticides from grapes and wines.
Physical methods partially eliminate pesticide residues from grapes and wines are used on a small scale in the wine industry. Most of these techniques are not economically feasible for most small to medium size winemakers, even if nowadays, the modern beverage processing technologies aim at beverages safety and sustainable production.
Zhang et al. [57] reported that PEF method in apple juice can reduce the content of diazinon and dimethoate. The efficacity of PEF can be improved with increased process time and the strength of the electric field. Efficient removal of diazinon (47.6%) and dimethoate (34.7%) was realized when using 20 kV cm − 1 for 260 μs.
Delsart et al. [58] studied the impact of the same treatment on vinclozolin, pyrimethanil, procymidone, and cyprodinil in wine samples. Results revealed that PEF method can decrease the fungicide content and the major factors of influence were the electrical field strength and used energy level.
Ultrasonic dishwasher is a recent technique used in elimination pesticides from fruits and vegetables [59]. Ultrasonic waves provoke a phenomenon such as cavitations, which leads to the fast formation and violent collapse of micron-sized bubbles in a liquid medium. This method with tiny implosions that ensure the cleaning power, using the ultrasonic washing, was not exploited to its maximum potential. In a recent study, Zhou et al. [60] investigated the ultrasonic washing process to eliminate pesticides from grapes. Washing with the ultrasonic dishwasher proved to be more efficient for pesticides removal. Results showed residues decreased rates between 72.1% and 100% on grapes when comparing with normal water washing.
Another very promising emerging technology used for grape products is
One of the known methods for pesticides removal is the chemical adsorption. This method is described as eco-friendly, low production of by-product waste and cost-effectiveness. Various types of adsorbents such as clay, activated carbon, biochar and nanoparticles have been used for the adsorption of pesticides from grapes and wines. Adsorption techniques can be chemical, as bonding through ion-dipole interactions, weak Van Der Waals, forces, dipole–dipole, cation exchange and strong covalent bonding or physical adsorption [63]. Effective removal of pesticide residues depends on the pesticides concentrations, the wine fining agents, the type of compounds and the dosage.
Ozone can be used in various forms such as dry, watery and moist during the decontamination method. O3 in the beverage processes is used as an oxidant for pesticide content reduction. The percentage of pesticide removal depends on the ozone characteristics and not only on the chemical pesticides composition. Thus, it is obvious that specific conditions are necessary for the effectiveness of the ozonation process. The elimination of pesticides is influenced by different conditions of application (pH, temperature and humidity), organic matter content, ozone concentration, production rate and form of application (aqueous and gaseous) [68].
The principle of this technique consists of ozone generation by the passage of air, or oxygen gas through a high-voltage electrical discharge or by ultraviolet light irradiation [69]. The product of ozone degradation is oxygen; thus, it leaves no residues on treated items. There are other possible benefits of ozone, like the elimination of mycotoxins [65], pesticide residues and microbiological control of food products [70].
In 2015, Dordevic and Durovic-Pejcev [71] affirmed that juice processing may eliminate the pesticide amounts by using washing/cleaning, pulp-removing, pressing, squeezing, clarification (like centrifugation, enzymatic treatment and filtering) and heat treatment (like boiling, pasteurization and sterilization). Botondi et al. [72] suggested to utilize ozone fumigation postharvest, in order to analyze microorganisms and evaluate the influence on polyphenols, anthocyanins and cell wall enzymes during the grape dehydration for wine production. Ozone treatments decreased yeasts and fungi by 50%. Moreover, a treatment that used shock ozone fumigation before dehydration decreased the microbial count during dehydration without influencing the polyphenol and carotenoid amounts. In 2018, Karaca [73] studied the removal of pesticides from grapes by exposing fruits in ozone-enriched air. Gaseous ozone rich atmosphere led to a 2.8-fold higher removal of azoxystrobin fungicide than control sample. Both phases, gaseous and aqueous ozone techniques displayed 67.4% and 78.9% decrease of chlorothalonil residues from table grapes [74]. The differences in the efficacity of pesticide residues may be assigned to the diversity in the structure of the pesticides.
Sen et al. [75] studied the influences of activated carbon with low, middle, high doses on the removal of vinclozolin, penconazole, endosulfan, imazalil, nuarimol and tetradifon used in viticulture. The amount of imazalil decreased in white wine with middle and high doses of activated carbon, but low dose of activated carbon removed 92.96% of imazalil. This result can be associated to the high adsorption surface of carbon and to the limited interference from the wine chemical compounds.
Nicolini et al. [76] investigated whether small amount of pesticide residues can be removed adding a low dose of activated carbon during fermentation. AC decreased up to 130 μg/L of fungicides in the white wine samples studied. Results obtained in wines fermented with activated carbon had 30–80% lower fungicides as compared to the control. An exception was found in the case of iprovalicarb which did not significantly decreased.
Sen et al. [75] reported that bentonite had a major effect on decreasing the concentrations of imazalil (96–98%), endosulfan (81–87%), and penconazole (84–95%). However, bentonite influence on nuarimol and tetradifon was limited, removing between 15 and 33% and 25–39%, respectively. Bentonite had no influence on the elimination of vinclozolin. Ruediger et al. [79] has shown that 500 and 2500 mg/l of bentonite eliminated a large amount of pesticides from white wines. The authors have found that there was not a clear effect of an increased dose of bentonite on triadimenol and metalaxyl.
Navarro et al. [80] showed that filtration of wines, previously clarified with bentonite and gelatin, lead to the removal of 2% metalaxyl, 7% fenarimol, 25% penconazole and 28% vinclozolin. During maceration stage, the rate remaining of chlorpyrifos, penconazole and metalaxyl was 90%, while the percentage of fenarimol, vinclozolin and mancozeb was lower (74–67%).
Likas et al. [81] reported that processing of treated grapes into wine almost removed residues for flufenoxuron and lufenuron resulting in residue-free wine, whereas tebufenozide was found in wine at concentrations from 0.13 to 0.26 mg/L. Among the fining agents used, bentonite, potassium caseinate, gelatine–silicon dioxide and polyvinylpolypyrrolidone did not actually eliminate residues from wine, while charcoal very effectively removed tebufenozide residues. The pesticide residues in grapes presented a low removal for 42 days after phytosanitary treatment, with dissipation rates varying from 0.011 to 0.018 mg/kg day. The pesticide residues have shown for 0.27 mg/kg for flufenoxuron, lufenuron and 0.68 mg/kg for tebufenozide, and their concentrations were lower than the maximum residue limits (MRLs).
Venkatachalapathy et al. [83] studied the pesticide removal efficacy, when using chitosan fining agent in grape juice during the clarification stage. In this study, pesticide removal efficiency of chitosan ranged from 54–72% at 0.05% chitosan concentration, and increased up to 86–98%, when higher chitosan concentration was used (up to 0.5%). Results showed that 0.05% chitosan had the highest pesticide removal efficiency (72%), when compared other clarifiers. Also, investigations showed that the optimal pesticide elimination was achieved using chlorpyrifos (98%) and ethion (97%) at chitosan for 1 h incubation continued by phorate (96%), fenthion (95%), fenitrothion (94%) and diazinon (86%) at chitosan for 2 h incubation time.
In recent years, a new carbon rich adsorbent (38–80%),
Grape pomace (GP) is a by-product of various grape based manufacturing processes, such as juice, jam-making, wines, etc. The GP biomass represents around 20–30% of the residual biomass of grapes. European countries reported GP wastes of about 1,200 tons per year. Yoon et al. [86] investigates in his work the adsorptive comportment and mechanisms of grape pomace-derived biochar (GP-BC). Pesticide cymoxanil removal rates were assessed during this study. Biochar produced at 350°C achieved the maximum adsorption capacity of 161 mg CM/g BC at pH 7 for cymoxanil. Thus, cymoxanil adsorption was attributed to the combined influences of metal and hydrophilic interaction.
Angioni et al. [49] has researched the transfer from grapes to wines during the entire winemaking process for some pesticides. The concentrations found in grapes were under limits set by the EU, having the amounts 0.81, 0.43, and 4.23 mg/kg for iprovalicarb, indoxacarb, and boscalid, respectively. The obtained results showed that all pesticides have been transferred from grapes to the must, whereas in wines the residues were insignificant. For pesticides, the clarification stage presented a good elimination of these toxic compounds from wines.
Winemaking processes have the potential to remove, degrade or decrease pesticides content in grapes. This is achieved mainly through stages of winemaking, such as pressing, filtration, adsorption or through microbial processes occurring during the fermentation stage [87, 88].
In the first stages of winemaking, in pressing and maceration process, the pesticide residues on grapes are decreased notably. Thus, a considerable amount of toxic compounds remain in the cake and lees, and a small quantity migrates into the must [89]. In the next stage, in alcoholic and malolactic fermentation, yeasts destroy some part of pesticide residues. Another important stage in which takes place the reduction of pesticide residues is the clarification step [90].
Pan et al. [91] found that the whole process can reduce the zoxamide residue in red and white wines. Peeling process has an important influence on the decrease of zoxamide, because a high content of this pesticide was retained by the grape skin. These results can provide more accurate risk assessments of zoxamide during winemaking process. Pazzirota et al. [92] found that pesticide distributions over the different stages of winemaking process were clearly dependent on the affinities of pesticides to organic or aqueous fractions in the process. The pesticide contents decreased from grape to wine. Decreases from fermentation stage during maceration are due to pesticide affinities for solid residues present in the sample for cyprodinil and imazalil.
Yeast have the ability to decrease pesticide residues from wines, by degradation and/or adsorption. The removal of pesticides during winemaking has been widely studied [93]. In this process, the main agent for adsorption is the yeast cell wall, containing polysaccharides as basic building blocks. It has been shown that the principal fraction of mannoproteins is released in the first week after the alcoholic fermentation has finished. In this stage the dominant adsorptive action is noticed. Also, at the end of the alcoholic fermentation,
Elimination of pesticides by degradation is an uncommon process. Yeast have the ability to degrade some pesticides from the pyrethoid class and insecticides thiophosphates class [95]. During fermentation, yeasts partially degraded quinoxyfen and adsorbed it completely [89]. It is been shown by Cabras et al. [89] that fenhexamid did not affect alcoholic fermentation, whereas a great content of pyrimethanil (10 mg/L) was found to significantly diminish the anaerobic growth of
Increased population, higher demand from quality beverages, rapid climatic changes and the need for more phytosanitary treatments constitute to a wine industry that has to focus more on sustainable practices, high grape yields and minimized health risks. Conservator winemakers that use adequate agricultural practices can limit potential negative effects that are linked to higher pesticide concentration in wines. However, the high pressure of climatic conditions, increased pathogen virulence and mutations into new variants can increase the quantities of pesticides needed in vineyards and led to potential human health risks. Large pesticide quantities may affect negatively the water and soil quality, leading to undesired effects on the animals, plants and human communities.
Different techniques have been used successfully to remove pesticide residues form grapes and wines. Technologies such as pulsed electric field (PEF), ultrasounds (US), microfiltration, ozone (O3), adsorbents used during pressing, fermentation and filtration are nowadays implemented by many winemakers. However, preventive methods applied directly from vineyards and emergent technologies should be utilized to produce grapes with tiny amounts of pesticides. Effective pesticide management requires actions supported by a very clear and transparent legal system and toxicity regulations.
Integrated pest management strategies could provide a more efficient control of pesticides use and limit the residues. Utilization of precision spraying and local treatments can reduce the pesticide residues negative impact on the environment and potential human health risks.
This work was supported by a grant of the Romanian Ministry of Education and Research, CNCS – UEFISCDI, project number PN-III-P1-1.1-PD-2019-0652, within PNCDI III.
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His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 255 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 2 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institution:{name:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424836",title:"Dr.",name:"Orsolya",middleName:null,surname:"Borsai",slug:"orsolya-borsai",fullName:"Orsolya Borsai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"422262",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paola Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Palmeros-Suárez",slug:"paola-andrea-palmeros-suarez",fullName:"Paola Andrea Palmeros-Suárez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Guadalajara",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"12",type:"subseries",title:"Human Physiology",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. The endocrine and nervous systems play important roles in maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Integration, which is the biological basis of physiology, is achieved through communication between the many overlapping functions of the human body's systems, which takes place through electrical and chemical means. Much of the basis of our knowledge of human physiology has been provided by animal experiments. Because of the close relationship between structure and function, studies in human physiology and anatomy seek to understand the mechanisms that help the human body function. 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His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. 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