\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art novel imaging techniques by focusing on the most important evidence-based developments in this area.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"d9159ce31733bf78cc2a79b18c225994",bookSignature:"Dr. Gabriel Cismaru",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11867.jpg",keywords:"Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy, Dilated Cardiomyopathy, Restrictive Cardiomyopathy, Transesophageal Echocardiography, Intracardiac Echocardiography, 3-Dimensional Echocardiography, Adult Congenital Heart Disease, Tetralogy of Fallot, Transposition of the Great Vessels, Coronary Artery Disease, Risk Stratification, Revascularization",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 21st 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 19th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 18th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 6th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 5th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Cismaru Gabriel is an Assistant Professor at the University of Medicine and Pharmacy Cluj-Napoca, certified in Cardiology. After completing his certification in cardiology, Dr. Cismaru began his electrophysiology fellowship at the Institut Lorrain du Coeur et des Vaisseaux Louis Mathieu. He has authored or co-authored peer-reviewed articles and book chapters in the field of cardiac pacing, defibrillation, electrophysiological study, and catheter ablation.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Raluca Tomoaia is an MD, Ph.D. in novel techniques in Echocardiography at the University of Medicine and Pharmacy in Cluj-Napoca, Romania., assistant professor, and a researcher in echocardiography and cardiovascular imaging.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"191888",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",middleName:null,surname:"Cismaru",slug:"gabriel-cismaru",fullName:"Gabriel Cismaru",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191888/images/system/191888.png",biography:"Dr. Cismaru Gabriel is an assistant professor at the Cluj-Napoca University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Romania, where he has been qualified in cardiology since 2011. He obtained his Ph.D. in medicine with a research thesis on electrophysiology and pro-arrhythmic drugs in 2016. Dr. Cismaru began his electrophysiology fellowship at the Institut Lorrain du Coeur et des Vaisseaux Louis Mathieu, France, after finishing his cardiology certification with stages in Clermont-Ferrand and Dinan, France. He began working at the Rehabilitation Hospital\\'s Electrophysiology Laboratory in Cluj-Napoca in 2011. He is an experienced operator who can implant pacemakers, CRTs, and ICDs, as well as perform catheter ablation of supraventricular and ventricular arrhythmias such as ventricular tachycardia and ventricular fibrillation. He has been qualified in pediatric cardiology since 2022, and he regularly performs device implantation and catheter ablation in children. Dr. Cismaru has authored or co-authored peer-reviewed publications and book chapters on cardiac pacing, defibrillation, electrophysiological studies, and catheter ablation.",institutionString:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"7",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5970",title:"Bedside Procedures",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ba56d3036ac823a7155f40e4a02c030d",slug:"bedside-procedures",bookSignature:"Gabriel Cismaru",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5970.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"191888",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",surname:"Cismaru",slug:"gabriel-cismaru",fullName:"Gabriel Cismaru"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9064",title:"Epidemiology and Treatment of Atrial Fibrillation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1cd6bf2b3181eb82446347fbe478a2bc",slug:"epidemiology-and-treatment-of-atrial-fibrillation",bookSignature:"Gabriel Cismaru and Keith Andrew Chan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9064.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"191888",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",surname:"Cismaru",slug:"gabriel-cismaru",fullName:"Gabriel Cismaru"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. 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1. Introduction
\n
Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is a chronic metabolic disease characterized by hyperglycemia resulting from defects in insulin secretion, insulin action, or both. The chronic hyperglycemia is associated with long-term damage, dysfunction and failure of different organs, especially the eyes, kidneys, nerves, heart and blood vessels. The genetic and molecular basis of the pathogenesis of T2D is not completely elucidated; however, a growing body of evidence has reported that the progression from normal to impaired blood glucose level regulation in individuals with T2D is mostly influenced by insulin resistance and β-cell dysfunction. During the last decade, the reduction in β-cell function has been attributed mostly to a decrease in β-cell mass; however, its precise role for the etiology of T2D remains controversial due to the lack of longitudinal studies. In spite of this, several studies in patients with T2D have shown a significant β-cell mass reduction ranging from 20 to 65% [1, 2]. Although, the reasons underlying this deficit are not clearly understood, some factors responsible for this decline have been suggested, for example, metabolic abnormalities (gluco- and lipotoxicity), hormonal changes (inadequate incretin secretion and action), aging, genetic abnormalities, etc. [3]. Additionally, a growing body of evidence has demonstrated the contribution of the hypersecretion of islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP), together with amyloid deposition for the establishment of T2D.
\n
The process of amyloid deposition is a remarkable physiopathological finding in individuals with T2D (Figure 1). The term amyloid emerged from the Latin word amylum, which means starch. For a long time, it was thought that these deposits were starch-like, but later it was discovered that they were actually a mass of proteins with a particular β-sheet structure. From that, pathologies with conformational changes in normally soluble proteins or peptides that result in the formation of intermolecular hydrogen bonds, β-sheet conformation, and fibril formation are namely conformational diseases [4]. Besides T2D, these conditions have been also implicated in different human disorders, including Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease, and Huntington’s disease.
\n
Figure 1.
Amyloid deposits from cadaveric human pancreata. Amyloid deposits are observed in human pancreas by (A) hematoxylin/eosin staining, (B) Congo Red staining, or (C) electron microscopy, kindly provided by Anne Clark (unpublished data).
\n
The contribution of IAPP in T2D is still controversial; several studies question whether amyloid deposition is a cause or a consequence of islet decline and whether it occurs intra- or extracellularly [5, 6]. However, numerous evidences correlate the role of IAPP with the severity of the disease. The facts indicate that amyloid deposits are seen in 90% of patients with T2D at autopsy and can possibly correspond to stages of the pathology [7, 8].
\n
While IAPP and amyloid formation seem to have a substantial relation in T2D, it is unknown whether aggregation of IAPP plays any role in the development of type 1 diabetes (T1D). One can assume that during β-cell destruction, as in T2D, cells are exposed to high levels of IAPP. Indeed, children with new onset of T1D presented with high levels of IAPP [9]. Nevertheless, further studies need to be done in order to determine the importance of IAPP in the development of T1D.
\n
\n
2. IAPP and T2D
\n
2.1. Islet amyloid polypeptide
\n
Islet amyloid polypeptide or IAPP, also known as amylin, is a normal product of pancreatic β-cells. It is stored along with insulin in secretory granules and co-secreted in response to nutrient stimuli. This 37-amino acid peptide was identified in 1987, although the gene was isolated and characterized in 1989 [7]. Nishi et al. located it in chromosome 12, containing three exons and two introns that codified for an 89-amino acid precursor termed preproIAPP with an amino-terminal signal sequence. This signal peptide is then cleaved from the precursor to generate a 67-amino acid propeptide termed proIAPP. This peptide undergoes further translational modifications by the prohormone convertases, which include the formation of disulfide bridges between cysteine residues and an amidation of a C-terminal tyrosine. These prohormone convertases are as well responsible for proteolytic conversion of proinsulin to insulin, supporting the idea that the processing of proIAPP might also be impaired in T2D [10].
\n
The function of IAPP has been suggested to be involved with glucose homeostasis. In general, this hormone inhibits gastric emptying and is important in controlling and delaying the rate of meal-derived glucose. It has also been shown to inhibit secretion of other pancreatic hormones, such as glucagon and somatostatin. Indeed, physiological concentrations of IAPP are responsible for the regulation of food intake and body weight. Several other effects have been described, including the regulation of renal filtration [11], calcium homeostasis [12], and vasodilatation [13]. Nevertheless, a critical role positions IAPP as the main responsible for the pathogenesis of T2D through formation of amyloid deposits and destruction of pancreatic β-cells.
\n
Non-toxic bioactive variants of IAPP have been shown to be clinically important for the treatment of T1D, T2D, and obesity. For example, co-administration of modified non-toxic variants of IAPP and insulin helped normalization of oscillating glucose levels to a greater extent than insulin alone [14, 15]. Furthermore, combinations of IAPP and leptin have also been used for the treatment of obesity [16]. Nevertheless, aggregation, engineering, and solubility problems at physiological pHs have been affecting the different approaches.
\n
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2.2. Molecular mechanisms of IAPP aggregation and amyloid formation
\n
Although there has been considerable progress, the exact mechanism of abnormal aggregation of IAPP is still largely unknown; however, several studies pointed the overproduction or mutations in IAPP as the main causes of amyloid formation. The role of overproduction of IAPP is associated with the increased secretory demand for insulin due to insulin resistance and increasing hyperglycemia [17]. Because IAPP and insulin are co-secreted in β-secretory granules, this increased production and secretion could result in accumulation and aggregation of IAPP. Many studies have reported that transgenic mice overexpressing hIAPP develop islet amyloid deposits [18, 19]. However, other studies contradicted this hypothesis, claiming that IAPP levels are several times higher than normally. To confirm these findings, Kahn et al. demonstrated that non-diabetic obese and/or insulin-resistant individuals with elevated IAPP levels do not develop amyloid deposits per se. However, in both cases, the presence of some factors, such as genetic predisposition, high fat diet, and obesity, might be critical for the development of extensive islet amyloid [18, 19].
\n
Another possible mechanism for amyloid formation concerns the mutations in the IAPP gene or promoter regions, by producing more fibrillogenic forms [20]. For example, based on several studies, the S20G mutation in the IAPP gene appears to be associated with an early onset and more severe form of T2D [21].
\n
In addition, the existence of hydrophobic amino acids in the mid-portion of IAPP could also be responsible for its propensity to aggregate into β-pleated sheets. Several algorithms, such as discrete molecular dynamics simulations [22] or specifically designed software such as TANGO [23–25], have been developed to identify the amyloidogenic regions of hIAPP. In this line, the residues at positions 20–29 of the polypeptide chain have been determined to be the amyloidogenic region of the peptide. Accordingly, the proline substitutions in the 24–29 regions of rodent IAPP are thought to prevent amyloid fibril formation completely [26]. Proline is known to be a β-sheet breaker, and a total inhibition of amyloid formation was seen when substitutions in the 20–29 wild-type area were performed [27]. Proteoglycans, the major components of the extracellular matrix, have been implicated with several pathologies, including AD and T2D, and have been associated with amyloid deposits in the human body [28]. In particular, together with IAPP, heparan sulfate proteoglycan perlecan is the main component of amyloid deposits in pancreatic islets. Several hypotheses indicate that the impaired processing of proIAPP may result in an elevated secretion of the IAPP precursor with a strong affinity for heparan sulfate proteoglycans, which could eventually result in a generation of a nucleus from amyloid formation [17, 18].
\n
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2.3. IAPP toxicity
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Aggregated hIAPP has cytotoxic properties and is believed to be of critical importance for the progression in patients with T2D. Early studies have shown that the formation of islet amyloid is strongly associated with reduction of insulin secretion and with loss of approximately 50% of the β-cell mass [29, 30]. Human IAPP aggregation has been suggested to occur in a stepwise manner, with soluble monomeric hIAPP forming oligomeric structures, protofibrils, and eventually amyloid fibrils (Figure 2).
\n
Figure 2.
Proposed model of amyloid formation. (A) Primary sequences of human and murine islet amyloid polypeptide. Amyloidogenic region predicted by intrinsic propensities for aggregation is indicated in gray. Note the presence of proline residues in rodent IAPP sequence. (B) Folding or trafficking alterations can induce hIAPP misfolding leading to aggregation. Misfolded monomers aggregate to oligomers that eventually form the characteristic amyloid plaques from T2D.
\n
Initially, there was general acceptance about the concept that the fibrillar forms of hIAPP are the toxic species [31]. Moreover, amyloid fibrils are less toxic than small oligomers formed by aggregates of IAPP. Studies have shown a strong correlation between islet amyloidosis and hIAPP cytotoxicity and eventually β-cell death. Yanker et al. have demonstrated that toxicity is mediated by IAPP fibrils by direct contact of fibrils with the cell surface causing DNA fragmentation, chromatin condensation, and protuberances in the plasma membrane leading to islet cell apoptosis [32]. The common feature for hIAPP fibrils lies on the classical cross β-structure, polymorphic, and typically unbranched [33]. Additionally, in vitro studies have provided evidences that synthetic hIAPP readily forms fibrils and amyloid deposits, which allowed studying the overall morphology and formation process [33, 34].
\n
According to the structural information available for hIAPP fibrils and oligomers, it is clear that hIAPP as an amyloid protein has shown to be toxic through similar mechanisms as other amyloid proteins. One of the most widely accepted mechanisms refers to membrane interaction which leads to cell membrane permeabilization or disruptions [35]. Concerning hIAPP oligomers, the membrane leakage occurs via direct interaction and/or formation of ionic pores and depends on the lipid composition, peptide ratio, pH, and ionic strength. In the case of fibril formation, the damage in the membrane may happen through interaction of fibrils with specific channels located on the cell surface, such as potassium channels [36]. Moreover, oligomers of hIAPP have been shown to increase inflammation in β-cells via the inflammasome, a large group of intracellular multiprotein complexes that induce inflammation and play a central role in immunity [37].
\n
Comparably, hIAPP can form oligomers and fibrils that contribute to islet inflammation. In this line, hIAPP oligomers and fibrils (but not rodent IAPP) have been shown to induce synthesis of interleukins and other inflammatory mediators by pancreatic islets that recruit and activate macrophages in vivo [38]. Further, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress has been proposed to be an important contributor to hIAPP-induced-β-cell death since exogenously added hIAPP has been confirmed to induce ER stress. Some reports showed that ER stress-mediated apoptosis is exacerbated in rodent β-cells expressing amyloidogenic isoforms of hIAPP, leading to a reduction of β-cell mass in hIAPP transgenic mice and rats [6, 39]. In addition, Casas et al. [40] demonstrated that extracellular hIAPP aggregation is associated with ER stress responses in mouse β-cells. Although the mechanism responsible for β-cell cytotoxicity during the process of hIAPP aggregation is still not well defined, a growing body of evidence firmly indicates that IAPP fibrils or oligomers have a crucial role in the progressive β-cell dysfunction in T2D.
\n
Prevention of IAPP amyloid formation may represent a potential treatment for T2D. Thus, the use of several small-molecule inhibitors is being exploited. Several small inhibitory peptides [26, 41], natural polyphenols (such as resveratrol and epigallocatechin gallate; EGCG) [42, 43] or specific antibodies [44, 45] have been successfully used to validate the application of anti-amyloid compounds. For example, the peptide D-ANFLVH inhibited the formation of islet amyloid deposits and contributed to the preservation of β-cell area and improved glucose tolerance in mice [46]. These results validate the application of anti-amyloid compounds as therapeutic strategies to maintain β-cell function in patients with T2D.
\n
\n
\n
3. The endoplasmic reticulum
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3.1. Physiological role
\n
Protein folding begins as the nascent polypeptide chain is co-translationally translocated through the ER membrane into the ER lumen. The unique environment of the ER lumen allows for both oxidative protein folding and post-translational modification such as glycosylation and disulfide bond formation, and accounts for approximately one-third of all proteins in eukaryotic cells. Since ER is mainly associated with protein synthesis, if the protein is not properly folded/maturated, it will remain in the ER and will eventually be degraded without reaching its normal cellular site of action [47]. This sophisticated supervision carried by the ER is regulated by sensitive quality control systems that can discriminate between the proper folded proteins from the misfolded ones. For example, folding chaperones consist of a considerable number of proteins that have the capacity to recognize properties common to non-native proteins, such as exposed hydrophobic areas and in most cases through the expenditure of ATP [48]. Thus, chaperones have the role of correctly folding and assembling secreted proteins, aiding oligomerization, and performing post-translational modifications [49]. The other quality control system is the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) in which irreparably damaged proteins are identified and sorted for degradation. This system is responsible for the clearance of intracellular misfolded and aggregated proteins [50]. Many stimuli can disrupt this process, and its failure can give rise to the malfunctioning of living systems leading to the development of an increasing number of disorders, including Parkinson, AD, Huntington, and T2D [51].
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3.2. ER stress and the unfolded protein response
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Some situations (oxidative stress, energy deprivation, metabolic challenge, or inflammatory stimuli) can represent a major problem for the cell due to a probable production of unfolded or misfolded proteins. These physiological and pathological conditions may interfere with protein maturation and trafficking processes, leading to the accumulation of unfolded and/or misfolded proteins.
\n
A complex homeostatic mechanism known as the unfolded protein response (UPR) has evolved linking the load of newly synthesized proteins with the capacity of the ER to mature them. The UPR works as a multifaceted strategy to protect the integrity of the ER and the associated functionality of the secretory pathway. In mammalians, the first response consists in attenuating the translation of most peptides, followed by an induction of ER chaperone translation that promotes the correct folding [52] and finally, the activation of the ER-associated degradation (ERAD), in which misfolded proteins are retrotranslocated from the ER lumen to the cytosol and degraded by the ubiquitin-proteasome [52, 53]. Conversely, if this mechanism of adaptation and survival fails to relieve ER stress, a continued accumulation of misfolded proteins takes place within the ER, and consequently UPR will generate pro-apoptotic signals to eliminate the diseased cell [52].
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In mammals, the UPR consists of three main classes of proteins that act as sensors of ER stress: inositol-requiring enzyme 1 (IRE1), double-stranded RNA-activated 9 protein kinase RNA (PKR)-like ER kinase (PERK), and activating transcription factor 6 (ATF6) (Figure 3). Despite the difference, each of these proteins activates different signaling pathways and activates transcription factors that mediate the induction of several ER stress genes. IRE1 is considered a central regulator of the ER stress signaling and plays an important role in protein biosynthesis. Under non-stressed conditions, IRE1 remains in an inactive monomeric form. Upon accumulation of unfolded proteins, IRE1 is activated and released by the binding immunoglobulin protein or BiP, an endogenous chaperone located in the lumen of the ER that binds newly synthesized proteins and helps them through the process of folding and maturation. Subsequently, IRE1 activates a transcription factor named X-box-binding protein (XPB1), which once translocated into the nucleus initiates several transcriptional programs that upregulate UPR-associated genes. In a similar way, once chaperone BiP releases from its interaction with PERK, PERK is able to dimerize, promoting autophosphorylation and activation [54]. Once activated, PERK phosphorylates eukaryotic initiation factor 2a (elF2α), its only recognized target. Once activated, elF2α leads to a rapid reduction in the number of proteins entering the already overwhelmed ER [55]. However, in some circumstances, other transcription factors such as activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4) are translated and modulate the expression of C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP). CHOP acts by inducing apoptosis [56]. A major mediator of transcriptional induction by ER stress is the basic leucine zipper domain transcription factor ATF6. This protein is also regulated not only by BiP but also by intra- and inter-molecular disulfide bridges which are thought to keep ATF6 inactive [57, 58]. In response to ER stress, BiP is released from ATF6 and disulfide bonds are reduced, which eventually target the expression of transcription chaperones, upregulation of XBP1, and transcription of elements of the ERAD (Figure 3).
\n
Figure 3.
Branches of the UPR and inflammation signaling pathways. The three sensor-transducers of the UPR are inositol-requiring protein-1 (IRE-1), PERK, and ATF6. These three sensor-transducers determine the state of unfolded proteins in the ER lumen. If persistent, NF-κβ and JNK become activated, leading to inflammation and apoptosis.
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3.3. Link between ER stress and apoptosis
\n
A growing number of studies implicate ER stress with β-cell death during the evolution of T2D [59, 60]. Several physiological, environmental, and genetic factors can provoke alterations in ER homeostasis leading to a state of stress. Evidences suggest that a continuous increase in insulin biosynthesis might overwhelm the folding capacity of the ER, leading to a chronic state. As a consequence, the UPR signaling pathways are triggered with the objective of maintaining β-cell function and promoting β-cell survival. In general, cells have the capacity to adapt to substantial ER stress, but if the ER stress is too severe and long-standing, the UPR-mediated efforts ultimately fail and the apoptotic pathway is activated in order to protect the organism by eliminating damaged cells (Figure 3). At least, three parallel pathways are involved in the stress-mediated apoptosis: activation of CHOP (recognized as a key mediator of apoptosis in ER stress), activation of IRE1–JNK pathway, and activation of caspase 12 [61, 62]. β-Cell apoptosis is also observed in human pancreatic sections and post-mortem islet grafts in correlation with amyloid deposition levels [6, 63, 64].
\n
As previously discussed, ER stress-mediated apoptosis is exacerbated in rodent β-cells expressing hIAPP in β-cells, leading to a reduction of β-cell mass [39]. In addition, extracellular hIAPP aggregation is associated with ER stress, contributing to β-cell apoptosis [40, 65]. Nevertheless, in a rat pancreatic β-cell line overexpressing hIAPP, the detection of toxic intracellular oligomers, which lead to defective insulin and IAPP secretion levels in response to glucose, did not change the expression of genes involved in ER stress and apoptosis was not induced [36]. These results agree with other findings with hIAPP transgenic mice, in which the authors demonstrated that amyloid formation was not associated with significant increases in the expression of ER stress markers [66]. As discussed elsewhere, the discrepancy in these results may be explained by differences in the ratio of IAPP and insulin produced by the different models used in vitro and in vivo, ranging from low to significantly high levels of hIAPP [67].
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\n
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4. ER stress and inflammation
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The three branches of UPR response can trigger inflammatory signals through different branches that converge in signaling pathways involving c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNKs) and the nuclear factor κ-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κβ). JNK is considered to play an important role in ER stress in mouse models of diabetes. For instance, an increase in JNK activity promotes insulin resistance in peripheral tissues and in pancreatic β-cells without affecting cell viability [68]. The importance of the JNK pathway in stress has also been observed in knock-out (KO) mice where suppression of the JNK pathway protects β-cells against oxidative stress induction [69].
\n
The pathway of the UPR involving IRE1 can, by different mechanisms, trigger an inflammatory signaling pathway through the activation of JNK (Figure 3) [70]. In addition, through multiple mechanisms, both the IRE1 and PERK pathways can also lead to the activation of the NF-κβ pathway, which also plays a critical role in the induction of multiple inflammatory mediators and has been implicated in insulin resistance [60, 71]. ATF6 has also been linked to inflammatory signaling. Genetic and pharmacological inhibition of ATF6 significantly suppresses NF-κβ activation, which can transcriptionally regulate many other inflammatory genes [72]. Activation of either JNK or NF-κB pathways in pancreatic β-cells has been reported to cause increased expression of proinflammatory molecules that can act as mediators, such as inflammatory interleukins 8 (IL8) and 6 (IL6), monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1 or CCL2), and the cytotoxin tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), which may have a detrimental effect on cell survival and function [73, 74]. Local chemokine and cytokine release can also contribute to the inflammatory milieu, attracting host macrophages to the pancreatic β-cells, which further propagate local inflammation [38, 75]. In addition, the NF-κβ pathway has been shown to activate the NLRP3 inflammasome, a multiprotein, cytosolic molecular platform that controls the activation of caspase 1, and the secretion of other proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and interleukin 18 (IL-18) in metabolic stress [76]. Inflammation induced by inflammasome-dependent proinflammatory cytokines may produce insulin resistance or cause the death of pancreatic β-cells, leading to the development of diabetes [37, 77].
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NLRP3 inflammasome formation is reported to be induced by a variety of compounds, including hIAPP [37]. Oligomeric hIAPP has been shown to induce inflammasome activation and subsequent production of IL-1β. This is supported by observations with a transplantation model, in which hIAPP-expressing islets were transplanted into immunodeficient NOD-SCID mice treated with and without the IL-1β receptor agonist (IL1Ra) [38]. In this study, IL-1Ra was able to protect transplanted hIAPP-expressing islets from impaired glucose tolerance. Islet grafts expressing hIAPP contained amyloid deposits in close association with macrophages. Moreover, early aggregates of hIAPP induced production of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, such as CCL2, TNF-α, IL-1α, IL-1β, chemokine (C–C motif) ligand 3 (CCL3), and the chemokine (C–X–C motif) ligand 1, 2, and 10 (CXCL1, CXCL2, and CXCL10, respectively) [38].
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5. The role of hIAPP in ER stress, inflammation, and apoptosis
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Multiple physiological and pathological conditions, including the accumulation of misfolded proteins, such as insulin or hIAPP, are responsible for the loss of ER homeostasis in β-cells [6, 60].
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5.1. Exogenous hIAPP induces ER stress and apoptosis in vitro
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Several approaches have been applied to study amyloid toxicity in vitro; synthetic peptides, corresponding to either fragments or the whole protein, have been useful attempt in defining the amyloidogenic pathology. Several studies have reported that amyloid peptide is proficient to induce cytotoxic cell death by external addition of synthetic hIAPP [32, 40, 78–80]. Although the precise mechanism by which IAPP aggregates lead to β-cell death is still unknown, it has been recognized that this aggregation is a concentration dependent on synthetic hIAPP in vitro. Bailey et al. suggested a progressive increase in cell toxicity according to the initial peptide concentration, as well as the time exposed for the process of IAPP fibrillation [34]. In addition, Casas et al. demonstrated that extracellular hIAPP aggregation is associated with ER stress responses in mouse β-cells, by an intracellular signaling that involves downstream inhibition of the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway, contributing to β-cell apoptosis [40]. In line with these studies, evidences have demonstrated that in aqueous solution, synthetic hIAPP spontaneously forms β-sheets and aggregates, whereas synthetic rat IAPP does not [81, 82], and the aggregation process seems to be extremely sensitive to amyloid concentrations [83].
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\n
5.2. Intracellular hIAPP
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The mechanism by which amyloid oligomers and/or fibrils are formed within the β-cell is not completely understood. For that reason, many attempts to express this protein in various vectors and hosts have been designed. O’Brien et al. [84] were able to transfect fibroblast-like cell line (COS-1) cells with vectors expressing amyloidogenic IAPP; however, those cells containing amyloid fibrils were degenerated or dead when compared to rat IAPP overexpression. Years later, the same group, with the effort to understand the mechanism by which intracellular hIAPP causes cell death, demonstrated that in transfected COS-1 cells, the accumulation of hIAPP initiates a cascade of intracellular signaling events that trigger the apoptotic pathway [85]. However, this cell line was not expected to prevent such event due to the lack of the cellular machinery needed for the processing and trafficking of immature IAPP, such as secretory granules or the presence of prohormone convertases.
\n
Recent studies have also reported successful cloning and expression of recombinant hIAPP in cultured mammalian cells. Several in vitro approaches allowed the successful expression, purification, and characterization of the amyloidogenicity and cytotoxicity of the human mature IAPP in sufficient amounts using, for example, the Lacl-T7 RNA polymerase-based heterologous expression system for Escherichia coli. This E. coli expression system has been shown to remove potential toxic proteins and, at the same time, generate high levels of recombinant proteins [86]. Likewise, other studies were capable to clone the hIAPP full-length peptide into not only COS-1 cells but also in rat insulinoma (RIN) and Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells [87]. Nevertheless, when studies were performed in INS1E cells, a β-cell line with all the equipment for the processing and regulation of IAPP, the expression of hIAPP by adenovirus has not resulted in cell death unless hIAPP was high enough to cause impaired proIAPP processing [88].
\n
Furthermore, Soty et al. established an in vitro model in which INS1E cells were stably transfected with hIAPP cDNA under the cytomegalovirus promoter (CMV). Under hIAPP overexpression, these cells showed intracellular oligomers and a strong alteration of glucose-stimulated insulin and IAPP secretion. Moreover, inhibition of insulin and secretion of IAPP affected the activity of KATP channels, leading to an increased mitochondrial metabolism in order to counteract the secretory defects of the β-cells [36]. Nevertheless, hIAPP-expressing INS1E cells were able to completely restore insulin secretion and prevent ER stress upon treatment with molecular (BiP and protein disulfide isomerase; PDI) and chemical (tauroursodeoxycholic acid; TUDCA and 4-phenylbutyrate; PBA) chaperones [89]. Amelioration of insulin secretion upon high glucose stimulation and prevention of β-cell death was further confirmed by the same group using hIAPP transgenic mouse islets and molecular chaperone PDI [90].
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\n
5.3. In vivo models of hIAPP overexpression
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One of the most active research areas that have contributed substantially to our current understanding of the molecular basis in a multifactorial disease such as T2D is the creation and development of diverse animal models. Nowadays, in vivo studies of human pancreas morphology are not possible by obvious ethical considerations, and the collective human material comes from either autopsy or surgical resection from pancreatic cancer. It is interesting that apart from humans, the only species capable of spontaneously developing T2D are non-human primates and cats; nevertheless, besides the cost of working with such big species, these models not always progress toward T2D, making the use of these models not optimal for research [91]. Studies performed with rodent models of diabetes are then greatly useful and advantageous, especially regarding islet amyloidosis studies. As previously mentioned, unlike the human IAPP, the rodent IAPP is not amyloidogenic due to the proline substitutions in the 20–29 amino acid region. This lack of amyloid development in these models makes impossible to assess the role of IAPP aggregation in islet physiology. Since only a limited number of species spontaneously form islet amyloid, several groups have developed transgenic mice strains choosing hIAPP as a model for islet amyloidogenesis [91].
\n
Nonetheless, some reports showed that the mere hIAPP overproduction did not lead to amyloid formation or deposition despite elevated plasma concentration of hIAPP. Thus, other factors beyond overexpression had to be involved in the mechanism of islet amyloid formation since these mice were normoglycemic and normoinsulinemic (94–96). Islet amyloid was reported in transgenic mice fed a diet high in fat. Verchere et al. [18] have shown that approximately 80% of male transgenic mice (<13 months old) presented amyloid deposits and were always associated with severe hyperglycemia. In the case of hemizygous transgenic mice for hIAPP, the treatment with growth hormone or dexamethasone induced small intra- and extracellular amyloid deposits [92].
\n
Another strategy used to overexpress hIAPP was to cross-bread hIAPP mice onto a mouse with obese background (ob/ob) [19] or obese Agouti viable yellow (Avy/Agouti) [93]. These mice developed amyloid formation and loss of β-cells, which was associated with progression of diabetes (Figure 4).
\n
Figure 4.
Amyloid formation in hIAPP transgenic mouse islets in obese Agouti yellow mice. Amyloid staining of hIAPP Tg mice in (A) FVB background, Avy/Agouti background at (B) 16 weeks of age and (C) 22 weeks of age. Note the presence of amyloid deposits in Avy/Agouti background as shown by Thioflavin S staining (unpublished data).
\n
Moreover, it was found that female transgenic mice do not increase the occurrence of amyloid when oophorectomized, suggesting a protective role of ovarian hormones in islet amyloidosis. In recent years, Butler et al. showed that transgenic β-cell expression of human proIAPP in rats (HIP rats) that are homozygous for hIAPP develop diabetes within 5-10 months, together with the presence of extracellular amyloid, decreased β-cell mass, and increased β-cell apoptosis [94]. In addition, the loss of approximately 60% of β-cell mass at diabetes onset is comparable to the loss observed in humans with T2D [1].
\n
In conclusion, with a variety of transgenic hIAPP models, it has been possible to clearly highlight that the process of islet amyloid formation is a complex event associated with a great number of factors considered important in the pathogenesis of T2D.
\n
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
This work was supported by grants PI11/00679 and PI14/00447, integrated in the Plan Estatal I+D+I 2013-2016, and co-financed by the ISCIII-Subdirección General de Evaluación y Fomento de la investigación el Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional (FEDER), by Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Diabetes y Enfermedades Metabólicas Asociadas (CIBERDEM) and with the support of project number 2014_SGR_520 of the Department of Universities, Research and Information Society of the Government of Catalonia.
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\n',keywords:"Diabetes, pancreatic amyloid, inflammation, ER stress, IAPP, chaperones, diabetes",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/50540.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/50540.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50540",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50540",totalDownloads:1591,totalViews:331,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:68,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"October 29th 2015",dateReviewed:"March 10th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"August 24th 2016",dateFinished:"May 2nd 2016",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Understanding the mechanisms regulating whole-body glucose homeostasis is important in order to understand what happens in a disease such as type 2 diabetes (T2D). Insulin resistance, inflammation, dysfunction of islet β-cells, and the presence of amyloid deposits in the pancreas are some of the major causes involved in the process of β-cell deterioration. The unique peptide constituent of amyloid deposits, human islet amyloid polypeptide (hIAPP), is capable of inducing endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and the resulting unfolded-protein response activation. Additionally, hIAPP has been shown to induce interleukin-1β expression, the main cytokine involved in inflammation and T2D causing inflammation and eventually, inducing apoptosis. Nevertheless, the mechanisms behind the process of hIAPP aggregation and amyloid formation are still unknown. In this chapter, we describe the different mechanisms by which hIAPP induces ER stress and inflammation. This should open the door for designing therapeutic interventions aimed at modulating the immune system and the ER stress response.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/50540",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/50540",book:{id:"5194",slug:"exploring-new-findings-on-amyloidosis"},signatures:"Joel Montane and Anna Novials",authors:[{id:"103592",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Novials",fullName:"Anna Novials",slug:"anna-novials",email:"anovials@clinic.ub.es",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Biomedical Research Networking Center in Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"180730",title:"Dr.",name:"Joel",middleName:null,surname:"Montane",fullName:"Joel Montane",slug:"joel-montane",email:"montane@clinic.ub.es",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Consorci Institut D'Investigacions Biomediques August Pi I Sunyer",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. IAPP and T2D",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Islet amyloid polypeptide",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Molecular mechanisms of IAPP aggregation and amyloid formation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. IAPP toxicity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. The endoplasmic reticulum",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1. Physiological role",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.2. ER stress and the unfolded protein response",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.3. Link between ER stress and apoptosis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"4. ER stress and inflammation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"5. The role of hIAPP in ER stress, inflammation, and apoptosis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"5.1. Exogenous hIAPP induces ER stress and apoptosis in vitro",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"5.2. Intracellular hIAPP",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"5.3. 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In vivo jnk activation in pancreatic β-cells leads to glucose intolerance caused by insulin resistance in pancreas. Diabetes. 2013;62: 2308–2317. doi:10.2337/db12-1097'},{id:"B69",body:'Kaneto H, Matsuoka T, Nakatani Y, Kawamori D, Matsuhisa M, Yamasaki Y. Oxidative stress and the JNK pathway in diabetes. Curr Diabetes Rev. 2005;1: 65–72. doi:10.2174/1573399052952613'},{id:"B70",body:'Urano F, Wang X, Bertolotti a, Zhang Y, Chung P, Harding HP, et al. Coupling of stress in the ER to activation of JNK protein kinases by transmembrane protein kinase IRE1. Science. 2000;287: 664–666. doi:10.1126/science.287.5453.664'},{id:"B71",body:'Deng J, Lu PD, Zhang Y, Scheuner D, Kaufman RJ, Sonenberg N, et al. Translational repression mediates activation of nuclear factor kappa B by phosphorylated translation initiation factor 2. Mol Cell Biol. 2004;24: 10161–10168. doi:10.1128/MCB.24.23.10161-10168.2004'},{id:"B72",body:'Yamazaki H, Hiramatsu N, Hayakawa K, Tagawa Y, Okamura M, Ogata R, et al. Activation of the Akt-NF-kappaB pathway by subtilase cytotoxin through the ATF6 branch of the unfolded protein response. J Immunol. 2009;183: 1480–1487. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.0900017'},{id:"B73",body:'Marselli L, Dotta F, Piro S, Santangelo C, Masini M, Lupi R, et al. Th2 cytokines have a partial, direct protective effect on the function and survival of isolated human islets exposed to combined proinflammatory and Th1 cytokines. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001;86: 4974–4978. doi:10.1210/jc.86.10.4974'},{id:"B74",body:'Wu JJ, Chen X, Cao XC, Baker MS, Kaufman DB. Cytokine-induced metabolic dysfunction of MIN6 beta cells is nitric oxide independent. J Surg Res. 2001;101: 190–195. doi:10.1006/jsre.2001.6285'},{id:"B75",body:'Ehses JA, Perren A, Eppler E, Ribaux P, Pospisilik JA, Maor-Cahn R, et al. Increased number of islet-associated macrophages in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes. 2007;56: 2356–2370. doi:10.2337/db06-1650'},{id:"B76",body:'Zhou R, Yazdi AS, Menu P, Tschopp J. 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Acute application of human amylin, unlike beta-amyloid peptides, kills undifferentiated pc12 cells by apoptosis. Neuroreport. 1997;8: 3945–3949.'},{id:"B81",body:'Konarkowska B, Aitken JF, Kistler J, Zhang S, Cooper GJS. The aggregation potential of human amylin determines its cytotoxicity towards islet beta-cells. FEBS J. 2006;273: 3614–3624. doi:10.1111/j.1742-4658.2006.05367.x'},{id:"B82",body:'Goldsbury C, Goldie K, Pellaud J, Seelig J, Frey P, Müller SA, et al. Amyloid fibril formation from full-length and fragments of amylin. J Struct Biol. 2000;130: 352–362. doi:10.1006/jsbi.2000.4268'},{id:"B83",body:'Aitken JF, Loomes KM, Scott DW, Reddy S, Phillips ARJ, Prijic G, et al. Tetracycline treatment retards the onset and slows the progression of diabetes in human amylin/islet amyloid polypeptide transgenic mice. Diabetes. 2010;59: 161–171. doi:10.2337/db09-0548'},{id:"B84",body:'O’Brien TD, Butler PC, Kreutter DK, Kane LA, Eberhardt NL. Human islet amyloid polypeptide expression in COS-1 cells. A model of intracellular amyloidogenesis. Am J Pathol. 1995;147: 609–616.'},{id:"B85",body:'Hiddinga HJ, Eberhardt NL. Intracellular amyloidogenesis by human islet amyloid polypeptide induces apoptosis in COS-1 cells. Am J Pathol. 1999;154: 1077–1088. doi:10.1016/S0002-9440(10)65360-6'},{id:"B86",body:'Lopest DHJ, Colin C, Degaki TL, De Sousa AC V, Vieira MNN, Sebollela A, et al. Amyloidogenicity and cytotoxicity of recombinant mature human islet amyloid polypeptide (rhIAPP). J Biol Chem. 2004;279: 42803–42810. doi:10.1074/jbc.M406108200'},{id:"B87",body:'Jyoti S, Satendra S, Sushma S, Anjana T, Shashi S. Antistressor activity of Ocimum sanctum (Tulsi) against experimentally induced oxidative stress in rabbits. Methods Find Exp Clin Pharmacol. 2007;29: 411–416. doi:1118135 [pii]\\r10.1358/mf.2007.29.6.1118135'},{id:"B88",body:'Marzban L, Rhodes CJ, Steiner DF, Haataja L, Halban PA, Verchere CB. Impaired NH2-terminal processing of human proislet amyloid polypeptide by the prohormone convertase PC2 leads to amyloid formation and cell death. Diabetes. 2006;55: 2192–2201. doi:10.2337/db05-1566'},{id:"B89",body:'Cadavez L, Montane J, Alcarraz-Vizán G, Visa M, Vidal-Fàbrega L, Servitja JM, et al. Chaperones ameliorate beta cell dysfunction associated with human islet amyloid polypeptide overexpression. PLoS One. 2014;9: 1–11. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0101797'},{id:"B90",body:'Montane J, de Pablo S, Obach M, Cadavez L, Castaño C, Alcarraz-Vizán G, et al. Protein disulfide isomerase ameliorates β-cell dysfunction in pancreatic islets overexpressing human islet amyloid polypeptide. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2016;420: 57–65. doi:10.1016/j.mce.2015.11.018'},{id:"B91",body:'Matveyenko A V, Butler PC. Islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP) transgenic rodents as models for type 2 diabetes. ILAR J. 2006;47: 225–233.'},{id:"B92",body:'Couce M, Kane L a, O’Brien TD, Charlesworth J, Soeller W, McNeish J, et al. Treatment with growth hormone and dexamethasone in mice transgenic for human islet amyloid polypeptide causes islet amyloidosis and beta-cell dysfunction. Diabetes. 1996;45: 1094–1101.'},{id:"B93",body:'Soeller WC, Janson J, Hart SE, Parker JC, Carty MD, Stevenson RW, et al. Islet amyloid-associated diabetes in obese A(vy)/a mice expressing human islet amyloid polypeptide. Diabetes. 1998;47: 743–750. doi:10.2337/diabetes.47.5.743'},{id:"B94",body:'Butler AE, Jang J, Gurlo T, Carty MD, Soeller WC, Butler PC. Diabetes due to a progressive defect in β-cell mass in rats transgenic for human islet amyloid polypeptide (HIP rat): a new model for type 2 diabetes. Diabetes. 2004;53: 1509–1516. doi:10.2337/diabetes.53.6.1509'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Joel Montane",address:null,affiliation:'
The August Pi i Sunyer Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain
Biomedical Research Centre in Diabetes and Associated Metabolic Disorders (CIBERDEM), Barcelona, Spain
The August Pi i Sunyer Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain
Biomedical Research Centre in Diabetes and Associated Metabolic Disorders (CIBERDEM), Barcelona, Spain
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1. Introduction
Mixed reality as an umbrella term for augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) encompasses technologies that have gained significant importance in recent years and are increasingly being used commercially. Even though theoretical principles were developed as early as the beginning of the 1990s, the increased computing power only makes widespread use possible today.
The media often focus on corresponding opportunities; the potential that arises from use in the corporate environment is often still missing from the discussion.
Mixed reality is not a passing hype. The relevance is made clear by studies of various market research institutes and will continue to increase in the discussion around the metaverse.
It is often difficult to translate new technologies into application scenarios. Based on various application scenarios, answers to possible uses and corresponding added values emerge. Decision-makers need to get ideas for applications and business models that they can develop further to achieve added value for their company.
The aim of this article is to present mixed reality, to differentiate augmented reality and virtual reality from each other, to describe technical prerequisites, to show the current state of development, to present suitable application scenarios and realization stages, and to derive opportunities and risks in use to generate competitive advantages.
After the introduction, the basics of mixed reality are presented, followed by realization stages and application scenarios, which are illustrated by applications in the corporate environment. Afterwards, criteria are presented as to when augmented or virtual reality is recommended in which implementation stage. Finally, a conclusion and outlook follow.
2. Basics of mixed reality
Mixed reality (MR) as an umbrella term subsumes augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) and corresponding gradations. While virtual reality is understood to mean the representation and simultaneous perception of reality and its physical properties in a real-time computer-generated, interactive, virtual environment, and the real environment is consequently switched off, augmented reality aims to enrich the existing real world with additional computer-generated objects. In contrast to virtual reality, no entirely new worlds are created, but the existing reality is supplemented with a virtual reality [1].
There is no uniform definition of MR in the literature [2]; mostly the “reality-virtuality continuum” is referred to. This postulates a steady transition between real and virtual environments (Figure 1) [3].
Figure 1.
Reality-virtuality-continuum.
The left region of the continuum defines environments composed only of real objects and includes all aspects observed when a real scene is viewed by a person or through any medium such as a window, camera, etc. The right-hand domain, on the other hand, defines environments that consist only of virtual objects such as corresponding computer game simulations [2].
Within this framework, mixed reality is defined as an environment in which real and virtual objects are combined in any way in a representation, i.e., lying between the two extreme points of the continuum environments [3]. In Augmented Reality, the real component predominates, whereas in augmented virtuality, the virtual component predominates. A distinction between augmented reality and augmented virtuality is rarely made in practice today. Likewise, the terms augmented reality and mixed reality - more rarely also enhanced reality - are often used synonymously [1].
Mixed reality applications require corresponding devices or displays for their use. The displays used differ depending on the type of mixed reality - augmented reality or virtual reality. Virtual reality can usually only be used with data glasses. In addition to classic devices such as smartphones and tablets, data glasses are also becoming increasingly relevant for augmented reality. Also, pseudo-holographic displays are of interest for innovative augmented reality solutions, which enable new application scenarios but are often less flexible in use than the classic devices [4].
3. Realization stages and application scenarios in mixed reality
3.1 Realization stages
Ref. [5] distinguish according to different realization stages to classify different application purposes. Level 1–3 are presented because of their practical relevance [1].
Realization stage 1: Visualization.
With the help of MR, computer-generated objects can be projected into the real or virtual environment. In this stage, the user is a passive observer of an MR scene.
Realization stage 2: Guidance & Control.
In this stage, prefabricated scenarios of stage 1 are put into a logical sequence; the sequence is controlled by the change of the real viewing object.
Realization stage 3: Interaction
Stage 3 differs from stage 2 in the way that the MR scenario does not run according to a predefined pattern, but the sequence of substeps is controlled by the user himself. This can be done voice- or gesture-controlled. Control via input devices such as mouse, keyboard, or touchscreen, but also via facial expression or gesture control are conceivable and depend on the respective situation.
3.2 Application scenarios
In case of VR, there is no necessity to differ between applications scenarios. According to A. Mehler et. al., [1] the following application scenarios can be distinguished in relation to AR/MR:
Living Mirror
In living mirror, a camera detects the viewer\'s face and places three-dimensional objects on the face or head in the correct position. The projection is usually done via a large screen or a beamer so that a mirror effect is created.
Living Print
This scenario is based on the recognition of a print medium and corresponding augmentation. Here, a distinction is made between different print media, be it collectible or greeting cards (living card), brochures or leaflets (living brochure), or packaging materials (living object). Further possibilities exist in the augmentation of books (living book) or games (living game print-based).
Living game mobile
Mobile devices are the basis of living game mobile; e.g., augmented games are brought to bear on smartphones.
Living architecture
A typical application in the field of architecture arises when a viewer wants to “experience” an impression of a room or an entire building by determining its representation himself through movements such as turning his head or walking through a real room and further actions such as speech or gestures.
Living poster
A living poster is understood to be an advertising message in public space that is enhanced with manipulative information elements using augmented reality.
Living presentation
Trade show booths and presentations must become increasingly spectacular and interesting to be perceived at all in times of information overload. AR technology can be used to achieve this goal. In addition, it is possible to display and even interact with real objects that cannot be “presented” live due to their sheer size or complexity.
Living meeting
Due to increasing globalization, more and more meetings take place as tele- or videoconferences. Augmented reality can be used to enrich tele- and videoconferences so that they almost seem like real meetings.
Living environment
All AR applications that use mobile systems to enhance real environments or facilities with additional information of any kind, such as text, 2D objects, 3D objects, video, and audio sequences, are called Living Environment.
The goal is basically a timely information acquisition (time-to-content) by the user simply by the fact that the camera captures one or more objects and thereby corresponding additional information is provided. In the case of the living environment, a combination of several sensors is possible and often desired.
The list of application scenarios is not necessarily complete, as further application possibilities may arise because of technical developments. The above scenarios are open regarding their intended use [1].
3.3 Combination of realization stages and application scenarios
If we combine AR/MR application scenarios with realization stages, we see that the living environment in particular is suitable for the third realization stage (Table 1). Static elements for generating AR/MR animations such as living print are more suitable for the first two realization levels. living game mobile is excluded because there are no economic opportunities for use here [1].
Application scenario
Realization stage
Visualization
Guidance & Control
Interaction
Living Mirror
suitable
suitable
Living Print
suitable
suitable
Living Poster
suitable
suitable
Living Architecture
suitable
suitable
suitable
Living Presentation
suitable
suitable
Living Meeting
suitable
suitable
suitable
Living Environment
suitable
suitable
suitable
Table 1.
Combination of application scenarios and realization stages in AR/MR.
4. Application areas of mixed reality in business contexts
4.1 Overview
Mixed reality with a focus on augmented reality can be used in almost all areas of everyday life; many applications have a rather playful character. The use of mixed reality leads to significant advantages in many areas such as production, construction, and logistics. Typical examples are that designers can collaborate with real and virtual colleagues on the same three-dimensional model [1].
Many applications in production, construction, or logistics are also possible in the corporate environment. Possible applications of MR in the industry are mainly:
Optimization and acceleration of industrial processes
Immediate display and validation of planning status
Collision control
Evaluation of the design of new components on the existing product
Virtual guidance directly on the real product
Increased understanding of complex products or processes
Simplified target/actual comparison
Improvement of team-internal communication
Communication with customers can also be improved. Conventional advertisements are given an interactive component through the integration of mixed reality, which offers an additional benefit. Product catalogs can be enriched accordingly and offer added value to the customer. More complex solutions are virtual studios, such as those used by television studios. These are virtual sets in which real actors are combined with virtual reality in real-time.
The more the technology develops, the more complex and interesting application scenarios can be realized. In particular, these include electronic devices that exist only virtually but respond to real touch, enabling artificial sensory enhancements such as x-ray vision and open-world computer games. mixed reality supports complex and difficult tasks; these include especially applications in construction or maintenance of machines.
Maintenance area
By displaying important additional information on demand, difficult tasks can be performed more easily, safely, and with higher quality.
E.g., based on an exploded view, a maintenance technician can display the machine to be repaired in 3D, move, and rotate it as desired, so that he gets a better impression and can perform the repair more quickly.
Another option is to show the mechanic labels for individual parts of the device as well as corresponding work instructions.
Design
MR offers the possibility of simulating constructed objects in space in the design department.
Digital design data can be efficiently matched with existing real geometries. This also enables the broad use of digital validation methods when combining digital data with real prototypes or designs.
Further industrial applications with complex tasks have already been partially realized:
Navigation
Navigation supplemented by mixed reality is conceivable in many different application areas:
In the maintenance of complex industrial plants
For operations in the field of disaster management
In the automotive sector, MR is used in cockpit displays that provide the driver with graphical navigation and traffic information in live images
In aircraft, MR is used in conjunction with head-mounted or head-up displays to increase safety and efficiency in poor visibility and weather conditions. Use in military aircraft was one of the first industrial applications of MR.
As a complement to navigation Google began offering its users the live MR navigation in Google Maps. Pedestrians can use live view instead of the normal 2D map view to see directional arrows as well as street names and additional information [6].
Visualization
Although mixed reality is very often used for representation, there are still some application areas whose main goal is to better visualize certain aspects.
Display and interactive analysis of maps and terrain features, e.g., for the extraction of mineral resources or in the field of geoinformatics [7].
Representation of destroyed historical buildings or future architectural projects [8].
Enrichment of museums and exhibitions by displaying virtual objects [9].
Simulation
E.g., to enrich existing flight and driving simulators with mixed reality elements.
Collaboration
E. g., to support virtual teams in their collaboration on simulated 3D models or conferences with real and virtual participants [10].
One example of the use of MR is education/training in the form of edutainment. Learners can view learning material on the computer via webcam and receive information elements on the computer that provide further explanations and information on the topic under consideration. Sound sequences that go beyond this are also possible as part of the animation. This approach gives learners the feeling of tangible proximity as well as individual and interactive help. This helps to reduce or eliminate learning barriers. The aim of integrating 3D animations based on MR is above all to simulate a haptic perception for the learners and to strengthen their interest.
The application examples already realized clearly show that the aspect of communication in the form of visualization is in the foreground. Complex issues are simplified and made easier to understand or experience by visualizing them.
Increasing computing power enables real-time application scenarios in a variety of ways - especially in the areas of user support and entertainment. Operating system interfaces, especially for the consumer sector, can be enriched with MR elements. Program windows and icons can be displayed as virtual elements in real space and operated by facial expressions or gestures. Thinking further, conventional screens or device control panels can be replaced by new types of devices and corresponding multimedia applications that use mixed reality. These include, for example, pseudo-holographic virtual screens, virtual holodecks, or virtual surround cinema, as already known from various science fiction series. Using MR enhancements such as X-ray vision, it is also possible to display occluded targets [11].
In recent years, MR solutions based on natural feature recognition and face tracking are gaining more and more importance:
Natural feature recognition allows tracking without the use of artificial markers and enables the recognition of completely unknown environments and thus new application possibilities. The further development of this technology will enable mobile devices to recognize natural environments and enrich them with virtual objects.
Face tracking, for example, opens new forms of communication with viewers. The viewer is recorded - essentially reduced to the face - and age- and gender-specific characteristics are recognized, evaluated, and interpreted, resulting in a corresponding individual response. Possible application scenarios arise in advertising. While posters currently reflect static information, it is possible to develop interactive posters based on mixed reality that react smartly to their counterparts. Based on age- and gender-specific characteristics, the poster reacts individually and offers suitable advertising messages.
Mixed reality has become a strategic product of hardware manufacturers such as Apple and Microsoft. Meta (Facebook) is increasingly investing in MR (VR as well as AR) technology. The so-called Metaverse is intended to enable users to communicate in virtual and augmented spaces. However, this requires glasses that support both VR and AR scenarios and are affordable for end consumers.
The possibility of gesture and voice control will allow further fascinating opportunities in MR, as it supports easy and intuitive handling of MR applications. Meta is already experimenting with a bracelet that measures brain waves to control MR applications.
4.2 Illustration of application examples in business contexts
Based on the three realization stages, concrete examples of MR applications in the corporate context are described below. A distinction is made between AR and VR in order to illustrate the broad range of possibilities. In the case of augmented reality, these examples are usually living environment solutions.
Realization stage 1: Visualization.
Augmented reality
Displaying technical information during machine maintenance or product visualizations, such as in ref. [12], are typical applications since an integration in real situations is possible.
Virtual reality
Visualized virtual tours through computer-generated buildings, technical facilities, or operation- or process-visualizations, e.g., in ref. [13], are suitable, especially buildings and facilities that are not yet realized or cannot be used for training purposes.
Realization stage 2: Guidance & control
Augmented reality
Instructions for the maintenance of a machine or picking, as in ref. [14], represent common application areas for this realization level in the enterprise context.
Virtual reality
Virtual tours through buildings or technical facilities under guidance, if necessary, with appropriate explanation or instruction, as well as training of complex activities, as shown in ref. [15], are typical application possibilities.
Realization stage 3: Interaction
Augmented reality
Interactive instructions for the maintenance of a machine (including the recognition of next steps or errors in the process) (see, e.g., [16]) or collaborative work are typical applications.
Virtual reality
Virtual tours of buildings or facilities that can be changed through interaction, interactive product design, or collaborative work can be realized especially with tools like Mozilla Hubs, Google Spatial, or other tools for generating VR spaces. These tools provide the first approaches to implementing metaverse aspects.
4.3 Criteria for deciding between augmented and virtual reality
AR and VR have many similarities in terms of the levels of realization, yet they differ in the application possibilities. Therefore, the first thing to check is whether you want to implement an AR or VR application. Decision criteria are primarily simulation of situations, their availability as well as their hazard potential, necessity of embedding, effort, and costs. A corresponding classification is given in Table 2.
Criterium
Augmented reality
Virtual reality
Simulation of situations
Everyday situations
Exceptional situations
Availability of situations
High
Exceptions, rarely occur in reality
Hazard potential of situations
None
Low to high
Necessity of embedding in reality
Yes
None
Effort
Low to medium
High
Costs
Low to medium
High
Table 2.
Decision criteria.
If one considers the repair of a plant, then AR lends itself to this. The necessity of embedding, in reality, is given; the functionality, i.e., an everyday situation, is to be achieved. Likewise, the availability of the plant is given and there is no potential danger. The situation is different, e.g., for a flight simulator. In this virtual world, mainly exceptional situations are to be practiced, which rarely occur, but then have a high hazard potential.
Once a decision has been made between AR and VR, it must be clarified which realization stage is required: Is visualization (stage 1) sufficient, is guidance & control (stage 2) needed, or is an application for interaction (stage 3) necessary? The higher the realization stage, the greater the development, training effort, and the associated costs.
Once a decision has been made in favor of AR, a suitable application scenario must be selected depending on the realization stage.
Applications in the AR and VR area stand and fall with the generated added value. Of course, the implementation of an AR or VR application requires corresponding development effort, which should not be underestimated. However, it is much more important that as much creativity as necessary and as much pragmatism as possible flow into the conception of the application so that the application later delivers the necessary added value.
5. Conclusions
MR applications are on the verge of a commercial breakthrough and are becoming increasingly interesting for companies. Since 2015, various providers have been presenting AR as well as VR glasses; in some cases, second-generation glasses are already available and are becoming increasingly suitable for everyday use.
Despite the similarities that AR and VR have in terms of realization stages, there must first be clarity within the company as to which technology is to be pursued. Once this decision has been made, the next steps are to select the realization stage and, if necessary, the application scenario.
Both technologies covered with the umbrella term MR offer a multitude of opportunities, but at the same time have risks and limitations. Two main problems today are the lack of appropriate hardware as well as the lacking integration of corresponding applications into the corporate IT landscape. With the increased appearance of corresponding MR applications, solutions to this will be developed successively.
However, it is important today that companies do not miss the trend and may no longer be marketable or competitive. This will pose major challenges for small and medium-sized companies. The current discussion related to the Metaverse shows the relevance of the topic very impressively.
\n',keywords:"mixed reality, augmented reality, virtual reality, data glasses, augmentation of reality, application scenarios, realization stages",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/82961.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/82961.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/82961",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/82961",totalDownloads:5,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"July 6th 2022",dateReviewed:"July 15th 2022",datePrePublished:"August 5th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"August 5th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Mixed reality is becoming increasingly relevant in business. In the corporate environment, such as logistics or maintenance, the use of data glasses allows extensive possibilities for process optimization and quality assurance. In the area of construction, virtual models either as augmentation of reality or mapped in virtual reality offer new approaches to experience ability. The goal of this paper is to show the manifold possibilities of mixed reality in the enterprise environment. For this purpose, selected application scenarios with corresponding realization stages will be shown and analyzed regarding their added value.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/82961",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/82961",signatures:"Anett Mehler-Bicher, Lothar Steiger and Dirk Weitzel",book:{id:"11860",type:"book",title:"Holography - Recent Advances and Applications",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Holography - Recent Advances and Applications",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Joseph Rosen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11860.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80356-564-4",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-563-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-565-1",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"16544",title:"Prof.",name:"Joseph",middleName:null,surname:"Rosen",slug:"joseph-rosen",fullName:"Joseph Rosen"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Basics of mixed reality",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Realization stages and application scenarios in mixed reality",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Realization stages",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Application scenarios",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3 Combination of realization stages and application scenarios",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"4. Application areas of mixed reality in business contexts",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.1 Overview",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.2 Illustration of application examples in business contexts",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.3 Criteria for deciding between augmented and virtual reality",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Mehler-Bicher A, Steiger L. Augmented Reality - in Theorie und Praxis. München: DeGryter; 2022'},{id:"B2",body:'Milgram P, Takemura H, Utsumi A, Kishino F. Augmented reality: A class of displays on the reality-virtuality continuum. Telemanipulator and Telepresence Technologies. SPIE. 1994;2351:282-292'},{id:"B3",body:'Milgram P, Kishino F. A taxonomy of mixed reality visual displays. In: IEICE Transactions on Information and Systems, Special Issue on Network Reality. 1994'},{id:"B4",body:'Christou A, Gao Y, Navaraj W, Nassar H, Dahiya R., 3D Touch Surface for Interactive Pseudo-Holographic Displays. 2020'},{id:"B5",body:'Porter M, Heppelmann J. Why every organization needs an augmented reality strategy. Harvard Business. 2017;2017:1-20'},{id:"B6",body:'Google. Use Live View on Google Maps. 2021. [Online]. Available from: https://support.google.com/maps/answer/9332056?hl=en&co=GENIE.Platform%3DAndroid. [Accessed: 26 June 2022]'},{id:"B7",body:'VR Owl | VR & AR Agency. Geopark the Hondsrug – Nature Route Enhancement. 2019. [Online]. Available from: https://www.vrowl.io/portfolio/unesco-global-geopark-the-hondsrug. [Accessed: 12 July 2022]'},{id:"B8",body:'Instructables. How to Make a Time Lapse With Your Android Phone. 2019. [Online]. Available from: https://www.instructables.com/How-to-Make-a-Time-Lapse-With-Your-Android-Phone/. [Accessed: 14 July 2022]'},{id:"B9",body:'Metropolitan Museum of Art. Roam the Galleries of the Metropolitan Museum via Augmented Reality. 2021. [Online]. Available from: https://hyperallergic.com/614503/roam-the-galleries-of-the-metropolitan-museum-via-augmented-reality/. [Accessed: 24 June 2022]'},{id:"B10",body:'Microsoft. Mirosoft mesh. 2021. [Online]. Available from: https://news.microsoft.com/innovation-stories/microsoft-mesh/. [Accessed: 24 June 2022]'},{id:"B11",body:'Tesla. Tesla Full Self-Driving’s cool augmented reality view previewed by noted hacker. 2020. [Online]. Available from: https://www.teslarati.com/tesla-fsd-augmented-reality-video/. [Accessed: 25 June 2022]'},{id:"B12",body:'Preality. Preality: Official Trailer 2018. 2018. [Online]. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BIleg-nykvI. [Accessed: 29 June 2022]'},{id:"B13",body:'Kompetek Interaktiv. Showreel 2022. 2022. [Online]. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5uRfkooUnRk. [Accessed: 13 July 2022]'},{id:"B14",body:'Simplifier. Connect Smart Glasses and SAP with the Simplifier. 2013. [Online]. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZWsBHISOqjA. [Accessed: 28 June 2022]'},{id:"B15",body:'BMC Medical Education. Pre-graduation medical training including virtual reality during COVID-19 pandemic: A report on students\' perception. 2020. [Online]. Available from: https://bmcmededuc.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12909-020-02245-8. [Accessed: 12 July 2022]'},{id:"B16",body:'Vuforia. Augmented Reality | Transforming How Industrial Workforces Communicate, Learn and Work. 2020. [Online]. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fwikx1TOidE. [Accessed: 28 June 2022]'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Anett Mehler-Bicher",address:"anett.bicher@hs-mainz.de",affiliation:'
Mainz University of Applied Sciences, Mainz, Germany
Mainz University of Applied Sciences, Mainz, Germany
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He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). 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He previously worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Ben-Gurion University of Negev, Israel; University of the Free State, South Africa; and Central University of Technology Bloemfontein, South Africa. He obtained his Ph.D. in Organic Chemistry from Nagaoka University of Technology, Japan. He has published more than seventy-four journal articles and attended several national and international conferences as speaker and chair. Dr. Kendrekar has received many international awards. He has several funded projects, namely, anti-malaria drug development, MRSA, and SARS-CoV-2 activity of curcumin and its formulations. He has filed four patents in collaboration with the University of Central Lancashire and Mayo Clinic Infectious Diseases. 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Dr. Adimule has attended, chaired, and presented papers at national and international conferences. He is a guest editor for Topics in Catalysis and other journals. He is also an editorial board member, life member, and associate member for many international societies and research institutions. His research interests include nanoelectronics, material chemistry, artificial intelligence, sensors and actuators, bio-nanomaterials, and medicinal chemistry.",institutionString:"Angadi Institute of Technology and Management",institution:null},{id:"284317",title:"Prof.",name:"Kantharaju",middleName:null,surname:"Kamanna",slug:"kantharaju-kamanna",fullName:"Kantharaju Kamanna",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284317/images/21050_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. K. Kantharaju has received Bachelor of science (PCM), master of science (Organic Chemistry) and Doctor of Philosophy in Chemistry from Bangalore University. He worked as a Executive Research & Development @ Cadila Pharmaceuticals Ltd, Ahmedabad. He received DBT-postdoc fellow @ Molecular Biophysics Unit, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore under the supervision of Prof. P. Balaram, later he moved to NIH-postdoc researcher at Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, USA, after his return from postdoc joined NITK-Surthakal as a Adhoc faculty at department of chemistry. Since from August 2013 working as a Associate Professor, and in 2016 promoted to Profeesor in the School of Basic Sciences: Department of Chemistry and having 20 years of teaching and research experiences.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rani Channamma University, Belagavi",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yusuf Tutar conducts his research at the Hamidiye Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Biochemistry, University of Health Sciences, Turkey. He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. 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He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. 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He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. 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He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. 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Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. 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He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a scientist and Principal Investigator at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering the lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via artificial intelligence-based analyses of exosomal Raman signatures. Dr. Paul also works on spatial multiplex immunofluorescence-based tissue mapping to understand the immune repertoire in lung cancer. Dr. Paul has published in more than sixty-five peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award and the 2022 AAISCR-R Vijayalaxmi Award for Innovative Cancer Research. He is a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"86",type:"subseries",title:"Business and Management",keywords:"Demographic Shifts, Innovation, Technology, Next-gen Leaders, Worldwide Environmental Issues and Clean Technology, Uncertainty and Political Risks, Radical Adjacency, Emergence of New Business Ecosystem Type, Emergence of Different Leader and Leader Values Types, Universal Connector, Elastic Enterprise, Business Platform, Supply Chain Complexity",scope:"
\r\n\tThe Business and Management series topic focuses on the most pressing issues confronting organizations today and in the future. Businesses are trying to figure out how to lead in a time of global uncertainty. In emerging markets, issues such as ill-defined or unstable policies, as well as corrupt practices, can be hugely problematic. Changes in governments can result in new policy, regulations, and interest rates, all of which can be detrimental to foreign businesses and investments. A growing trend towards economic nationalism also makes the current global political landscape potentially hostile towards international businesses.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe demographic shifts are creating interesting challenges. People are living longer, resulting to an aging demographic. We have a large population of older workers and retirees who are living longer lives, combined with a declining birthrate in most parts of the world. Businesses of all types are looking at how technology is affecting their operations. Several questions arise, such as: How is technology changing what we do? How is it transforming us internally, how is it influencing our clients and our business strategy? It is about leveraging technology to improve efficiency, connect with customers more effectively, and drive innovation. The majority of innovative companies are technology-driven businesses. Realizing digital transformation is today’s top issue and will remain so for the next five years. Improving organizational agility, expanding portfolios of products and services, creating, and maintaining a culture of innovation, and developing next -generation leaders were also identified as top challenges in terms of both current and future issues.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe most sustained profitable growth occurs when a company expands its core business into an adjacent space. This has significant implications for management because innovation in business ecosystems differs from traditional, vertically integrated firms. Every organization in the ecosystem must be aware of the bigger picture. Innovation in ecosystems necessitates collaborative action to invent and appraise, efficient, cross-organizational knowledge flows, modular architectures, and good stewardship of legacy systems. It is built on multiple, interconnected platforms. Environmental factors have already had a significant impact in the West and will continue to have an impact globally. Businesses must take into account the environmental impact of their daily operations. The advantage of this market is that it is expected to grow more rapidly than the overall economy. Another significant challenge is preparing the next generation of leaders to elevate this to the number one priority within the next five years. There can be no culture of innovation unless there is diverse leadership or development of the next generation of leaders; and these diverse, next-generation leaders are the ones who will truly understand the digital strategies that will drive digital transformation.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/86.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11970,editor:{id:"128342",title:"Prof.",name:"Vito",middleName:null,surname:"Bobek",slug:"vito-bobek",fullName:"Vito Bobek",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/128342/images/system/128342.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vito Bobek works as an international management professor at the University of Applied Sciences FH Joanneum, Graz, Austria. He has published more than 400 works in his academic career and visited twenty-two universities worldwide as a visiting professor. Dr. Bobek is a member of the editorial boards of six international journals and a member of the Strategic Council of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Slovenia. He has a long history in academia, consulting, and entrepreneurship. His own consulting firm, Palemid, has managed twenty significant projects, such as Cooperation Program Interreg V-A (Slovenia-Austria) and Capacity Building for the Serbian Chamber of Enforcement Agents. He has also participated in many international projects in Italy, Germany, Great Britain, the United States, Spain, Turkey, France, Romania, Croatia, Montenegro, Malaysia, and China. 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At the Ministry of Justice of Slovenia, she is a member of examination boards for court expert candidates and judicial appraisers in the following areas: economy/finance, valuation of companies, banking, and forensic investigation of economic operations/accounting. At the leading business newspaper Finance in Slovenia (Swedish ownership), she is the editor and head of the area for business, finance, tax-related articles, and educational programs.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Primorska",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",issn:"2753-894X"},editorialBoard:[{id:"114318",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Rodeiro",slug:"david-rodeiro",fullName:"David Rodeiro",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS2a8QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-22T08:29:52.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Santiago de Compostela",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"114073",title:"Prof.",name:"Jörg",middleName:null,surname:"Freiling",slug:"jorg-freiling",fullName:"Jörg Freiling",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS2UPQA0/Profile_Picture_1642580983875",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Bremen",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"202681",title:"Dr.",name:"Mojca",middleName:null,surname:"Duh",slug:"mojca-duh",fullName:"Mojca Duh",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSD2dQAG/Profile_Picture_1644907300283",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Maribor",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"103802",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ondrej",middleName:null,surname:"Zizlavsky",slug:"ondrej-zizlavsky",fullName:"Ondrej Zizlavsky",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQJQA0/Profile_Picture_1643100292225",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Brno University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Czech Republic"}}},{id:"190913",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert M.X.",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"robert-m.x.-wu",fullName:"Robert M.X. 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\r\n\tThe era of antibiotics led us to the illusion that the problem of bacterial infection is over. However, bacterial flexibility and adaptation mechanisms allow them to survive and grow in extreme conditions. The best example is the formation of a sophisticated society of bacteria defined as a biofilm. Understanding the mechanism of bacterial biofilm formation has changed our perception of the development of bacterial infection but successfully eradicating biofilm remains a challenge. Considering the above, it is not surprising that bacteria remain a major public health threat despite the development of many groups of antibiotics. Additionally, increasing prevalence of acquired antibiotic resistance forces us to realize that we are far from controlling the development of bacterial infections. On the other hand, many infections are endogenous and result from an unbalanced relationship between the host and the microorganism. The increasing use of immunosuppressants, such as chemotherapy or organ transplantation, increases the incidence of patients highly susceptible to bacterial infections in the population.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis topic will focus on the current challenges and advantages in the diagnosis and treatment of bacterial infections. We will discuss the host-microbiota relationship, the treatment of chronic infections due to biofilm formation, and the development of new diagnostic tools to rapidly distinguish between colonization and probable infection.
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Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment"},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. 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He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},subseries:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Antibiotics, Biofilm, Antibiotic Resistance, Host-microbiota Relationship, Treatment, Diagnostic Tools",scope:"
\r\n\tThe era of antibiotics led us to the illusion that the problem of bacterial infection is over. However, bacterial flexibility and adaptation mechanisms allow them to survive and grow in extreme conditions. The best example is the formation of a sophisticated society of bacteria defined as a biofilm. Understanding the mechanism of bacterial biofilm formation has changed our perception of the development of bacterial infection but successfully eradicating biofilm remains a challenge. Considering the above, it is not surprising that bacteria remain a major public health threat despite the development of many groups of antibiotics. Additionally, increasing prevalence of acquired antibiotic resistance forces us to realize that we are far from controlling the development of bacterial infections. On the other hand, many infections are endogenous and result from an unbalanced relationship between the host and the microorganism. The increasing use of immunosuppressants, such as chemotherapy or organ transplantation, increases the incidence of patients highly susceptible to bacterial infections in the population.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis topic will focus on the current challenges and advantages in the diagnosis and treatment of bacterial infections. We will discuss the host-microbiota relationship, the treatment of chronic infections due to biofilm formation, and the development of new diagnostic tools to rapidly distinguish between colonization and probable infection.
",annualVolume:11399,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",editor:{id:"205604",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomas",middleName:null,surname:"Jarzembowski",fullName:"Tomas Jarzembowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKriQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-06-16T11:01:31.jpg",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorTwo:{id:"484980",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarzyna",middleName:null,surname:"Garbacz",fullName:"Katarzyna Garbacz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003St8TAQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-07-07T09:45:16.jpg",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"190041",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Gutierrez Fernandez",fullName:"Jose Gutierrez Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Granada",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"156556",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Teresa",middleName:null,surname:"Mascellino",fullName:"Maria Teresa Mascellino",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/156556/images/system/156556.jpg",institutionString:"Sapienza University",institution:{name:"Sapienza University of Rome",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"164933",title:"Prof.",name:"Mónica Alexandra",middleName:null,surname:"Sousa Oleastro",fullName:"Mónica Alexandra Sousa Oleastro",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/164933/images/system/164933.jpeg",institutionString:"National Institute of Health Dr Ricardo Jorge",institution:{name:"National Institute of Health Dr. Ricardo Jorge",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}]},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",annualVolume:11400,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"302145",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",middleName:null,surname:"Bongomin",fullName:"Felix Bongomin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/302145/images/system/302145.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gulu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Uganda"}}},{id:"45803",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Payam",middleName:null,surname:"Behzadi",fullName:"Payam Behzadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/45803/images/system/45803.jpg",institutionString:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institution:{name:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}]},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",annualVolume:11401,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"188881",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando José",middleName:null,surname:"Andrade-Narváez",fullName:"Fernando José Andrade-Narváez",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRIV7QAO/Profile_Picture_1628834308121",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Yucatán",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"269120",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajeev",middleName:"K.",surname:"Tyagi",fullName:"Rajeev Tyagi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRaBqQAK/Profile_Picture_1644331884726",institutionString:"CSIR - Institute of Microbial Technology, India",institution:null},{id:"336849",title:"Prof.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"Izurieta",fullName:"Ricardo Izurieta",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/293169/images/system/293169.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Florida",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",annualVolume:11402,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"188219",title:"Prof.",name:"Imran",middleName:null,surname:"Shahid",fullName:"Imran Shahid",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188219/images/system/188219.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Umm al-Qura University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"214235",title:"Dr.",name:"Lynn",middleName:"S.",surname:"Zijenah",fullName:"Lynn Zijenah",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSEJGQA4/Profile_Picture_1636699126852",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zimbabwe",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"178641",title:"Dr.",name:"Samuel Ikwaras",middleName:null,surname:"Okware",fullName:"Samuel Ikwaras Okware",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178641/images/system/178641.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Uganda Christian University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Uganda"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/65990",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"65990"},fullPath:"/profiles/65990",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()