PET filaments properties.
\r\n\t
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Has worked in many academic medical centers such as Temple University Hospital and Marshall University. He has a passion for teaching, training, doing clinical research, and publishing and is a member of the American College of Gastroenterology, American Gastroenterology Association, and the Royal College of Physicians of the United Kingdom.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"206355",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Monjur",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"monjur-ahmed",fullName:"Monjur Ahmed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/206355/images/system/206355.jpeg",biography:"Monjur Ahmed, MD, FRCP, is an Associate Professor of Medicine at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA. He has been a practicing gastroenterologist for twenty-two years. He has a special interest in inflammatory bowel disease, eosinophilic esophagitis, gastrointestinal motility, and dysphagia. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3828",title:"Application of Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"51a27e7adbfafcfedb6e9683f209cba4",slug:"application-of-nanotechnology-in-drug-delivery",bookSignature:"Ali Demir Sezer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3828.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"63209",title:"Denim Fabrics Woven with Dual Core-Spun Yarns",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80286",slug:"denim-fabrics-woven-with-dual-core-spun-yarns",body:'In the clothing industry, denim has a wide acceptance with high potential uses as a fashion trend all over the world. Generally, denims are woven with a construction of 3/1 twill and they consist of indigo dyed warp yarns interlaced with gray weft yarns. Denim fabrics are rigid and durable. Denim market has great market size at a value of $57,312.5 million in 2016, and it is forecasted that the denim market will have an annual growth rate of 6.4% during the forecast period. The denim sector with largest contribution rate to the global revenue with higher preferable products among the teenagers and adults, will expected to continue in growing in the future jean market [1].
With so much preference, denim sector has to constantly evolve the fabric properties to meet consumer needs such as flexible, shape retention, low abrasion resistance and comfortable to wear in use at all times. High competitive potential in this sector pushes the companies to offer opportunities of different fiber, functional yarns use which contribute fabric properties. One of the best offered way which response to these requirements is using core-spun yarns. These yarns are produced by wrapping sheath fibers around filament or staple fiber core with a certain twist [2, 3]. Incorporating core part within the yarn structure makes the yarn cheaper, stronger and qualified, besides, sheath fibers are conserve the traditional appearance, handle and comfort properties. It is exemplified as using cotton covered elastic core-spun yarn is a good example to enable free movements and at the same time provide higher fabric comfort with cotton in the yarn structure [4].
In the literature, many researchers have been focused on elastane containing core-spun yarns in terms of elastane draft, elastane ratio, elastane linear density, elastic yarn positioning, twist factor etc. in order to obtain optimum yarn properties [2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18]. When twist factor increases, it will affect the tensile properties of elastic cotton core-spun yarn positively [12, 18]. Elastane draft and ratio are important factors influencing the yarn’s mechanical properties. Elastane ratio influences the tenacity and elongation at break of wrapped elastane core-spun yarns with the same twist factor. In that way, the core-yarn’s tenacity and elongation decreased while the elastane percentage increased [8, 9, 18]. Elastane draft effects breaking tenacity and elongation [10]. On the other hand, higher draft ratio causes decrease in elastic recovery of elastic core spun yarn [6]. Proper tension control of elastane and use of a thread guide device helps to keep the spandex at the center of the yarn, thereby improving the quality of the elastic core-spun yarn [18]. Elastic yarn positioning in the yarn construction is another important parameter on yarn characteristic [5, 9].
Besides using of elastic core-spun yarn, filament core-spun yarns are also widely used in order to enhance some characteristics of fabric i.e. durability, esthetic and functional properties. Filaments used for filament core-spun yarns can vary such as polyester, polyamide, polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), T400®, polypropylene etc. Sarioglu and Babaarslan studied on physical properties of filament core-spun yarns having different filament fineness (conventional, fine and micro) and yarn linear density. False twist textured polyester filaments with different fineness were used and cotton covered polyester filament core-spun yarns were manufactured by modified ring spinning system. They concluded that filament fineness and yarn linear density had a great influence on yarn breaking strength and elongation. Higher core ratio was found to have higher strength and elongation. In addition, filament fineness had a significant effect on the unevenness properties and it was determined that there was no statistical effect on imperfections except for yarn linear density parameter. Thus, it can be said that filament core-spun yarns have got better performances in comparison to 100% combed cotton ring spun yarns except hairiness properties [19]. Erez and Çelik investigated the influence of both twist factor and filament blend ratio (core-sheath ratio) on properties and liveliness of cotton wrapped polyester filament core-spun yarns. They found that twist factor and core-sheath ratio had a significant effect on yarn strength, elongation, hairiness, liveliness and diameter [20]. Jeddi et al. studied both structural and physical properties of cotton covered nylon filament core- spun yarns with different twist factor and filament pretension [21]. Mahmood et al. stated that the best results for yarn strength of cotton covered nylon monofilament core-spun yarn were obtained at minimum twist factor and lowest spindle speed [3]. Shanbaz et al. studied on cotton covered polyester filament core-spun yarn on a modified ring frame to obtain the effectiveness of percentage of filaments in the blend, twist factor, positioning of roving on count, lea yarn strength and count strength product. Twist factor and roving positions have highly significant influence on count, lea strength and count strength product [22]. Similarly, Çelik et al. determined the influence of both twist factor and filament blend ratio on strength of yarn with the same materials. When sheath percentage increased, higher unevenness and lower hairiness were obtained [23]. Rameshkumar et al. investigated the core positioning on sheath coverage, core sheath ratios and plying effects on yarn and knitted fabric properties using polyester filament and waste silk. Tenacity, elongation and CVm of yarns also improved with increasing the core components. The core positioning at the center had lower tenacity with respect to right and left positioning. Thermal conductivities of silk rich (67% silk) fabrics were higher in comparison polyester rich (37% silk) fabrics. It was proved that polyester rich core-spun yarn fabrics show higher wicking [24]. Pramanik and Patil compared with cotton covered with crimped and drawn polyester filament hard-core ring and air jet yarns and 100% cotton ring yarn. It was concluded that using filament as core improved strength, elongation of filament core-spun yarns and ring spun and air jet spun yarns showed better performance with respect to 100% cotton ring-spun yarn [25]. Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) is another filament used as tracer fibers in production of core-spun yarn. PVA is a water soluble filament, can be extracted from yarn structure by hot water easily. After extracted PVA filament from core-yarn, higher elongation, but similar breaking strength can be obtained when compared with typical ring yarns [26].
With technological progress and rising demands to obtain durable and long lifetime fabric, now the use of multicomponent core-spun (dual core-spun) yarns which enables elasticity and durable at the same time available. In other words, dual core-spun yarns consist of two core components; filament and elastane. In the production of the dual core-spun yarns filaments used can be polyester, T400®, polybutylene terephthalate (PBT) etc. In order to obtain dual core-spun yarns, additional creel loading of filament apparatus should be added to the current spinning system. As seen in the literature, there are lots of studies in terms of elastic core-spun and filament core-spun yarns with different materials.
Hua et al. developed elastic core-spun yarn containing a mix of spandex and polyethylene terephthalate/polytrimethylene terephthalate (PET/PTT) bi-component filament as core to obtain better yarn properties, especially for elastic property. In this study spandex draft ratio and linear density were selected as parameters and results showed that yarn stress decay, CVm value of evenness, and hairiness decrease when PET/PTT bi-component filament and spandex filament were used together as core. Furthermore, better yarn evenness was obtained by using PET/PTT bi-component filament and spandex filament core [27]. Telli et al. studied on fabrics containing tungsten in order to contribute alternative electromagnetic shielding. The fabric samples with three different yarns as core; Inox, Copper and Tungsten wires and three different double core-spun yarns with elastane and metal wires were produced. Electro Magnetic Shielding Effectiveness (EMSE) performances of fabrics were then evaluated [28].
With all these progresses show that the production of alternative functional fabrics has become possible with the use of dual core-spun yarns within the fabric structure. El-Tantawvy et al. investigated the pilling properties of fabrics produced from dual core-spun yarns with and without welding process. Elastic core-spun yarn was also produced to determine the differences. They found that both types of dual core yarns exhibit less pilling then the core spun yarn fabrics [29]. Bedez Ute was focused directly on mechanical and dimensional properties of denim fabrics made from double core and core-spun weft yarns used at different densities. It was concluded that weft density effect was higher than weft yarn composition for mechanical and dimensional properties of denim yarns [30].
It is envisaged that researches will be developed in the production of different yarn compositions, so the use of dual yarns in denim fabric production will probably become widespread due to its advantages properties with respect to conventional ones. This study was carried out in order to contribute to the use of dual core-spun yarns in denim fabrics and bring a different perspective. This is experimental study is designed in order to compare breaking force, breaking elongation, static tear force, elastic recovery, moisture management i.e. vertical wicking and water absorbency rate of twill 3/1 denim fabrics made from cotton covered filament, both filament and elastane core-spun yarns and 100% cotton yarn in weft.
This study was conducted about the performance of denim fabrics containing dual core-spun yarns with filament fineness and elastane draft ratio variables. In that respect, the properties of drawn textured polyester filaments with conventional, fine and micro fineness are given in Table 1. All polyester (PET) filaments were selected among the most commonly used commercial types which are named as stretch textured yarns. Since microfilaments are sensitive to heat and it is necessary to omit the second heating zone during texturing, the PET filaments are in set form.
Parameters | Conventional | Fine | Micro | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Linear density (dtex) | 110 | 110 | 110 | 110 |
Number of Filament | 36 | 96 | 192 | 333 |
Tenacity (cN/dtex) | 4.07 | 3.90 | 3.45 | 3.80 |
Elongation (%) | 22.65 | 23.66 | 21.85 | 26.84 |
Crimp Stability (%) | 85.93 | 84.08 | 78.50 | 77.32 |
OPU (%) | 1.16 | 3.02 | 2.24 | 2.52 |
Intermingling (number/m) | 52.40 | 76.10 | 73 | 67.60 |
PET filaments properties.
Basically, the study was focused on three different yarn types such as 100% cotton (Co) yarn, cotton covered filament core-spun yarn by using 110 dtex PET filament with different filament fineness as a control variables, and also cotton covered dual core-spun yarns by feeding 110 dtex PET filament with different filament fineness and 78 dtex elastane filament as core within the yarn structure. In the yarn production, cotton fiber with the physical properties of 28.53 mm staple length, 4.56 micronaire fineness, 31.53 gf/tex tenacity and 28.53% elongation was used as a sheath fiber.
Dual core-spun yarn samples were produced with modified ring spinning system which was designed by adding an extra creel for facilitating both elastane and filament feeding at the same time as a core. Schematic representation of dual core-spun yarn production, combination of materials and cross-sectional view of yarn are illustrated in Figure 1(a–c), respectively.
Schematic illustration of modified ring spinning system, positioning the PET/elastane core at the nip point of the front roller, double core-spun yarn view (It may not be reproduced without permission); (a) modified ring spinning frame, (b) combination of materials, (c) simulated longitudinal and cross-sectional view of double core-spun yarn containing filaments.
As seen from this Figure 1, both PET filament and elastane are driven by positive feed roller, separately. These components are fed to the nip point of the front rollers by means of V-grooved roller and at the same time cotton fiber wraps over these components, as well (Figure 1b). Thus, the draft of PET filament and elastane are achieved by speed difference between yarn delivery and front roller of drafting unit. Here, PET filament draft was kept constant as 1.08. On the other hand, draft of elastane was varied with 2.9, 3.2, 3.5 and 3.8. In doing so, 16 Co/PET/Elastane dual core-spun yarn samples were obtained with two different cores in order to benefit from these properties.
In the production of the PET filament core-spun yarns, same system was used without extra elastane feeding and all production parameters were kept constant. Moreover, 100% Co ring spun yarn was also produced without both PET and elastane feeding. Combed cotton roving with 844 tex linear density was used for the production of all yarn types in order to produce 42 tex yarn samples at 9500 rev/min spindle speed and 660 turns/m twist.
These yarn samples were used as weft yarn and indigo dyed 100% Co ring spun yarn with 59 tex linear density was used as a warp yarn. Twill denim fabrics with 3/1 pattern were manufactured at constant structure parameters such as; 26 ends/cm warp density, 20 picks/cm weft density, 480 rev/min weaving machine speed, 180 cm reed width, 65/4 reed number. After the denim fabric production, singeing, desizing and finishing processes and thermal fixation processes were carried out. Finally, 21 different denim fabric samples were obtained. Design of experiment for denim fabrics is shown in Table 2.
Denim fabric samples were conditioned in standard atmosphere conditions at 20 ± 2°C temperature and 65 ± 4% relative humidity for 24 hours in accordance with BS EN ISO 139 standard [33]. Tested denim fabric properties, related standards and test proceduresare illustrated in Table 3.
Fabric type | Filament fineness (dtex) | Elastane draft |
---|---|---|
100% Co denim | — | — |
Filament core-spun denim | 3.05, 1.15, 0.57 and 0.33 | — |
Dual core-spun denim | 3.05, 1.15, 0.57 and 0.33 | 2.9, 3.2, 3.5 and 3.8 |
Design of experiment for denim fabric samples.
Properties | Standard | Procedure |
---|---|---|
Fabric weight | ISO 3801 | 100 cm2 of each fabric were cut with dies and weighed on a precision scale and then multiplied by 100. The fabric weight was calculated in g/m2. |
Fabric thickness | ISO 5084 | Thickness measurements for each fabric samples were taken by means of digital thickness tester. |
Warp and weft density | BS EN 1049-2 | The numbers of warp and weft yarns in 1 cm were determined for each fabric samples. |
Breaking force and elongation | BS EN ISO 13934-1 | Breaking force and elongation for both warp and weft direction were determined at 200 mm gauge length, 100 mm/min test speed. |
Static tear force | BS EN ISO 13937-2 | Test samples were prepared in accordance with single-tear method. Tests were performed for warp and weft yarns, separately, for each specimen at 100 mm/min test speed. |
Elasticity | BS EN 14704-1 | To determine the elasticity properties of fabrics, Method A was used. The number of the cycling load was 50 cycles (instead of 5 cycles because of detecting elastic recovery under higher number of cyclic loading) with applying load of 6 N/cm width of the fabric. |
Test standards used and procedure achieve to determine denim fabric properties.
“Moisture Management” includes all the terms of wicking, wetting, absorbency or transportation and these properties of the fabrics are related to the ability of a textile fabric to transport moisture away from the skin to fabric’s outer surface in multi-dimensions. Wetting and wicking are considered as the most important parameters for absorption and transportation of liquid in textile clothing [31].
Wicking is the flow of a liquid in a porous substance in time which is driven by capillary forces [33]. Vertical wicking rate was conducted by various researchers in different ways [31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36]. In this study, to evaluate vertical wicking properties of denim fabrics, 20 cm × 2.5 cm strip test specimens for warp and weft direction were prepared. Denim fabrics were suspended vertically with its 3 cm of lower end immersed in a reservoir of distilled water colored with 0.01 g red dye to observe the rate of the uptake of the liquid easily. Because of the high areal density of denim fabric samples, to be tested pretension was applied with two clips totally to ensure 2 g of dead load. The wicking height of liquid rising was measured after 30 min time intervals and wicking rate was determined as mm/s. Wicking tests were conducted with five samples for both warp and weft directions of each fabric. In order to complete the wicking tests more quickly, a new wicking apparatus design was made (Figure 2). The designed apparatus consists of five clamps for sample hanging, five rulers placed next to the fabric samples for height measurement and reservoir. Since it is planned that five specimens will be applied to vertical wicking test procedure for each sample, such an apparatus is desinged and manufactured in order to comple the wicking tests in shorter time.
Vertical wicking apparatus.
Wettability terms is explained as the first impression of fabric when get into touch with liquid. When the fabric is wetted the interaction between the forces of cohesion (within the liquid) and the forces of adhesion (between the fibers and the liquid) determines whether wetting takes place or not and also determines spreading and absorption of the liquid over the surface of the textile material [31]. In order to determine the absorption areas of the fabrics after 0.2 ml water was dropped, image analysis was conducted by using camera to catch the visual after 2 min.
In order to determine the absorption rate and area of the fabrics wetted, image processing method was used. For this aim, an image acquisition system was built up. The system consists of a digital microscope camera, lightening system, camera attachment equipment and computer (Figure 3). Since the liquid existence within the fabric structure will lead to different light transmission level in comparison to dry regions, it was considered that the dry and wetted regions can be distinguished by applying a logical threshold operation in accordance with the pixel light intensity values. So, the back lightening system was selected for this study.
Image acquisition system.
The denim fabric samples were placed over the lightening unit. The colored solution with 0.2 ml volume was dropped on the fabric sample by means of a screwed syringe. At the same time, the video acquisition of the digital microscope camera was started. The image frames with the size of 640 × 480 pixels were snap shotted at instant of solution drop fell on the sample and 2 min after dropping. These image frames in JPG format were acquired from three different parts of each fabric sample. The acquired image frames were analyzed by means of a developed algorithm (Figure 4).
Absorption area calculation algorithm.
First of all, the color image frame in RGB format was converted into gray scale. Then, the image enhancement operations such as noise removing and smoothing were applied by using average and Gaussian filters respectively. Gaussian smoothing commonly forms the first stage of an edge-detection algorithm [37]. The average filter is useful especially for removing Gaussian noises. In order to eliminate the noises caused from lightening condition and electrical reasons, the noise removing filters are applied [37]. The enhanced image frame was converted into binary form by applying a suitable threshold value. All pixel values of the filtered gray image were replaced with the value 1 (white) when the corresponding pixel value greater than threshold level, otherwise it was replaced with the value 0 (black). The white pixels in the binary image correspond to the liquid absorbed area and the black pixels correspond to dry area. In order to determine the exact absorption area and remove the other unnecessary parts, opening morphological operation was applied. Morphological opening is erosion followed by dilation, using the same structuring element for both operations. The opening operation has the effect of removing objects that cannot completely contain the structuring element. Boundary of the absorption area was labeled by means of “canny” edge detection method. Finally, the area of the absorption region was calculated. The absorption rate of each denim fabric sample is calculated as the percentage of white pixels to the whole pixels of the binary image. The application results of the developed algorithm at the instant of drop fell and 2 min after dropping were given in Figures 5 and 6, respectively.
Absorption area at the drop fell.
Absorption area 2 min after dropping.
In statistical analysis, multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was achieved at 95% confidence interval by means of SPSS package program to determine whether there was statistically significant effect of the filament fineness, and elastane draft on denim fabric breaking force, breaking elongation, static tear force, elasticity, wicking rate and water absorption rate. The evaluated independent parameters were used as weft yarn in the denim fabric production so all response variables were analyzed in weft direction as well.
The structural properties of denim fabrics and test results are illustrated in Tables 4 and 5, respectively.
To advance the comfort performance of the denim fabrics during body movement, dual core-spun yarns including elastane that provide higher elasticity and recovery are preferred. However, this advantage brings a disadvantage together and it leads to decrease in tensile strength of denim fabrics [30, 38]. The tensile test outcomes of the presented study is illustrated in Figure 7 the breaking force of denim fabrics in weft wise composed of 100% Co, filament core-spun yarns and dual core-spun yarns.
Weft wise breaking force of denim fabrics.
It was clearly seen in Figure 7 that denim fabrics made from filament core-spun yarns have the higher breaking forces than both 100% Co and dual core-spun denims. The highest breaking force was detected at 0.33 dtex filament core-spun denim fabric, this result is attributed to the fact that more filaments in the yarn cross-section can provide more resistance against tensile force. When the breaking forces of dual core-spun denim fabrics are taken into consideration in terms of effect of elastane draft, it is observed that the breaking force of samples with conventional firmament have increasing trend by increasing elastane draft. However, the fabric samples with micro fineness filament have decreasing trend with the elastane draft increase. Since increasing the elastane draft leads to decrease of elastane ratio within the fabric increase and so increase in breaking force of the fabric. However, this result is not clearly seen for dual core-spun denim fabrics due to involving both PET filament and elastane.
The breaking elongation of denim fabrics are shown in Figure 8. Elastane content contributes the elongation of the denim fabrics and this situation is clearly observed among the all fabric samples. Elongation directly affects the elasticity properties of the denim fabrics this is why elastane is used. The lowest breaking elongation was obtained with 100% Co denim fabric without both filament and elastane. When the denim fabrics made from filament core-spun yarns are investigated, it is seen that 3.05 dtex filament core-spun denim fabrics has the highest breaking elongation value and breaking elongation values of all filament core-spun denim fabrics are similar. From these results, it can be revealed that filament core part contributes strength of the fabric with an acceptable elongation value.
Weft wise breaking elongation of denim fabrics.
It can be possible to see how dominant the effect on the denim fabric elongation performance of the elastane draft ratio is. It is observed that with the increase of the elastic draft ratio, the breaking elongation of the fabric increases. This situation may be attributed to the fact that higher elastane draft may probably leads to increase in cohesion forces between filament, elastane and Co, and so breaking elongation can probably increase. Hereby, it can be said that elastane represents a large majority of the extensible part of fabric under the tensile force. In terms of filament fineness parameter of dual core-spun denim fabrics, it can be said that breaking elongation varies from 38.18 to 44.08%. The predominant elasticity property of elastane makes it difficult to see the effect of filament fineness in Figure 8, however, with statistical analysis effects can be examined in detail.
Static tear force in weft direction of denim fabric samples are illustrated in Figure 9.
Weft wise static tear force of denim fabrics.
According to tear force values, it is seen that 100% Co denim fabric has lower value than that of denim fabrics containing both filament and dual core-spun yarns. On the other hand, PET filaments from conventional to micro fineness contribute static tear force of denim fabrics except 0.57 dtex microfilament containing filament core-spun denim fabric. PET filament with 0.57 dtex filament fineness has the lowest breaking strength and so it can be said that filament properties affect the denim fabric properties as well. In addition, static tear force increases until 3.2 elastane draft ratio for all dual core-spun denim fabric types except 0.33 dtex filament containing dual core-spun denim fabric. Then, it is observed that after 3.2 draft value the increase in elastane draft effects static tear force negatively. Static tearing action leads to as the broken of the yarns individually or group. Hereby, increasing the elastane draft contributes tear force until 3.2 draft value because of the rising Co content. Furthermore, PET filament with fine and micro fineness contribute the tearing performance of the denim fabrics, because of the higher number of filament in the core of the dual core-spun yarns acts more resistance to break. This result can be explained with higher number of filament in the core of the dual core-spun yarns providing more resistance to break.
During usage of the denim should stretch freely in accordance with body movements especially at knee and should retain its original shape without any deformation after stretching. So that capability of extension and recovery of denim after repeated loadings is very important characteristics [39]. Higher the number of the loadings can contribute to life assessment in accordance with evaluating the fabric performance. Different from the test standard, 50 cycle loadings were carried out in order to evaluate elastic recovery of denim samples rather than 5 of cyclic loadings. Elongation after 50 cyclic loading and un-recovered elongation after 60 min recovery period were estimated according to Eqs. (1) and (2), respectively in accordance with BS EN 14704-1. Elongation,
where:
Un-recovered elongation,
where:
From Eqs. (1) and (2) elastic recovery of fabric can be expressed as following Eq. (3).
Figure 10 displays weft wise elastic recovery of denim fabrics after waiting 60 min recovery period. It can be said that both filament and elastane improve stretchability and recovery properties of the denim fabrics when compared with pure Co ones.
Weft wise elastic recovery of denim fabrics.
In terms of elastic recovery value of denim fabrics, pure Co denim has the lowest stretchability properties. The presence of elastane contributes to elastic recovery with a high value approximately 85–90%. Dual core-spun denim fabrics have also higher elastic recovery than filament core-spun fabrics. In general it can be said that increase in elastane draft also increases the elastic recovery except 2.9 elastane draft. It is seen that denim fabrics have the highest elastic recovery at 2.9 elastane draft of 3.05, 1.15 and 0.57 dtex dual core-spun yarns.
The wicking rate measurements in mm/s are presented in Figure 11. Weft wise wicking rate obtained for pure Co denim is lower than vertical filament core-spun denims. Vertical wicking rate of the filament core-spun denim fabrics decreases from 3.05 to 0.33 dtex. Since filaments are in the core part of the yarn, capillary transfer of water may not be fully observed during the period of time. This situation can be observed at the rest of the denim fabrics with different draft ratio. On the other hand, in general, the effect of the elastane draft can be seen as decreasing wicking rate of the denim fabrics. Decreasing in elastane draft causes increase in Co and it is known that Co absorbs the water instead of transfer, as well. In addition, it is also observed that increase in the number of filaments causes a decreasing wicking rate when the average of the values for each filament fineness including all elastane draft is taken into consideration.
Weft wise wicking rate of denim fabrics.
Water absorption rate as percentage of the wetted area detected by image processing method by using MATLAB is illustrated in Figure 12. Naturally, it is known that the absorption of cotton fibers is better when compared to synthetic fibers. Water transfer occurs in synthetic fibers through capillary forces. So, the rate of absorption in pure Co denim i.e. the area of dropped colored water is found smaller after 2 min. On the other hand, it is seen that filament core-spun denim fabrics have at least two times greater absorption area than that of pure Co fabric. It can be said that the presence of PET filament leads to water or moisture transportation instead of penetration. It can be observed that there is no increase or decrease tendency of absorption rate of dual core-spun denim fabrics in terms of elastane draft. This situation can be explained with having different liquid transportation of fabrics depending on the filament fineness. Whereas the elastane has taken almost the entire stretch of fabrics, the PET filament here carries capillary properties of fabrics with its high capillary transport capability in moisture management.
Water absorption rate of denim fabrics.
In analyzing of filament fineness effect, 3.05 and 0.57 dtex dual core-spun yarn denim fabrics including all elastane draft have the lower wetted area percentage with the average value of 19 and 20.8%, respectively. On the other hand, 1.15 and 0.33 dtex dual core-spun yarn denim fabrics including all elastane draft have higher wetted are percentage with the average of 26.2 and 28.2%, respectively. The highest wetted area was found as 0.33 dtex, it can be explained as higher number of the filaments enables more liquid transportation.
To put forward the influence of filament fineness and elastane draft parameters on denim fabric breaking force, breaking elongation, tear force, elastic recovery, vertical wicking rate and water absorption rate statistically, multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was achieved at 95% confidence interval (Table 6). Statistical results indicate that filament fineness parameter has significant effect on all variables. Elastane draft has also significant importance on all depended variables except water absorption rate (
Fabric type | Filament fineness (dtex) | Elastane draft | Fabric weight (g/m2) | Fabric thickness (mm) | Warp density (ends/cm) | Weft density (picks/cm) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
100% Co denim | — | — | 310 | 0.68 | 29.6 | 22 |
Co/PET Filament core-spun denim | 3.05 | — | 320 | 0.71 | 29.8 | 22.4 |
1.15 | — | 320 | 0.74 | 29.6 | 22.8 | |
0.57 | — | 320 | 0.68 | 29.8 | 22.8 | |
0.33 | — | 330 | 0.70 | 29.8 | 22.4 | |
Co/PET/elastane Dual core-spun denim | 3.05 | 2.9 | 342 | 0.83 | 32.4 | 22.8 |
1.15 | 2.9 | 355 | 0.81 | 32.6 | 22.8 | |
0.57 | 2.9 | 345 | 0.83 | 33 | 22.8 | |
0.33 | 2.9 | 352 | 0.79 | 32.4 | 22.8 | |
3.05 | 3.2 | 352 | 0.83 | 30.6 | 22.8 | |
1.15 | 3.2 | 351 | 0.80 | 32.8 | 22.8 | |
0.57 | 3.2 | 350 | 0.81 | 32.8 | 22.8 | |
0.33 | 3.2 | 357 | 0.83 | 32.6 | 23.2 | |
3.05 | 3.5 | 355 | 0.84 | 33.4 | 22.8 | |
1.15 | 3.5 | 360 | 0.83 | 33 | 22.8 | |
0.57 | 3.5 | 359 | 0.84 | 33 | 22.8 | |
0.33 | 3.5 | 360 | 0.84 | 33 | 22.8 | |
3.05 | 3.8 | 356 | 0.83 | 30.8 | 22.8 | |
1.15 | 3.8 | 354 | 0.84 | 33.4 | 22.8 | |
0.57 | 3.8 | 359 | 0.82 | 33.4 | 22.8 | |
0.33 | 3.8 | 365 | 0.82 | 33.6 | 22.8 |
Structural properties of denim fabric samples.
Fabric type | Filament fineness (dtex) | Elastane draft | Breaking force (N) | Breaking elongation (%) | Static tear force (N) | Elastic recovery (%) | Vertical wicking rate (mm/s) | Water absorption (%) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Warp | Weft | Warp | Weft | Warp | Weft | Warp | Weft | Warp | Weft | — | |||
100% Co denim | — | — | 1321.89 | 753.86 | 25.70 | 21.44 | 31.85 | 35.63 | 35.85 | 56.63 | 0.0496 | 0.0417 | 10.14 |
Co/PET Filament core-spun denim | 3.05 | — | 1372.94 | 864.41 | 26.16 | 26.08 | 56.96 | 47.29 | 41.98 | 78.02 | 0.0524 | 0.0500 | 23.72 |
1.15 | — | 1403.24 | 831.55 | 24.23 | 24.77 | 57.60 | 47.86 | 47.50 | 77.68 | 0.0419 | 0.0469 | 21.28 | |
0.57 | — | 1441.81 | 832.33 | 28.51 | 24.33 | 57.82 | 47.78 | 47.48 | 80.84 | 0.0317 | 0.0472 | 21.30 | |
0.33 | — | 1335.22 | 888.84 | 26.98 | 25.45 | 56.33 | 50.50 | 43.33 | 80.34 | 0.0498 | 0.0444 | 22.16 | |
Co/PET/elastane Dual core-spun denim | 3.05 | 2.9 | 1604.25 | 739.35 | 32.21 | 39.39 | 56.90 | 42.93 | 51.61 | 91.62 | 0.0506 | 0.0511 | 21.98 |
1.15 | 2.9 | 1533.54 | 781.09 | 32.15 | 38.18 | 55.42 | 48.84 | 52.55 | 92.37 | 0.0457 | 0.0509 | 26.30 | |
0.57 | 2.9 | 1419.95 | 809.82 | 30.95 | 38.43 | 55.70 | 48.46 | 55.51 | 92.40 | 0.0467 | 0.0502 | 22.15 | |
0.33 | 2.9 | 1581.12 | 799.83 | 32.96 | 38.67 | 55.92 | 49.44 | 53.03 | 87.18 | 0.0481 | 0.0485 | 29.24 | |
3.05 | 3.2 | 1493.31 | 764.48 | 31.05 | 40.96 | 55.50 | 45.68 | 54.31 | 88.35 | 0.0480 | 0.0489 | 20.04 | |
1.15 | 3.2 | 1327.06 | 801.72 | 31.17 | 41.49 | 54.43 | 49.58 | 55.09 | 87.97 | 0.0426 | 0.0474 | 25.01 | |
0.57 | 3.2 | 1529.27 | 801.60 | 32.22 | 41.37 | 55.20 | 50.70 | 55.47 | 89.82 | 0.0333 | 0.0439 | 19.23 | |
0.33 | 3.2 | 1586.84 | 801.25 | 33.42 | 41.42 | 55.36 | 48.70 | 52.58 | 89.51 | 0.0385 | 0.0480 | 26.18 | |
3.05 | 3.5 | 1606.22 | 763.32 | 32.59 | 41.81 | 55.60 | 45.27 | 55.29 | 86.88 | 0.0487 | 0.0463 | 16.67 | |
1.15 | 3.5 | 1658.09 | 778.34 | 32.87 | 41.44 | 53.77 | 47.73 | 52.76 | 90.17 | 0.0472 | 0.0463 | 24.92 | |
0.57 | 3.5 | 1465.46 | 794.11 | 31.46 | 42.81 | 54.44 | 46.64 | 52.70 | 89.59 | 0.0461 | 0.0433 | 20.72 | |
0.33 | 3.5 | 1632.86 | 777.56 | 32.33 | 41.67 | 55.07 | 46.27 | 53.75 | 90.76 | 0.0411 | 0.0457 | 29.30 | |
3.05 | 3.8 | 1611.52 | 760.10 | 31.48 | 44.08 | 55.93 | 44.28 | 39.53 | 89.85 | 0.0365 | 0.0478 | 17.34 | |
1.15 | 3.8 | 1547.79 | 792.34 | 32.23 | 42.47 | 54.81 | 48.49 | 46.89 | 91.24 | 0.0448 | 0.0485 | 28.47 | |
0.57 | 3.8 | 1572.50 | 779.58 | 31.80 | 44.00 | 53.35 | 46.64 | 50.12 | 90.82 | 0.0300 | 0.0507 | 21.13 | |
0.33 | 3.8 | 1574.92 | 784.28 | 31.58 | 43.23 | 53.96 | 47.39 | 50.40 | 90.38 | 0.0489 | 0.0474 | 28.07 |
Test results of denim fabric samples.
Independent variables | Breaking force (N) | Breaking elongation (%) | Static tear force (N) | Vertical wicking rate (%) | Elastic recovery (%) | Water absorption rate (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Filament fineness | 0.000* | 0.003* | 0.000* | 0.000* | 0.000* | 0.000* |
Elastane draft | 0.000* | 0.000* | 0.000* | 0.000* | 0.000* | 0.077 |
Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) test results for weft wise properties of denim fabrics.
The mean difference is significant at the
Application of core-spun yarns in textile industry is in progress to improve physical and mechanical properties of fabrics, such as comfort, abrasion resistance, tenacity, durability, and functional properties. Stretch denim fabrics are mostly produced from core-spun yarns. Advanced stretching performance provides better fitting to body. Cotton is the most appreciable material as sheath component of the yarn which is responsible for comfort and esthetic properties. Denims’ clothing and fitting to human body, comfortable and performance properties are essential for consumers. The most acceptable driving factors for denim market are consumer demand, rapid change of fashion and denim styles, highly preferred by young people and these factors are changing in very short period of time. When the overall consumption of denim in the world and market size are taken into consideration, value-added and high durable denims produced from functional yarns will response to the desired comfort and fit characteristics as well.
Since the denim fabrics have high demand in textile market and it is increasing day by day, this study is conducted to evaluate the developments in denim fabric production and submit an innovative case study to improve the performance of denim fabric. In day fashion trends, denim fabrics are now not only used for the jeans production, they are also used in the production of shirt, t-shirts, skirts, bags and different textile product accessories. Depending on the usage area of denim fabrics, different performances and functions are required from them. Different ways can be performed to improve the performances of the textile products. Using different pattern designs, selecting proper raw material, using specially produced yarns or applying finishing chemicals are effective treatments. The finishing and washing processes are applied to add higher hand property, better touch feeling and attractive appearance. Evidence in literature demonstrates that usage of different characteristic fiber and yarn is effective method to increase mechanical performance of the denim fabrics. The incorporation of elastane and filament in yarn core gives new configurations to yarn geometry and ultimately changes the fabric geometry. Depending on developments in the yarn production technology, specially designed and functional yarns such as core-spun, filament core-spun and dual core-spun yarns are produced and widely used.
In this study, to design more attractive and higher performance denim fabric Co/PET/elastane containing dual core-spun yarns were systematically used in production. Furthermore, the effects of filament fineness and elastane draft on denim fabric performance were revealed. Filament core-spun yarns with different filament fineness and pure Co yarn were also produced to compare the performance of denim fabrics. These all yarn types were used as filling of denims. Breaking force, breaking elongation, static tear force, elastic recovery, vertical wicking rate and water absorption rate properties were inspected and results were analyzed statistically.
As expected from the structural properties of the core-spun yarns, incorporating filament contributes to breaking force of the denim fabric. On the other hand, it was observed that increasing elastane draft affects breaking elongation positively. This result is attributed to the fact that higher elastane draft leads to increase in cohesion forces between filament, elastane and cotton sheath. When dual core-spun denim fabrics containing PET filament with fine and micro fineness is considered, tear force raises from fine to micro fineness because of the higher number of filament in the core of the dual core-spun yarns and so higher resistance to break.
In order to propound the advantages of the core-spun yarn usage, the performance of pure cotton denim fabrics were compared. It was seen that denim fabrics from pure cotton has the lowest elastic recovery. These results exactly proved that core-spun yarns can improve the mechanical performance of the denim fabrics without sacrificing the good softness and feeling of cotton. When the effect of core-spun yarn structural parameters on denim elastic recovery performance were investigated, in relation to the statistical analysis, it was also presented that both filament fineness and elastane draft have significant effect. Elastic recovery of the fabric can be aligned as cotton denims < filament core-spun denims < dual core-spun denims. The results in this study also indicates that the core-spun yarns not only increases the mechanical performance, but they also advance the comport performance. Higher wicking and absorption rates were obtained with core-spun and dual core-spun yarn denims in comparison to pure cotton denim.
For the absorption rate calculation, a novel method based on image processing was developed. Thus, the absorption area calculation was achieved accurately. In this experience, it was determined that the irregular color hues of indigo dyed warp yarns made the measurement difficult. High fabric thread density also restricted this measurement. So, it is planned that the absorption rate of the fabric samples will be determined by using different light source and lighting condition in further study.
Authors would like to thank to Çalık Denim Textile Industry and Trade Inc. Research and Development Center for their contribution in the yarn and denim fabric samples production.
Chalcogenide thin films have attracted a great deal of attention for decades because of several reasons such as earth abundancy, environmental friendly [1, 2, 3], excellent structural [4, 5, 6], electrical [7, 8, 9], and optical properties [10, 11, 12]. These materials could be employed in various applications such as solar cells [13, 14, 15], ultraviolet light emitters, laser devices [16], spin functional devices, gas sensors, transparent electronics, corrosion resistant coating [17], microelectronics [18], optics, magnetic and acoustic wave devices. Several deposition methods including chemical vapor deposition [19], physical vapor deposition [20], sputtering [21], SILAR, spray pyrolysis [22], chemical bath deposition [23, 24, 25, 26], vacuum evaporation method [27], and electro deposition method [28, 29] have been used to produce thin films. Generally, these deposition methods could be divided into physical method and chemical techniques. Researchers highlighted that the chemical deposition method has many advantages such as inexpensive, and convenient for large area deposition [30, 31, 32].
Supercapacitor has been considered as one of the potential energy storage systems. The redox electrochemical capacitors and the electrochemical double layer capacitor have been extensively investigated by many researchers. Researcher reported that transition metal oxide, conducting polymers, and metal oxide thin films have been tested in supercapacitors. The perovskite structure consisted of the crystal structure of calcium titanium oxide. This material showed high absorption coefficient with a sharp absorption edge. The organic-inorganic hybrid perovskites based solar cell was made from sandwiching a perovskite absorber layer between the electron transport layer and hole transport layer. The obtained solar cells showed some unique advantages such as low-temperature processes for all sub cells, compatibility with flexible and lightweight applications. The thin film-based sensor could be used to convert physical or chemical quantity into equivalent electrical for measurement. Sensor is critical in improving the reliability and efficiency of manufacturing operations by providing faster and more accurate feedback regarding product quality.
In this book chapter, thin film based solar cell, thin film based supercapacitor and thin film based sensor will be discussed. The properties of the obtained films were reported. Lastly, the advantages and limitations of these materials will be highlighted.
Recently electronic devices such as computers, roll-up displays smartwatches, mobile phones and other portable devices abound in the twenty-first century. For greater performance, improved energy storage devices are required to reduce the energy consumption of these smart electronic devices [33]. As a result, devices with long-lasting battery, high power outputs, and quick recharge times are required. As a consequence, it is critical to create innovative energy storage materials and devices. The realities of scarcity of fossil fuels, and environmental damage should all be considered in this endeavor [34]. By modify the surface properties of the electrodes with a long life cycle, the supercapacitor (SC) is such an effective energy-saving technology that is environmentally friendly with quick charging, and high energy density are just a few of the benefits [35]. However, this redeemer (supercapacitor) has issues. Nevertheless, in comparison to lithium batteries, such savior (supercapacitor) has challenges such as poorer energy density, unavailability, and the high cost of ruthenium (IV) oxide (RuO2) and platinum electrode materials, all of whom have stymied the supercapacitor development. Supercapacitors, which are versatile, compact, ecologically benign, and yet still economical energy storage devices, are in growing market. The flexible supercapacitors, which bridges the gap between batteries and traditional capacitors, is a bright spot in the realm of energy-saving engineering. Flexible-all-solid-state thin film supercapacitor, an innovative novel thing, has gotten a lot of interest as unique energy storage devices because of its friendly construction, compact size, easy handling, and excellent power density with a quick charging-discharging rate. The supercapacitor is called as electrochemical capacitors it has a fast charging and discharging properties, excellent power density and high specific capacitance with compact construction, and inexpensive cost of maintenance. The three primary mechanisms of supercapacitor can be classified (Figure 1), which is depending of the reversible redox reactions and the accumulation of charge. There is electric double layer capacitors (EDLC), pseudo capacitor, and the combination of EDLC and pseudo capacitor called the hybrid supercapacitor [36].
Classification of supercapacitors.
Thin films are very intriguing in modern research for a variety of applications in ethanol sensor, photocatalytic, thermoelectric and supercapacitor [37, 38, 39, 40]. The supercapacitors can store the electrical energy for all the electronic devices to stabilize the power supply. Generally, to prepare a pseudo capacitive electrode transition metal oxide (TMO) is the most popular approach, however relatively higher electrical resistivity restricts whose use several fields. As a consequence, the focus of researchers is turning to metal chalcogenides, which have a lower electrical resistivity than oxygen due to sulfur’s low electronegativity. The preponderance of these metal chalcogenides, mostly sulfides, are made from inexpensive and abundant transition metals. For example, Dai and co-workers [41] have prepared hierarchically structured Ni3S2 and multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT) composites using the hydrothermal methods and the prepared device can have obtained the maximum Cs of 55.8 F g−1, it provides a highest energy density of 19.8 Wh/kg at power density of 789 W/kg. Xiao and co-workers [42] prepared a nickel cobalt sulfide nanoparticle graphene-based sheet (NiCo2S4@GR) there is no surfactant through simple one-step solvo thermal method, which results revealed the maximum Cs of 1708 F g−1 at a current density of 1.0 A g−1, while comparing without graphene. Mukkabla and co-workers [43] reported a Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxypyrrole) (PEDOP) Enwrapped bismuth sulfide (Bi2S3) nano flowers hybrid flexible SCS, and composite offered a maximum Cs of 329 F g−1 at 0.4 A g−1. Furthermore, these are usually undergoing redox reactions between the metallic ions valence states. Besides, TMO and transition metal chalcogenides, various metal nitrides have previously been observed has outstanding results as electrodes in supercapacitors and lithium ion batteries with impressive results. Recently, metal nitrates also have superior abilities in electrochemical properties with excellent chemical stability. Metal nitrides have gotten a lot of interest as supercapacitors electrodes since they have a lot of benefits. Metal nitrates have three major advantages. (1) It has a high σ (electrical conductivity) of 55,500 S/cm−1 while compared to the metal oxides as a result shows the excellent power density, (2) compared to the metal oxides and carbon based materials metal nitrates have a higher specific capacitance, which results shows the higher energy density, and (3) high mechanical stability. These characteristics make them extremely promising as high-performance supercapacitor electrodes. Balogun and co-workers [44] have summarized the performance of different metal nitrides like molybdenum nitrides (MoN), nickel nitride, titanium nitride. Among these metal nitrides, molybdenum nitride was considered as the first metal nitride which could be used as supercapacitor electrode materials. However, for supercapacitor applications, researchers mostly considering their materials cost and electrochemical performance. There are many transition metals and metal oxides are considerable for supercapacitor applications such as CuO, NiO, Mn3O4, Co3O4, Ni or CuCo2O4 and Ni or CuFe2O4 [45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50]. Compared to the other metal oxides, the metal ferrite based materials much attracted to the researchers. For example, Fe, Ni or Cu based Fe2O4 materials have an excellent performance in the energy storage applications. There are two major methods could be used to prepare the thin films supercapacitors, namely physical technique (physical vapor deposition and sputtering) and chemical method. The successive ionic layer adsorption and reaction (SILAR), spin coater, and chemical bath deposition (CBD) are some examples for chemical deposition method (Figure 2).
Thin films deposition techniques.
Bandgar and co-workers [51] studied the nature of starting materials on the properties of NiFe2O4 thin films for flexible supercapacitors. There are several morphologies could be observed (nanosheet, flower, and feather) through different salts such as nickel(II) chloride hexahydrate (NiCl2·6H2O), nickel nitrate [Ni(NO3)2·6H2O], and nickel sulfate hexahydrate (NiSO4·6H2O), respectively. The nanosheet based electrode material received the maximum Cs of 1139 Fg−1, nanoflower and feather achieved the good Cs of 677 and 435 F g−1, respectively. Immanuel and co-workers [52] have optimized the Cr doped Mn3O4 thin films for high performance supercapacitors using the SILAR method. The experimental results showed that 3 wt % of Cr doped Mn3O4 thin films exhibited the maximum Cs of 181 Fg−1 at the current density of 1 Ag−1.
Jesuraj and co-workers [53] studied the pristine and Li doped NiO thin films using the spin coating method. Kin and co-workers [54] prepared the carbon based flexible supercapacitors using the chemical vapor deposition. Yu and co-workers [55] have prepared the cobalt nickel oxide and sulfide heterostructure thin films through electrodeposition method for supercapacitor applications. The obtained findings revealed the maximum energy density of 78.2 Wh·kg−1 at 542.8 W·kg−1 and the high power density of 5440.2 W·kg−1. Recently, Immanuel and co-workers [56] synthesized Mn3O4 nanorod thin films via SILAR method. The prepared Mn3O4 thin films showed the maximum Cs value of 295 Fg−1 at the scan rate of 2 mVs−1. Vivek and co-workers [57] prepared a reliable electrode material, and results obtained a maximum Cs of 426.40 Fg−1 at a current density of 1 Ag−1. Arulraj and co-workers [58] prepared the cubic shaped Ag2S using the CBD method on Ni mesh. The prepared Ag2S used a working electrode, which electrochemical performance showed the highest Cs of 179 C/g at constant charge and discharge current density of 1 A/g.
Any materials which have the crystal structure of calcium titanium oxide (CaTiO3), were known as the perovskite structure and the materials have stoichiometry of ABX3; where “A” is the larger cation, “B” is the smaller cation and “X” is the anion. Each unit cell of ABX3 crystal comprises of corner sharing BX6 octahedra, with the “A” moiety cubo-octahedral cavity. In case of organic-inorganic hybrid perovskites (OIHP), halide anions (I−, Br−, Cl−) are found at the “X”-site anion instead of oxygen, while monovalent (CH3NH3+, CH(NH2)2+) and bivalent (Pb2+, Sn2+) cations occupy the “A” and “B” sites, respectively. Halide perovskites were first reported by Moller in 1958 for cesium lead halides [59]. Further, it was also observed that small organic molecules with effective radii less than 260 pm [methylammonium (MA), formamidinium (FA), hydrazinium, hydroxylammonium) can also accommodate inside the PbX6 octahedrons. The word “hybrid” indicates that the crystal is made specifically by the combination of “organic” and “inorganic” components. The architecture of OIHP-based solar cell is quite simple and prepared by sandwiching a perovskite absorber layer between the electron transport layer (ETL) and hole transport layer (HTL). A standard OIHP based solar cell device has a structure composed of glass/ transparent conductive oxide (TCO)/TiO2 (ETL)/ mesoporous TiO2 (mp-TiO2)/ perovskite (~500 nm)/ HTL/ metal and a quite high efficiency exceeding 20% can be realized without including complicated processing steps. The operation of the perovskite device is sstraight forward; namely, the photo-electrons and holes created by light absorption are collected in the ETL and HTL, respectively, and the electrons flow through the outer circuit and recombine with holes at the HTL/metal interface. The efficiencies of OIHP-based solar cells have increased all the way from 3.8% in 2009 to 25.5% for single-junction solar cells, and 29.15% for the highest publicly disclosed perovskite/silicon (Si) tandem [60].
The properties of perovskite solar cells were discussed in terms of crystal structure and phase transition, electronic structure, optical properties and electrical properties. One of the interesting aspect of the crystal structure of halide perovskite is the structural flexibility of organic cation. Taking MAPbI3 as an example, the disorder-order transition of MA+ cation is believed to trigger the phase transition with the decrease of temperature. At high temperature MAPbI3 takes a cubic structure (space group: Pm-3 m; Z = 1). Since MA+ has a lower symmetry of C3v, the orientation of MA+ ion should be disordered to satisfy the Oh symmetry. As the temperature is lowered, tetragonal and orthorhombic phases are realized by an accompanying ordering of methylammonium ion. Structural transition from cubic to tetragonal phase occurs due to the reorientation of MA+ ion, as observed by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) studies where lowering the number of disorder states of MA+ was observed from 24 in the cubic phase to 8 in tetragonal phase [61]. Below a critical temperature (tetragonal-orthorhombic phase transition), the MA+ molecule is frozen (only 1 degree of freedom) and the symmetry of MAPbI3 become orthorhombic. Similar crystallographic phase transition can be realized with replacing I by Br and Cl [62].
The band structure of MAPbI3 exhibits a direct bandgap of 1.6 eV at the R point. Calculated band structure suggests conduction band minima (CBM) is dominated by the Pb-
Organic-inorganic hybrid perovskites are direct band gap semiconductor and the direct transition produces large absorption coefficients of the order of 104–105 cm−1. In the case of perovskite thin films, the optical properties of perovskites are dramatically affected by the quality, composition and morphology of the film [67]. Sizes of the halide anions (X = I, Br, Cl) affected the electronic band structure of the system. Large anion (iodine based materials) showed a smaller bandgap and corresponded the absorption edge at 780 nm; whereas substituting iodine with smaller bromine (chlorine) anion shifts the absorption edge to 535 nm (408 nm) for MA+ based perovskite system [68]. A systematic blue shift of the PL emission peak is observed with the increase of Br concentration in mixed halide perovskite of the type MAPb(I1−xBrx)3. Further, replacing MA with CH(NH2)2 red shifts the absorption spectra by 40 nm, which makes CH(NH2)2PbI3 more suitable for high-performance solar cell applications [69]. Intermediated solid solutions of MASn1−xPbxI3 with x = 0.25 and 0.5 exhibited the smallest band gap of 1.17 eV [70]. Irrespective of bandgap tuning, fundamental understanding of absorption and PL spectra are essential to study the basic photo physical properties of hybrid perovskite. In spite of several optical investigations performed at different temperatures, there have been a lot of ambiguities in the data as well as its interpretations, especially observation of multiple peaks in the photoluminescence (PL) spectrum of organic-inorganic hybrid perovskites. Literature reports excitonic emission, tetragonal inclusion in orthorhombic phase, order-disorder transition, surface-bulk effects are responsible for these multiple PL emissions [71].
Space charge limited current (SCLC) is one of the effective approaches to measure mobility, diffusion length and trap density of hybrid perovskites. Due to the advancement in fabrication techniques, the diffusion length of hybrid perovskite has increased from 1 to ~10 μm in about 3 years [72]. This improvement reflects the progress that has been recently made in producing samples with better structural order and morphology. Further, it is also observed that the diffusion length has a strong dependence on the grain size of the film. The results showed that more than 1 μm diffusion length has been achieved by realizing films with an average grain size of 2 μm. The perovskite single crystal was found the highest measured diffusion length (10 μm) [73]. Carrier mobility of hybrid perovskite has also been improved over the years and exhibited morphology dependence. Mobility values exceeding 10 cm2V−1 s−1 have been measured in perovskite film [74] and above 100 cm2V−1 s−1 in perovskite single crystals. Further, it is also observed that the mobility (and also diffusion length) did not exhibit a strong dependence on the material composition. Further, the dielectric constant (relative permittivity) is a complex number given by, ε = ε/−ε//, where the real part ε/ is the charge storage ability and the imaginary part ε// is the energyloss. For MAPbI3, a small ε/ is obtained (ε/= 6.5 in experiment, while 5.6 to 6.5 in calculation) at optical frequency and only electronic polarization takes part in dielectric process [75]. With the decrease of frequency, ionic polarization and dipolar polarization (contribution from MA+ dipoles) leading to enhanced ε/ (ε/low ~ 60 at 100 KHz).This large dielectric constant facilitates the screening effect of Coulombic attraction between photoexcited electron-hole pairs (excitons), so that they can be separated easily. Also, noncentro symmetric crystal structure in tetragonal and orthorhombic phases proposed OIHP are ferroelectric in nature. It is also believed that ferroelectricity may give rise to hysteresis observed in current-voltage (I-V) curves. However, observation of ferroelectricity in hybrid perovskite is not well justified from polarization-electric field (P-E) hysteresis loop and second harmonic generation experiments. Despite the above controversies, it is of great interest to study the order-disorder transition of hybrid perovskites due to MA+ orientation inside the PbX6 octahedral [76].
Perovskite solar cell has gained attention due to favorable material properties of OIHP, which include a high absorption coefficient with a sharp absorption edge, high photoluminescence quantum yield, long charge carrier diffusion lengths, large mobility, high defect tolerance, and low surface recombination velocity. At the same time, easy solution processability and completely tunable optical bandgap from blue to red regions of wavelength just by mixing the B-site cation (Pb-Sn) and the X-site anion (I-Br-Cl), while maintaining the sharp absorption edge makes the OIHP family a potential candidate for application in multijunction/tandem solar cells. Another strong advantage of hybrid perovskite solar cells is quite high
Although OIHP solar cells produced quite impressive efficiency, they have several limitations too and to overcome these limitations are the major challenge for the commercialization of these devices. One significant drawback of OIHP is degradation of these perovskite materials under a range of environmental factors such as humidity, illumination, oxygen, and thermal stress. OIHP solar cells are ionic crystals, and the presence of H2O leads to the decomposition of the perovskite structures to hexagonal-shaped PbI2/hydrate crystals; which can be suppressed by introducing protective (passivation) layers. In case of mixed halide perovskites strong photo-induced phase segregation occurred under illumination and judicial choice of A-site cation can minimize this instability. Further, it is observed that a higher level of performance in OIHP solar cell is hindered by anomalous hysteretic behavior and large discrepancy between the forward and reverse scans put a question on the reproducibility of power conversion efficiency (PCE) of the device. In searching for the possible origins of hysteresis, several explanations such as ion migration, charge trapping/detrapping, photoinduced capacitive effect, and ferroelectricity have been imposed. Among them, ion migration and ferroelectricity are believed as feasible origins of the hysteresis in transport measurements. Extensive research efforts continue to find the long-term stability of OIHP solar cells.
Another major challenge is the realization of large-area module due to its fabrication limitations. Till now high efficiency of 17.9% has been realized for the large-area module with a size of 30 × 30 cm2 (aperture area: 802 cm2), which was formed by an inkjet printing technology. Thus development of proper fabrication technique is essential to make pinhole free large-area OIHP devices. Also in the large area tandem cells, current matching conditions for the top and bottom cells as well as each sub cell need to be established; which can be improved through technological advances.
High toxicity of heavy metal (lead) is a serious problem which cannot be neglected in OIHP-based solar cells. Although the content of lead (Pb) in OIHP solar panel (~1m2) is only a few hundred milligrams, could be severe problems in environmental impact. As an alternative people are trying to replace Pb2+ with Sn2+; but the efficiency of Sn-based photovoltaic devices are extremely poor. Thus, roof-top application of OIHP modules is difficult and large-area operations as solar farms are more appropriate. Also, encapsulation of photovoltaic module and environmentally friendly 100% recycling programs are essential for OIHP-based solar modules.
The future of perovskite solar cells was highlighted. As discussed earlier, the significantly reduced efficiency upon solar module area scaling-up is still the main challenge to face for the commercialization of OIHP-based solar cell. It is observed that efficiency decreases to 19.6% when the aperture area increases from 0.1 cm2 to about 10 cm2, and further drops to 17.9% with the area approaching 1000 cm2, which still lags far behind that of the crystalline silicon cells (26.7% at 79 cm2 and 24.4% at 13,177 cm2). Thus, intensive works should be conducted to precisely control the uniformity of the crystallization process in large-area perovskite films. Also, the fundamental photophysical mechanisms relative to the efficiency loss in OIHP modules should be further studied to understand role of surface and interface. Development of green solvent systems or the solvent-free deposition technology for fabricating large-area perovskite film will be an important research topic in the future. Besides the efficiency, more and more attention need to invest in the long-term stability of OIHP solar modules. Recently, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University in Japan reported over 1100-h operational lifetime for a 10 × 10 cm2 solar module. Although many research groups and companies claimed that their devices have passed International Electro Technical Commission (IEC) standard test, there are still some stability issues needed to be addressed at the next stage. Thus proper development of encapsulation technology is essential and we believe that a growing number of studies will move to exploit such multifunctional encapsulation materials in the near future. The single-junction OIHP cells with efficiency above 24% and long-term stability can be more cost-effective than tandem cells which may work at a PCE of 27–28%. Thus, more efforts should be made in fabrication and scaling up of single-junction OIHP-based solar cells with high efficiency, high yield, and long-term stability. Development of low-cost large-scale fabrication methods with highly reproducible results is required for commercialization of OIHP-based photovoltaic cells.
A thin film-based sensor is a type of transducer which converts a physical or chemical quantity into equivalent electrical for measurement. It is used to detect the presence of stimulus to very low concentrations of toxic or harmful target environment (gases) of importance, such as ammonia [77], carbon monoxide [78], carbon dioxide [79], nitrogen dioxide [80], sulfur dioxide [81], propane [82], liquefied petroleum gas [83], hydrogen sulfide [84], and volatile organic compounds. Worldwide thin film gas sensing technology is playing a major role in protecting the environment and improving homeland security. Sensors are also critical in improving the reliability and efficiency of manufacturing operations by providing faster and more accurate feedback regarding product quality. In the area of environmental health and safety, lowering the limits of detection can improve the quality of life through precise information regarding the pollutants in air, water and soil. High-performance thin-film sensors and systems are essential to monitoring various kinds and quantities of analysts.
The typically thin film-based sensors are described using the main characteristics such as sensing response, stability, repeatability, reproducibility, linearity, response time, and recovery time. An efficient thin-film sensor;
Must have a high sensing response towards a very low concentration of target gas.
Would give the same sensing characteristics after repeated usage (stability) and for different sensors of the same kind.
Should be capable of responding fast towards a target gas.
Must regain initial characteristics as soon as the target gas is flushed.
Thin-film sensor response should increase linearly with increasing the concentration of target gas.
The thin film-based gas sensors are used for equally the identification and quantification of gases, and hence should be both selective and sensitive to a required target gas in a mixture of gases. Sensitivity defines the smallest concentration of gas/vapour that can be fruitfully and repeatedly sensed by a thin film sensor.
Thin film-based semiconductor is commonly used materials as sensor application as indicated in Table 1. This is because of its versatile advantages like high sensitivity and low manufacturing is metal oxide which contain the elements having one oxidation state because it requires more energy to form more than one oxidation states. Semiconductor metal oxide films have been exploited for the sensing of various toxic and harmful gases in the form of ceramics, thick films, thin films or nanostructures. Sensors based on ceramics have shown advantages in terms of their mechanical strength, large resistance to chemical attack and good thermal and physical stability and most of the available commercial sensors are based on ceramics only. One of the additional attractive features associated with low temperature operated semiconductor thin film sensor is that it can lead to a complete integration with well-established Si based micro-electronics technology.
S. No. | Material/modifier | Temperature (°C) | Gas concentration (ppm) | Response | Response/recovery time | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. | SnO2/Pt | 200 | 1000 | 89 | 20/27 sec | [85] |
2. | ZnO/PANI | 36 | 1000 | 13 | 3.3/9.8 min | [86] |
3. | TiO2/PANI | 273 | 0.1 vol% | 0.63 | 3.3/3.0 min | [87] |
4. | TiO2/Ni | 250 | 1000 | 37 | −/− | [88] |
5. | ZnO/PEDOT: PSS | 27 | 1000 | 0.58 | 3.7/3.1 min | [89] |
6. | ZnO/MWCNT | 30 | 1500 | 61 | 5.8/3 min | [90] |
7. | h-BN/− | RT | 3.0 vol% | 6.17 | 55/40 sec | [91] |
8. | PANI/− | RT | 100 | 12.10 | 11/07 sec | [92] |
9. | ZnO-TiO2/PANI | 30 | 20 | 412 | 35/54 sec | [93] |
10. | CdS/− | 70 | 20 | 173 | 5.52/3.46 min | [94] |
11. | Ag-BaTiO3/CuO | 250 | 5000 | 0.28 | 15/10 min | [95] |
12. | CuO-CuxFe3−xO4 | 250 | 3000 | 0.50 | 9.5/− min | [96] |
13. | CdO | 250 | 5000 | 0.01 | 3.33/5 min | [97] |
14. | PEDOT-BPEI | RT | 1000 | 0.03 | −/60 min | [98] |
15. | La1−xSrxFeO3 | 380 | 2000 | 0.25 | 11/15 min | [99] |
16. | ZnO | 200 | 3000 | 0.03 | 8 /40 sec | [100] |
17. | ZnO-La (50%) | 400 | 5000 | 0.65 | 90/38 sec | [101] |
18. | SnO2/PANI/Ag | 30 | 1000 | 67 | 1000/900 sec | [102] |
19. | TiO2/Zn | RT | 1.5 vol% | 2.92 | 120/− Sec | [103] |
20. | Fe2O3/ PANI | RT | 20 | 229 | 2.35/3.8 min | [104] |
Literature survey of various gas sensing characteristics of different metal oxidebased nanomaterials with different modifiers.
The limitation of thin film based sensor was described. A number of thin film sensors might be recognized from sensor arrays which yield slightly different responses to various target gases. The availability of thin film gas sensor potentially creates a complicated selection problem, and is more important in view of cost and technology limitations. Many researchers have self-sufficiently confirmed practical limitations to thin film gas detection at low temperature and have attributed it to the requirement of high activation energy which can be attained only at elevated temperatures. A reduction in the number of sensors to be involved in E-Nose is advantageous due to several reasons as discussed. Sensors which exhibit an insignificant response to target gases, increase variance (noise) in E-Nose and do not assist pattern recognition process. Furthermore, sensors exhibiting similar responses to the target gases provide no additional information and are redundant.
In future, low temperature operation of the thin film sensors is an attractive proposition for the industry since it not only holds a promise to cut down the costs but also overcome technological limitations of miniature heaters of high wattage. In order to identify the target gases other classification technique such as artificial neural network approach is required where the selected features/variables obtained from principal component analysis (PCA) could be used as input features, and will be carried out in future. Therefore, a new methodology or novel design approach is essentially required in order to fulfil the essential requirements of future sensor in the market.
Metal chalcogenide materials are considered as excellent absorber materials in photovoltaic cell applications. These materials exhibited excellent absorption co-efficient and suitable band gap value to adsorb the maximum number of photons from sun radiation. Photovoltaic cell can be used to convert sunlight into electricity. These materials have a several advantages such as flexible, lower in weight, have less drag and very thin layer (from nanometer to micrometers). Preparation of the films has been reported by many researchers via different deposition methods. The properties of obtained films were studied by using various tools. The obtained experimental findings revealed that these materials could be classified into two groups, namely p-type and n-type materials. Experimental results confirmed that electron (n-type material) can absorb the energy from photons, following that, jump to the p-type materials, to produce electric potential.
Metal chalcogenide materials are considered as excellent absorber materials in photovoltaic cell applications [105, 106]. These materials exhibited excellent absorption co-efficient and suitable band gap value to adsorb the maximum number of photons from sun radiation [107, 108]. Photovoltaic cell can be used to convert sunlight into electricity. These materials have a several advantages such as flexible, lower in weight, have less drag and very thin layer (from nanometer to micrometers). Preparation of the films has been reported by many researchers via different deposition methods [109]. The properties of obtained films were studied by using various tools [110]. The obtained experimental findings revealed that these materials could be classified into two groups [111, 112], namely p-type and n-type materials. Experimental results confirmed that electron (n-type material) can absorb the energy from photons, following that, jump to the p-type materials, to produce electric potential.
Based on the global photovoltaic market [113], the market shares of silicon based solar cell decreased from 92% (in 2014) to 73.3% in 2020. Silicon based solar cell accountable for the highest percentage of market share due to the abundant raw material availability and high efficiency value. The thin film based solar cells increased from 2014 (7%) to 2020 (10.4%). Solar cell market is expected to growth rapidly due to the rising demand for commercial, residential and utility applications. According to the market share of thin film technologies [114], there are three common thin film materials such as amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride and copper indium gallium selenide. Amorphous silicon based solar cell was the oldest thin film technologies, and it dominates overall market from 2000 to 2003. This type of solar cell can absorb a wide range of the light spectrum, did excellent in low light, but loses efficiency rapidly. The CdTe films have been deposited successfully onto glass. Quaternary thin films such as copper indium gallium selenide were prepared via co-evaporation method. The global demand for CdTe films and CIGS films was expected to drive the market start from 2004 and onwards [114].
The cadmium telluride thin films could be used as solar absorber due to suitable band gap value and high absorption coefficient in the visible light region [115]. The materials have high absorption coefficient was able a low absorber thickness (about 1 μm) to absorb sufficient sunlight. Generally, several researchers reported the synthesis of CdTe films by using various deposition methods such as chemical bath deposition [116], spray pyrolysis [117], thermal evaporation [118], molecular beam epitaxy [119], close space sublimation [120], pulsed laser deposition method [121], hydrothermal method, electrochemical deposition technique. Researchers pointed out that the CdTe films deposited onto glass substrates showed some problems such as heavy and fragile. Currently, more and more research activities are focusing on the synthesis of CdTe films onto metal foils in order to lower the investment in equipment and infrastructure. The thin film deposited onto flexible substrates could be folded in any shape, and the researcher concluded that the supporting structure requirements are minimum if compared to heavy glass substrates. Table 2 showed the advantages, limitations, power conversion efficiency of CdTe films. Also, the solar power plant was described in the table. So far, the First Solar Company is the main producer of CdTe film.
Advantages | Limitations | Solar power plant | Power conversion efficiency (%) |
---|---|---|---|
CdTe has band gap about 1.5 eV, it can absorb sunlight at close to ideal wavelength, it captures energy at shorter wavelength. | Toxic effect of cadmium | The Topaz Solar Farm was located in California, United States. The photovoltaic power station includes 9 million CdTe thin film modules [122]. | 19% as reported by Gloeckler and co-workers [123] |
The cadmium is abundant | Very limited availability of tellurium | In the Desert Sunlight Solar Farm (California, United States), it employed 8.8 million CdTe film modules [124]. | 13.3% as highlighted by Kamala and coworkers [125] |
CdTe film based solar cell showed the shortest energy payback time and the smallest carbon footprint. | It does not remain stable under severe stress | The Waldpolenz Solar Park was located in Germany, has used CdTe film modules, was 52megawatt photovoltaic power station [126]. | 15% as pointed out by Devendra and co-workers [127] |
It is very important to enhance the efficiency of solar cells | Templin solar power plant was located in Germany, has installed more than 1.5 million CdTe film modules [128]. | 17.8% as concluded by Deb and coworkers [129] | |
9.59% as described by Xixing and coworkers [130] |
Advantages, limitations, power conversion efficiencies and CdTe film based solar power plant.
The copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) thin films have been prepared by using different deposition methods such as thermal evaporation method [131], spray pyrolysis [132], solvothermal method [133], physical vapor deposition [134], and electro deposition method [135]. Table 3 showed the advantages, limitations and power conversion efficiency of CIGS thin films. These films showed p-type absorbing layer materials and the tunable band gap (1.07–1.7 eV) value [141]. Researcher highlighted that there are 99% of the light will be successfully absorbed in the first micrometer of the materials [142]. The solar cell is classified as heterojunction structures [143]. Generally, the junction is produced between thin films having various band gap values. Experimental results showed that the addition of small amount of gallium can improve the voltage, boost band gap value and enhance the power conversion efficiency of solar cell [144]. There are several companies produced CIGS solar cell such as Solar Frontier, Solyndra, SoloPower, Global Solar, SulfurCell, MiaSole and Nanosolar. The solar cell showed open circuit voltage, short circuit current and the maximum power values of 5 V Dc, 95 mA and 0.25 watts, respectively.
Advantages | Limitations | Power conversion efficiency (%) |
---|---|---|
CIGS thin films have been deposited onto substrates (flexible) | Less efficient if compared to silicon based solar panels | Conventional solar cell: 22.67%. Adding the BSF (PbS) layer in solar cell: 24.22% as reported by Barman and Kalita [136] |
The active layer could be deposited in polycrystalline form. | Higher production costs if compared to other thin film technologies. | The highest efficiency is 25.5% as highlighted by Sobayel and coworkers [137] |
Much lower level of cadmium will be used during the synthesis of thin films | Complex structures | The highest power conversion efficiency was 26.4% as concluded by Sobayel and co-workers [138] |
CIGS thin films based solar panel indicated better resistance to heat. | Boubakeur et al. have achieved power conversion efficiency of 21.08%. [139] | |
Much less expensive if compared to silicon based solar cells. | Nour and Patane reported the highest power conversion efficacy about 24.5%. [140] |
The advantages, limitations and power conversion efficiency of CIGS thin films.
The copper rich p-type CuInS2 films were synthesized by using thermal co-evaporation method. The obtained results showed that small (less than 10%) solar to electrical conversion losses when the copper to indium ration between 1 and 1.8. The highest power conversion efficiency was 10.2% as reported by Scheer and co-workers [145].
The chemical bath deposition was used to produce Ni3Pb2S2 thin films [146]. The photovoltaic parameters such as open circuit voltage (0.61 V), short circuit current density (9.9 mA/cm2), fill factor (0.47) and power conversion efficiency (2.7%) were studied. The band gap was calculated based on the absorption spectra and was about 1.4 eV.
The atomic layer deposition was employed to produce SnS films [147] as highlighted by Rafael and co-workers. These materials are non-toxic solar cell, and the power conversion efficiency was 4.36%. Vera and co-workers [148] reported that SnS heterojunction solar cell was made, and reached power conversion efficiency about 3.88%.
The performance of p-type InSe films for solar cell was reported. The open circuit voltage (0.55 V), short circuit current density (7.09 mA/cm2), fill factor (53.85%, and power conversion efficiency (0.52%) were highlighted. Researchers explained that higher series resistance and reduced shunt resistance lead to lower value of efficiency. The band gap values are in the range of 1.75–1.95 eV in as-deposited films, annealed films at 250 and 300°C as concluded by Teena and co-workers [149].
The electrochemical technique was used to produce CdSe film MnCdSe films as described by Shinde and co-workers [150]. XRD analysis showed the obtained films are polycrystalline with hexagonal crystal phase. The SEM images revealed that nanosphere morphology and nanonest structure for CdSe and MnCdSe films respectively. The band gap value was measured, and the reduced from 1.81 eV (CdSe) to 1.6 eV (MnCdSe). The fill factor and power conversion efficiency of CdSe films 0.71 and 0.67%, respectively. The MnCdSe films showed power conversion efficiency about 0.37%.
The ternary compound such as Cu2SnS3 (CTS) films showed high absorption coefficient (104 cm−1) and wider range of band gap energy (0.9–1.7 eV). Researchers reported that easy to control the secondary phase during the synthesis of CTS films. The formation of cubic, monoclinic, tetragonal and orthorhombic structure strongly depended on deposition method and annealing process. The magnetron sputtering method was used to produce CTS films. The films reached the highest power conversion efficiency about 2.2%, due to the formation of pure phase of CTS, lowest sheet resistance (8.2 Ω/cm2), highest shunt resistance (111.1 Ω/cm2) and uniform morphology [151]. The p-type CTS films have been produced via co-evaporation method [152]. The photovoltaic parameters such as open circuit voltage (248 mV), short circuit current density (33.5 mA/cm2), fill factor (0.439) and power conversion efficiency (3.66%) were highlighted. Mingrui and co-workers [153] described the preparation of CTS films by using sputtering method. The films prepared at 2812 seconds indicated the highest efficiency value (2.39%), with fill factor (39.7%), open circuit current voltage (208 mV) and short circuit current density (28.92 mA/cm2).
The Cu4SnS4 films showed p-type electrical conductivity and the band gap values (0.93–1.84 eV). Chen et al., have reported the synthesis of thin films by a combination of mechanochemical and doctor blade techniques [154]. The highest power conversion efficiency reached 2.34%. The influence of the film thickness on the properties of samples was study. Based on the absorption spectra, the absorption edge moved towards longer wavelength with increasing the film thickness (0.25–1 μm). Also, band gap reduced (1.47–1.21 eV) due to reduction of structural disorder and the increase in the crystalline size.
The Table 4 showed the power conversion efficiency of the various thin films. The obtained experimental results confirmed that metal sulfide, metal selenide and metal telluride thin films could be used in solar cell applications. The photovoltaic parameters were strongly depended on various experimental conditions. Researchers also highlighted a lot of research activities have been carried put in order to enhance the power conversion efficiency of thin film based solar cell.
thin films | Power conversion efficiency (%) | References |
---|---|---|
Cu2ZnSnS4 | 5.74 | Kazuo and co-workers [155] |
Cu2ZnSnS4 | 2.62 | Hironori and co-workers [156] |
Cu2ZnSnS4 | 6.8 | Wang and co-workers [157] |
Cu2ZnSnS4 | 4.1 | Schubert and co-workers [158] |
Cu2ZnSnS4 | 0.23 | Chet and co-workers [159] |
Cu2ZnSnS4 | 3.2 | Jonathan and co-workers [160] |
Cu2ZnSnS4 | 3.4 | Ennaoui and co-workers [161] |
Cu2ZnSnS4 | 0.396 | Sawanta and co-workers [162] |
Cu2ZnSnS4 | 6.03 | Tsukasa and co-workers [163] |
Cu2ZnSnS4 | 0.12 | Shinde and co-workers [164] |
CuS | 0.39 | Donghyeok and co-workers [165] |
CdS | 8 | Karl [166] |
ZnS | 8.83 | Qiu and co-workers [167] |
PbS | 2.02 | Omer and co-workers [168] |
PbS:Mo | 2.16 | Omer and co-workers [168] |
Sb2Se3 | 7.6 | Wen and co-workers [169] |
Sb2Se3 | 5.93 | Liang and co-workers [170] |
Sb2Se3 | 5.6 | Chao and co-workers [171] |
CuInTe2 | 3.8 | Manorama and co-workers [172] |
CuInTe2 | 4.13 | Lakhe and co-workers [173] |
CuInTe2 | 1.22 | Jia and co-workers [174] |
CuInSe2 | 1.75 | Hyun and co-workers [175] |
CuInSe2 | 2 | Se and co-workers [176] |
CuInSe2 | 4.57 | Prabukanthan and co-workers [177] |
MnCuInSe2 | 6.38 | Prabukanthan and co-workers [177] |
Power conversion efficiencies of different types of thin films.
Chalcogenide thin films have received a great deal of attention for decades due to some unique properties. The thin film based supercapacitor can have store the electrical energy for all the electronic devices to stabilize the power supply. Metal nitrates have gotten a lot of interest as supercapacitors electrodes due to showed higher electrical conductivity, higher specific capacitance, good energy density, and excellent mechanical stability. Perovskite solar cell indicated higher power conversion efficiency value. The organic inorganic hybrid perovskite solar cells are very simple, and prepared by sandwiching a perovskite absorber layer between the electron transport layer and hole transport layer, reached power conversion efficiency exceeding 20%. The thin film-based sensors showed high sensitivity and low manufacturing cost. In future, low temperature operation of the thin film sensors is an attractive proposition for the industry. The market shares of silicon based solar cell decreased, while thin film based solar cells increased in the global photovoltaic market due to the low material consumption, low manufacturing cost, shorter energy pack back period. Solar cell market is expected to growth rapidly due to the rising demand for commercial, residential and utility applications.
The author (HO SM) gratefully acknowledge the financial support provided by the INTI International University.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Simulation results in Matlab/Simulink and experimental results on a 150-W four-phase 8/6 SRM are used to validate the fault identification, and on a 750-W, three-phase 12/8 SRM are used to validate the fault tolerance operation of the proposed strategy, which may have significant implications for EV/HEV applications.",book:{id:"5079",slug:"new-applications-of-electric-drives",title:"New Applications of Electric Drives",fullTitle:"New Applications of Electric Drives"},signatures:"Yihua Hu, Chun Gan, Wenping Cao and Stephen Finney",authors:[{id:"174154",title:"Prof.",name:"Wenping",middleName:null,surname:"Cao",slug:"wenping-cao",fullName:"Wenping Cao"}]},{id:"49509",title:"Electric-driven Zonal Hydraulics in Non-Road Mobile Machinery",slug:"electric-driven-zonal-hydraulics-in-non-road-mobile-machinery",totalDownloads:2502,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The goal of this research is to apply direct-driven hydraulics (DDH) to the concept of zonal (i.e., locally and operation-focused) hydraulics, which is an essential step in the hybridization and automation of machines. 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Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. 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Currently, he is a professor of Orthodontics. He holds a Certificate of Advanced Study type A in Technology of Biomaterials used in Dentistry (1995); Certificate of Advanced Study type B in Dento-Facial Orthopaedics (1997) from the Faculty of Dental Surgery, University Denis Diderot-Paris VII, France; Diploma of Advanced Study (DESA) in Biocompatibility of Biomaterials from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2002); Certificate of Clinical Occlusodontics from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2004); University Diploma of Biostatistics and Perceptual Health Measurement from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2011); and a University Diploma of Pedagogy of Odontological Sciences from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2013). 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He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"333824",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Farouk",middleName:null,surname:"Musa",slug:"ahmad-farouk-musa",fullName:"Ahmad Farouk Musa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333824/images/22684_n.jpg",biography:"Dato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa\nMD, MMED (Surgery) (Mal), Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery (Monash Health, Aust), Graduate Certificate in Higher Education (Aust), Academy of Medicine (Mal)\n\n\n\nDato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa obtained his Doctor of Medicine from USM in 1992. He then obtained his Master of Medicine in Surgery from the same university in the year 2000 before subspecialising in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Institut Jantung Negara (IJN), Kuala Lumpur from 2002 until 2005. He then completed his Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Monash Health, Melbourne, Australia in 2008. He has served in the Malaysian army as a Medical Officer with the rank of Captain upon completing his Internship before joining USM as a trainee lecturer. He is now serving as an academic and researcher at Monash University Malaysia. He is a life-member of the Malaysian Association of Thoracic & Cardiovascular Surgery (MATCVS) and a committee member of the MATCVS Database. He is also a life-member of the College of Surgeons, Academy of Medicine of Malaysia; a life-member of Malaysian Medical Association (MMA), and a life-member of Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia (IMAM). Recently he was appointed as an Interim Chairperson of Examination & Assessment Subcommittee of the UiTM-IJN Cardiothoracic Surgery Postgraduate Program. As an academic, he has published numerous research papers and book chapters. He has also been appointed to review many scientific manuscripts by established journals such as the British Medical Journal (BMJ). He has presented his research works at numerous local and international conferences such as the European Association for Cardiothoracic Surgery (EACTS) and the European Society of Cardiovascular Surgery (ESCVS), to name a few. He has also won many awards for his research presentations at meetings and conferences like the prestigious International Invention, Innovation & Technology Exhibition (ITEX); Design, Research and Innovation Exhibition, the National Conference on Medical Sciences and the Annual Scientific Meetings of the Malaysian Association for Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. He was awarded the Darjah Setia Pangkuan Negeri (DSPN) by the Governor of Penang in July, 2015.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Monash University Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. He has also been a reviewer of international journals and ad hoc reviewer of scientific committees from Brazilian Universities.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"217850",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarete Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Bagatini",slug:"margarete-dulce-bagatini",fullName:"Margarete Dulce Bagatini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217850/images/system/217850.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Margarete Dulce Bagatini is an associate professor at the Federal University of Fronteira Sul/Brazil. She has a degree in Pharmacy and a PhD in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry. She is a member of the UFFS Research Advisory Committee\nand a member of the Biovitta Research Institute. She is currently:\nthe leader of the research group: Biological and Clinical Studies\nin Human Pathologies, professor of postgraduate program in\nBiochemistry at UFSC and postgraduate program in Science and Food Technology at\nUFFS. She has experience in the area of pharmacy and clinical analysis, acting mainly\non the following topics: oxidative stress, the purinergic system and human pathologies, being a reviewer of several international journals and books.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"27",type:"subseries",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11423,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. 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Adetoro and Olusegun Awotoye",slug:"assessment-of-diversity-growth-characteristics-and-aboveground-biomass-of-tree-species-in-selected-u",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Forest Degradation Under Global Change",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11457.jpg",subseries:{id:"94",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability"}}}]},publishedBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7726",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7726.jpg",slug:"swarm-intelligence-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Javier Del Ser, Esther Villar and Eneko Osaba",hash:"e7ea7e74ce7a7a8e5359629e07c68d31",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and 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possibility to collaborate with more research groups interested in animal nutrition, leading to the development of new feeding strategies and food valuation while being more sustainable with the environment, allowing more readers to learn about the subject.",author:{id:"175967",name:"Manuel",surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",institution:{id:"6221",name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",country:{id:null,name:"Mexico"}}}},{id:"18",text:"It was great publishing with IntechOpen, the process was straightforward and I had support all along.",author:{id:"71579",name:"Berend",surname:"Olivier",institutionString:"Utrecht University",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71579/images/system/71579.png",slug:"berend-olivier",institution:{id:"253",name:"Utrecht 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living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine"},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation"},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:{title:"Biomedical Engineering",id:"7"},selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 24th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfPublishedBooks:31,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/151875",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"151875"},fullPath:"/profiles/151875",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()