Actual soil temperature in cadastre Liptovská Teplička in May 2014 (°C).
\r\n\tSynthetic zeolites can be formed from different raw materials and among these many wastes represent some interesting sources due to their chemical and mineralogical composition. Today, a large number of different types of waste resulting from many human activities are produced in the world (e.g. industrial, municipal, agricultural waste) and most of them are deposed of in landfills thus determining a great environmental problem.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art on the possibility to transform the different types of waste materials into useful products, zeolites, through conventional processes and innovative methods. The aim is to demonstrate that waste can be a problem or a resource depending on how it is managed.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-426-5",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-425-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-427-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"3ed0dfd842de9cd1143212415903e6ad",bookSignature:"Dr. Claudia Belviso",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11561.jpg",keywords:"Structure, Properties, Natural Material, Synthetic Product, Type, Composition, Production, Disposal, Hydrothermal Method, Pre-fusion Process, Sonication, Multiple Steps",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 25th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 25th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 24th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 12th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 11th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"5 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Since 2002, Dr. Claudia Belviso has been carrying out research activity in the field of mineralogy and geochemistry aimed at environmental protection. She is responsible for the research activity on zeolite synthesis from waste materials and natural sources which has allowed her to be the inventor of an International Patent, publish numerous scientific articles in peer-reviewed journals, and carry out scientific research in national and international projects.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"61457",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Belviso",slug:"claudia-belviso",fullName:"Claudia Belviso",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61457/images/system/61457.jpg",biography:"Claudia Belviso is a researcher at the Institute of Methodologies of Environmental Analysis (IMAA) of CNR. After graduating in Geological Sciences and qualifying as a professional geologist, she earned a Ph.D. in Earth Sciences. Since 2002 has been carrying out her research activity in the field of mineralogy and geochemistry aimed at environmental protection. She is responsible for the research activity on zeolite synthesis from waste materials and natural sources as well as their application to solving environmental problems and as new raw material. These research activities have allowed her to be the inventor of an International Patent, publish numerous scientific articles in peer-reviewed journals, participate in national and international conferences, take part in the organization of international congresses, and carry out scientific research in national and international projects.",institutionString:"National Research Council",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"National Research Council",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"8",title:"Chemistry",slug:"chemistry"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"453622",firstName:"Tea",lastName:"Jurcic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"tea@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5306",title:"Zeolites",subtitle:"Useful Minerals",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eec7f864baf093058440c0f56072a7cf",slug:"zeolites-useful-minerals",bookSignature:"Claudia Belviso",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5306.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"61457",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",surname:"Belviso",slug:"claudia-belviso",fullName:"Claudia Belviso"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3828",title:"Application of Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"51a27e7adbfafcfedb6e9683f209cba4",slug:"application-of-nanotechnology-in-drug-delivery",bookSignature:"Ali Demir Sezer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3828.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"51201",title:"Agriculture and Its Impact on Land‐Use, Environment, and Ecosystem Services",doi:"10.5772/63719",slug:"agriculture-and-its-impact-on-land-use-environment-and-ecosystem-services",body:'\nLand cover and land‐use patterns on Earth reflect the interaction of human activities and the natural environment [1]. Human population growth together with competitive land use causes land scarcity, conversion of wild lands to agriculture and other uses. As we can see, the anthropogenic factor has an important impact on land use and land cover changes. Given this human influence, especially during the past 100 years, the recent period has been called the Anthropocene Age [2]. Human influence on the land and other natural resources is accelerating because of rapid population growth and increasing food requirements. The increasing agricultural intensity generates pressure not only on land resources but also across the whole environment. These factors make agriculture a top‐priority sector for both economic and environmental policy.
\nComprehensive assessment of the agriculture is a challenging task. There are different possibilities and methods for such assessment. To stress the interactions between society and the environment, the DPSIR framework approach is used for analyzing and assessing the influence of agriculture on land use and environment with emphasis on Slovakia.
\nDPSIR model for agriculture and environment.
Within integrated environmental assessment a framework is used, which distinguish driving forces (D), pressures (P), states (S), impacts (I), and response (R). This is known as the DPSIR model. As the model can capture the cause–effect relationships between the economic, social, and environmental sectors, it has been widely applied to analyze the interacting processes of human‐environmental systems [3]. The DPSIR model originated from the pressure–state–response (PSR) framework, which was developed by the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development [4]. Later it was elaborated by European Environment Agency [5]. Environmental indicators should reflect all elements of the chain between human activities, their environmental impacts, and the societal responses to these impacts [6].
\nThe DPSIR model was used to identify a series of core indicators and to establish the nature of interactions between the different driving forces, pressures, states, impacts, and responses, and thus to assess the agriculture and its impact on land use, environment, and ecosystem services (Figure 1). More attention was paid to Slovakia. We assessed selected indicators at global, national (country Slovakia), and local (cadastre Liptovská Teplička (LT)) level. Slovakia
With the growing world population the requirements are grown to cover the food demand. Human expansion throughout the world caused that agriculture is a dominant form of land management globally, and agricultural ecosystems cover nearly 40% of the terrestrial surface of the Earth. Agricultural ecosystems are interlinked with rural areas where more than 3 billion people live, almost half of the world\'s population. Roughly 2.5 billion of these rural people derive their livelihoods from agriculture. Thus, population and land‐use trends are considered to be the main driving forces for agriculture. Besides these driving forces, EEA [7] further distinguished the so‐called external and internal driving forces originating from market trends, technological and social changes, as well as the policy framework.
\nFor many economies, especially those of developing countries, agriculture can be an important engine—driving force—of economic growth. Approximately three‐quarters of the world\'s agricultural value added is generated in developing countries where agriculture constitutes the backbone of the economy. But not only in the developing countries but also in the developed countries agriculture has always been the precursor to the rise of industry and services [8].
\nIn the twentieth century, the world population grew four times [9]. Although demographic growth rates have been slowing since the late 1970s, the world\'s population has doubled since then, to approximately 7 billion people currently and is projected to increase to over 9 billion by 2050. But already millions people are still suffering from hunger and malnutrition. The latest available estimates indicate that about 795 million people in the world (just over one in nine) were undernourished in 2014–2016. Since 1990–1992, the number of undernourished people has declined by 216 million globally, a reduction of 21.4%. The vast majority of the hungry people live in the developing regions. The overall hunger reduction trends in the developing countries since 1990–1992 are connected with changes in large populous countries (China, India) [10]. Paradoxically, most of people suffering from hunger and malnutrition are in rural areas and only 20% are in city slums. According to FAO, 50% of them are small peasants, 20% are landless, 10% are nomadic herdsmen or small fishermen, and 20% live in city slums. In the developing countries, this rural social class is, above all, often a victim of marginalization and exclusion from its governing classes (political, economic, and financial) as well as from the urban milieu where there is a concentration of power and knowledge, and therefore money, including funds for development. Often the urban and rural worlds are separated. Whereas in the EU the farming population constitutes only 5% of the total population, it is about 50% in China, 60% in India, and between 60 and 80% in sub‐Saharan Africa [11].
\nIn past, Slovakia was typical agrarian country. Even during the nineteenth century the vast majority of the population worked in agriculture, but with the beginning of the twentieth century the decreasing trend began and continued to the present. In 1921, 60.4% of the working population was engaged in agriculture, after 1945, it was 48.1%. In 2012, 50,400 people worked in agriculture [12] which represented 2.2% of the working population, and 2.76 workers worked per 100 ha of agricultural land which was less than EU‐27 average (8.81 workers per 100 ha of agricultural land) [13].
\nThe global land area is 13.2 billion ha. Of this, 12% (1.6 billion ha) is currently in use for cultivation of agricultural crops, 28% (3.7 billion ha) is under forest, and 35% (4.6 billion ha) comprises grasslands and woodland ecosystems. The world\'s cultivated area has grown by 12% over the past 50 years. Globally, about 0.23 ha of land is cultivated per head of the world\'s population [14]. In 1960, it was 0.5 ha of cropland per capita worldwide. In Europe, about one‐half of land is farmed and arable land is the most common form of agricultural land. Twenty‐five percent of Europe\'s land is covered by arable land and permanent crops, 17% by pastures and mixed mosaics, and 35% by forests. The average amount of cropland and pasture land per capita in 1970 was 0.4 and 0.8 ha and by 2010 this had decreased to 0.2 and 0.5 ha per capita, respectively [15].
\nSuch a state is a result of dynamic land‐use and land‐cover changes. Humans have altered land cover for centuries, but recent rates of change are higher than ever [16].
\nLand‐use change reflected in land‐cover change and land‐cover change is a main component of global environmental change [17], affecting climate, biodiversity, and ecosystem services, which in turn affect land‐use decision. Land‐use change is always caused by multiple interacting factors. The mix of driving forces of land‐use change varies in time and space. Highly variable ecosystem conditions driven by climatic variations amplify the pressure arising from high demands on land resources. Economic factors define a range of variables that have a direct impact on the decision making by land managers. Technology can affect labor market and operational processes on land. Demographic factors, such as increase and decrease of population, and migration patterns have a large impact on land use. Life‐cycle features arise and affect rural as well as urban environments. They shape the trajectory of land‐use change, which itself affects the household\'s economic status.
\nThe development of the present ecosystems in the postglacial period (Holocene) depended on significant changes in climate. Warming in the postglacial period, about 10,000 years ago, created conditions of back migration of individuals species from their refuges, where they were protected during the glacial periods. After the neolitic revolution, human society began to influence more noticeably the development of natural ecosystems. About half of the ice‐free land surface has been converted or substantially modified by human activities. Forest covered about 50% of the Earth\'s land area 8000 years ago, as opposed to 30% today. Agriculture has expanded into forests, savannas, and steppes in all parts of the world to meet the demand for food and fiber.
\nThe central and north Europe were almost completely naturally covered by forests. Only high mountain and alpine rocky localities were without forest cover. Nowadays Europe is a mosaic of landscapes, reflecting the evolutionary pattern of changes that land use has undergone in the past. The greatest concentration of farmland is found in Eastern Europe, where also Slovakia lies, with more than half of its land area in crop cover [18]. Europe is one of the most intensively used continents on the globe. Despite the long tradition of human impact investigation on the environment and vegetation in Europe, there are few comparable studies in North America. This difference is often attributed to the shorter duration of intensive human impact in most of North America versus Europe. As a result, prior studies in the United States have generally been restricted to local investigations [19].
\nDuring the past three centuries, in many developing countries and countries with transition economies, growing demand for food due to an increasing population has caused substantial expansion of cropland, accompanied by shrinking primary forests and grassland areas [20]. Based on many studies, in China between 1700 and 1950, cropland area increased and forest coverage decreased. Similarly in India, between 1880 and 2010, cropland area has increased (from 92 to 140.1 million ha), and forest land decreased (from 89 to 63 million ha) [21]. But in the past 50 years, over world rapid urbanization has been evident [22]. Migration in its various forms is the most important demographic factor causing land‐use change at timescales of a couple of decades [23]. Rapid economic growth is accompanied by a shift of land from agriculture to industry, infrastructure, road network, and residential use. Countries in East Asia, North America, and Europe have all lost cultivated land during their periods of economic development [18]. The dramatic growth and globalization of China\'s economy and market since economy reforms in 1978 have brought about a massive loss of croplands, most of which were converted to urban areas and transportation routes during 1978–1995 [24].
\nIn Slovakia land‐use trends are in many aspects similar to EU development. In 2013, of the total area of Slovakia agricultural land covered 48.9% (2,397,041 ha) and forest land 41.1% (2,017,105 ha). The highest share of used agricultural land was represented by arable land (58.9%) followed by permanent grasslands (36.1%). The average amount of agricultural land per capita was 0.44 ha [25]. Cereals are the main growing crops. Since 1990, decrease in agricultural land was recorded, often in favor of built‐up area. Analysis of historical land‐use changes at Liptovská Teplička cadastre showed that the landscape has undergone changes in land‐use and cover during the 224 years. From the long‐term point of view, gradual afforestation and permanent grassland conversion to forest land was observed where forest land increased from 67.7% in 1782 to 83.7% in 2006 [26].
\nAgriculture in the last century has evolved from self‐sufficiency to surplus in some parts of the world. Thus, transformation was connected with intensification and specialization of production as main trends in European or North American agriculture accompanied by negative impact on the environment. Agricultural intensification is defined as higher levels of inputs and increased output of cultivated or reared products per unit area and time [27]. Over the past 50 years, agricultural production has grown between 2.5 and 3 times, thanks to significant increase in the yield of major crops [14]. Changing land‐use practices have enabled world grain harvests to double from 1.2 to 2.5 billion tonnes per year between 1970 and 2010. Globally, since 1970, there has been a 1.4‐fold increase in the numbers of cattle and buffalo, sheep and goats, and increases of 1.6‐ and 3.7‐fold for pigs and poultry, respectively [28].
\nThe mix of cropland expansion and agricultural intensification has varied geographically. Tropical Asia increased its food production mainly by increasing fertilizer use and irrigation. Most of Africa and Latin America increased their food production through both agricultural intensification and extensification. In western Africa cropland expansion was accompanied by a decrease in fertilizer use and a slight increase in irrigation [18]. Agriculture is the single largest user of freshwater resources, using a global average of 70% of all surface water supplies.
\nIntensification and specialization have been predominant trends in EU countries including Slovakia for several decades. Between 1965 and 2000 there was a 6.87‐fold increase in nitrogen fertilization, a 3.48‐fold increase in phosphorous fertilization while irrigated land area expanded 1.68 times, contributing to a 10% net increase in land in cultivation [29]. Strong intensification in Europe in contrast to other countries is obvious if we compare selected indicators, e.g., fertilizer consumption or livestock density (Figures 2 and 3). In Slovakia, the maximum intensification level was reached during the socialistic era in 80th. However, since 1990, there are signs of a trend toward a more efficient use of agricultural inputs as a result of not very favorable economic situation of farms but also as a consequence of different environmental measures implementation. During 1980–2010 in Slovakia, indicators concerning to agricultural intensification dropped, in case of fertilizer consumption by 73% (Figure 4), the pesticides consumption by 77%. This period is typical in livestock number reduction, in case of cattle by 71, pigs 73, and sheep 37% (Figure 5).
\nFertilizer consumption in 2012 (kg/ha of agricultural land) (based on data from OECD [
Livestock density in 2012 (live animals/km2 of agricultural land) (based on data from OECD [
Development in fertilizer consumption in Slovakia (kg pure nutrient/ha) (based on data from CCTIA [
Development in number of livestock in Slovakia (live animals/ha of agricultural land) (based on data from SOSR [
Intensification is connected with increasing release of atmospheric emissions through management of land and livestock, and thus agriculture release to the atmosphere significant amounts of greenhouse gases emissions of CO2, CH4, and N2O [33] and ammonia emissions. The agricultural sector is currently responsible for the vast majority of ammonia emissions in the European Union. Agriculture contributes to about 47 and 58% of total anthropogenic emissions of CH4 and N2O, respectively. Annual GHG emissions from agricultural production in 2000–2010 were estimated at 5.0–5.8 GtCO2eq/year while annual GHG flux from land use and land‐use change activities accounted for approximately 4.3–5.5 GtCO2eq/year. The enteric fermentation and agricultural soils represent together about 70% of total emissions, followed by paddy rice cultivation (9–11%), biomass burning (6–12%), and manure management (7–8%) [34]. Development of the global GHG annual agriculture emissions from 1961 to 2010 based on FAOSTAT data shows Figure 6. Annual GHG emissions from agriculture are expected to increase in coming decades due to escalating demands for food and shift in diet. However improved management practices and emerging technologies may permit a reduction in emissions per unit of food produced. In Slovakia, due to decrease number of livestock also decreasing trend in GHG and ammonia emissions were observed since 1990 (Figure 7).
\nGlobal GHG annual agriculture emissions (MtCO2eq) (based on data from Tubiello et al. [
Emissions from agriculture in Slovakia (Gg) (based on data from MESR, SEA [
Intensive management practices in agriculture escalating rates of land degradation threatens most crop and pasture land throughout the world. Worldwide, more than 12 million hectares of productive arable land are severely degraded and abandoned annually. Increased pressure is connected with deterioration of the state of environment, mainly soil and water.
\nSoil is the most fundamental asset on farms. Its quality that directly affects provisioning ecosystem services is strongly affected by management practices. The state of soils can be assessed by the help of indicators on soil contamination, erosion, and compaction.
\nSoil contamination implies that the concentration of a substance in soil is higher than would naturally occur. Agricultural activities contribute to soil contamination by introducing pollutants or toxic substances such as cadmium by application of mineral phosphate fertilizers or organic pollutants by pesticide application. Comprehensive inventories and databases on local and diffuse soil contamination are lacking on the global or regional extent. Estimates show that about 15% of land in the EU‐27 exhibits a surplus in excess of 40 kg N/ha [37]. In Slovakia, data from the soil monitoring showed that only 0.4% of the total soil cover is contaminated by heavy metals [38].
\nThe loss of soil from land surfaces by soil erosion has been significantly increased by human activities. Each year about 10 million ha of cropland are lost due to soil erosion [39]. In Slovakia, 32% of agricultural land is threatened by water and 5% by wind erosion, respectively [36].
\nSince the 1950s, pressure on agricultural land has increased considerably also owing to agricultural modernization and mechanization what caused next serious environmental problem—soil compaction. Overuse of machinery, intensive cropping, short crop rotations, intensive grazing, and inappropriate soil management leads to compaction [40]. Soil compaction problems, in various degrees, are found in virtually all cropping systems throughout the world. They are of particular significance where intensive mechanization has been adopted on soils subject to high rainfall or irrigation [41]. According to estimation approximately 600,000 ha of agricultural land is compacted in Slovakia [42].
\nThe effect of farming on soil causing soil compaction expressed as soil penetrometric resistance (PR measured to 20 cm depth in MPa) was investigated in May 2014 at Liptovská Teplička cadastre, on soil type Rendzina with four different land‐use (AL, arable land; M, meadow; AG, abandoned grasslands; FL, forest land) (Figure 8a–d). The different land use and practices reflected in different PR values (Figure 9a–d). The highest mean PR value was measured in AL (1.52 MPa), followed by M and FL (same value of 1.08 MPa), and abandoned grasslands (0.90 MPa) [43]. Measured values show at compaction in arable land. But there is necessary to take into account possibility that PR value in AL could be also the lowest among observed different land‐use sites. Such situation can be observed when the measurement is done immediately after some technological operation, e.g., ploughing, contributing to turning the soil over, and diminishing higher soil horizons compaction.
\n(a) Arable land in cadastre Liptovská Teplička, Law Tatras Mountain.
(b) Meadow in cadastre Liptovská Teplička, Law Tatras Mountain.
(c) Abandoned grasslands in cadastre Liptovská Teplička, Law Tatras Mountain.
(d) Forest land in cadastre Liptovská Teplička, Law Tatras Mountain.
(a) Penetrometric resistance at arable land in cadastre Liptovská Teplička.
(b) Penetrometric resistance at meadow in cadastre Liptovská Teplička.
(c) Penetrometric resistance at abandoned grasslands in cadastre Liptovská Teplička.
(d) Penetrometric resistance at forest land in cadastre Liptovská Teplička.
Agriculture is both cause and victim of water pollution. Evidence for elevated nitrate and phosphate contents on farm, in drains, streams and rivers, and lakes is partial and tends to be specific to a given location and circumstance. Global phosphorus flux to the ocean increased 3‐fold to about 22 Tg per year by the end of the twentieth century.
\nNitrate is the most common chemical contaminant in the world\'s aquifers. An estimate for continental USA in the 1990s indicates that returns to water are close to 20% of total applied agricultural nitrogen, with up to 25% lost in gaseous form. Mean nitrate levels have increased by about 36% in global waterways since 1990 [44].
\nPesticides contaminate surface water and groundwater. They can reach surface water through runoff from treated plants and soil. Contamination of water by pesticides is widespread, and groundwater pollution due to pesticides is a worldwide problem [45].
\nImpacts are commonly the result of multiple stressors. Agriculture exerts pressure on the environment that is both beneficial and harmful and can result in both positive and negative environmental impacts. The wide variation in farming systems and practices throughout the world, and differing environmental characteristics mean that the effects of agriculture on the environment arise at site‐specific level but can have impacts at local to global level.
\nThe disappearance of traditional agricultural landscape is an ongoing process, accompanying the general trend of agricultural abandonment in Europe [46]. In Slovakia, traditional agricultural landscape is described as agricultural ecosystems that consist of mosaics of small‐scale arable fields or permanents agricultural cultivations such as grasslands, vineyards, and high‐trunk orchards or early abandoned plots with a low succession degree [47]. Important parts of such landscape are linear landscape elements (hedges, tree lines, stone walls).
\nIn Slovakia, traditional extensive farming with individual farmer attitude to landscape was transformed to collectivization with overall interest in land exploitation [48]. Collectivization caused small‐scale parcels managed by individual farmers to be consolidated into large blocks (polygons) managed by large co‐operative farms and resulted in a decrease of the mosaic of arable land and grasslands. At Liptovská Teplička cadastre during 1956–1990, number of polygons decreased from 15 to 2 at arable land, and from 82 to 29 at permanent grasslands [26]. In addition, the management of traditional agricultural landscapes structures decreased rapidly after collectivization. Nowadays the main barriers in ideal management are unfavorable subsidies in agriculture and the financial inaccessibility of modern tools and machinery together with inadequate market and the weak support of local government [49].
\nAnthropogenic land‐use activities and changes in land use/cover caused changes superimposed on the natural fluxes. Land‐cover changes are responsible for surface and vegetation modifications what reflects in surface albedo and thus surface‐atmosphere energy exchanges, which have an impact on regional climate. Terrestrial ecosystems are important sources and sinks of carbon and thus land‐use changes reflect also in the carbon cycle. The important contribution of local evapotranspiration to the water cycle—that is precipitation recycling—as a function of land cover highlighted yet another considerable impact of land‐use/cover change on climate, at a local to regional scale [50].
\nThe influence of land use/cover on soil temperature was investigated at Liptovská Teplička cadastre study site in May 2014 where 10 measurements in depth of 5 and 25 cm at four different land‐use plots (AL, arable land; M, meadow; AG, abandoned grasslands; FL, forest land) were done by insert soil thermometer (Table 1). The highest mean soil temperature was recorded in AL in 5 cm depth (4.6°C), the lowest in FL in 5 cm depth (3.5°C). Measured values show how plant cover and its microclimate functions are important and can affect soil temperature.
\nDepth (cm) | \nLand use | \n|||
---|---|---|---|---|
Arable land | \nMeadow | \nAbandoned grasslands | \nForest land | \n|
5 | \n4.6 | \n4.3 | \n4.2 | \n3.5 | \n
25 | \n4.3 | \n4.4 | \n4.6 | \n3.8 | \n
Actual soil temperature in cadastre Liptovská Teplička in May 2014 (°C).
Agriculture is unique among economic sectors releasing GHG emissions and thus contributing to climate change. Agricultural activities lead, in fact, not only to sources but also to important sinks of CO2. Agricultural contribution to greenhouse gases accounts for 13.5% of global greenhouse gas emissions [51]. At the same time, agricultural production is fully climate and several further natural conditions dependent. Every change in climate has not only short‐term but also long‐term consequences. Climate change brings an increase in risk and unpredictability for farmers—from warming and related aridity, from shifts in rainfall patterns, and from the growing incidence of extreme weather events.
\nOn the other hand, agriculture can also positively contribute to climate change mitigation. The utilization of agricultural residues as raw materials in a biorefinery is a promising alternative to fossil resources for production of energy carriers and chemicals, thus mitigating climate change and enhancing energy security [52].
\nLand use, specifically in agriculture, has great impact on biodiversity. Another aspect contributing to biodiversity decline is that humans today depend for survival on tiny fraction of wild species that has been domesticated. Yet only 14 of 148 species weighing 45 kg or more were actually domesticated. Similarly, worldwide there are about 200,000 wild species of higher plants, of which only about 100 yielded valuable domesticates [53].
\nAll long‐term historical land‐use changes responsible for natural ecosystems conversion to seminatural ecosystems or artificial systems contributed to the extensive changes in biodiversity composition and ecological processes. Agriculture plays an important role in these processes and is responsible for biodiversity decline. Over the past 50 years, ecosystems have changed more rapidly than at any other period of human history [62]. This period is connected with high agricultural intensification in many parts of the world. Land‐use changes have been shown to be one of the leading causes of biodiversity loss in terrestrial ecosystems [54, 55]. To demonstrate the impact of land use and land management on soil biota quantitative analysis of earthworm was done at Liptovská Teplička cadastre in May 2014 when earthworms were hand sorted, weighted, and numbered from seven soil monoliths (35 cm × 35 cm × 20 cm) placed in line in 3 m distance in four different land‐use plots (AL, arable land; M, meadow; AG, abandoned grasslands; FL, forest land). The earthworms may be used as bioindicator because they are very sensitive to both chemical and physical soil parameters. Earthworm biomass or abundance can offer a valuable tool to assess different environmental impacts such as tillage operations, soil pollution, different agricultural input, trampling, and industrial plant pollution [56]. The highest mean number (87.5 individuals m−2) and earthworm body biomass (40.3 g m−2) was recorded in M, the lowest in AG (5.8 individuals m−2 and 5.9 g m−2 body biomass) (Table 2) [49]. Relatively high number and earthworm biomass in AL at Liptovská Teplička cadastre is consequence of organic farming.
\nDepth (cm) | \nLand use | \n|||
---|---|---|---|---|
Arable land | \nMeadow | \nAbandoned grasslands | \nForest land | \n|
Number | \n33.8 | \n87.5 | \n5.8 | \n8.2 | \n
Body biomass | \n16.2 | \n40.3 | \n5.9 | \n6.6 | \n
Number of earthworm individuals and earthworm body biomass in cadastre Liptovská Teplička in May 2014 (individuals m−2, g m−2) [43]
Though intensified land use is undeniably the main cause of biodiversity loss. There is an increasing expectation that productive agricultural landscapes should be managed to preserve or enhance biodiversity [57].
\nEutrophication is a process of pollution that occurs when a lake or stream becomes overrich in plant nutrients as a consequence it becomes overgrown in algae and other aquatic plants. The major impacts of eutrophication due to overloading with nitrogen and phosphorus nutrients are changes in the structure and functioning of marine ecosystems, reduced biodiversity, and reduced income from fishery, mariculture, and tourism. The main source of nitrogen run‐off from agricultural land brought to the sea via rivers. Atmospheric deposition of nitrogen may also contribute significantly to the nitrogen load. This nitrogen originates partly from ammonia evaporation from animal husbandry. Most of the phosphorus comes from households and industries discharging treated or untreated wastewater to freshwater directly to the sea, and from soil erosion.
\nHuman activity has increased N fluxes. In 1970s, an explosive increase in coastal eutrophication in many parts of the world correlates well with the increased production of reactive N for agriculture and industry [45]. Eutrophication is a global environmental problem. In EU, there is marked variation in groundwater nitrate concentration between different geographical regions with high concentration in Western Europe and very low concentrations in Northern Europe. The lack of a general decrease is due to continued high emissions from agriculture [58].
\nAgroecosystems both provide and rely on ecosystem services to sustain production food, fiber, and other harvestable goods. Increases in food and fiber production have often been achieved at the cost of other critical services.
\nServices that help to support production of harvestable goods can be considered as services to agriculture. These services include soil structure and fertility enhancement, nutrient cycling, water provision, erosion control, pollination, and pest control, among others. Ecological processes that detract from agricultural production can be considered disservices to agriculture and include pest damage, competition for water, and competition for pollination. Management of agricultural ecosystems also affects flows of ecosystem services and disservices (or diminution of naturally occurring services) from production landscape to surrounding areas. Disservices from agriculture can include degradation or loss of habitat, soil, water quality, and other off‐site, negative impacts [59].
\nProvision of ecosystem services in farmlands is directly determined by their design and management [60] and strongly influenced by the function and diversity of the surrounding landscape [61]. The Millenium Ecosystem Assessment [62] reported that approximately 60% (15 out of 24) of services measured in the assessment were being degraded or unsustainably used as a consequence of agricultural management and other human activities.
\nIn recent decades, increasing concern for the environment and sustainability has compelled many governments to continuously adjust their land‐use policies to balance multiple uses of land resources. These policies have caused changes in cropland and its spatial distribution. There are different environmental objectives incorporated into agrienvironment measures, training programs, support for investments in agricultural holdings, protection of the environment in connection with agriculture and landscape conservation, support to improving the processing and marketing of agricultural products. Organic farming or low‐input farming systems are examples where support for the processing or marketing of their products can help in achieving environmental objectives. In 2013, there were 43.1 million hectares of organic agricultural land, including conversion areas. The regions with the largest areas of organic agricultural land are Oceania and Europe [63]. In Slovakia, organic farming area covered 8.4% of the total agricultural land [36].
\nAgriculture is a dominant form of land management globally. Rapid population growth as primary driving force connected with increasing food requirements generate great pressure on future land use, environment, natural resources, and ecosystem services. The DPSIR framework approach helped us to analyze selected indicators having the cause–effect relationships between the economic, social, and environmental sectors.
\nRecent rates of land‐use and cover changes are higher than ever. In many developing countries and countries with transition economies, growing demand for food has caused expansion of cropland. Extensive agricultural systems are slowly intensified. In developed countries, economic growth has been recently accompanied by a shift of land from agriculture to industry, road network, and residential use. Extensive forms of agriculture used in past mainly in Europe and North America were transformed into industrial‐style agriculture accompanied by intensification and specialization. The large inputs of fertilizers, pesticides, fossil fuels have large, complex effects on the environment. Agriculture releases significant amounts of greenhouse gases and ammonia emission to the atmosphere. It is the single largest user of freshwater resources. Intensive management practices escalating rates of land degradation, soil and water deterioration. The effects on the environment arise at site‐specific level but can have impact at local to global levels. Land‐cover changes cause the disappearance of traditional agricultural landscape and are responsible for vegetation modifications which have an impact on regional climate, carbon sequestration, and biodiversity losses. Agriculture also has impact on the natural systems and ecosystem services on which humans depend.
\nFuture challenges relating to greater pressure on environment, natural resources, and climate change imply that a “business as usual” model in agriculture is not a viable option. Green growth is a new method that places strong emphasis on the complementarities between the economic, social, and environmental dimensions of sustainable development. Thus, the main role of future agriculture is its transformation into good productive but a sustainable system that can be effective for centuries without adverse effect on natural resources on which agricultural productivity depends.
\nThis work was supported by the Slovak Research and Development Agency under Grant No. APVV‐0098‐12 Analysis, modeling and evaluation of agro‐ecosystem services. The research of abiotic soil parameters was done by the equipment supported by Operational Programme Research and Development via contract No. ITMS‐26210120024 Restoration and building of infrastructure for ecological and environmental research at Matej Bel University in Banská Bystrica.
The adoption of digitised technologies as tools for enhancing reliability in the conduct of elections is becoming more widely embraced globally, as countries across the world are opening up to the electoral digitalisation processes in enriching their democratic profiles, and adding some positive values to the changing civic space. The digital revolution has not also left the African countries behind, as most elections recently conducted in some countries on the continent have taken the path of digital technologies with the adoption of such innovative measures as biometric voter registration, smart card readers, optimal mark recognition, direct electronic recording, and electronic result transmission. The rationale behind the technological revolution in the conduct of elections could be premised on the need to mitigate electoral malpractices and promote the desired credibility in the electoral management as a whole.
This study sought to examine election and democracy in a digital age, with the view to highlighting the status, challenges and trends in the context of the Nigeria’s experience. This study is predicated on the pervasive desire of the majority of the Nigerian population to move away from the years of do or die, thuggery-laden election experience, a result of selfish interest as against a patriotic interest, to a robust, acceptable and scientific way of managing the process. It is a statement of fact that electioneering processes in Nigeria, as in other countries in Africa, had been marred with needless orgy of violence and destructions, just for the purposes of acquiring political power, and its associated benefit of economic power. As a measure of safeguard, and to tinker with the existing process, the legal framework to actualise the aspirations for a digitisation electoral process began in 2010, when the lawmakers engaged in the process of amending the hitherto electoral law, thus culminating into the new electoral law that has come to be. By an enabling constitutional provision therefore, Nigeria’s electoral system can unreservedly be argued to have assumed a digitised status, with the signing of the electoral bill into law (called Electoral Law 2022) by the President, Muhammadu Buhari. Expectedly, this development was greeted with palpable euphoria by a majority of Nigerians, and particularly the elite. The reasons for this pervasive and seeming of expression of acceptance can be understood in the context of the yearnings for a credible and transparent electoral process, much of which this study sought to highlight.
Undoubtedly, agitations and rumblings for an electoral law for the purposes of conducting, managing and regulating elections in the country had been in the wheels for over a decade. According to [1] Charles, Chris, and Udefuna, quoting Nwogu, the challenges associated with manual voting systems in Nigeria had led to the search for a better, efficient, reliable and effective voting system that will reduce electoral malpractices. Unfortunately, the efforts to synchronise a widely accepted body of legal provisions in that regard had consistently suffered one hiccup or another, as a result of divergent perspectives among the lawmakers, and which supposedly had to do with insinuations of their selfish interests and other non-altruistic agenda of the politicians who aligned with the move. Insinuations and commentaries point to the argument that the veiled intentions of suspect politicians, who will do anything to ensure that the status-quo remained. The ultimate motive is for the manipulation of the electoral process, seize power and ensure their continued perpetuation in office. Buoyed by the interest to contribute insights into the emerging discourses and commentaries on how to create and manage an acceptable electoral system, which will address the concerns of manipulated elections and the attendant consequences, this study became worthwhile and inevitable.
Against the authors’ concerns and interest as expressed in the introductory section above, this study sought to provide objective, but somewhat provocative responses to the following questions which include:
What are the challenges of the conduct of election in Nigeria prior to the new Electoral Law?
What does a digitised electoral system entail, in terms of components?
How much of impact will a digitised electoral system have on the practice of democracy in plural society like Nigeria?
What challenges could impede the smooth operation of a digitised electoral system, and how can these be minimised?
It must be noted that these questions are delimited to the Nigeria’s environment, and does not extend the scope of this study beyond the context.
The study is literature based, and this involves engaging relevant sources from which to draw a basis and strength for its eventual outcomes, particularly from previous related publications and write-ups. This is inevitable since the information to be deployed is essentially from secondary sources, but will be critically examined. In doing this, the author will consider a literature survey method to establish the relevant issues at stake in the context of this paper, and will accordingly do so in the course of the write-up. Furthermore, identified themes and findings there from will be critically examined with a view to arriving at fresh perspectives on how the Nigeria’s electoral system, in relation to the digital conduct of election and management can be maintained and sustained. This paper considered the identification of a relevant theoretical framework for the study, and follows with a rehash, albeit briefly, of the nature and manner of election in Nigeria from independence till the contemporary times of electoral system digitisation. The paper set to provide insights into the character of a typical Nigerian politician, whose pursuit of political power is imbued with desperation and selfish interest, regardless of the resulting consequences.
Whilst there exist a considerable number of studies on the theories of elections, the authors of this project seek to apply the Behavioural Theory of Elections as the theoretical framework, among the other relevant theories such as the Voting theory; Altruism theory; Duverger’s theory, etc., to underpin the study. The theory focuses on highlighting the intricate and inseparable nexus between elections and democracy. According to [2] Bendor, Siegel, and Ting, “Behavioural Theory of elections is based on the notion that all actors - politicians as well as voters - are only boundedly rational”. The theory posits learning via trial and error: actions that surpass an actor’s aspiration level are more likely to be used in the future, while those that fall short are less likely to be tried later. This theory could be attributed to the rise of behavioural economics, which has tended to pose new challenges to the premise of rationality. Premised on the idea of adaptation, the authors construct formal models of party competition, turnout, and voters’ choices of candidates. These models predict substantial turnout levels, voters sorting into parties, and winning parties adopting centrist platforms. By this, the authors believed that in multiparty elections, voters are able to coordinate vote choices on majority-preferred candidates, while all candidates garner significant vote shares. Overall, the behavioural theory and its models produce macro-implications consistent with the data on elections, and they use plausible micro-assumptions about the cognitive capacities of politicians and voters. A computational model accompanies the book and can be used as a tool for further research. In a simple sense, this theory suggests that voters are guided by rationality. This implies that the tendency to cast a vote for a preferred candidate in an election by a voter is based on the candidate’s rational decision to do so, and not by any form of compulsive instinct. However, this study is genuinely aware of the shenanigans that often play out in the conduct of elections in the Nigeria’s environment, which tended to exhibit unethical manipulations, usually through bribery, cajoling, intimidations, etc. However, the relevance of this theory derives from the role of theoretical construction in research which, in the view of [3] Badejo, serves to observe, understand, explain, predict and control events or phenomena. For [4] Fajana, theory “helps in our understanding of events and problems in the practical world”. Therefore, the behavioural theory would be most appropriate to underpin this study. However, it needs be underscored that this study is not oblivious of the weakness associated with this theory, in terms of the claim of near-absolute rationality of the voter in how choices are made. The study admits that, the phenomenon of rationality may be subjective after all, as the decision to vote in any election is discretionary.
As indicated in the background/introduction section of this study, scholars including [1] Charles; Chris; and Udefuna, have succinctly alluded to the characteristics of elections in Nigeria as involving electoral brigandage, thuggery, violence and warfare. In corroborating this view, [5] Iyayi opines that elections in Nigeria being hitherto manually inclined, had been laden with massive frauds, the intimidation of political opponents, the brazen, subversion of the ‘sovereignty of the vote’ and needless but violent controversies. This presupposes that the history of election in Nigeria is replete with manipulations of varying proportions, characterised by fraud, bribery, massive rigging by violence and thuggery, which in most cases had resulted in chaos, destruction and killings by opposing contestants and opponents. In some cases, the involvement of security personnel has been occasioned, especially when incumbent public officials are bent on winning their elections, regardless of how they are perceived or adjudged by the electorate. In a historical context, the country called Nigeria was amalgamated in 1914 under the administration of Sir Frederick Lugard. According to [6] Akerele, the first election took place in 1922 under Sir Hugh Clifford, though of a restricted nature, as it was only to occupy certain legislative seats in both Lagos and Calabar, where legislative seats had been created after some level of agitations by a few elites, who had resisted the unelected nature of members of councils earlier. Between 1922 and 1959, there were series of elections, conducted not by Nigerians themselves but by the colonial authorities. By 1964, a year after acquiring a Republican Status in 1963, Nigerians conducted elections which were entire regionally based, and expectedly, were fraught with one form of violence or the other, as opponents engaged in what could be described as a do-or-die affair. In Western region based party called the Action Group (AG) for instance, bitter divisions arose among the gladiators of the party, most probably out of supremacy squabbles and related issues, and all these subsequently led to splinter groups that eventually led to the politics of bitterness that subsisted till 1965, when another round of elections was carried out. Unfortunately, the “carry-overs” of the unresolved political differences resulted into intrusion of the military in Nigeria’s political space. The coup and counter coup in 1966 ignited the civil war that lasted about three years in the country, and thus paved way for further military stranglehold of the leadership of the country, until 1979 when there was a return to civil rule. The 1983 general elections which has the trappings of ethno-religious sentiments led to another military coup and leadership until 1999, when the Fourth Republic was birthed. It must be stated that all the while, the manner of elections had always been manually conducted, and characterised unavoidably with all manners of malpractices, including thuggery, snatching of ballot boxes, falsification of results, destruction of voting material, and in most cases, violence resulting in killings [5] Iyayi argues that every government in power has always had their own designs, and in order to protect their interest, had often used the instruments of the state in penetrating electoral malpractices. According to him, while there has been continuity in violence and warfare, there has been lack of continuity in the political organisations, through which both violence and warfare have been conducted. The implications being that “each period has thus produced new political formations reflecting not only the penchant for lack of principle and shifting allegiance among members of the political class but also the total de-ideologisation of the issues on which members of the class were divided ‘into antagonistic camps”.
By hindsight, the authors can recall with nostalgia, the general elections of 1983; 2007; and 2015, which were characterised with condemnable magnitude of brigandage which led to the destruction of election materials and loss of lives. The election of 1983 was a “landmark” in the sense that, the aftermath confusion and the general sense of insecurity all over the country, coupled with the culture of corruption alleged of the government in power, resulted into the military coup that happened on 30 December 1983, and the emerging government headed by Major General Muhammadu Buhari. A notable feature of all these elections was that they were manually conducted, and therefore susceptible to fraud and manipulations of unimaginable proportions. This has persisted until hitherto, when the move to transit into a digitised process began way of calls, debates and eventual parliamentary consideration towards giving a legal backing to the innovation. A momentous stage was reached when the Electoral Amendment Bill was amended in 2010, and it made provision for the use and deployment of the Card Reader, and it meant that for the first time in Nigeria’s electoral history, electronic voter authentication system, with the aid of smart card readers, is being deployed for the 2015 general elections. As clarified by [7] Jega, the Card Reader is not a voting machine and is not used for voting, but it is used only for accreditation of voters, and only accreditation (and not voting) data is transmitted by it. This could be said to be the first bold move towards the digitisation of the Nigeria’s electoral system. As a result, the tendency to commit fraud at the point of casting votes became impossible, as accreditation could be authenticated by the machine, contrary to the old method of checking through manually written and printed lists, which were vulnerable to manipulations.
While this study is not concerned about the effect of the military in Nigeria’s politics and government, it is a common narrative that such incursions had, in one way or the other impacted how the country is structured, in addition to the militarisation of the process, such that the use of force in the way government operates and functions is the order of the day. Another feature of the Nigeria’s democratic system is that, several former military officers have now and continued to be active participants in the struggle for public offices. As a result, they have tended to always get their way through, having amassed stupendous wealth that can be deployed to wrest political power at all cost. Since the beginning of the 4th Republic in 1999, two former Heads of States have become civilian Presidents, and their administrations have not failed to reflect the orientation of the use of force associated with the military, in terms of the running of government, of which the electoral system is a part.
It is in this context that the agitations and moves towards digitising the electoral process began, and have gained momentum. But this ultimately would require an enabling legal framework which can only be actualised by the legislature as the appropriate arm of government for such responsibility. No doubt, the newly signed Electoral Law 2022 is a culmination of these aspirations, with the expectations that the implementation will be pursued with the requisite level of commitment and urgency, and in the most transparent manner. However, the authors are not inclined to suggest with finality, that the digitisation of an electoral system represents a perfect panacea to the challenges. It is important to underscore the fact there exists a need to integrate some level of manual operational procedure, most probably to serve as a double check mechanism. This position aligns with the spirit of a conference report by the European Centre for Electoral Support [8] ECES, on the need for the deployment of technological devices, such as the Electric Voting Machines (EVMs) that will include a Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT. The Report, which was the outcome of a Conference organised in collaboration with the Independent National Electoral Commission (a Nigeria’s Electoral Body), suggests that such innovation is a further step in promoting electoral integrity and transparency of the process, consistent with similar trends in countries reviewed. A part of the Report recommended that “technological driven electoral systems must be able to manage and create the necessary synergy between the People, Process and Technology (PPT)”.
Though, the digitisation of the electoral system has continued to attract more concerns and attentions in Nigeria. The growing advocacy for its adoption has not been restricted to the determined efforts of the nation’s electoral management body of the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC). The Nigeria’s civil society community has also not relented in its persistent advocacy for the positive overhaul of the nation’s civic space. The civic society organisations have been in the forefront of promoting the ideals of transparent electoral system and enlightened mass mobilisation of the Nigerian citizenry. The calls for digitisation of the Nigerian electoral system with the support of the civil society for electronic voting, and electronic transmission of election results represent a part of the measures towards mitigating the operational flaws associated with the conduct of elections, and the path to credible electoral system in Nigeria.
Nigeria’s foray into the digital electoral system began in 2011 general elections, when the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) introduced the automated fingerprint identification mechanism as a preventive measure against multiple registrations which were more prevalent in the conducts of previous elections in Nigeria. The Nigeria’s electoral commission (INEC), further to that, deployed the use of permanent voter’s card and smart card readers during the 2015 general elections, as part of the revolutionary measures towards ridding the electoral management environment, off the usual malpractices which have marred all the successive elections in Nigeria. The permanent voter’s card enables the biometric identification of eligible voter at the polling station, through the smart card reader devices before casting of voting, while votes are subsequently counted manually at the ends of the voting exercises. The INEC had however, articulated the rationale behind the proposed adoption of the electronic transmission of election results on the principles of trust, efficiency and safety [9] INEC. As a response to the vulnerabilities of the manual method of conducting elections in the country, and its attendants negative consequences and abuse, the calls for a credible process, where votes will count, paved way for the introduction of electronic method, otherwise described as digitisation process. Proponents of this digitised process are of the view that such will bring about some sanity in the process of conducting elections, thereby either reducing or obviating the concerns of rigging and other forms of manipulations [10] Iwuoha describes the process as the applications of Information and Communications Technology (ICT)-driven innovations, to strengthen the quality of the electoral process [10] Iwuoha quoting Golden; Kramon and Ofosu (2014), supports the view that these technological solutions, such as “the electronic voting machines, polling station webcams, and biometric identification equipment offer the promise of rapid, accurate, and ostensibly tamper-proof innovations that are expected to reduce fraud in the processes of registration, voting, or vote count aggregation”.
Corroborating this standpoint, Professor Attahiru Jega, former Chairman of the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC), unto whom the introduction of biometric accreditation technology of the Card Reader machine in Nigeria is attributed, asserts that by these innovations, rigging has been made impossible for electoral fraudsters, because, there is no way the total number of votes cast at the polling unit could exceed the number of accredited persons. According to him, issues of discrepancy in figures will be immediately spotted and remedial action taken. This technology made it impossible for any corrupt electoral officer to connive with any politician to pad-up results. The card reader machines will help us to address all those irregularities, starting from the stage of accreditation of voters at all the polling units [7] Jega argues that the information stored in both the card readers and the result sheets taken to the ward levels would be retrieved once there is evidence of manipulation. We believe that this is an added value to our process; it is something that we have not been able to do in the past, when elections were strictly conducted manually.
It is interesting to note that, included in the recently signed Electoral Law in Nigeria, is one of the basic components of a digitised electoral process, called the Card Reader device, the introduction of which is considered to have the potential to considerably improve the transparency and accountability of the process. The deployment of the device for the purpose of voter identification helps to obviate the fraud associated with the voters’ register, whereby vote-counts are usually greater than actual registered voters. Unfortunately, this had been the trend until now that the process is to be ICT-enabled. Given the unquantifiable benefits arising from the attempts to digitise the Nigerian electoral process, scholars such as [11] Omezue-Nnali (2020) have recommended that “a practical implementation of the usage of Card Reader machine and even the E-Voting machine and then immediate uploading of each polling unit result to the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) Database”.
In their view, this process would facilitate and further aid the transparency of INEC, and ease the stress of paper collation of results at their headquarters office. According to [11] Omezue-Nnali, there should be a “Central WhatsApp Platform (also ICT-enabled) where each polling unit should upload their results to immediately after announcing it at the Polling Unit. Subsequently, the hard copy of the election result would be brought to the collation centres as may have been designed, and this would be cross checked with the soft copy already uploaded”. It is believed that this process, among other things, would minimise the threats on the lives of Electoral Body’s State Resident officers by desperate politicians who have the tendency to manipulate election results, and would do any harm against resistance to such motives and intentions.
As indicated earlier above, a digitised electoral system is simply a process of conducting and managing election, beginning from registration (re-registration) of voters; voting procedure; collation/sorting; transmission of results to the declaration of same. To achieve this, the following essentials are required to be in place:
A relatively stable electricity supply;
A country-wide internet coverage service;
Biometric machines/Card Reader for voter identification/accreditation;
An enabling legislation, such as the Electoral Law in Nigeria.
However, it must be stated that while all these accompaniments are essential and required, the character of the personnel of the agency of government in charge of the process is of importance. The issue of fidelity and integrity to ensure a guaranteed electoral system cannot be over-emphasised. On the other hand, the political actors seeking elective offices must be people of unquestionable character, and should be individuals with the highest sense of responsibility, who will provide responsive representation for the service of the people. Unfortunately, in Nigeria as in other third world countries, particularly in Africa, the values of good conduct and the character of discipline require substantial improvement to ensure a sound electoral system and responsible governance.
It is an incontrovertible fact that the Nigeria’s civic space has witnessed some controversies which trailed the deployment of digital technologies in the conduct of elections in the country. The adoption of digital technologies during the 2015 and 2019 General Elections has however, placed some legitimacies on the Nigeria’s electoral process. Based on some of the concerns generated around the adoption of digital technology in the conduct of elections in Nigeria, the Nigerian Senate had, in July, 2021, initially opposed the provision for the adoption of electronic voting system and the transmission of results in the Electoral Act. However, the parliament’s position was reversed, following widespread agitations and protests, and these irretrievably led to the adoption of the electronic voting and the electronic transmission of results provisions, and therefore proposed as a part of the measures towards minimising electoral malpractices, which normally arose from manipulations and other negative vices peculiar to the electoral management of the past.
The Nigeria’s Senate had equally predicated its rejection of the proposed electronic and the electronic transmission of results on some flaws and technical hitches observed during 2015 and 2019 general elections with the widespread reported cases of malfunctioning card reader machine devices in some polling stations across Nigeria. The rejection had also been corroborated by the National Communication Commission’s report on the possible low coverage network area for the electronic transmission of election results in country. Invariably, the contention of the Nigeria’s Senate as regard the rejection of the electronic voting system and the electronic transmission of results, as partly enunciated above, could be better explained by the low internet access in Nigeria based on the available data indicating that only 473 out of the 774 local government areas in Nigeria have access to the internet coverage network [11] Fatai. This is as more revealing too, as evidential with the nature of the epileptic supply of the electricity power situation in Nigeria.
While the benefits that are associated with a technologically-powered electoral system are many and considerable, there are also remote and substantial challenges that exist, regardless of the circumstances, and those that are human-induced. In the efforts to identify the hindrances to achieving a workable electoral system that will help advance democratic practices or how government is organised, it is relevant to mention that, every society has its peculiarities in term of how political power is sought and appropriated.
In the context of Nigeria for instance, as an emerging democratic society, the substantial challenges militating against the adoption and implementation of a digitised electoral process include among other things:
Infrastructural deficit—This relates to power supply, which is clearly insufficient and inadequate; poor road network, which makes movement from one location to another very difficult.
Poor technological base—This is a common feature of the developing economies, of which Nigeria is a part. The reason for this is not far-fetched given the un-organised nature, and the absence of strategic planning of the society. Interestingly, the twenty-first century is driven by high-tech, necessary for industrial growth. A measure of a country’s strength is a function of its level of advancement in technology, coupled with innovations and inventions. No doubt, this situation can be attributed to the absence of effective leadership, with the requisite vision for growth and development.
Closely related to this, is the weak educational orientation and the lack of appropriate curricula required for transformation of the society, as well as, low public awareness on the part of the electoral commission and other relevant agencies saddled with the responsibilities of voter education. However, no country can afford to be in isolation while the wave of technological breakthroughs is blowing across the world.
However, efforts at the digitization of the Nigerian electoral system, as earlier reiterated, have not also endured without some of the perceived ecological challenges much prevalent within the developing democratic milieu as highlighted above. The challenge of the systemic operational and financial limitations could be further added, most especially, as part of the burdens faced by the electoral management in Nigeria. The Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) has not been adequately empowered with the necessary wherewithal and the required independence to midwife effective electoral system. Inadequate funding and other operational limitations have become recurring bottlenecks to the actualization of the digitalisation efforts of INEC [11] Fatai affirms that, all of these identified operational limitations have cast doubts on the integrity of elections and raised other concerns about the reliability of digitalisation of electoral process within the Nigerian electoral system.
Besides the foregoing factors, a major challenge of a digitised electoral system in Nigeria, as in several other countries in Africa, is behavioural and the attitude of resistance to change. Experience has shown that, a vast majority of the people, particularly those in the country-side, have the tendency to resist transitions from a deep-seated way of life to a new pattern of doing things, regardless of ease, and would require a great deal of time for re-orientation and acclimatisation. Added to the above, the operational limitations faced by the Nigerian government agencies like the National Orientation Agency (NOA) in carrying out effective value-reorientation and mass mobilisation of Nigerian society, especially at the grassroots level have equally raised some concerns around the resistance to positive behavioural and attitudinal change. In the opinion of [12] Obinne Obiefuna-Oguejiofor, in order to address the technological concerns in Electronic Voting (E-Voting), the integrity of the applicable machine for the process is essential for public acceptance. According to him, given Nigerian citizens’ cyber habits, which border on fear and suspicions, the integrity of electoral data may be at risk [12] Obinne therefore suggests that concerns around technology-inclined process should be given priority, in order to protect the integrity of data and the veracity of same. This implies that every stakeholder involved in the operation and management of a process, and particularly which has to be tech-enabled, is expected to be efficient, diligent and committed. It must be understood that the phenomenon of election is about the people and how they are governed. It revolves around values of trust, transparency and selflessness. Unfortunately, all these are clearly absent in the era when elections were manually conducted and managed, thereby creating avenues for manipulations, which are usually executed in crude manners resulting unavoidably in chaos, destructions and fatalities.
As part of the identified operational challenges with the digitalisation of the electoral process in Nigeria, much were particularly also noted as during the 2019 general elections, with several reported cases of malfunctioning smart card readers in some polling stations nationwide, which interfered and caused hitches in the accreditation of voters. Though, the ad-hoc measures such as resort to manual voting and filling of incident forms on behalf of eligible voters by INEC officials were permitted, in the event of the inability of the smart card readers to authenticate voter’s card for accreditation. These ad-hoc measures were however, without their implications, as they cause some delays, thus leading to the extension of accreditation and voting periods in many polling stations across Nigeria, as several of such cases were recorded during the March, 2015 Presidential and National Assembly elections as noted and reported by [12] Fatai.
It is noteworthy to remark that, despite the plethora of challenges associated with the application of digital technology in Nigeria’s electoral system, there has been some significant, though, modest improvement since 2015, in the integrity of the entire electoral management system. Incidences of multiple registrations, as mostly occasioned through the complicity of the electoral officials, pre and post elections’ manipulations among other fraudulent tendencies have largely reduced, thereby restoring the integrity of the country’s electoral system.
The authors note that, following a critical review of the literature accessed and experience from hindsight in relation to the Nigeria’s electoral process till date, the following themes can be identified and posited:
That post-independence electoral system had been manual, hence vulnerable to manipulations by the emergent politicians;
That there exists a need to improve the country’s electoral system in line with evolving realties of technological advancements;
That the adoption of an ICT-enabled electoral system requires considerable infrastructural facilities for sustenance; and finally,
That the human-dimension, in terms of willingness to change; exhibition of sound moral values of transparency, accountability, selflessness, to ensure effective operation and implementation of a robust electoral system, be seen as a sine qua non.
This study is inclined to observe and admit that elections, as the dominant element in the practice of democracy, are of utmost importance, and require careful and strategic planning for its conduct and management. It is interesting to note that an improved electoral system, which is based on technology, tends to stimulate citizens’ participation, whereby the wishes of the people can be expressed to determine how their representatives are elected. Fundamentally, the citizens’ participation in the electoral system is of utmost importance, and this should be achieved through effective orientation and mobilisation, using appropriate communication channels.
In this section, the authors proceed to relate the identified themes which emerged in the course of literature survey on what the status and challenges of electoral system are in a digitised era, and what speculations are possible in the foreseeable future.
In response to research question a, which borders on the challenges of the conduct of election in Nigeria prior to the new Electoral Law, it is the view of the authors that, all that is required to mitigate against the challenges identified in the context of Nigeria’s electoral experience, is the commitment to do right. This implies that, once a system has been acceptably put in place, every attempt to subvert its full implementation should be resisted, and violators of the principles governing the process should be made to face the full wrath of the law. The culture of impunity, nepotism, favouritism and related misdemeanours should not only be frowned at, but attract strict punitive measures. Every member of the public is expected to be a part owner of the Nigerian enterprise, and all the country aspires to do and achieve for the benefit of all.
Regarding research question b, on what does a digitised electoral system entail, in terms of components? While the authors acknowledge the challenge of infrastructural facilities, and particularly the absence of stable power supply, they are of the view that concerted efforts be made to address this concern, not necessarily for the purpose of elections, but for the smooth functioning of society, as in other developed societies. Besides, technological facilities such as the internet and its enabling devices should be of priority concern for the government, such that its agencies responsible for Science and Technology should be up and doing, to formulate the requisite policy framework and the enabling environment to ensure both local innovations and external support in this regard.
In response to research c, which relates to how much of impact will a digitised electoral system have on the practice of democracy in plural society like Nigeria, the authors align with the view that, except otherwise proved, a digitised electoral system, particularly for the Third World countries, of which Nigeria is one, and under consideration, is inevitable. If only to mitigate the issues of brigandage, thuggery, ballot box snatching and other forms of violent practices associated with elections. In a more fundamental sense, a digitised electoral system will not only make voting easy and less cumbersome, it will enable storage of all electoral data, facilitate processing of data into information, and ensure speedy transmission of results. In the Nigeria’s case, there had always been issues around transmission of results, as desperate politicians had always targeted that stage to execute their nefarious intentions of manipulations. However, this does not rule out the possibility of a concomitant use of the manual procedure for some electoral activities, perhaps for the purpose of comparisons, double-check and audit.
Regarding research question d, which has to do with what challenges could impede the smooth operation of a digitised electoral system, and how can these be minimised? The authors strongly believe that, the existence of an enabling law for the conduct and management of electoral system in Nigeria is sine qua non, the absence of which only implies a return to the operation of the manual method of the past and its attendant consequences. In addition, the authors refuse to be content that the mere acquisition and deployment of technological devices for the conduct of elections is enough. As a matter of fact, the more important consideration has to do with the values of integrity and character of the personnel to operate and manage the devices for the purpose of realising the objectives for which they are meant. In other word, government agency saddled with the responsibility of managing the electoral process should ensure that its entire personnel exhibit the highest level of trustworthiness and willingness to do the right thing all the time. Closely related to this view, is the need for enthusiastic expression of patriotism by the population, and particularly the voting public to be willing to show commitment in upholding and preserving the integrity of the electoral process.
Worldwide, and particularly in the societies committed to democratic practices, technology-enabled electoral system is now the vogue. Whether in the developed or developing world, the resort to e-electoral system is gaining momentum, and efforts are being made to come to terms with the phenomenon. This much has been amplified by discourses at conference and studies reports bordering on the nexus between election management and technology. However, the level of a country’s technological development determines, among other factors, the process by which its government is run or operated. In the context of electoral system, given the growth of advancement in technology, and the deployment of internet-based facility, it can safely be speculated that elections and its associated processes, could be over 80% electronically executed in the foreseeable future. Perhaps, a reference to how speedily but without any inkling, the world reacted to the challenges of the outbreak of Covid-19, which resulted into limited interactions among the people, could be worthwhile. The ability to conduct activities and transactions between and among people far apart was no doubt, facilitated by innovative deployment of technology. Meetings can now be held online, just as information can be transmitted electronically, and with the fastest speed. The Zoom application and related devices in this regard, have suddenly become fashionable, for conducting online meetings and conferences with as much ease as possible. It can also be speculated that the role of technology in all facets of life, including but not limited to the conduct and management of electoral process, has come to stay, and will continue to be so, and with greater sophistication in deployment.
However, the role of hackers and people with nefarious intentions, aiming to break into the data storage facilities of individuals, organisations and even government, has become a source of concern, and thus poses a serious security threat to victims. In the opinion of [13] Obinne, “hackers will always attempt to hijack electoral results to favour a candidate, either for financial gain or for fun. According to him, given Nigeria’s reputation with cybercrime, its peculiar problem with idle youth, it is predictable that when Nigeria transits to e-voting, unscrupulous people will still attempt to hijack the process”. The authors of this study find this situation very disturbing and distressing, and therefore call for urgent and calculated approach by concerned stakeholders to mitigate against this scourge, by engaging in proactive measures as may be deemed appropriate.
So far, attempts have been made in this study to reflect on the status, challenges and trends of electoral system in a digitised era in Nigeria. The study sought to X-ray how the electoral law recently signed by the President Muhammadu Buhari, serves to enable and or facilitate the digitisation of the electoral system in the country. The study suggested the applicable theoretical framework deployed to underpin the research, and carried out considerable survey of relevant literature from which information needed to contextualise the focus as envisaged.
From the foregoing information and analysis of same, the authors align with the reality of ICT-enabled electoral system in Nigeria, and find the enactment of an enabling law for the regulation of the country’s electoral system very salutary, expected, laudable and encouraging. It is relevant that the euphoria that greeted the enactment of the law across the country suggests a widespread acceptance of same. In recalling the Behavioural Theory of elections as enunciated earlier in the study, which posits the rationality of the voter at any election even though it is a discretionary act, the study is of the view that an appropriate legal framework, such as the Nigeria’s Electoral Law, 2022, is a welcome development, for the smooth conduct and management of the Electoral System in the country. As noted by [13] Obinne Obiefuna-Oguejiofor, democracy relies on voters having well-founded trust in the processes used to collect and count their votes. Obinne agrees that while no system is perfect, some are clearly more vulnerable than others. E-voting is Nigeria best chance of securing a credible, fraud-free election system for Africa’s largest democracy. In line with the position of [14] Boix, it is recommendable that all the institutions or bodies involved in the Electoral process (such as the Independent National Electoral Commission, the Political parties, the Judiciary and the Executives) should ensure that the votes of the people count. This no doubt, will guarantee and sustain the deployment and implementation of a digitised electoral system, with implications for orderly transition in government.
For the purposes of emphasis, the authors will restate that, while an enabling law to legitimise the technological configuration of the Nigeria’s electoral system, in addition to other requisite considerations is laudable and welcome, it does not guarantee a perfect system. This much has been pinpointed as a part of the recommendations of the [7] ECES earlier mentioned. According to the report “it is important to bear in mind that technology even at its best, does not provide a full proof end-to-end solution to electoral challenges, as there are other aspects including the human interface with technology that needs to be carefully handled. Technological driven electoral systems must be able to manage and create the necessary synergy between the People, Process and Technology (PPT)”.
Conclusively, this study recommends the following:
While the adoption of a digitised electoral process is suitable in Nigeria, and in line with the dynamics of the times, its application should pay attention to the level of infrastructural development of the country, in terms of power supply and availability, and the need to ensure nationwide internet connectivity to drive the process.
The government agency saddled with the responsibility for the conduct and management of elections should appreciate the need to engage in extensive voter education, as majority of the voters reside in the countryside, where the level of literacy is considerably low, to achieve effective participation of qualified electorate.
The level of patriotism of both public officers at all levels and the citizens in general must be seen to reflect the abiding commitment to a credible, transparent, equitable and reliable electoral system, to justify the use and deployment of technology and its associated cost implications.
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More so, the mechanism by which heavy metals cause neurotoxicity, generate free radical which promotes oxidative stress damaging lipids, proteins and DNA molecules and how these free radicals propagate carcinogenesis are discussed. Alongside these mechanisms, the noxious health effects of these heavy metals are discussed.",book:{id:"7111",slug:"poisoning-in-the-modern-world-new-tricks-for-an-old-dog-",title:"Poisoning in the Modern World",fullTitle:"Poisoning in the Modern World - New Tricks for an Old Dog?"},signatures:"Godwill Azeh Engwa, Paschaline Udoka Ferdinand, Friday Nweke Nwalo and Marian N. 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Liposuction is a procedure to improve the body contour and not a surgery to reduce weight, although recently people who have failed in their plans to lose weight look at liposuction as a means to contour their body figure. Tumescent liposuction of large volumes requires a meticulous selection of each patient; their preoperative evaluation and perioperative management are essential to obtain the expected results. The various techniques of general anesthesia are the most recommended and should be monitored in the usual way, as well as monitoring the total doses of infiltrated local anesthetics to avoid systemic toxicity. The management of intravenous fluids is controversial, but the current trend is the restricted use of hydrosaline solutions. The most feared complications are deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary thromboembolism, fat embolism, lung edema, hypothermia, infections and even death. The adherence to the management guidelines and prophylaxis of venous thrombosis/thromboembolism is mandatory.",book:{id:"6221",slug:"anesthesia-topics-for-plastic-and-reconstructive-surgery",title:"Anesthesia Topics for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery",fullTitle:"Anesthesia Topics for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery"},signatures:"Sergio Granados-Tinajero, Carlos Buenrostro-Vásquez, Cecilia\nCárdenas-Maytorena and Marcela Contreras-López",authors:[{id:"273532",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergio Octavio",middleName:null,surname:"Granados Tinajero",slug:"sergio-octavio-granados-tinajero",fullName:"Sergio Octavio Granados Tinajero"}]},{id:"30178",title:"Chest Mobilization Techniques for Improving Ventilation and Gas Exchange in Chronic Lung Disease",slug:"chest-mobilization-techniques-for-improving-ventilation-and-gas-exchange-in-chronic-lung-disease",totalDownloads:31227,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"648",slug:"chronic-obstructive-pulmonary-disease-current-concepts-and-practice",title:"Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease",fullTitle:"Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease - Current Concepts and Practice"},signatures:"Donrawee Leelarungrayub",authors:[{id:"73709",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jirakrit",middleName:null,surname:"Leelarungrayub",slug:"jirakrit-leelarungrayub",fullName:"Jirakrit Leelarungrayub"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"3",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"83087",title:"Role of Cellular Responses in Periodontal Tissue Destruction",slug:"role-of-cellular-responses-in-periodontal-tissue-destruction",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106645",abstract:"Periodontal tissue destruction is the deterioration of tooth-supporting components, particularly the periodontal ligament (PDL) and alveolar bone, resulting in gingival recession, root exposure, tooth mobility and drifting, and, finally, tooth loss. The breakdown of the epithelial barriers by infection or mechanical damage allows bacteria and their toxins to enter and stimulates the immune response. The bacteria cause periodontal damage via the cascade of the host reaction which is crucial in the destruction of the connective tissue around the tooth. The OPG/RANKL/RANK system is the key player in bone regulation of periodontal tissue and was controlled by both immune and non-immune cells. This knowledge has predicated the successfulness of implant and orthodontics treatments with the predictable healing and regeneration of the bone and supporting tissues surrounding the teeth.",book:{id:"11566",title:"Periodontology - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11566.jpg"},signatures:"Nam Cong-Nhat Huynh"},{id:"83086",title:"Therapeutic Options in Graves’ Hyperthyroidism",slug:"therapeutic-options-in-graves-hyperthyroidism",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106562",abstract:"The classical approach to treating Graves’ hyperthyroidism involves rapid control of the symptoms, generally with a beta adrenergic blocker, and reduction of thyroid hormone secretion by antithyroid drugs (ATDs) and/or using one of the several modalities available, including radioactive iodine therapy (RAI), and surgery; the selection of the treatment modalities often varies according to different guidelines, patient preferences and local traditions. Thionamides are invariably used as first-line medication to control hyperthyroidism and induce remission of the disease, thereby relieving the symptoms. In case of failure of the medical therapy, which is not uncommon, definitive treatment with surgery or RAI is the standard modality of management after due consideration and discussion with the patients. However, the therapeutic options available for patients with Graves’ hyperthyroidism have remained largely unchanged for the past several decades despite the current treatments having either limited efficacy or significant adverse effects. The clinical demand for new therapeutic regimens of Graves’ disease has led to the emergence of several new therapeutic ideas/options like biologic, peptide immunomodulation and small molecules, currently under investigations which may lead to the restoration of a euthyroid state without the requirement for ongoing therapy, but the potential risk of immunocompromise and cost implications needs careful consideration.",book:{id:"11712",title:"Hyperthyroidism - Recent Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11712.jpg"},signatures:"Javaid Ahmad Bhat, Shoiab Mohd Patto, Pooran Sharma, Mohammad Hayat Bhat and Shahnaz Ahmad Mir"},{id:"83085",title:"Research Progress on the Health Benefits of Scented Tea",slug:"research-progress-on-the-health-benefits-of-scented-tea",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106605",abstract:"Scented tea, also known as fragrant tea, mainly comprises green tea as the tea base and the dried and processed flowers of various plants. It is a unique reprocessed tea in China. There are many types of scented tea, including jasmine, lily, osmanthus, rose and honeysuckle. The scenting process greatly influences the quality of the scented tea. Humidifying continuous scenting processes, frying flower processes and innovative drying methods have been developed to resolve the issues of cumbersome, time-consuming and low utilisation rates of flowers in the process of making scented tea. The main chemical components of scented tea are polyphenols as well as exogenous plant glycosides, flavonoids, lactones, coumarins, quercetin, steroids, terpenoids and other compounds. Scented tea plays an active role in the prevention and treatment of various diseases and has as anti-oxidant, anti-cancer, hypoglycaemic, hypolipidemic, immunomodulatory and neuromodulatory effects. This chapter mainly reviews and summarises the types of scented teas and their related health functions.",book:{id:"11821",title:"Health Benefits of Tea - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11821.jpg"},signatures:"Bowen Liu, Jun Zhang, Xiaojian Zhou, Shuduan Deng and Guanben Du"},{id:"83084",title:"Association of Fatness and Leg Power with Blood Pressure in Adolescents",slug:"association-of-fatness-and-leg-power-with-blood-pressure-in-adolescents",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106279",abstract:"This cross-sectional study examined the independent and joint association of fatness and leg power (LP) with resting blood pressure (BP) in adolescents (12 to 15 years) in Benue state of Nigeria. The present study comprised 2047 adolescents, including 1087 girls. Participants were assessed for body mass index (BMI), LP, and resting BP. Multivariate regression models assessing the associations of the independent variables with BP were conducted. Fatness and LP were independent predictors of resting BP among participants and the relationship of LP with BP was more robust in girls than boys. Combined fatness and LP in predicting BP was modest (R2 = 10.4–14.3%) after controlling for maturity status. Low LP was associated with systolic blood pressure (SBP) in both girls (R2 = 9.0%, β = 0.260, p = 0.001) and boys (R2 = 11.0%, β = 0.226, p = 0.001). In the model for diastolic blood pressure (DBP), only fatness was associated with BP in girls (p = 0.001). The odd of hypertension (HTN) risk among overweight girls was 2.6 times that compared to their healthy-weight peers. Girls with low LP were 0.40 times more likely to develop HTN risk compared to their counterparts with high LP. This study has demonstrated that lower body muscle power is more important than fatness in predicting HTN in adolescent boys and girls.",book:{id:"11022",title:"Weight Management - Challenges and Opportunities",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11022.jpg"},signatures:"Danladi Musa, Daniel Iornyor and Andrew Tyoakaa"},{id:"82915",title:"Imaging Ankylosing Spondylitis",slug:"imaging-ankylosing-spondylitis",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106345",abstract:"Ankylosing spondylitis (AS) is a chronic inflammatory disease affecting the spine and the sacroiliac joints. AS occurs with the inflammation of the entheses and formation of syndesmophytes and finally sacral and spinal ankylosis. Imaging demonstrates both inflammatory and chronic lesions. Sacroiliitis is the hallmark of the disease. Spinal changes usually take place in advanced stages of the disease. 1984 The Modified New York criteria evaluated for the diagnosis of AS with definite radiological sacroiliitis (bilaterally grade 2 or unilateral grade 3/4 sacroiliitis) on imaging. The Modified New York criteria are well performed in diagnosing the established disease but its sensitivity is too low in early disease identification and leads to a diagnostic delay. So, in 2009 The Assessment in Spondyloarthritis International Society (ASAS) recommended classification criteria for axial spondyloarthritis (axSpA). Patients have sacroiliitis on imaging and ≥1 SpA features (imaging arm) or positive HLA B27 and ≥2 SpA features (clinical arm) are classified as axial SpA. On the imaging arm, either radiographic sacroiliitis according to Modified New York criteria or active inflammation on MRI is required. Imaging is also used for determining extent of disease, monitoring activity and progression of the disease, assessment of the treatment effect, and prognosis in AS patients.",book:{id:"11273",title:"Ankylosing Spondylitis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11273.jpg"},signatures:"Esra Dilsat Bayrak"},{id:"83074",title:"Targeted Regulation and Cellular Imaging of Tumor-Associated Macrophages in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer: From New Mechanistic Insights to Candidate Translational Applications",slug:"targeted-regulation-and-cellular-imaging-of-tumor-associated-macrophages-in-triple-negative-breast-c",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105654",abstract:"The complex interplay between immune cells and tumor cells within the tumor microenvironment (TME) can lead to disease progression. Specifically, signals generated in the TME can cause immunosuppression, promoting angiogenesis and immune evasion, which leads to tumor development. The interplay of M1 and M2 macrophage populations that coincide with these tumor markers is particularly important in the TME. Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) often presents as advanced disease, and these tumors are also often bereft of recognized molecular targets that can be found in other subtypes, limiting their therapeutic options. However, tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) infiltration in TNBC is frequently observed. Moreover, a high density of TAMs, particularly M2 macrophages, is associated with poorer outcomes in various cancers, including TNBC. This provides a strong basis for exploiting TAMs as potential therapeutic targets. Specifically, efforts to increase M2 to M1 repolarization are promising therapeutic approaches in TNBC, and four recent studies wherein divergent approaches to target the M2-rich macrophage population and reverse immune subversion are described. These and similar efforts may yield promising diagnostic or therapeutic options for TNBC, a great clinical need.",book:{id:"11277",title:"Macrophages -140 Years of Their Discovery",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11277.jpg"},signatures:"Anupama Hooda-Nehra, Tracey L. Smith, Alejandra I. Ferrer, Fernanda I. Staquicini, Wadih Arap, Renata Pasqualini and Pranela Rameshwar"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:829},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 14th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",slug:"robert-koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Animal Nutrition",value:20,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",value:28,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Animal Science",value:19,count:5}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:1},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:148,paginationItems:[{id:"165328",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadpour",slug:"vahid-asadpour",fullName:"Vahid Asadpour",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165328/images/system/165328.jpg",biography:"Vahid Asadpour, MS, Ph.D., is currently with the Department of Research and Evaluation, Kaiser Permanente Southern California. He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"426586",title:"Dr.",name:"Oladunni A.",middleName:null,surname:"Daramola",slug:"oladunni-a.-daramola",fullName:"Oladunni A. 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Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 3rd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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